initial commit of ebook 35925HEADmain

166 files changed, 59521 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/35925-8.txt b/35925-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f287b65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18976 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6
+       "Foraminifera" to "Fox, Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2011 [EBook #35925]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [int] stands for the integral symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for
+      greek letters and [oo] for infinity.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FORESTS AND FORESTRY: "These trees will all be of
+      increasing importance." 'will' amended from 'wil'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORM : "All perception is necessarily conditioned by pure
+      'forms of sensibility,' i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived
+      is perceived as having spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE
+      AND TIME; KANT)." 'spacial' amended from 'special'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORMOSA: "The vegetation of the island is characterized by
+      tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense
+      forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (Laurus
+      Camphora), and the aloe are conspicuous." 'mountainous' amended
+      from 'moutainous'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORMOSA: "... in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the
+      east coast, where subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the
+      settlement was maintained for thirty-seven years." 'thirty' amended
+      from 'thrity'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM: "At Cassel Forster formed an
+      intimate friendship with the great anatomist Sömmerring, and about
+      the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him a
+      leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently emancipated
+      himself." 'subsequently' amended from 'subequently'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "At the sieges of Tyre and
+      Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of
+      the ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the
+      walls." 'Nebuchadnezzar' amended from 'Nebuchadrezzar'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "The Germanic Confederation
+      reinforced Mainz with improved works, and reorganized entirely
+      Rastatt and Ulm." 'entirely' amended from 'enentirely'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "For the fate of the fortress
+      must depend ultimately on the result of the operations of the
+      active armies." 'ultimately' amended from 'utlimately'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOSCOLO, UGO: "... found their final resting-place beside
+      the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of Michelangelo and
+      Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa Croce."
+      'Machiavelli' amended from 'Macchiavelli'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOSSANO: "It appears as a commune in 1237, but in 1251 had
+      to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to Filippo
+      d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy."
+      'Filippo' amended from 'Fillippo'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOURIER'S SERIES: "Besides Dini's treatise already referred
+      to, there is a lucid treatment of the subject from an elementary
+      point of view in C. Neumann's treatise, Über die nach Kreis-,
+      Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden Entwickelungen."
+      'subject' amended from 'subejct'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE VI
+
+         Foraminifera to Fox, Edward
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FORAMINIFERA                     FORT LEE
+  FORBACH                          FORT MADISON
+  FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE        FORTROSE
+  FORBES, ARCHIBALD                FORT SCOTT
+  FORBES, DAVID                    FORT SMITH
+  FORBES, DUNCAN                   FORTUNA
+  FORBES, EDWARD                   FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS
+  FORBES, JAMES DAVID              FORTUNATUS
+  FORBES, SIR JOHN                 FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS CLEMENTIANUS
+  FORBES (town)                    FORTUNE, ROBERT
+  FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON       FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO
+  FORBIN, CLAUDE DE                FORT WAYNE
+  FORCELLINI, EGIDIO               FORT WILLIAM (Ontario, Canada)
+  FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG        FORT WILLIAM (Scotland)
+  FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM       FORT WORTH
+  FORCHHEIM                        FORTY
+  FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW              FORUM
+  FORD, JOHN                       FORUM APPII
+  FORD, RICHARD                    FORUM CLODII
+  FORD, THOMAS                     FORUM TRAIANI
+  FORDE, FRANCIS                   FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY
+  FORDHAM                          FOSCARI, FRANCESCO
+  FORDUN, JOHN OF                  FOSCOLO, UGO
+  FORECLOSURE                      FOSS, EDWARD
+  FOREIGN OFFICE                   FOSSANO
+  FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH        FOSSANUOVA
+  FORESHORE                        FOSSE WAY
+  FORESTALLING                     FOSSICK
+  FOREST LAWS                      FOSSOMBRONE
+  FORESTS AND FORESTRY             FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO
+  FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC             FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE
+  FORFAR                           FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS
+  FORFARSHIRE                      FOSTER, JOHN
+  FORFEITURE                       FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL
+  FORGERY                          FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET
+  FORGET-ME-NOT                    FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS
+  FORGING                          FOSTORIA
+  FORK                             FOTHERGILL, JOHN
+  FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS          FOTHERINGHAY
+  FORLÌ                            FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON
+  FORLIMPOPOLI                     FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH
+  FORLORN HOPE                     FOUCHER, SIMON
+  FORM                             FOUCQUET, JEAN
+  FORMALIN                         FOUGÈRES
+  FORMAN, ANDREW                   FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE
+  FORMAN, SIMON                    FOULD, ACHILLE
+  FORMERET                         FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT
+  FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL   FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS
+  FORMIA                           FOUNDATION
+  FORMIC ACID                      FOUNDATIONS
+  FORMOSA (territory of Argentine) FOUNDING
+  FORMOSA (Taiwan)                 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS
+  FORMOSUS                         FOUNTAIN
+  FORMULA                          FOUNTAINS ABBEY
+  FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO      FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ
+  FORRES                           FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE
+  FORREST, EDWIN                   FOUQUET, NICOLAS
+  FORREST, SIR JOHN                FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN
+  FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD          FOURCHAMBAULT
+  FORSKÅL, PETER                   FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS
+  FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG            FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE
+  FORST                            FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH
+  FORSTER, FRANÇOIS                FOURIER'S SERIES
+  FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH     FOURMIES
+  FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM       FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE
+  FORSTER, JOHN                    FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER
+  FORSTER, JOHN COOPER             FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON
+  FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD          FOURNIER L'HÉRITIER, CLAUDE
+  FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR            FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE
+  FORTALEZA                        FOUSSA
+  FORT AUGUSTUS                    FOWEY
+  FORT DODGE                       FOWL
+  FORT EDWARD                      FOWLER, CHARLES
+  FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (lawyer)     FOWLER, EDWARD
+  FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (statesman)  FOWLER, JOHN
+  FORTEVIOT                        FOWLER, SIR JOHN
+  FORT GEORGE                      FOWLER, WILLIAM
+  FORTH                            FOX, CHARLES JAMES
+  FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT     FOX, EDWARD
+  FORTLAGE, KARL
+
+
+
+
+FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa, the name selected
+for this enormous class being that given by A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the
+shells characteristic of the majority of the species. He regarded them
+as minute Cephalopods, whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina).
+Later on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working on
+living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized by
+pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm) as organs of
+prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter in 1862 differentiated the
+group nearly in its present limits as "Reticularia"; and since then it
+has been rendered more natural by the removal of a number of simple
+forms (mostly freshwater) with branching but not reticulate pseudopods,
+to Filosa, a distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the
+restricted class of Rhizopoda.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1A.--_Lieberkühnia_, with reticulate pseudopodia.]
+
+_Anatomy._--Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic bodies of
+_granular surface_, emitting processes which branch and _anastomose
+freely_, either from the whole surface or from one or more elongated
+processes ("stylopods"); nucleus one or more (not yet demonstrated in
+some little known simple forms), usually in genetic relation to granules
+or strands of matter of similar composition, the "chromidia" scattered
+through the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
+investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous (of
+compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely (in deep sea
+forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but _never latticed_;
+opening by one or more permanent apertures ("pylomes") or crevices
+between compacted sand-granules, often very complex; reproduction by
+fission (only in simplest naked forms), or by brood formation; in the
+latter case one mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform
+embryos, the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous
+gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the coupled cell
+("zygote") when mature in the shelled species gives rise to a very small
+primitive test-chamber or "microsphere." The adult microspheric animal
+gives rise to the amoebiform brood which have a larger primitive test
+("megalosphere"); and megalospheric forms appear to reproduce by the A
+type a series of similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally
+borne, to pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is
+consequently rare.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1B.--_Protomyxa aurantiaca_, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)
+
+  1, Adult, containing two diatom frustules, and three Tintinnid
+    ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate just caught by the expanded
+    reticulate pseudopodia.
+  2, Adult encysted and segmented.
+  3, Flagellate zoospore just freed from cyst.
+  4, Zoospore which has passed into the amoeboid state.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Allogromiidea._
+
+  1, _Diplophrys archeri_, Barker.
+    a, Nucleus.
+    b, Contractile vacuoles.
+    c, The yellow oil-like body. Moor pools, Ireland.
+
+  2, _Allogromia oviformis_, Duj.
+    a, The numerous nuclei; near these the elongated bodies represent
+    ingested diatoms. Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11, 12 belong to Rhizopoda
+    Filosa, and are included here to show the characteristic _filose_
+    pseudopodia in contrast with the reticulate spread of the others.
+
+  3, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_, Siddall (_Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci._,
+    1880).
+
+  Marine. The protoplasm is retracted at both ends into the tubular
+  case.
+    a. Nucleus.
+
+  5, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_; with pseudopodia fully expanded.
+
+  6-10, Varying appearance of the nucleus as it is carried along in the
+    streaming protoplasm within the tube.
+
+  11, _Amphitrema wrightianum_, Archer, showing membranous shell
+    encrusted with foreign particles. Moor pools, Ireland.
+
+  12, _Diaphorophodon mobile_, Archer.
+    a. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.]
+
+The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they are
+membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always very simple,
+the only complication being the doubling of the pylome in _Diplophrys_
+(fig. 2, 1), _Shepheardella_ (fig. 2, 3-5), _Amphitrema_ (fig. 2, 11),
+_Diaphorophodon_ (fig. 2, 12). The marine shells are, as we have seen,
+of cemented particles, or calcareous, glassy, and regularly perforated,
+or again calcareous, but porcellanous and rarely perforate. These
+characters have been used as a guide to classification; but some sandy
+forms have so large a proportion of calcareous cement that they might
+well be called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very
+constant in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
+genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the shell by
+silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean abysses, where
+calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making any difficulty.
+Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected process or neck of
+the embryonic chamber ("camptopyle") at least in the megalospheric
+forms, whereas when such a neck exists in other groups it is straight.
+The opening of the shell is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole
+where the lateral walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic
+ingrowth so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
+opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, 1); or
+replaced by a number of coarse pores ("ethmopyle") (fig. 3, 5a). Again,
+it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube ("stylopyle"), which in
+_Lagena_ (fig. 3, 9) may project outwards ("ectoselenial"), or inwards
+("entoselenial"). In most groups the stylopyle is straight; but in the
+majority of the porcellanous shells it is bent down on the side of the
+shell, and constitutes the "flexopyle" of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid
+term should be replaced by "camptopyle." The animal usually forms a
+simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
+"embryonic chamber" cannot grow further. In _Spirillina_ and
+_Ammodiscus_ there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell continues to
+grow as a spiral tube; in _Cornuspira_ (fig. 3, 1) there is a slight
+constriction indicating the junction of a small embryonic chamber with a
+camptopyle, but the rest of the shell is a simple flat spiral of several
+turns. In the majority at least one chamber follows the first, with its
+own pylome at the distal end. This second chamber may rest on the first,
+so that the part on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the
+front of the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
+state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the highest
+vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete "proper wall";
+while a "supplementary skeleton," a deposit of shelly matter, binds the
+chambers together into a compact whole. In all cases the protoplasm from
+the pylome may deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so
+as to produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.
+
+   1, _Cornuspira_.              11, _Cristellaria_.
+   2, _Spiroloculina_.           12, _Globigerina_.
+   3, _Triloculina_.             13, _Polymorphina_.
+   4, _Biloculina_.              14, _Textularia_.
+   5, _Peneroplis_.              15, _Discorbina_.
+   6, _Orbiculina_ (cyclical).   16, _Polystomella_.
+   7, _Orbiculina_ (young).      17, _Planorbulina_.
+   8, _Orbiculina_ (spiral).     18, _Rotalia_.
+   9, _Lagena_.                  19, _Nonionina_.
+  10, _Nodosaria_.]
+
+Compound or "polythalamic" shells derive their general form largely from
+the relations of successive chambers in size, shape and direction. This
+is well shown in the porcellanous _Miliolidae_. If we call the straight
+line uniting the two ends of a chamber the "polar axis," we find that
+successive chambers have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie
+on different meridians. In _Spiroloculina_ (fig. 3, 2) the divergence
+between the meridians is 180°, and the chambers are strongly incurved,
+so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly circular outline.
+In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic in section, their
+transverse prolongations being termed "alary" outgrowths, so that
+successive chambers overlap; when under this condition the angle of
+successive meridians is still 180° we have the form _Biloculina_ (fig.
+3, 4), or with the alary extensions completely enveloping,
+_Uniloculina_; when the angle is 120° we have _Triloculina_, or 144°,
+_Quinqueloculina_. Again in _Peneroplis_ (figs. 3, 5, and 4) the shell
+begins as a flattened shell which tends to straighten out with further
+growth and additional chambers. In some forms (_Spirolina_, fig. 22, 3)
+the chambers have a nearly circular transverse section, and the adult
+shell is thus crozier-shaped. In others (which may have the same
+sculpture, and are scarcely distinguishable as species) the chambers are
+short and wide, drawn out at right angles to the axis, but in the plane
+of the spiral, and the growing shell becomes fan-shaped or
+"flabelliform" (figs. 3, 5, 4, 2). This widening may go on till the
+outer chambers form the greater part of a circle, as in _Orbiculina_
+(fig. 3, 6-8) where, moreover, each large chamber is subdivided by
+incomplete vertical bulkheads into a tier of chamberlets; each
+chamberlet has a distinct pylomic pore opening to the outside or to
+those of the next outer zone. In _Orbitolites_ (figs. 5, 6) we have a
+centre on a somewhat Milioline type; and after a few chambers in spiral
+succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. In the larger forms
+the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal bulkheads divide the
+chamberlets into vertical tiers, each with its own pylomic pore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Modifications of _Peneroplis_. 1, _Dendritina_;
+2, _Eu-Peneroplis_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Shell of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
+primordial chamber a, and circumambient chamber b, surrounded by
+successive rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which
+open at the margin by pores.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Animal of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
+primordial segment a, and circumambient segment b, surrounded by annuli
+of sub-segments connected by radial and circular stolon-processes.]
+
+The Cheilostomellidae (fig. 3, 13) reproduce among perforate vitreous
+genera what we have already seen in the _Miliolida_: _Orbitoides_ (fig.
+10, 2) and _Cycloclypeus_, among the Nummulite group, with a very finely
+perforate wall, recall the porcellanous _Orbiculina_ and _Orbitolites_.
+
+In flat spiral forms (figs. 22, 1, 7; 3, 2, 16, 19, &c.) all the
+chambers may be freely exposed; or the successive chambers be wider
+transversely than their predecessors and overlap by "alary extensions,"
+becoming "nautiloid"; in extreme cases only the last turn or whorl is
+seen (fig. 11). When the spiral axis is conical the shell may be
+"rotaloid," the larger lower chambers partially concealing the upper
+smaller ones (fig. 3, 12, 15, 17, 18); or they may leave, as in
+_Patellina_, a wide central conical cavity--which, in this genus, is
+finally occupied by later formed "supplementary" chambers. When the
+successive chambers are disposed around a longitudinal central axis they
+may be said to "alternate" like the leaves of a plant. If the
+arrangement is distichous we get such forms as _Polymorphina_,
+_Textularia_ and _Frondicularia_ (fig. 3, 13, 14), if tristichous,
+_Tritaxia_. Such an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the
+axis for at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped
+_Spiroplecta_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of _Rotalia beccarii_, showing the canal
+system, a, b, c, in the substance of the intermediate skeleton; d,
+tubulated chamber-wall.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Internal cast of _Polystomella craticulata_.
+
+  a, Retral processes, proceeding from the posterior margin of one of
+    the segments.
+  b, b¹, Smooth anterior margin of the same segment.
+  c, c¹, Stolons connecting successive segments and uniting themselves
+    with the diverging branches of the meridional canals.
+  d, d¹, d², Three turns of one of the spiral canals.
+  e, e¹, e², Three of the meridional canals.
+  f, f¹, f², Their diverging branches.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Operculina_ laid open, to show its internal
+structure.
+
+  a, Marginal cord seen in cross section at a'.
+  b, b, External walls of the chambers.
+  c, c, Cavities of the chambers.
+  c', c', Their alar prolongations.
+  d, d, Septa divided at d', d', and at d", so as to lay open the
+    interseptal canals, the general distribution of which is seen in the
+    septa e, e; the lines radiating from e, e point to the secondary
+    pores.
+  g, g, Non-tubular columns.]
+
+Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the characters of
+form for classificatory ends--dimorphism and multiformity.
+
+_Dimorphism._--The majority of foraminiferal shells show two types, the
+rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that of the more
+frequent. The chambers are called microsphere and megalosphere, the
+forms in which they occur microsphaeric and megalosphaeric forms,
+respectively. We shall study below their relation to the reproductive
+cycle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--1, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the
+Pyrenees, showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median
+plane; 2, vertical section of _Nummulite_; 3, _Orbitoides_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Vertical section of portion of _Nummulites_,
+showing the investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations
+of the later.
+
+  a, Marginal cord.
+  b, Chamber of outer whorl.
+  c, c, Whorl invested by a.
+  d, One of the chambers of the fourth whorl from the margin.
+  e, e', Marginal portions of the enclosed whorls.
+  f, Investing portion of the outer whorl.
+  g, g, Spaces left between the investing portions of successive whorls.
+  h, h, Sections of the partitions dividing these.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Internal surface of wall of two chambers, a, a,
+of _Nummulites_, showing the orifices of its minute tubuli.
+
+  b, b, The septa containing canals.
+  c, c, Extensions of these canals in the intermediate skeleton.
+  d, d, Larger pores.]
+
+_Multiformity._--Many of the Polythalamia show different types of
+chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted this phenomenon in
+such crozier forms as _Peneroplis_, as well as in discoid forms; it is
+very frequent. Thus the microspheric _Biloculina_ form the first few
+chambers in quinqueloculine succession. The microspheric forms attain to
+a greater size when adult than the megalospheric; and in _Orbitolites_
+the microsphere has a straight outlet, orthostyle, instead of the
+deflected camptostyle one, so general in porcellanous types; and the
+spiral succession is continued for more turns before reaching the
+fan-shaped and finally cyclic stage. _Globigerina_, whose chambers are
+nearly spherical, is sometimes seen to be enclosed in a spherical test,
+perforate, but without a pylome, and known as _Orbulina_; the chambered
+Globigerina-shell is attached at first inside the wall of the
+_Orbulina_, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate fate of the
+_Orbulina_ shell is unknown; but it obviously marks a turning-point in
+the life-cycle.
+
+  _Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction._--The protoplasm is not
+  differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser
+  in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial
+  ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms) from
+  which it is given off. In pelagic forms like _Globigerina_ the
+  external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
+  extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.), being differentiated
+  into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
+  (alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of
+  the pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R.
+  Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central capsule
+  of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be pushed too far.
+  The cytoplasm contains granules of various kinds, and the internal
+  protoplasm is sometimes pigmented. The Chrysomonad Flagellate,
+  _Zooxanthella_, so abundant in its resting state--the so-called
+  "yellow cells"--in the extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.)
+  also occurs in the outer protoplasm of many Foraminifera, not only
+  pelagic but also bottom-dwellers, such as _Orbitolites_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Internal cast of two chambers, a, a, of
+  _Nummulites_, the radial canals between them passing into b, marginal
+  plexus.]
+
+  The nucleus is single in the Nuda and Allogromidia and in the
+  megalospheric forms of higher Foraminifera; but microspheric forms
+  when adult contain many simple similar nuclei. The nucleus in every
+  case gives off granules and irregular masses ("chromidia") of similar
+  reactions, which play an important part in reproduction. During the
+  maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the cytoplasm
+  breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each of which is soon
+  provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely derived from the
+  parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia, or from both
+  these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are amoeboid; they
+  soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as megalospheres, the
+  original state of the megalospheric forms. In the adult megalosphere
+  the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced by hosts of minute
+  vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration of chromidia. Each
+  nucleus aggregates around it a proper zone of dense protoplasm; by two
+  successive mitotic divisions each mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and
+  splits up into four biflagellate, uninucleate zoospores. These are
+  pairing-cells or gametes, though they will not pair with members of
+  the same brood. In the zygote resulting from pairing two nuclei soon
+  fuse into one; but this again divides into two; an embryonic shell is
+  secreted, and this is the microspheric type, which is multinuclear
+  from the first. F. Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult
+  Foraminifera with the (vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and
+  the chromidial mass with the micronucleus, whose chief function is
+  reproductive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls,
+  a, a, of _Nummulites_. b, b, Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber; d,
+  d, non-tubulated columns.]
+
+  Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
+  probable that under most conditions they also give rise to
+  megalospheric young like themselves; and that the production of
+  zoospores, pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only
+  occasional, and possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the
+  researches of Schaudinn and J.J. Lister.
+
+  In several species (notably _Patellina_) plastogamy, the union of the
+  cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as a
+  prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate
+  amoebulae.
+
+  _Calcituba_, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
+  chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems, may fall
+  apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and break up into
+  small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest forms we know
+  little. In _Mikrogromia_ the cell undergoes fission within the test,
+  and on its completion the daughter-cells may emerge as biflagellate
+  zoospores.
+
+  The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In _Astrorhiza_ the
+  sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement; they
+  leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there are no
+  true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a calcareous
+  or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of distinct pylomes.
+  Many of the species reproduce the varieties of form found in
+  calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others not. Many of the
+  larger ones have their walls thickened internally and traversed by
+  complex passages; this structure is called _labyrinthic_ (fig. 19, g,
+  h). The shell of _Endothyra_, a form only known to us by its abundance
+  in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely composed of calcite
+  and is sometimes perforated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Cycloclypeus_.]
+
+  It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects
+  its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of
+  sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often so
+  laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes the
+  outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a deflected
+  stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous Arenacea, it
+  is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with the
+  Porcellanea.
+
+  _Classification._
+
+  I. NUDA.--Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save in the
+  resting encysted condition, sometimes forming colonial aggregates by
+  coalescence of pseudopods (_Myxodictyum_), or even plasmodia
+  (_Protomyxa_). Brood cells at first uniflagellate or amoeboid from
+  birth. Fresh-water and marine genera _Protogenes_ (Haeckel), _Biomyxa_
+  (Leidy), _Myxodictyum_ (Haeckel), _Protomyxa_ (Haeckel) (fig. 1B).
+
+  This group of very simple forms includes many of Haeckel's Monera,
+  defined as "cytodes," masses of protoplasm without a nucleus. A
+  nucleus (or nuclei) has, however, been demonstrated by improved
+  methods of staining in so many that it is probable that this
+  distinction will fall to the ground.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Heterostegina_.]
+
+  II. ALLOGROMIDIACEAE (figs. 1A, 2).--Protoplasmic body protected in
+  adult state by an imperforate test with one or two openings (pylomes)
+  for the exit of the stylopod; test simple, gelatinous, membranous,
+  sometimes incrusted with foreign bodies, never calcareous nor
+  arenaceous; reproduction by fission alone known. Fresh-water or marine
+  genera _Allogromia_ (Rhumbl.), _Myxotheca_ (Schaud.), _Lieberkühnia_
+  (Cl. & L.) (fig. 1A), _Shepheardella_ (Siddall) (fig. 2, 3-10),
+  _Diplophrys_ (Barker), _Amphitrema_ (Arch.) (fig. 2, 11),
+  Diaphorophodon (Arch.) (fig. 2, 12), are possibly Filosa. This group
+  differs from the preceding in its simple test, but, like it, includes
+  many fresh-water species, which possess contractile vacuoles.
+
+  III. ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE.--Simple forms, rarely polythalamous (some
+  _Rhabdamminidae_), but often branching or radiate; test arenaceous,
+  loosely compacted and traversed by chinks for pseudopodia
+  (_Astrorhizidae_), or dense, and opening by one or more terminal
+  pylomes at ends of branches. Marine, 4 Fam. The test of some
+  _Astrorhizidae_ is so loose that it falls to pieces when taken out of
+  water. _Haliphysema_ is remarkable for its history in relation to the
+  "gastraea theory." _Pilulina_ has a neat globular shell of
+  sponge-spicules and fine sand. Genera, _Astrorhiza_ (Sandahl) (fig.
+  22), _Pilulina_ (Carptr.) (fig. 19), _Saccammina_ (Sars) (fig. 19),
+  _Rhabdammina_ (Sars), _Botellina_ (Carptr.), _Haliphysema_ (Bowerbank)
+  (fig. 22).
+
+  IV. LITUOLIDACEAE.--Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained, definite
+  and often polythalamic, recalling in structure calcareous forms.
+  _Lituola_ (Lamk.) (fig. 19), _Endothyra_ (Phil.), _Ammodiscus_
+  (Reuss), _Loftusia_ (Brady), _Haplophragmium_ (Reuss) (fig. 22),
+  _Thurammina_ (Brady) (fig. 22).
+
+  V. MILIOLIDACEAE.--Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost invariably
+  with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic chamber; _Cornuspira_
+  (Schultze) (fig. 3); _Miliola_ (Lamk.), including as subgenera
+  _Spiroloculina_ (d'Orb.) (figs. 3 and 22); _Triloculina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 3); _Biloculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 3); _Uniloculina_ (d'Orb.);
+  _Quinqueloculina_ (d'Orb.); _Peneroplis_ (Montfort) (figs. 22, 3; 3),
+  with form _Dendritina_ (fig. 4, 1); _Orbiculina_ (Lamk.) (fig. 3,
+  6-8); _Orbitolites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); _Vertebralina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 22); _Squamulina_ (Sch.) (fig. 22); _Calcituba_ (Schaudinn).
+
+  [Illustration: Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang's Zoologie.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Life Cycle of _Polystomella crispa_.
+
+    A, Young megalospheric individual.
+    B, Adult decalcified.
+    C, Later stage, resolving itself into two flagellate gametes.
+    D, Conjugation.
+    E, Microspheric individual produced from zygote.
+    F, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores which are growing
+      into new megalospheric individuals.
+    1, Principal nucleus, and _2_, subsidiary nuclei of megalospheric
+    form.
+    3, Nuclei.
+    4, Nuclei in multiple division.
+    5, Chromidia derived from 4.]
+
+  VI. TEXTULARIADACEAE.--Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the larger
+  forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks (distichous or
+  tristichous). _Textularia_ (Defrance) (fig. 21).
+
+  VII. CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE.--Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers doubling
+  forwards and backwards as in _Miliolidae_. _Cheilostomella_ (Reuss).
+
+  VIII. LAGENIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-or
+  polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped, with a
+  protruding or an inturned stylopyle; _Lagena_ (Walker & Boys) (fig. 4,
+  9); _Nodosaria_ (Lamk.) (figs. 23, 4; 4, 10); _Polymorphina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 4, 13); _Cristellaria_ (Lamk.) (fig. 4, 11); _Frondicularia_
+  (Def.) (fig. 23, 3).
+
+  IX. GLOBIGERINIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated; chambers
+  few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size; arranged in a trochoid or
+  nautiloid spiral. _Globigerina_ (Lamk.) (23, 6; 4, 12); _Hastigerina_
+  (Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, 5); _Orbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 8).
+
+  X. ROTALIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, finely perforate; walls thick,
+  often double, but without an intermediate party-layer traversed by
+  canals; form usually spiral or trochoid. _Discorbina_ (Parker & Jones)
+  (fig. 4, 15); _Planorbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); _Rotalia_ (Lamk.)
+  (figs. 23, 1, 2; 7, 21); _Calcarina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 10);
+  _Polytrema_ (Risso) (fig. 23, 9).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.--_Biloculina depressa_ d'Orb., transverse
+  sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)
+
+  a, Megalospheric shell × 50, showing uniform growth, biloculine
+  throughout. b, Microspheric shell × 90, showing multiform growth,
+  quinqueloculine at first, and then multiform.]
+
+  XI. NUMMULINIDACEAE.--As in Rotalidaceae, but with a thicker finely
+  perforated shell, often well developed, and a supplementary skeleton
+  traversed by branching canals as an additional party-wall between the
+  proper chamber-walls. _Nonionina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 19); _Fusulina_
+  (Fischer) (fig. 20); _Polystomella_ (Lamk.) (figs. 4, 16; 8);
+  _Operculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 9); _Heterostegina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 16);
+  _Cycloclypeus_ (Carptr.) (fig. 15); _Nummulites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 10,
+  11, 12, 13, 14).
+
+  "_Eozoon canadense_," described as a species of this order by J.W.
+  Dawson and Carpenter, has been pronounced by a series of enquirers,
+  most of whom started with a belief in its organic structure, to be
+  merely a complex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of
+  an admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
+  calcite.
+
+_Distribution in Vertical Space._--Owing to their lack of organs for
+active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or attached, with
+the exception of a few genera (very rich in species, however) which
+float near the surface of the ocean, constituting part of the pelagic
+plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are littoral or deep-sea, sometimes
+attached to other bodies or even burrowing in the tests of other
+Foraminifera; most of the fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting
+the layer of organic débris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of
+pools, ponds and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth
+cannot possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
+is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Arenaceous Foraminifera.
+
+  a, Exterior of _Saccammina_.
+  b, The same laid open.
+  c, Portion of test more highly magnified.
+  d, _Pilulina_.
+  e, Portion of test more highly magnified.
+  f, Nautiloid _Lituola_, exterior.
+  g, Chambered interior.
+  h, Portion of labyrinthic chamber wall, showing component sand-grains.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Section of _Fusulina_ Limestone.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend.
+a, b, c, d, _Textularia globulosa_; e, e, e, e, _Rotalia aspera_; f,
+_Textularia aculeata_; g, _Planularia hexas_; h, _Navicula_.]
+
+The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their shell is
+either thin or extended many times by long slender tapering spines, and
+the protoplasm outside has the same character as that of the Radiolaria
+(q.v.), being differentiated into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and
+traversed by reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
+into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods, here rather
+radiate than reticulate. Most genera and most species are cosmopolitan;
+but local differences are often marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore
+sands and the crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms
+decay without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
+Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand, both below
+and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring on Funafuti, enter
+largely into the constituents of coral rock. They may accumulate in the
+mud of the bottom to constitute Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these
+shells in the latter case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers
+accumulate on the spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a
+continuous shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during
+which process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is formed
+an ooze known as "Globigerina-ooze," being formed largely of that genus
+and its ally _Hastigerina_; below 3000 fathoms even the tests themselves
+are dissolved. Casts of their bodies in glauconite (a green ferrous
+silicate, whose composition has not yet been accurately determined) are,
+however, frequently left. Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably
+_Globigerina_, have been found in Lower Cambrian (e.g. Hollybush
+Sandstone), and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that
+age. It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone that
+sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon Foraminifera are
+more abundant as constituents, partial or principal of calcareous rocks,
+the genus _Endothyra_ being indeed almost confined to Carboniferous
+beds. The genus _Fusulina_ (fig. 20) and _Saccammina_ (fig. 19) give
+their names (from their respective abundance) to two limestones of the
+Carboniferous series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the
+Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations are
+chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to consist largely of
+foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like the north Atlantic
+globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk more littoral conditions
+prevailed, and we find such large-sized species as _Orbitoides_
+(vitreous) and _Orbitolites_ (porcellanous; figs. 5, 6), &c. In the
+Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of the Paris basin is mainly
+composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites occur in English beds and in the
+Paris basin; but the great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of
+limestone, occur farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the
+southern and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The
+peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone, as well
+as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous genus,
+"_Eozoon_," by Carpenter and Dawson, and abundantly illustrated in the
+9th edition of his encyclopaedia, is now universally regarded as of
+inorganic origin. "Looking at the almost universal diffusion of
+existing Foraminifera and the continuous accumulation of their shells
+over vast areas of the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than
+any other group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its
+solution in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth
+what is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the
+calcareous materials of the land above sea-level." (E.R. Lankester,
+"Protozoa," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Imperforata.
+
+  1, _Spiroloculina planulata_, Lamarck, showing five "coils";
+  porcellanous.
+
+  2, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to
+  show the seven nuclei n.
+
+  3, _Spirolina_ (_Peneroplis_); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell;
+  porcellanous.
+
+  4, _Vertebralina_, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding
+  one another in a straight line; porcellanous.
+
+  5, 6, _Thurammina papillata_, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so
+  as to show an inner chamber; recent. × 25.
+
+  7, _Haplophragmium canariensis_, a sandy form; recent.
+
+  8, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of _Haliphysema_.
+
+  9, _Squamulina laevis_, M. Schultze; × 40; a simple porcellanous
+  Miliolide.
+
+  10, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid
+  from the shell of _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_, Bow. n, Vesicular
+  nuclei, stained with haematoxylin. (After Lankester.)
+
+  11, _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_; × 25 diam.; living specimen, showing
+  the wine-glass-shaped shell built up of sand-grains and
+  sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm p, issuing from the mouth
+  of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting constituents.
+
+  12, Shell of _Astrorhiza limicola_, Sand.; × 3/2; showing the
+  branching of the test on some of the rays usually broken away in
+  preserved specimens (original).
+
+  13, Section of the shell of _Marsipella_, showing thick walls built of
+  sand-grains.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perforata.
+
+  1, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as
+  in small _Rotalia_.
+
+  2, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance
+  (shaded), as in large _Rotalia_.
+
+  3, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may
+  completely embrace their predecessors, as in _Frondicularia_.
+
+  4, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as
+  in _Nodosaria_.
+
+  5, _Hastigerina murrayi_, Wyv. Thomson, a, Bubbly (vacuolated)
+  protoplasm, enclosing b, the perforated _Globigerina_-like shell
+  (conf. central capsule of Radiolaria). From the peripheral protoplasm
+  project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of calcareous
+  matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active
+  protoplasm. Pelagic; drawn in the living state.
+
+  6, _Globigerina bulloides_, d'Orb., showing the punctiform
+  perforations of the shell and the main aperture.
+
+  7, Fragment of the shell of _Globigerina_, seen from within, and
+  highly magnified, a, Fine perforations in the inner shell substances;
+  b, outer (secondary) shell substance. Two coarser perforations are
+  seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.
+
+  8, _Orbulina universa_, d'Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent
+  radiating calcareous spines (hollow), and internally a small
+  _Globigerina_ shell. It is probably a developmental phase of
+  _Globigerina_, a, _Orbulina_ shell; b, _Globigerina_ shell.
+
+  9, _Polytrema miniaceum_, Lin.; × 12. Mediterranean. Example of a
+  branched adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.
+
+  10, _Calcarina spengleri_, Gmel.; × 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell
+  dissected so as to show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and
+  the copious secondary shell substance. a², a³, a^4, Chambers of three
+  successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall (finely
+  tubulate) of each; b, b, b, b, perforate surfaces of the primary wall
+  of four tiers of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance
+  has been cleared away; c', c', secondary or intermediate shell
+  substance in section, showing coarse canals; d, section of secondary
+  shell substance at right angles to c'; e, tubercles of secondary shell
+  substance on the surface; f, f, club-like processes of secondary shell
+  substance.]
+
+_Historical._--The Foraminifera were discovered as we have seen by A.
+d'Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number of species, but it was to
+F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the recognition of their true zoological
+position and the characters of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and
+W.C. Williamson in England contributed largely to the study of the
+shell, the latter being the first to call attention to its multiform
+character in the development of a single species, and to utilize the
+method of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K.
+Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration, described an
+enormous number of forms in a series of papers, as well as in the
+monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera of the "Challenger"
+expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger brought out the fact of
+dimorphism in the group, which was later elucidated and incorporated in
+the full cytological study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J.
+Lister and F. Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, _The
+  Foraminifera_ (1902), and J.J. Lister, "The Foraminifera," in E.R.
+  Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_ (1903), in which full bibliographies
+  will be found. For a final résumé of the long controversy on Eozoon,
+  see George P. Merrill in _Report of the U.S. National Museum_ (1906),
+  p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
+  G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in _Zeitschr. für wissenschaftliche
+  Zoologie_, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in _Archiv für
+  Protistenkunde_, iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is
+  based on the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited
+  work, and of F. Schaudinn, in _Arbeiten des kaiserlichen
+  Gesundheitsamts_, xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K.
+  Parker and T. Rymer Jones, _Introduction to the Study of the
+  Foraminifera_ (Ray Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, "Foraminifera," in
+  _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, _On the Recent Foraminifera
+  of Great Britain_ (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, "The
+  Foraminifera," in _Challenger Reports_, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in _Ann.
+  de la soc. royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique_, xxxvii.
+  (1902), p. 60; xxxix. (1904), p. 7.
+
+  _Appendix._--The XENOPHYOPHORIDAE are a small group of bottom-dwelling
+  Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous Foraminifera,
+  though observations in the living state show that the character of the
+  pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm is contained in
+  branching tubes, aggregated into masses of definite form, bounded by a
+  common wall of foreign bodies (sponge spicules, &c.) cemented into a
+  membrane. The cytoplasm contains granules of BaSO4 and pellets of
+  faecal matter. All that is known of reproduction is the resolution of
+  the pellets into uninucleate cells. (F.E. Schultze, _Wissenschaftliche
+  Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition_, vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.)
+       (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
+on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway from Metz to
+Saarbrücken, 5½ m. S.W. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a
+Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic) church, a synagogue and a
+Progymnasium. Its industries include the manufacture of tiles,
+pasteboard wares and gardening implements, while there are coal mines in
+the vicinity. After the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren
+(6th of August 1870), in which the French under General Frossard were
+defeated by the Germans under General von Glümer, the town was occupied
+by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed to
+Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins of the castle of
+the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of Saarbrücken.
+
+  See Besler, _Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt
+  Forbach_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish divine, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He was the second son of John Henry
+Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a judge of the court of session, and grandson of
+Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh
+Academy, then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
+Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and, having
+chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed his studies
+with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836 he went to Madras and
+secured early promotion, but in consequence of ill-health he was obliged
+to return to England. He then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where
+in 1841 he obtained the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in
+1844. He was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known as
+Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with Newman,
+Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian appointment. In 1844
+he was ordained deacon and priest in the English Church, and held
+curacies at Aston, Rowant and St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally
+attracted to the Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering
+from long depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town
+of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed to the
+vicarage of St Saviour's, Leeds, a church founded to preach and
+illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called to succeed
+Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed the episcopal residence to
+Dundee, where he resided till his death, combining the pastoral charge
+of the congregation with the duties of the see. When he came to Dundee
+the churchmen were accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in
+a room over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built, and
+among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prosecuted in the
+church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded on his primary
+charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which he set forth his views
+on the Eucharist. He made a powerful defence of the charge, and was
+acquitted with "a censure and an admonition." Keble wrote in his
+defence, and was present at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good
+scholar, a scientific theologian and a devoted worker, and was much
+beloved. He died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.
+
+  Principal works: _A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed_ (1852); _An
+  Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (2 vols., 1867 and 1868);
+  _Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms_ (1847); _Commentary on
+  the Canticles_ (1853). See Mackey's _Bishop Forbes, a Memoir_.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), British war correspondent, the son of a
+Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on the 17th of April 1838,
+and was educated at Aberdeen University. Entering the Royal Dragoons as
+a private, he gained, while in the service, considerable practical
+experience of military life and affairs. Being invalided from his
+regiment, he settled in London, and became a journalist. When the
+Franco-German War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
+correspondent to the _Morning Advertiser_, and in this capacity he
+gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians for
+withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the _Daily News_, his
+brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew world-wide
+attention to his despatches. He was with the German army from the
+beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards witnessed the rise and fall
+of the Commune. Forbes afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he
+chronicled the outbreak of the second Carlist War; but his work here was
+interrupted by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a
+mission of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he
+returned to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the
+Republican and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the _Daily
+News_, he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India in
+1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of 1876, and was
+present at all the important engagements. In the Russo-Turkish campaign
+of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic successes at great personal
+risk. Attached to the Russian army, he witnessed most of the principal
+operations, and remained continuously in the field until attacked by
+fever. His letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
+Millet, were republished by the _Daily News_. On recovering from his
+fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness the British
+occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India, and in the winter
+accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad. He was present at the
+taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with several expeditions against the
+hill tribes. Burma was Forbes's next field of adventure, and at
+Mandalay, the capital, he had several interesting interviews with King
+Thibaw. He left Burma hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence
+of the disaster of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the
+invasion of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and his
+famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled to
+convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one of the
+finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes subsequently
+delivered many lectures on his war experiences to large audiences. His
+closing years were spent in literary work. He had some years before
+published a military novel entitled _Drawn from Life_, and a volume on
+his experiences of the war between France and Germany. These were now
+followed by numerous publications, including _Glimpses through the
+Cannon Smoke_ (1880); _Souvenirs of some Continents_ (1885); _William I.
+of Germany: a Biography_ (1888); _Havelock_, in the "English Men of
+Action" Series (1890); _Barracks, Bivouacs, and Battles_ (1891); _The
+Afghan Wars_, 1839-80 (1892); _Czar and Sultan_ (1895); _Memories and
+Studies of War and Peace_ (1895), in many respects autobiographic; and
+_Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_ (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, DAVID (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist and
+chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (q.v.), was born on the 6th of
+September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and received his early
+education there and at Brentwood in Essex. When a boy of fourteen he had
+already acquired a remarkable knowledge of chemistry. This subject he
+studied at the university of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he
+was appointed superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at
+Espedal in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of Evans
+& Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that capacity during the
+years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia and Peru. Besides reports for
+the Iron and Steel Institute, of which, during the last years of his
+life, he was foreign secretary, he wrote upwards of 50 papers on
+scientific subjects, among which are the following: "The Action of
+Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," _Rep. Brit.
+Assoc._, 1855, pt. ii. p. 62; "The Relations of the Silurian and
+Metamorphic Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; "The Causes
+producing Foliation in Rocks," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xi., 1855; "The
+Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian Limestones," _Phil.
+Mag._ xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; "The Geology of Bolivia and Southern
+Peru," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xvii. pp. 7-62, 1861; "The Mineralogy of
+Chile," _Phil. Mag._, 1865; "Researches in British Mineralogy," _Phil.
+Mag._, 1867-1868. His observations on the geology of South America were
+given in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
+much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on the resulting
+changes in rock-formations. He also contributed important articles on
+chemical geology to the _Chemical News_ and _Geological Magazine_ (1867
+and 1868). In England he was a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was
+elected F.R.S. in 1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.
+
+  See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol.
+  xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in _Geol. Mag._, 1877, p. 45.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, DUNCAN, OF CULLODEN (1685-1747), Scottish statesman, was born at
+Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness on the 10th of November 1685.
+After he had completed his studies at the universities of Edinburgh and
+Leiden, he was admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own
+talents and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid
+advancement, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
+Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In 1722 Forbes
+was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725 he succeeded Dundas of
+Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited the patrimonial estates on the
+death of his brother in 1734, and in 1737 he attained to the highest
+legal honours in Scotland, being made lord president of the court of
+session. As lord advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation
+and revenue of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
+and no less to render the government popular and respected in Scotland.
+In the proceedings which followed the memorable Porteous mob, for
+example, when the government brought in a bill for disgracing the lord
+provost of Edinburgh, for fining the corporation, and for abolishing
+the town-guard and city-gate, Forbes both spoke and voted against the
+measure as an unwarranted outrage on the national feeling. As lord
+president also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
+office was characterized by quick and impartial administration of the
+law.
+
+The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all his
+patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly and earnestly
+urged upon the government the expediency of embodying Highland
+regiments, putting them under the command of colonels whose loyalty
+could be relied upon, but officering them with the native chieftains and
+cadets of old families in the north. "If government," said he,
+"pre-engages the Highlanders in the manner I propose, they will not only
+serve well against the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good
+behaviour of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
+absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands." In 1739,
+with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730) six companies
+(locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed into the famous
+"Forty-second" regiment of the line. The credit given to the earl of
+Chatham in some histories for this movement is an error; it rests really
+with Forbes and his friend Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll
+(see the _Autobiography_ of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq.,
+1906).
+
+On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened to Inverness,
+and through his personal influence with the chiefs of Macdonald and
+Macleod, those two powerful western clans were prevented from taking the
+field for Charles Edward; the town itself also he kept loyal and well
+protected at the commencement of the struggle, and many of the
+neighbouring proprietors were won over by his persuasions. His
+correspondence with Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers,
+affords a fine illustration of his character, in which the firmness of
+loyal principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness and
+consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the apathy of
+the government interfered considerably with the success of his
+negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived too late, and though
+Forbes employed all his own means and what money he could borrow on his
+personal security, his resources were quite inadequate to the emergency.
+It is doubtful whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was
+doled out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be
+maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into disgrace
+in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate the impolitic
+severities inflicted upon his countrymen after their disastrous defeat
+at Culloden. The ingratitude of the government, and the many distressing
+circumstances connected with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind
+of Forbes. He never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and
+after a period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747.
+
+Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true Scotsman
+with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even erudite scholar
+without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without asceticism or
+intolerance. His country long felt his influence through her reviving
+arts and institutions; and the example of such a character in that
+coarse and venal age, and among a people distracted by faction,
+political strife, and national antipathies, while it was invaluable to
+his contemporaries in a man of high position, is entitled to the lasting
+gratitude and veneration of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure
+he cultivated with some success the study of philosophy, theology and
+biblical criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
+Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance,
+include--_A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important Discoveries in
+Philosophy and Theology_ (1732); _Some Thoughts concerning Religion,
+natural and revealed, and the Manner of Understanding Revelation_
+(1735); and _Reflections on Incredulity_ (2nd ed., 1750).
+
+  His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a memoir
+  of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill Burton, and
+  published along with a _Life of Lord Lovat_, in 1847. His statue by
+  Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, EDWARD (1815-1854), British naturalist, was born at Douglas, in
+the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February 1815. While still a child, when
+not engaged in reading, or in the writing of verses and drawing of
+caricatures, he occupied himself with the collecting of insects, shells,
+minerals, fossils, plants and other natural history objects. From his
+fifth to his eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance
+at any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole House
+Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of Man for London,
+where he studied drawing. In October, however, having given up all idea
+of making painting his profession, he returned home; and in the
+following month he matriculated as a student of medicine in the
+university of Edinburgh. His vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work
+on the natural history of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in
+Norway, the botanical results of which were published in Loudon's
+_Magazine of Natural History_ for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he
+devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the succeeding
+year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.
+
+Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical duties of a
+surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the idea of taking a
+medical degree, resolving to devote himself to science and literature.
+The winter of 1836-1837 found him at Paris, where he attended the
+lectures at the Jardin des Plantes on natural history, comparative
+anatomy, geology and mineralogy. Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to
+Algiers, and there obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater
+Mollusca, published in the _Annals of Natural History_, vol. ii. p. 250.
+In the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a student
+of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume, _Malacologia
+Monensis_, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca. During the summer
+of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and made extensive botanical
+collections. In the following autumn he read before the British
+Association at Newcastle a paper on the distribution of terrestrial
+Pulmonifera in Europe, and was commissioned to prepare a similar report
+with reference to the British Isles. In 1841 was published his _History
+of British Star-fishes_, embodying extensive observations and containing
+120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed by
+the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes, accompanied by
+his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta H.M. surveying ship
+"Beacon," to which he had been appointed naturalist by her commander
+Captain Graves. From that date until October 1842 he was employed in
+investigating the botany, zoology and geology of the Mediterranean
+region. The results of these researches were made known in his "Report
+on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the British
+Association in 1843," and in _Travels in Lycia_, published in
+conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt in 1847. In
+the former treatise he discussed the influence of climate and of the
+nature and depth of the sea bottom upon marine life, and divided the
+Aegean into eight biological zones; his conclusions with respect to
+bathymetrical distribution, however, have naturally been modified to a
+considerable extent by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.
+
+Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family misfortunes had now
+thrown upon his own resources, sought and obtained the curatorship of
+the museum of the Geological Society of London. To the duties of that
+post he added in 1843 those of the professorship of botany at King's
+College. In November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological
+Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Great
+Britain. Two years later he published in the _Memoirs of the Geological
+Survey_, i. 336, his important essay "On the Connexion between the
+distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and
+the Geological Changes which have affected their Area, especially during
+the epoch of the Northern Drift." It is therein pointed out that, in
+accordance with the theory of their origin from various specific
+centres, the plants of Great Britain may be divided into five
+well-marked groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of
+Spain, the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the
+Channel Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English,
+characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast; a group
+peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type; and, lastly, a
+general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arguments the conclusion is
+drawn that the greater part of the terrestrial animals and flowering
+plants of the British Islands migrated thitherward, over continuous
+land, at three distinct periods, before, during and after the glacial
+epoch. On this subject Forbes's brilliant generalizations are now
+regarded as only partially true (see C. Reid's _Origin of the British
+Flora_, 1899). In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of
+General Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his
+_Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae_ (Ray Society). The year
+1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the Geological Survey
+from Craig's Court to the museum in Jermyn Street, and the appointment
+of Forbes as professor of natural history to the Royal School of Mines
+just established in conjunction therewith. In 1852 was published the
+fourth and concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley's _History of
+British Mollusca_; also his _Monograph of the Echinodermata of the
+British Tertiaries_ (Palaeontographical Soc.).
+
+In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society of London,
+and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment of a long-cherished
+wish in his appointment to the professorship of natural history in the
+university of Edinburgh, vacant by the death of R. Jameson, his former
+teacher. Since his return from the East in 1842, the determination and
+arrangement of fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work,
+including the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded
+Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits of his
+earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that at length he
+was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of biological
+information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the summer session of 1854,
+and in September of that year he occupied the post of president of the
+geological section at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association.
+But he was taken ill just after he had commenced his winter's course of
+lectures in Edinburgh, and after not many days' illness he died at
+Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854.
+
+  See _Literary Gazette_ (November 25, 1854); _Edinburgh New
+  Philosophical Journal_ (New Ser.), (1855); _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._
+  (May 1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, _Memoir of Edward Forbes_ (1861),
+  in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes's writings. See also
+  _Literary Papers_, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following works
+  were issued posthumously: "On the Tertiary Fluviomarine Formation of
+  the Isle of Wight" (_Geol. Survey_), edited by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen
+  (1856); "The Natural History of the European Seas," edited and
+  continued by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen (1859).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868), Scottish physicist, was the fourth son
+of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo, and was born at
+Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1809. He entered the university of
+Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began to contribute papers to the
+_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_ anonymously under the signature
+"[Delta]." At the age of nineteen he became a fellow of the Royal
+Society of Edinburgh, and in 1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of
+London. A year later he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in
+Edinburgh University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in
+competition with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that
+office, which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself
+an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve the
+internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed
+successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United College of St
+Andrews, a position which he held until his death at Clifton on the 31st
+of December 1868.
+
+As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches on heat
+and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published in the _Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Ed._ four series of "Researches on Heat," in the course of which he
+described the polarization of heat by tourmaline, by transmission
+through a bundle of thin mica plates inclined to the transmitted ray,
+and by reflection from the multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates
+placed at the polarizing angle, and also its circular polarization by
+two internal reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the
+Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its
+Royal medal for a paper on the "Transparency of the Atmosphere and the
+Laws of Extinction of the Sun's Rays passing through it." In 1846 he
+began experiments on the temperature of the earth at different depths
+and in different soils near Edinburgh, which yielded determinations of
+the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa, sandstone and pure loose sand.
+Towards the end of his life he was occupied with experimental inquiries
+into the laws of the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of
+work was to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with
+increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the question of
+the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis Agassiz at the Glasgow
+meeting of the British Association, and in subsequent years he made
+several visits to Switzerland and also to Norway for the purpose of
+obtaining accurate data. His observations led him to the view that a
+glacier is an imperfect fluid or a viscous body which is urged down
+slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and
+involved him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to
+priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested in
+geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of the Pyrenees,
+on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardêche), on the geology of
+the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition to about 150 scientific
+papers, he wrote _Travels through the Alps of Savoy and Other Parts of
+the Pennine Chain, with Observations on the Phenomena of Glaciers_
+(1843); _Norway and its Glaciers_ (1853); _Occasional Papers on the
+Theory of Glaciers_ (1859); _A Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_
+(1855). He was also the author (1852) of the "Dissertation on the
+Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science," published in the 8th
+edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
+
+  See _Forbes's Life and Letters_, by Principal Shairp, Professor P.G.
+  Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); _Professor Forbes and his
+  Biographers_, by J. Tyndall (1873).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787-1861), British physician, was born at Cuttlebrae,
+Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar school at Aberdeen, and
+afterwards entered Marischal College. After serving for nine years as a
+surgeon in the navy, he graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then
+began to practise in Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822.
+He took up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year
+was appointed physician to the royal household. He was knighted in 1853,
+and died on the 13th of November 1861 at Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir
+John Forbes was better known as an author and editor than as a practical
+physician. His works include the following:--_Original Cases ...
+illustrating the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis
+of Diseases of the Chest_ (1824); _Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism_
+(1845); _A Physician's Holiday_ (1st ed., 1849); _Memorandums made in
+Ireland in the Autumn of 1852_ (2 vols., 1853); _Sightseeing in Germany
+and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855_ (1856). He was joint editor with A.
+Tweedie and J. Conolly of _The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine_ (4
+vols., 1833-1835); and in 1836 he founded the _British and Foreign
+Medical Review_, which, after a period of prosperity, involved its
+editor in pecuniary loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in
+consequence of the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious
+to the profession.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the Lachlan river, and with a
+station on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance
+as a commercial centre is due to its advantageous position between the
+northern and southern markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills,
+breweries and wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding
+country produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON (1853- ), English actor, was the son of John
+Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an art critic. He was educated at
+Charterhouse, and studied at the Royal Academy schools with a view to
+becoming a painter. But though he kept up his interest in that art, in
+1874 he turned to the theatre, making his first appearance in London as
+Chastelard, in _Mary, Queen of Scots_. He studied under Samuel Phelps,
+from whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played with
+the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary Anderson in both
+England and America, and also acted at different times with Sir Henry
+Irving. His refined and artistic style, and beautiful voice and
+elocution made him a marked man on the English stage, and in Pinero's
+_The Profligate_ at the Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare's management,
+he established his position as one of the most individual of London
+actors. In 1895 he started under his own management at the Lyceum with
+Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing _Romeo and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_
+and also some modern plays; his impersonation as Hamlet was especially
+fine, and his capacity as a romantic actor was shown to great advantage
+also in John Davidson's _For the Crown_ and in Maeterlinck's _Pelléas
+and Mélisande_. In 1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with
+whom, as his leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in
+subsequent years _The Light that Failed_, Madeleine Lucette Riley's
+_Mice and Men_, and G. Bernard Shaw's _Caesar and Cleopatra_, Jerome K.
+Jerome's _Passing of the Third Floor Back_, &c. His brothers, Ian
+Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes (b. 1859), had also been
+well-known actors from about 1878 onwards.
+
+
+
+
+FORBIN, CLAUDE DE (1656-1733), French naval commander, was born in
+Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656. High-spirited and
+ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away from his home, and through the
+influence of an uncle entered the navy, serving his first campaign in
+1675. For a short time he quitted the navy and entered the army, but
+soon returned to his first choice. He made under D'Estrées the American
+campaign, and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions
+distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most remarkable
+episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During the administration
+of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that country, the project was formed
+of introducing the Christian religion and European civilization, and the
+king sent an embassy to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent
+out, Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the rank of
+major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin was induced to remain in
+the service of the Siamese king, and accepted, though with much
+reluctance, the posts of grand admiral, general of all the king's armies
+and governor of Bangkok. His position, however, was soon made untenable
+by the jealousy and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end
+of two years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards
+fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war with
+England, when they were both captured and taken to Plymouth. They
+succeeded in making their escape and were soon serving their country
+again. Forbin was wounded at the battle of La Hogue, and greatly
+distinguished himself at the battle of Lagos. He served under D'Estrées
+at the taking of Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702
+took a brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish
+Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk, and
+captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the English. In 1708 he
+was entrusted with the command of the squadron which was to convey the
+Pretender to Scotland; but so effectually were the coasts guarded by
+Byng that the expedition failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now
+beginning to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils
+of service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles.
+There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published in
+1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic and
+attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733.
+
+
+
+
+FORCELLINI, EGIDIO (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was born at Fener
+in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very poor family. He went
+to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied under Facciolati, and in due
+course attained to the priesthood. From 1724 to 1731 he held the office
+of rector of the seminary at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of
+father confessor in the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his
+life were mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768
+before the completion of the great work on which he had long co-operated
+with Facciolati. This was the vast _Latin Lexicon_ (see FACCIOLATI),
+which has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been
+published. He was engaged with his Herculean task for nearly 35 years,
+and the transcription of the manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight
+years more.
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG (1794-1865), Danish mineralogist and
+geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on the 24th of July 1794, and
+died at Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1865. After studying at Kiel
+and Copenhagen from 1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch
+in their mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable
+share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained his doctor's
+degree by a chemical treatise _De mangano_, and immediately after set
+out on a journey through England, Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. In
+1823 he was appointed lecturer at Copenhagen University on chemistry and
+mineralogy; in 1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established
+polytechnic school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of mineralogy
+in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the geological museum.
+From 1835 to 1837 he made many contributions to the geological survey of
+Denmark. On the death of H.C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as
+director of the polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of
+Sciences. In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various
+anthropological publications which gained a high reputation. As a public
+instructor Forchhammer held a high place and contributed potently to the
+progress of his favourite studies in his native country. He interested
+himself in such practical questions as the introduction of gas into
+Copenhagen, the establishment of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the
+boring of artesian wells.
+
+  Among his more important works are--_Loerebog i de enkelte Radicalers
+  Chemi_ (1842); _Danmarks geognostiske Forhold_ (1835); _Om de
+  Bornholmske Kulformationer_ (1836); _Dit myere Kridt i Danmark_
+  (1847); _Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske Forhold_
+  (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals, Danish,
+  English and German, will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers_ published by the Royal Society of London. One of the most
+  interesting and most recent is "On the Constitution of Sea Water at
+  Different Depths and in Different Latitudes," in the _Proceedings of
+  the Roy. Soc._ xii. (1862-1863).
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM (1801-1894), German classical archaeologist,
+was born at Husum in Schleswig on the 23rd of October 1801. He was
+educated at the Lübeck gymnasium and the university of Kiel, with which
+he was connected for nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he
+travelled in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was
+appointed professor of philology at Kiel and director of the
+archaeological museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn.
+He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a democrat in the
+best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873 represented the
+progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the German Reichstag. His
+published works deal chiefly with topography and ancient mythology. His
+travels had convinced him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of
+classical antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance
+with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a detailed
+examination of the topographical and climatic conditions of the chief
+localities of the ancient world. These principles are illustrated in his
+_Hellenika. Griechenland. Im Neuen das Alte_ (1837), which contains his
+theory of the origin and explanation of the Greek myths, which he never
+abandoned, in spite of the attacks to which it was subjected. According
+to him, the myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and
+aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring processes of
+nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in _Achill_ (1853), the
+Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements in that district.
+Other similar short treatises are: _Die Gründung Roms_ (1868);
+_Daduchos_ (1875), on the language of the myths and mythical buildings;
+_Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter Io_ (1880); _Prolegomena zur
+Mythologie als Wissenschaft und Lexikon der Mythensprache_ (1891).
+Amongst his topographical works mention may be made of: _Topographie von
+Athen_ (1841); _Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja_ (1850), a commentary
+on a map of the locality executed by T.A. Spratt (see _Journal of the
+Royal Geographical Society_, xii., 1842); _Topographia Thebarum
+Heptapylarum_ (1854); _Erklärung der Ilias_ (1884), on the basis of the
+topographical and physical peculiarities of the plain of Troy. His
+_Demokratenbüchlein_ (1849), in the main a discussion of the
+Aristotelian theory of the state, and _Die Athener und Sokrates_ (1837),
+in which, contrary to the almost universal opinion, he upheld the
+procedure of the Athenians as perfectly legal and their verdict as a
+perfectly just one, also deserve notice.
+
+  For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in
+  C. Bursian's _Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde_, xx. (1897);
+  also J. Sass in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and A. Hoeck and
+  L.C. Pertsch, _P.W. Forchhammer_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, near the
+confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E. of Bamberg. Pop.
+(1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic churches, including the Gothic
+Collegiate church and a Protestant church. Among the other public
+buildings are the progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the
+town include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and glue
+works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious château occupies the site
+of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed in 1246.
+
+Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence of the
+Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the 9th century.
+Consequently many diets were held here, and here also Conrad I. and
+Louis the Child were chosen German kings. The town was given by the
+emperor Henry II. in 1007 to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a
+short period during the 11th century, it remained in the possession of
+the bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August 1796 a
+battle took place near Forchheim between the French and the Austrians.
+The fortifications of the town were dismantled in 1838.
+
+  See Hübsch, _Chronik der Stadt Forchheim_ (Nüremberg, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1901), English sculptor, was born in London.
+He received some education as a painter in Antwerp and as a sculptor in
+Munich under Professor Wagmüller, but was mainly self-taught. His first
+contribution to the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and
+in portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success. His
+busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at their best.
+Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker (1894), Briton
+Riviere and Sir W.Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir
+Hubert von Herkomer and Sir John Millais (1897), and of A.J. Balfour are
+all striking likenesses, and are equalled by that in marble of Sir
+Frederick Bramwell (for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He
+gained the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected
+in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883 with "Henry
+Irving as Hamlet," now in the Guildhall art gallery. This seated statue,
+good as it is, was soon surpassed by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city
+museum, Birmingham) and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal
+memorial statue of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less
+successful. The standing statue of W.E. Gladstone (1894, for the City
+Liberal Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford's better portrait
+works. The colossal "General Charles Gordon," camel-mounted, for
+Chatham, "Lord Strathnairn," an equestrian group for Knightsbridge, and
+the "Maharajah of Mysore" (1900) comprise his larger works of the kind.
+A beautiful nude recumbent statue of Shelley (1892) upon a
+cleverly-designed base, which is not quite impeccable from the point of
+view of artistic taste, is at University College, Oxford, and a
+simplified version was presented by him to be set up on the shore of
+Viareggio, where the poet's body was washed up. Ford's ideal work has
+great charm and daintiness; his statue "Folly" (1886) was bought by the
+trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other statues or
+statuettes of a similar order: "Peace" (1890), which secured his
+election as an associate of the Royal Academy, "Echo" (1895), on which
+he was elected full member, "The Egyptian Singer" (1889), "Applause"
+(1893), "Glory to the Dead" (1901) and "Snowdrift" (1902). Ford's
+influence on the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of
+good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely popular,
+and when he died a monument was erected to his memory (C. Lucchesi,
+sculptor, J.W. Simpson, architect) in St John's Wood, near to where he
+dwelt.
+
+  See SCULPTURE; also M.H. Spielmann, _British Sculpture and Sculptors
+  of To-day_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+FORD, JOHN (1586-c. 1640), English dramatist, was baptized on the 17th
+of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came of a good family; his
+father was in the commission of the peace and his mother was a sister of
+Sir John Popham, successively attorney-general and lord chief justice.
+The name of John Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as
+matriculating at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to
+whom, with other members of the society of Gray's Inn, he dedicated his
+play of _The Lover's Melancholy_), the future dramatist entered the
+profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple in 1602; but
+he seems never to have been called to the bar. Four years afterwards he
+made his first appearance as an author with an elegy called _Fame's
+Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire deceased_, and dedicated to the
+widow of the earl (Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, "coronized," to use
+Ford's expression, by King James in 1603 for his services in Ireland)--a
+lady who would have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own
+tragedies of lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich.
+This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs and is
+composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as the author
+declares, written "unfee'd"; it shows that Ford sympathized, as
+Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done, with the "awkward fate" of
+the countess's brother, the earl of Essex. Who the "flint-hearted Lycia"
+may be, to whom the poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress,
+is unknown; indeed, the record of Ford's private life is little better
+than a blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and
+epilogues of his various plays, he seems to have enjoyed the patronage
+of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, "himself a muse" after a
+fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the ex-queen of
+Bohemia. Ford's tract of _Honor Triumphant, or the Peeres Challenge_
+(printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare Society with the _Line of
+Life_, in 1843), and the simultaneously published verses _The Monarches
+Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes Welcome into England_, exhibit him as
+occasionally meeting the festive demands of court and nobility; and a
+kind of moral essay by him, entitled _A Line of Life_ (printed 1620),
+which contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome
+praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford's plays
+(_The Broken Heart_, iii. 4) contains an implied protest against the
+absolute system of government generally accepted by the dramatists of
+the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations with his brother-authors
+little is known; it was natural that he should exchange complimentary
+verses with James Shirley, and that he should join in the chorus of
+laments over the death of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice
+an epigram in honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in
+one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:
+
+  "Thou cheat'st us, Ford; mak'st one seem two by art:
+   What is Love's Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?"
+
+It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he gratified
+the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed in _The Time Poets_
+(_Choice Drollery_, 1656) by withdrawing from business and from literary
+life in London, to his native place; but nothing is known as to the date
+of his death. His career as a dramatist very probably began by
+collaboration with other authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote _The Fairy
+Knight_ and _The Bristowe Merchant_ (licensed in 1624, but both
+unpublished), with John Webster _A late Murther of the Sonne upon the
+Mother_ (licensed in 1624). A play entitled _An ill Beginning has a good
+End_, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attributed to Ford, was
+(if his) his earliest acted play; whether _Sir Thomas Overbury's Life
+and untimely Death_ (1615) was a play is extremely doubtful; some lines
+of indignant regret by Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He
+is also said to have written, at dates unknown, _The London Merchant_
+(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher's _Knight
+of the Burning Pestle_) and _The Royal Combat_; a tragedy by him,
+_Beauty in a Trance_, was entered in the Stationers' Register in 1653,
+but never printed. These three (or four) plays were among those
+destroyed by Warburton's cook. _The Queen, or the Excellency of the
+Sea_, a play of inverted passion, containing some fine sensuous lines,
+printed in 1653 by Alexander Singhe for private performance, has been
+recently edited by W. Bang (_Materialien zur Kunde d. älteren engl.
+Dramas_, 13, Louvain, 1906), and is by him on internal evidence
+confidently claimed as Ford's. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the
+dates span little more than a decade--the earliest, _The Lover's
+Melancholy_, having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest,
+_The Lady's Trial_, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639.
+
+When writing _The Lover's Melancholy_, it would seem that Ford had not
+yet become fully aware of the bent of his own dramatic genius, although
+he was already master of his powers of poetic expression. He was
+attracted towards domestic tragedy by an irresistible desire to sound
+the depths of abnormal conflicts between passion and circumstances, to
+romantic comedy by a strong though not widely varied imaginative
+faculty, and by a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic
+humour. In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristically
+expressive of his peculiar strength, _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ (acted c.
+1626) and _The Broken Heart_ (acted c. 1629), both printed in 1633 with
+the anagram of his name _Fide Honor_, he had found horrible situations
+which required dramatic explanation by intensely powerful motives. Ford
+by no means stood alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal
+subjects; but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and
+yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression which
+renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable, or converts the
+horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford's genius there was real
+refinement, except when the "supra-sensually sensual" impulse or the
+humbler self-delusion referred to came into play. In a third tragedy,
+_Love's Sacrifice_ (acted c. 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on
+similar materials; but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the
+interest of his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility--doing
+homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult. In
+_Perkin Warbeck_ (printed 1634; probably acted a year later) he chose an
+historical subject of great dramatic promise and psychological interest,
+and sought to emulate the glory of the great series of Shakespeare's
+national histories. The effort is one of the most laudable, as it was by
+no means one of the least successful, in the dramatic literature of this
+period. _The Fancies Chaste and Noble_ (acted before 1636, printed
+1638), though it includes scenes of real force and feeling, is
+dramatically a failure, of which the main idea is almost provokingly
+slight and feeble; and _The Lady's Trial_ (acted 1638, printed 1639) is
+only redeemed from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness
+of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very different kinds,
+in which Ford co-operated with other writers, the mask of _The Sun's
+Darling_ (acted 1624, printed 1657), hardly to be placed in the first
+rank of early compositions, and _The Witch of Edmonton_ (printed 1658,
+but probably acted about 1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer
+with Dekker and Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of
+the English or any other stage.
+
+  A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the plays
+  enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a stinging
+  epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that _The Lover's Melancholy_ was
+  stolen by Ford from Shakespeare's papers. Undoubtedly, the madness of
+  the hero of this play of Ford's occasionally recalls Hamlet, while the
+  heroine is one of the many, and at the same time one of the most
+  pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of them is a copy, as Friar
+  Bonaventura in Ford's second play may be said to be a copy of Friar
+  Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he disagreeably exaggerates, or as
+  D'Avolos in _Love's Sacrifice_ is clearly modelled on Iago. The plot
+  of _The Lover's Melancholy_, which is ineffective because it leaves no
+  room for suspense in the mind of the reader, seems original; in the
+  dialogue, on the other hand, a justly famous passage in Act i. (the
+  beautiful version of the story of the nightingale's death) is
+  translated from Strada; while the scheme of the tedious interlude
+  exhibiting the various forms of madness is avowedly taken, together
+  with sundry comments, from Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_. Already
+  in this play Ford exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the
+  despondent misery of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last
+  scene, in which his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart.
+  A situation--hazardous in spite of its comic substratum--between
+  Thaumasta and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford
+  points out, with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy,
+  notwithstanding, or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the
+  author.
+
+  _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ has been justly recognized as a tragedy of
+  extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on Ford, has
+  rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and has at the same
+  time indicated wherein consists its poison. He dwells with great force
+  upon the different treatment applied by Ford to the characters of the
+  two miserable lovers--brother and sister. "The sin once committed,
+  there is no more wavering or flinching possible to him, who has fought
+  so hard against the demoniac possession; while she who resigned body
+  and soul to the tempter, almost at a word, remains liable to the
+  influences of religion and remorse." This different treatment shows
+  the feeling of the poet--the feeling for which he seeks to evoke our
+  inmost sympathy--to oscillate between the belief that an awful crime
+  brings with it its awful punishment (and it is sickening to observe
+  how the argument by which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her
+  evil courses mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution),
+  and the notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible,
+  and therefore in a sense self-justified, in so dominant a passion. The
+  key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of
+  the first scene--
+
+    "All this I'll do, to free me from the rod
+     Of vengeance; _else I'll swear my fate's my god_."
+
+  Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one
+  side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs,
+  in the dying words of "the student struck blind and mad by passion"--
+
+             "O, I bleed fast!
+    Death, thou'rt a guest long look'd for; I embrace
+    Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes!
+    Where'er I go, let me enjoy this grace
+    Freely to view my Annabella's face."
+
+  It has been observed by J.A. Symonds that "English poets have given us
+  the right key to the Italian temperament.... The love of Giovanni and
+  Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative than sensual." It is
+  difficult to allow the appositeness of this special illustration; on
+  the other hand, Ford has even in this case shown his art of depicting
+  sensual passion without grossness of expression; for the exception in
+  Annabella's language to Soranzo seems to have a special intention, and
+  is true to the pressure of the situation and the revulsion produced by
+  it in a naturally weak and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to
+  speak, of the play is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the
+  underplot with Hippolita.
+
+  _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ was translated into French by Maurice
+  Maeterlinck under the title of _Annabella_, and represented at the
+  Théâtre de l'Oeuvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version an
+  eloquent appreciation of Ford's genius, especially in his portraits of
+  women, whose fate it is to live "dans les ténèbres, les craintes et
+  les larmes."
+
+  Like this tragedy, _The Broken Heart_ was probably founded upon some
+  Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter instance
+  there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject, the play
+  commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of many
+  excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford's dramatic genius. The
+  complicated plot is constructed with greater skill than is usual with
+  this dramatist, and the pathos of particular situations, and of the
+  entire character of Penthea--a woman doomed to hopeless misery, but
+  capable of seeking to obtain for her brother a happiness which his
+  cruelty has condemned her to forego--has an intensity and a depth
+  which are all Ford's own. Even the lesser characters are more pleasing
+  than usual, and some beautiful lyrics are interspersed in the play.
+
+  Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only _The Chronicle Historie
+  of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth_, appears to call for special
+  attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment that
+  it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shakespeare's
+  national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken into consideration
+  in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James Gairdner's essay appended
+  to his _Life and Reign of Richard III._, there are still credulous
+  persons left to think and assert that Perkin was not an impostor, they
+  will derive little satisfaction from Ford's play, which with really
+  surprising skill avoids the slightest indication as to the poet's own
+  belief on the subject. That this tragedy should have been reprinted in
+  1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the public, as is often the
+  case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather than to the development of
+  the action. The dramatic capabilities of the subject are, however,
+  great, and it afterwards attracted Schiller, who, however, seems to
+  have abandoned it in favour of the similar theme of the Russian
+  Demetrius. Had Shakespeare treated it, he would hardly have contented
+  himself with investing the hero with the nobility given by Ford to
+  this personage of his play,--for it is hardly possible to speak of a
+  personage as a _character_ when the clue to his conduct is
+  intentionally withheld. Nor could Shakespeare have failed to bring out
+  with greater variety and distinctness the dramatic features in Henry
+  VII., whom Ford depicts with sufficient distinctness to give some
+  degree of individuality to the figure, but still with a tenderness of
+  touch which would have been much to the credit of the dramatist's
+  skill had he been writing in the Tudor age. The play is, however,
+  founded on Bacon's Life, of which the text is used by Ford with
+  admirable discretion, and on Thomas Gainsford's _True and Wonderful
+  History of Perkin Warbeck_ (1618). The minor characters of the honest
+  old Huntley, whom the Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter's
+  hand upon Warbeck, and of her lover the faithful "Dalyell," are most
+  effectively drawn; even "the men of judgment," the adventurers who
+  surround the chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman
+  among them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is,
+  as befits a "Chronicle History," so clear and straightforward as to
+  make it easy as well as interesting to read.
+
+  _The Witch of Edmonton_ was attributed by its publisher to William
+  Rowley, Dekker, Ford, "&c.," but the body of the play has been
+  generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The subject
+  of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported witch,
+  Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne agrees with
+  Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the first act; and
+  he is most assuredly right in considering that "there is no more
+  admirable exposition of a play on the English stage." Supposing Dekker
+  to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing with the unfortunate
+  old woman whom persecution as a witch actually drives to become one,
+  and Ford for the domestic tragedy of the bigamist murderer, it cannot
+  be denied that both divisions of the subject are effectively treated,
+  while the more important part of the task fell to the share of Ford.
+  Yet it may be doubted whether any such division can be safely assumed;
+  and it may suffice to repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught
+  with more effective simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely
+  double lesson of the folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of
+  crime.
+
+  With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of _The Sun's Darling_; or, as
+  seems most probable, they founded this production upon _Phaeton_, an
+  earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author. Gifford holds that
+  Dekker's hand is perpetually traceable in the first three acts of _The
+  Sun's Darling_, and through the whole of its comic part, but that the
+  last two acts are mainly Ford's. If so, he is the author of the rather
+  forced occasional tribute on the accession of King Charles I., of
+  which the last act largely consists. This mask, which furnished
+  abundant opportunities for the decorators, musicians and dancers, in
+  showing forth how the seasons and their delights are successively
+  exhausted by a "wanton darling," Raybright the grandchild of the Sun,
+  is said to have been very popular. It is at the same time commonplace
+  enough in conception; but there is much that is charming in the
+  descriptions, Jonson and Lyly being respectively laid under
+  contribution in the course of the dialogue, and in one of the
+  incidental lyrics.
+
+Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the intensity of his
+passion, in particular scenes and passages where the character, the
+author and the reader are alike lost in the situation and in the
+sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is a supreme dramatic gift. But
+his plays--with the exception of _The Witch of Edmonton_, in which he
+doubtless had a prominent share--too often disturb the mind like a bad
+dream which ends as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme
+dramatic defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most
+reason to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford's;
+nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in _The Broken
+Heart_, "is formed of books and school-traditions," which has a right to
+protest against the final effect of the most powerful creations of his
+genius. There is a morality which both
+
+        "Keeps the soul in tune,
+  At whose sweet music all our actions dance,"
+
+and is able to physic
+
+      "The sickness of a mind
+  Broken with griefs."
+
+Of that morality--or of that deference to the binding power within man
+and the ruling power above him--tragedy is the truest expounder, even
+when it illustrates by contrasts; but the tragic poet who merely places
+the problem before us, and bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty,
+is not to be reckoned among the great masters of a divine art.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with notes
+  and introduction, revised with additions to both text and notes by
+  Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the _Dramatic Works of Massinger
+  and Ford_ appeared in 1840, with an introduction by Hartley Coleridge.
+  _The Best Plays of Ford_ were edited for the "Mermaid Series" in 1888,
+  with an introduction by W.H. Havelock Ellis, and reissued in 1903.
+  A.C. Swinburne's "Essay on Ford" is reprinted among his _Essays and
+  Studies_ (1875). _Perkin Warbeck_ and _'Tis Pity_ were translated into
+  German by F. Bodenstedt in 1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in
+  1904. The probable sources of the various plays are discussed in Emil
+  Koeppel's _Quellenstudien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip
+  Massinger's und John Ford's_ (1897).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858), English author of one of the earliest and
+best of travellers' _Handbooks_, was the eldest son of Sir Richard Ford,
+who in 1789 was member of parliament for East Grinstead, and for many
+years afterwards chief police magistrate of London. His mother was the
+daughter and heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in
+art. He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833 he
+travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra and at
+Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions to the
+_Quarterly Review_) was a pamphlet, _An Historical Inquiry into the
+Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain_ (Murray, 1837), in reply to
+one called the _Policy of England towards Spain_, issued under the
+patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the winter of 1839-1840 in Italy,
+where he added largely to his collection of majolica; and soon after his
+return he began, at John Murray's invitation, to write his _Handbook for
+Travellers in Spain_, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died
+on the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of
+pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir A.
+Molesworth.
+
+
+
+
+FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 1580), English musician, of whose life little more
+is known than that he was attached to the court of Prince Henry, son of
+James I. His works also are few, but they are sufficient to show the
+high stage of efficiency and musical knowledge which the English school
+had attained at the beginning of the 17th century. They consist of
+canons and other concerted pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute
+accompaniment. The chief collection of his works is entitled _Musike of
+Sundrie Kinds set forth in Two Books_, &c. (1607), and the histories of
+music by Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with
+Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare's sonnets, Ford is the chief
+representative of the school which preceded Henry Lawes.
+
+
+
+
+FORDE, FRANCIS (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in the army
+list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1746. This regiment was the first
+of the king's service to serve in India (hence its motto _Primus in
+Indis_), and Forde was on duty there when in 1755 he became major, at
+the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to become his rival, was promoted
+captain. At the express invitation of Clive, Forde resigned his king's
+commission to take the post of second in command of the E.I. Company's
+troops in Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French
+of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley rabble of an army
+which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into the field, Forde pushed
+ahead through difficult country and came upon the enemy entrenched at
+Condore. For four days the two armies faced one another; on the fifth
+both commanders resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In
+spite of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in the
+end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first to last a
+brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself with this; on the
+same evening he stormed the French camp, and his pursuit was checked
+only by the guns of Masulipatam itself. The place was quickly invested
+on the land side, but difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of
+men. For fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last
+avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at midnight on
+the 25th of January 1759. The Company's troops lost one-third of their
+number, but the storm was a brilliant and astounding success. Forde
+received less than no reward. The Company refused to confirm his
+lieut.-colonel's commission, and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote,
+his old subaltern in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist
+Clive, and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable to
+Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A year later he at
+last received his commission, but was still opposed by a faction of the
+directors which supported Coote. Clive himself warmly supported Forde in
+these quarrels. In 1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was
+sent out with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian
+administration. Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of
+Good Hope on the 27th of December.
+
+  Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be found in
+  Malleson's _Decisive Battles of India_.
+
+
+
+
+FORDHAM, formerly a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., and
+now a part of New York City. It lies on the mainland, along the eastern
+bank of the Harlem river, E. of the northern end of Manhattan Island. It
+is the seat of Fordham University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as
+St John's College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus. In
+1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University, and now
+includes St John's College high school and grammar school, St John's
+College, the Fordham University medical school (all in Fordham), and the
+Fordham University law school (42 Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908
+the university had 96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the
+high school) 236 students, of whom 105 were in St John's College, 31 in
+the medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still stands
+the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to 1849 and in which
+he wrote "Annabel Lee," "Ulalume," &c.
+
+The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer (a Dutchman,
+who called himself "John Archer" after coming to America), who in that
+year received permission from Francis Lovelace, colonial governor of New
+York, to settle sixteen families on the mainland close by a
+fording-place of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters
+the Harlem river. Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians
+the tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the Harlem
+river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and extending from
+the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High Bridge. In 1671 Governor
+Lovelace erected this tract into the manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was
+included with Morrisania in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with
+part of the township of Yonkers was erected into the township of
+Kingsbridge, which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and in
+1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+FORDUN, JOHN OF (d. c. 1384), Scottish chronicler. The statement
+generally made that the chronicler was born at Fordoun (Kincardineshire)
+has not been supported by any direct evidence. It is certain that he was
+a secular priest, and that he composed his history in the latter part of
+the 14th century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the
+cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest attempt to
+write a continuous history of Scotland. We are informed that Fordun's
+patriotic zeal was roused by the removal or destruction of many national
+records by Edward III. and that he travelled in England and Ireland,
+collecting material for his history. This work is divided into five
+books. The first three are almost entirely fabulous, and form the
+groundwork on which Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical
+fictions, which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his _Critical Essay_ (i.
+pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed with fable,
+contain much valuable information, and become more authentic the more
+nearly they approach the author's own time. The 5th book concludes with
+the death of King David I. in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun
+wrote part of another book, and collected materials for bringing down
+the history to a later period. These materials were used by a
+continuator who wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who is
+identified with Walter Bower (q.v.), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm.
+The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down the narrative
+to the death of King James I. in 1437. According to the custom of the
+time, the continuator did not hesitate to interpolate Fordun's portion
+of the work with additions of his own, and the whole history thus
+compiled is known as the _Scotichronicon_.
+
+  The first printed edition of Fordun's work was that of Thomas Gale in
+  his _Scriptores quindecim_ (vol. iii.), which was published in 1691.
+  This was followed by Thomas Hearne's (5 vols.) edition in 1722. The
+  whole work, including Bower's continuation, was published by Walter
+  Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872 Fordun's chronicle, in
+  the original Latin and in an English translation, was edited by
+  William F. Skene in _The Historians of Scotland_. The preface to this
+  edition collects all the biographical details and gives full
+  bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.
+
+
+
+
+FORECLOSURE, in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment by order of the
+court of a mortgagor's equity of redemption. In the law of equity the
+object of every mortgage transaction is eventually the repayment of a
+debt, the mortgaged property being incidental by way of security.
+Therefore, although the day named for repayment of the loan has passed
+and the mortgagor's estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to
+mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a reconveyance
+of the mortgaged property on payment of the principal, interest and
+costs. This right of the mortgagor to relief is termed his "equity of
+redemption." But the right must be exercised within a reasonable time,
+otherwise he will be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the
+mortgagee's possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such
+foreclosure is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action is
+brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the chancery division
+of the High Court in England, claiming that an account may be taken of
+the principal and interest due to the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor
+may be directed to pay the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by
+the court and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of
+redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in foreclosure
+actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed £500, or where the
+mortgage is for more than £500, but less than that sum has been actually
+advanced. In a Welsh mortgage there is no right to foreclosure. (See
+also MORTGAGE.)
+
+
+
+
+FOREIGN OFFICE, that department of the executive of the United Kingdom
+which is concerned with foreign affairs. The head of the Foreign Office
+is termed principal secretary of state for foreign affairs and his
+office dates from 1782. Between that date and the Revolution there had
+been only two secretaries of state, whose duties were divided by a
+geographical division of the globe into northern and southern
+departments. The duties of the secretary of the northern department of
+Europe comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while the
+secretary of the southern department of Europe communicated with France,
+Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, and also looked after Irish
+and colonial business, and carried out the work of the Home Office. In
+1782 the duties of these two secretaries were revised, the northern
+department becoming the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign
+affairs is the official agent of the crown in all communications between
+Great Britain and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either
+through the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or
+through representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all
+treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects
+residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they may
+sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two
+under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other a
+permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries (civil
+servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department and a staff of
+clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office are the African, American,
+commercial and sanitary, consular, eastern (Europe), far eastern,
+western (Europe), parliamentary, financial, librarian and keeper of the
+papers, treaties and registry. In the case of important despatches and
+correspondence, these, with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the
+permanent under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the
+sovereign and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet.
+The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is £5000 per annum,
+that of the permanent under-secretary £2000, the parliamentary
+under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, £1500, and the
+other assistant under-secretaries £1200.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part ii.
+
+
+
+
+FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two chalk headlands on the Kent coast of
+England, overlooking the Strait of Dover, the North Foreland forming the
+eastern projection of the Isle of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m.
+N.E. of Dover. Both present bold cliffs to the sea, and command
+beautiful views over the strait. On the North Foreland (51° 22½' N., 1°
+27' E.) there is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51° 8½' N., 1°
+23' E.) there are two. There is also a Foreland on the north coast of
+Devonshire, 2½ m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine projection of the highlands
+of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol Channel, and forming the most
+northerly point of the county.
+
+
+
+
+FORESHORE, that part of the seashore which lies between high- and
+low-water mark at ordinary tides. In the United Kingdom it is ordinarily
+and prima facie vested in the crown, except where it may be vested in a
+subject by ancient grant or charter from the crown, or by prescription.
+Although numerous decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima
+facie title of the crown, S.A. Moore in his _History of the Foreshore_
+contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather than of
+the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving an express
+grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence of user from which a
+grant may be presumed. The chief acts showing title to foreshore are,
+taking wreck or royal fish, right of fishing, mining, digging and taking
+sand, seaweed, &c., embanking and enclosing. There is a public right of
+user in that part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the
+purpose of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over
+lands adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that, in
+order to make the right available, there must be a highway or other
+public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it has been held that
+the public have no legal right to trespass on land above high-water mark
+for the purpose of bathing in the sea, though if they can get to it they
+may bathe there (_Blundell_ v. _Catteral_, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. 268). There
+is no right in the public to take sand, shells or seaweed from the
+shore, nor, except in certain places by local custom, have fishermen the
+right to use the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their
+boats, or for drying their nets or similar purposes.
+
+  See S.A. Moore, _History of the Foreshore and the Law relating
+  thereto_ (1888); Coulson and Forbes, _Law of Waters_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FORESTALLING, in English criminal law, the offence of buying
+merchandise, victual, &c., coming to market, or making any bargain for
+buying the same, before they shall be in the market ready to be sold, or
+making any motion for enhancing the price, or dissuading any person from
+coming to market or forbearing to bring any of the things to market, &c.
+See ENGROSSING.
+
+
+
+
+FOREST LAWS, the general term for the old English restriction laws,
+dealing with forests. One of the most cherished prerogatives of the king
+of England, at the time when his power was at the highest, was that of
+converting any portion of the country into a forest in which he might
+enjoy the pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the
+king and the people testify to the extent to which this prerogative
+became a public grievance, and the charter by which its exercise was
+bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance part of the greatest
+constitutional code imposed by his barons upon King John. At common law
+it appears to have been the right of the king to make a forest where he
+pleased, provided that certain legal formalities were observed. The king
+having a continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the
+peace and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many
+privileges this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation
+wheresoever he would appoint.[1] Land once afforested became subject to
+a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the formalities required to
+constitute a valid afforestment, have been carefully ascertained by the
+Anglo-Norman lawyers. "A forest," says Manwood, "is a certain territory
+of woody grounds and fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and
+fowls of forest, chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe
+protection of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of
+ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable marks, meres
+and boundaries, either known by matter of record or by prescription; and
+also replenished with wild beasts of venery or chase, and with great
+coverts of vert, for the succour of the said beasts there to abide: for
+the preservation and continuance of which said place, together with the
+vert and venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges
+belonging to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a
+forest and to no other place."[2] And the same author distinguishes a
+forest, as "the highest franchise of princely pleasure," from the
+inferior franchises of chase, park and warren--named in the order of
+their importance. The forest embraces all these, and it is distinguished
+by having laws and courts of its own, according to which offenders are
+justiceable. An offender in a chase is to be punished by the common law;
+an offender in a forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a
+park, only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished
+according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege extended.
+Thus beasts of forest (the "five wild beasts of venery") were the hart,
+the hind, the hare, the boar and the wolf. The beasts of chase were also
+five, viz. the buck, the doe, the fox, the marten and the roe. The
+beasts and fowls of warren were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and
+the partridge.
+
+The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court of
+attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of attachments
+(called also the wood-mote) is held every forty days for the foresters
+to bring in their attachments concerning any hurt done to vert or
+venison (_in viridi et venatione_) in the forest, and for the verderers
+to receive and mark the same, but no conviction takes place. The
+swainmote, held three times in the year, is the court to which all the
+freeholders within the forest owe suit and service, and of which the
+verderers are the judges. In this court all offences against the forest
+laws may be tried, but no judgment or punishment follows. This is
+reserved for the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls
+of offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the
+swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the court of
+the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, "is commonly a man of greater
+dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests; and therefore where
+justice-seats are to be held some other persons whom the king shall
+appoint are associated with him, who together are to determine _omnia
+placita forestae_." There were two chief justices for the forests
+_intra_ and _ultra Trentam_ respectively. The necessary officers of a
+forest are a steward, verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and
+woodwards. The verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by
+the freeholders in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to
+view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark them on
+his rolls. A forester was "an officer sworn to preserve the vert and
+venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild beasts within his
+bailiwick." The regarders were of the nature of visitors: their duty was
+to make a regard (_visitatio nemorum_) every third year, to inquire of
+all offences, and of the concealment of such offences by any officer of
+the forest. The business of the agister was to look after the pasturage
+of the forest, and to receive the payments for the same by persons
+entitled to pasture their cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and
+the payment were called "agistment." The woodward was the officer who
+had the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the court
+of attachment.
+
+The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite territory
+within which the code of the forest law prevailed to the exclusion of
+the common law. The ownership of the soil might be in any one, but the
+rights of the proprietor were limited by the laws made for the
+protection of the king's wild beasts. These laws, enforced by fines
+often arbitrary and excessive, were a great grievance to the unfortunate
+owners of land within or in the neighbourhood of the forest. The
+offence of "purpresture" may be cited as an example. This was an
+encroachment on the forest rights, by building a house within the
+forest, and it made no difference whether the land belonged to the
+builder or not. In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at
+discretion. And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into
+arable land, he was guilty of the offence known as "assarting," whether
+the covert belonged to himself or not.
+
+The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings, and their
+extension to private estates by the process of afforestment, were among
+the grievances which united the barons and people against the king in
+the reign of John. The Great Charter of King John contains clauses
+relating to the forest laws, but no separate charter of the forest. The
+first charter of the forest is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. "As
+an important piece of legislation," said Stubbs,[3] "it must be compared
+with the forest assize of 1184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of
+the charter of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are
+remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the accession of
+Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations have been made under
+Richard and John. These latter are at once disafforested; but those of
+Henry II. only so far as they had been carried out to the injury of the
+landowners and outside of the royal demesne." Land which had thus been
+once forest land and was afterwards disafforested was known as
+_purlieu_--derived by Manwood from the French _pur_ and _lieu_, i.e. "a
+place exempt from the forest." The forest laws still applied in a
+modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforestment
+existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other persons the
+land was forest still, and the king's wild beasts were to "have free
+recourse therein and safe return to the forest, without any hurt or
+destruction other than by the owners of the lands in the purlieu where
+they shall be found, and that only to hunt and chase them back again
+towards the forest without any forestalling" (Manwood, _On the Forest
+Laws_--article "Purlieu").
+
+The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted to by
+Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament, and the
+royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were hyperbolically
+said to include the whole county. The 4th earl of Southampton was nearly
+ruined by a decision that stripped him of his estate near the New
+Forest. The boundaries of Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to
+60, and enormous fines imposed on the trespassers,--Lord Salisbury being
+assessed in £20,000, Lord Westmoreland in £19,000, Sir Christopher
+Hatton in £12,000 (Hallam's _Constitutional History of England_, c.
+viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640) the royal forests were
+determined for ever according to their boundaries in the twentieth year
+of James, all subsequent enlargements being annulled.
+
+The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete disuse.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Coke, 4 _Inst._, 300.
+
+  [2] Manwood's _Treatise of the Forest Laws_ (4th edition, 1717).
+
+  [3] _Documents Illustrative of English History_, p. 338.
+
+
+
+
+FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Although most people know what a forest (Lat.
+_foris_, "out of doors") is, a definition of it which suits all cases is
+by no means easy to give. Manwood, in his treatise of the _Lawes of the
+Forest_ (1598), defines a forest as "a certain territory of woody
+grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of
+forest, chase and warren, to rest and abide in, in the safe protection
+of the king, for his princely delight and pleasure." This primitive
+definition has, in modern times, when the economic aspect of forests
+came more into the foreground, given place to others, so that forest
+may, in a general way, now be described as "an area which is for the
+most part set aside for the production of timber and other forest
+produce, or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or
+to protect the locality against injurious influences."
+
+As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that the greater
+part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time, covered with
+forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped
+according to climate, soil and configuration of the several localities.
+When the old trees reached their limit of life, they disappeared, and
+younger trees took their place. The conditions for an uninterrupted
+regeneration of the forest were favourable, and the result was vigorous
+production by the creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man,
+and by degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
+under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
+interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic animals;
+men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks. Subsequently
+similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were employed to prepare
+the land for agricultural purposes. More recently enormous areas of
+forests were destroyed by reckless cutting and subsequent firing in the
+extraction of timber for economic purposes.
+
+It will readily be understood that the distribution and character of the
+now remaining forests must differ enormously (see PLANTS:
+_Distribution_). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
+dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
+land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of a
+number of different species intermixed; but in some cases certain
+species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining the upper hand,
+thus forming more or less pure forests of one species only. The number
+of species differs very much. In many tropical forests hundreds of
+species may be found on a comparatively small area, in other cases the
+number is limited. Burma has several thousand species of trees and
+shrubs, Sind has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about
+forty species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
+Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
+Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
+effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it may be said
+that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, wherever the climate
+is not modified by considerable elevation, contain broad-leaved species,
+palms, bamboos, &c. Here most of the best and hardest timbers are found,
+such as teak, mahogany and ebony. The northern countries are rich in
+conifers. Taking a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will
+be found that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of
+dense hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
+Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak, olive,
+chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech, birch and
+certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany silver fir and
+spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central Germany, and the
+countries around the Baltic contain forests consisting chiefly of Scotch
+pine, spruce and birch, to which, in Siberia, larch must be added, while
+the lower parts of the ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder
+and poplar. In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
+vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it changes
+into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen broad-leaved
+species with pines on sandy soils. On going north in the Atlantic
+region, the forest becomes temperate, containing deciduous broad-leaved
+trees and pines, until Canada is reached, where larches, spruces and
+firs occupy the ground. Around the great lakes on sandy soils the
+broad-leaved forest gives way to pines. On proceeding west from the
+Atlantic region the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this
+into the prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
+forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation above
+the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In Japan a tropical
+vegetation is found in the south, comprising palms, figs, ebony,
+mangrove and others. This is followed on proceeding north by subtropical
+forests containing evergreen oaks, _Podocarpus_, tree-ferns, and, at
+higher elevations, _Cryptomeria_ and _Chamaecyparis_. Then follow
+deciduous broad-leaved forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches.
+In India the character of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall
+and elevation. Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of
+Guttiferae, Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
+bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious rainfall
+deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal (_Shorea robusta_) and
+a great variety of other valuable trees. Under a still smaller rainfall
+the vegetation becomes sparse, containing acacias, _Dalbergia sissoo_
+and Tamarix. Where the rainfall is very light or _nil_, desert appears.
+In the Himalayas, subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the
+forests containing, according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks,
+chestnuts, magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia,
+again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some two
+hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles. Some of the
+eucalypts attain an enormous height.
+
+_Utility of Forests._--In the economy of man and of nature forests are
+of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through the produce
+which they yield, and the latter through the influence which they
+exercise upon climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the
+soil, the healthiness and beauty of a country and allied subjects. The
+_indirect_ utility will be dealt with first. A piece of land bare of
+vegetation is, throughout the year, exposed to the full effect of sun
+and air currents, and the climatic conditions which are produced by
+these agencies. If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a
+growth of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
+it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the effect of sun
+and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of air. These modifying
+agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns of the trees intercept the rays
+of the sun and the falling rain; they obstruct the movement of air
+currents, and reduce radiation at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and
+fruits, augmented by certain plants which grow in the shade of the
+trees, form a layer of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against
+rapid changes of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of
+water in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all
+directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies have
+been observed from ancient times, and widely differing views have been
+taken of them. Of late years, however, more careful observations have
+been made at so-called parallel stations, that is to say, one station in
+the middle of a forest, and another outside at some distance from its
+edge, but otherwise exposed to the same general conditions. In this way,
+the following results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the
+temperature of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the
+climate more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the
+air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the precipitation
+of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their effect in low lands
+is _nil_ or very small; in hilly countries it is probably greater, but
+definite results have not yet been obtained owing to the difficulty of
+separating the effect of forests from that of other factors. (4) They
+help to regulate the water supply, produce a more sustained feeding of
+springs, tend to reduce violent floods, and render the flow of water in
+rivers more continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation,
+erosion, landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands
+and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity of
+air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds, and
+afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They may, under
+certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a country, and help in
+its defence. (8) They increase the beauty of a country, and produce a
+healthy aesthetic influence upon the people.
+
+The _direct_ utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, the
+capital which they represent, and the work which they provide. The
+principal produce of forests consists of timber and firewood. Both are
+necessaries for the daily life of the people. Apart from a limited
+number of broad-leaved species, the conifers have become the most
+important timber trees in the economy of man. They are found in greatest
+quantities in the countries around the Baltic and in North America. In
+modern times iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent,
+replaced timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood;
+nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain so. This
+is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized nations. Whereas
+the population of Great Britain and Ireland, during the period
+1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports of timber, during the
+same period, increased by 45%; in other words, every head of population
+in 1900 used more timber than twenty years earlier. Germany produced in
+1880 about as much timber as she required; in 1899 she imported
+4,600,000 tons, valued at £14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly
+increasing, although the yield capacity of her own forests is much
+higher now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes
+which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the wood pulp
+annually imported into Britain consumes at least 2,000,000 tons of
+timber. A fabric closely resembling silk is now made of spruce wood. The
+variety of other, or minor, produce yielded by forests is very great,
+and much of it is essential for the well-being of the people and for
+various industries. The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in
+countries subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
+not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood taken
+from the forests. As regards industries, attention need only be drawn to
+such articles as commercial fibre, tanning materials, dye-stuffs, lac,
+turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha, &c. Great Britain and Ireland
+alone import every year such materials to the value of £12,000,000, half
+of this being represented by rubber.
+
+The _capital_ employed in forests consists chiefly of the value of the
+soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily, of much
+greater value than the former wherever a sustained annual yield of
+timber is expected from a forest. In the case of a Scotch pine forest,
+for instance, the value of the growing stock is, under the
+above-mentioned condition, from three to five times that of the soil.
+The rate of interest yielded by capital invested in forests differs, of
+course, considerably according to circumstances, but on the whole it
+may, under proper management, be placed equal to that yielded by
+agricultural land; it is lower than the agricultural rate on the better
+classes of land, but higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter
+are specially indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the
+production of agricultural crops. Forests require _labour_ in a great
+variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation, tending
+and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) industries which
+depend on forests for their prime material. The labour indicated under
+the first head differs considerably according to circumstances, but its
+amount is smaller than that required if the land is used for
+agriculture. Hence forests provide additional labour only if they are
+established on surplus lands. Owing to the bulky nature of forest
+produce its transport forms a business of considerable magnitude, the
+amount of labour being perhaps equal to half that employed under the
+first head. The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
+working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this respect
+attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and around High Wycombe
+in Buckinghamshire, where more than 20,000 workmen are employed in
+converting the beech, grown on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs
+and tools of many patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are
+not available under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany
+the people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total
+population; those employed on transport of forest produce 1.1%;
+labourers employed on the various wood industries, 8.6%; or a total of
+12%. An important feature of the work connected with forests and their
+produce is that a great part of it can be made to fit in with the
+requirements of agriculture; that is to say, it can be done at seasons
+when field crops do not require attention. Thus the rural labourers or
+small farmers can earn some money at times when they have nothing else
+to do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
+obtainable.
+
+Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
+particular country depends on its special conditions, such as (1) the
+position of a country, its communications, and the control which it
+exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) the quantity and
+quality of substitutes for forest produce available in the country; (3)
+the value of land and labour, and the returns which land yields if used
+for other purposes; (4) the density of population; (5) the amount of
+capital available for investment; (6) the climate and configuration,
+especially the geographical position, whether inland or on the border
+of the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
+forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
+question must be answered according to the special circumstances of each
+case.
+
+The subjoined table shows the forests of various European states:--
+
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  |                  |             | Percentage | Percentage |   Forest   |
+  |                  |   Area of   |  of Total  | of Forest  |  Area per  |
+  |    Countries.    | Forests, in |   Area of  |   Area     |  Head of   |
+  |                  |    Acres.   |   Country  | belonging  | Population,|
+  |                  |             |    under   |  to the    |  in Acres. |
+  |                  |             |   Forest.  |   State.   |            |
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | Sweden           |  49,000,000 |     48     |     33     |    9.5     |
+  | Norway           |  17,000,000 |     21     |     28     |    7.6     |
+  | Russia, including|             |            |            |            |
+  |   Finland        | 518,000,000 |     40     |     61     |    5.9     |
+  | Bosnia and       |             |            |            |            |
+  |   Herzegovina    |   6,400,000 |     50     |     78     |    4.0     |
+  | Bulgaria         |   7,600,000 |     30     |     30     |    2.3     |
+  | Turkey           |  11,200,000 |     20     |     . .    |    1.7     |
+  | Servia           |   3,900,000 |     32     |     37     |    1.5     |
+  | Rumania          |   6,400,000 |     18     |     40     |    1.3     |
+  | Spain            |  21,200,000 |     17     |     84     |    1.2     |
+  | Hungary          |  22,500,000 |     28     |     15     |    1.2     |
+  | Austria          |  24,000,000 |     32     |      7     |     .9     |
+  | Greece           |   2,000,000 |     13     |     80     |     .85    |
+  | Luxemburg        |     200,000 |     30     |     . .    |     .82    |
+  | Switzerland      |   2,100,000 |     20     |      5     |     .7     |
+  | Germany          |  35,000,000 |     26     |     34     |     .6     |
+  | France           |  24,000,000 |     18     |     12     |     .6     |
+  | Italy            |  10,400,000 |     15     |      4     |     .3     |
+  | Denmark          |     600,000 |      6     |     24     |     .25    |
+  | Belgium          |   1,300,000 |     18     |      5     |     .2     |
+  | Portugal         |     770,000 |      3.5   |      8     |     .15    |
+  | Holland          |     560,000 |      7     |      ?     |     .1     |
+  | Great Britain    |   3,000,000 |      4     |      3     |     .07    |
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+These data exhibit considerable differences, since the percentage of the
+forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area per head of population
+from .07 to 9.5 acres. Russia, Sweden and Norway may as yet have more
+forest than they require for their own population. On the other hand,
+Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even
+Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area to meet
+their own requirements; at the same time, they are all sea-bound
+countries, and importation is easy, while most of them are under the
+influence of moist sea winds, which reduces to a subordinate position
+the importance of forests for climatic reasons.
+
+Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country is the state
+of ownership--whether they belong to the state, corporations or to
+private persons. Where, apart from the financial aspect and the supply
+of work, forests are not required for the sake of their indirect
+effects, and where importation from other countries is easy and assured,
+the government of the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to
+maintain or acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and
+especially where the cost of transport over long distances becomes
+prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure the
+maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under forest. This
+can be done either by maintaining or constituting a suitable area of
+state forests, or by exercising a certain amount of control over
+corporation and even private forests. Such measures are more called for
+in continental countries than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved
+by the above statistics.
+
+_Supply of Timber--Imports and Exports._--The following table shows the
+net imports and exports of European countries (average data, calculated
+from the returns of recent years).
+
+The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia, Sweden,
+Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others either have only
+enough for their own consumption, or import timber. Great Britain and
+Ireland import now upwards of 10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about
+4,600,000 tons, and Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France,
+Portugal, Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia
+Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports hardwoods,
+and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal import considerable
+quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia exports hardwoods and some
+Kauri pine from New Zealand, but imports larger quantities of light pine
+and fir timber. British India and Siam export teak and small quantities
+of fancy woods. The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and
+import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will not much
+longer be a genuine exporting country, since they import already almost
+as much timber from Canada as they export. Canada exports considerable
+quantities of timber. The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000
+sq. m., equal to 38% of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest
+for every inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area
+can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous forest
+wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly all other
+countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies in the several
+provinces would only determine to stop the present fearful waste caused
+by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular system of management. As
+matters stand, the supplies of the most valuable timber of Canada, the
+white or Weymouth pine (_Pinus strobus_), are nearly exhausted, the
+great stores of spruce in the eastern provinces are being rapidly
+destroyed, and the forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have
+been attacked for export to the United States and to other countries.
+
+  _Net Imports and Exports of European Countries._
+
+  +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                  |  Quantities in Tons.  |  Value in £ Sterling. |
+  |    Countries.    +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                  |  Imports. |  Exports. |  Imports. |  Exports. |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | United Kingdom   |10,004,000 |    . .    |26,540,000 |    . .    |
+  | Germany          | 4,600,000 |    . .    |14,820,000 |    . .    |
+  | Belgium          | 1,300,000 |    . .    | 5,040,000 |    . .    |
+  | France           | 1,230,000 |    . .    | 3,950,000 |    . .    |
+  | Italy            |   620,000 |    . .    | 2,100,000 |    . .    |
+  | Spain            |   470,000 |    . .    | 1,500,000 |    . .    |
+  | Denmark          |   470,000 |    . .    | 1,250,000 |    . .    |
+  | Switzerland      |   204,000 |    . .    |   480,000 |    . .    |
+  | Holland          |   180,000 |    . .    |   720,000 |    . .    |
+  | Servia           |   110,000 |    . .    |   160,000 |    . .    |
+  | Portugal         |    60,000 |    . .    |   200,000 |    . .    |
+  | Greece           |    35,000 |    . .    |   130,000 |    . .    |
+  | Rumania          |    . .    |   400,000 |    . .    |   840,000 |
+  | Norway           |    . .    | 1,300,000 |    . .    | 2,200,000 |
+  | Austria-Hungary  |           |           |           |           |
+  |   with Bosnia and|           |           |           |           |
+  |   Herzegovina    |    . .    | 3,996,000 |    . .    |11,400,000 |
+  | Sweden           |    . .    | 4,460,000 |    . .    | 7,930,000 |
+  | Russia with      |           |           |           |           |
+  |   Finland        |    . .    | 6,890,000 |    . .    |10,440,000 |
+  |                  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |      Total       |19,283,000 |17,046,000 |56,890,000 |32,810,000 |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Net Imports      | 2,237,000 |           |           |24,080,000 |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  These net imports are received from non-European countries. They
+  consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany, eucalypts
+  and others.
+
+Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it may be said
+that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available, but the only
+countries which are able to supply coniferous timber for export on a
+considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria and Canada. As
+these countries have practically to supply the rest of the world, and as
+the management of their forests is far from satisfactory, the question
+of supplying light pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of
+life of the wood industries, must become a very serious matter before
+many years have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are
+everywhere visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to
+over-state the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for
+instance, that 87% of all the timber imported into Great Britain
+consists of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing
+countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries little or
+no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this statement does
+not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which contain upwards of
+12,000,000 acres of waste land, and 12,500,000 acres of mountain and
+heath land used for light grazing. One-fourth of that area, if put under
+forest, would produce all the timber now imported which can be grown in
+Britain, that is to say, about 95% of the total.
+
+The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within the greater
+part of the British empire:--
+
+  _Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire._
+
+  +-----------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
+  |                       |    Annual Average   |   Annual Average    |
+  |      Countries.       |  during the Years   |  during the Years   |
+  |                       |      1884-1888.     |      1900-1903.     |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                       |   Net    |   Net    |   Net    |   Net    |
+  |                       | Imports. | Exports. | Imports. | Exports. |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                       |     £    |     £    |     £    |    £     |
+  |United Kingdom         |15,000,000|   . .    |26,540,000|   . .    |
+  |Australasia            | 1,284,000|   . .    |   568,000|   . .    |
+  |Africa                 |  72,000  |   . .    |   737,000|   . .    |
+  |West Indies,           |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Honduras and Guiana  |    . .   |   207,000|   . .    |    71,000|
+  |India, Ceylon and      |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Mauritius            |    . .   |   528,000|   . .    |   580,000|
+  |Dominion of Canada     |    . .   | 4,025,000|   . .    | 4,789,000|
+  |                       +----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |    Total              |16,356,000| 4,760,000|27,845,000| 5,440,000|
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |Net Imports            |11,596,000|   . .    |22,405,000|   . .    |
+  |Total increase in      |          |          |          |          |
+  |  16 years             |    . .   |   . .    |10,809,000|   . .    |
+  |Average annual increase|          |          |          |          |
+  |  of net imports       |    . .   |   . .    |   675,562|   . .    |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+_Forest Management._--In early times there was practically no forest
+management. As long as the forests occupied considerable areas, their
+produce was looked upon as the free gift of nature, like air and water;
+men took it, used it, and even destroyed it without let or hindrance.
+With the gradual increase of population and the consequent reduction of
+the forest area, proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the
+ownership of certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against
+outsiders. Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in
+protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws. By
+degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient, and that
+steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment, as well as to
+limit the removal of timber to what the forests were capable of
+producing permanently. The teaching of natural science and of political
+economy was brought to bear upon the subject, so that now forestry has
+become a special science. This is recognized in many countries, amongst
+which Germany stands first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark
+and Belgium. Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British
+India, and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good Hope
+and Japan. The United States of America have also turned their attention
+to the subject. Most of the British colonies are, in this respect, as
+yet in a backward state, and the matter has still to be fought out in
+Great Britain and Ireland, though many writers have urged the importance
+of the question upon the public and the government. There can be no
+doubt that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a
+rational and systematic treatment of their forests.
+
+For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under the
+country headings; in this article only some of the more important
+countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of their forestry is
+important. A few notes on Germany and France will be given, because in
+these countries forest management has been brought to highest
+perfection; Italy is mentioned, because she has allowed her forests to
+be destroyed; and a short description of forestry in the United Kingdom
+and in India follows. A separate section is devoted to the United
+States.
+
+_Germany_ is in general well-wooded. The winters being long and severe,
+an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential as a sufficient supply
+of food. This necessity has led, along with a passion for the chase, to
+the preservation of forests, and to the establishment of an admirable
+system of forest cultivation, almost as carefully conducted as field
+tillage. The Black Forest stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy
+of Baden and part of the kingdom of Württemberg, from the Neckar to
+Basel and the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the
+Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled with
+birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with. Until
+comparatively recent times large quantities of timber derived from these
+forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland and also shipped to
+England. Now the greater part of it is used locally for construction, or
+it is converted into paper pulp. In the grand-duchy of Hesse the
+Odenwald range of mountains, stretching between the Main and the Neckar,
+contains the chief supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are
+the large wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald.
+
+In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel, on the
+borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging the Upper Moselle,
+but they do not furnish such stately trees as the Black Forest and the
+Odenwald. The Spessart, near Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the
+most extensive forests of middle Germany, containing large masses of
+fine oak and beech, with plantations of coniferous trees, such as
+spruce, Scotch pine and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest
+tracts, such as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the
+Kranzberg near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom.
+North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thüringian
+Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are covered
+with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.
+
+Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia the
+department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister at Berlin,
+while each province, or part of a province, has an Oberforstmeister,
+under whom a number of Oberförsters administrate the state and communal
+forests. These, again, are assisted by a lower class of officials called
+Försters. The Oberförsters throughout Germany are educated at special
+schools of forestry, of which in 1909 the following nine existed:
+
+In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Münden.
+
+In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.
+
+In Saxony: at Tharand.
+
+In Württemberg: at Tübingen.
+
+In Baden: at Carlsruhe.
+
+In Hesse: at Giessen.
+
+In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.
+
+The schools at Munich, Tübingen and Giessen form part of the
+universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached to the
+technical high school; the others are academies for the study of
+forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them all to the
+universities. The subordinate staff are trained for their work in
+so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large number exist. In this
+way the German forests have been brought to a high degree of
+productiveness, but the material derived from them falls far short of
+the requirements, although the forests occupy 26% of the total area of
+the country; hence the net imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000
+tons a year, and they are steadily rising.
+
+_France._--The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The cork oak
+is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The beech, ash, elm,
+maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all important trees, while
+the silver fir and spruce form magnificent forests in the Vosges and
+Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and maritime pines are cultivated in the
+south and south-west. About one-seventh of the entire territory is still
+covered with wood.
+
+Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of the 16th
+century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforcement of
+restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of state forests was
+enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous work on forest trees.
+Reckless destruction of the forests, however, was in progress, and the
+Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus to the work of devastation. The
+usual results have followed in the frequency and destructiveness of
+floods, which have washed away the soil from the hillsides and valleys
+of many districts, especially in the south, and the frequent
+inundations of the last fifty years are no doubt caused by the
+deforesting of the sources of the Rhone and Saône. Laws were passed in
+1860 and 1864, providing for the reforesting, "_reboisement_," of the
+slopes of mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as
+state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the
+departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer of 1875,
+when much injury was done by floods in the south of France, the Durance,
+formerly the most dangerous in this respect of French rivers, gave
+little cause for anxiety, as it is round the head waters of this river
+that the chief plantations have been formed. While tracts formerly
+covered with wood have been replanted, plantations have been formed on
+the shifting sands or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of
+_Pinus pinaster_, 150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the
+mouth of the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since
+1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has transformed
+low marshy grounds into productive soil extending over an area of about
+two million acres. The forests thus created provide annually some
+600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh coal mines.
+
+The state forest department is administered by the director-general, who
+has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board of administration,
+charged with the working of the forests, questions of rights and law,
+finance and plantation works.
+
+The department is supplied with officers from the forest school at
+Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when M. Lorentz, who had
+studied forestry in Germany, was appointed its first director.
+
+_Italy._--The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates that
+within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern Europe, and
+the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern latitudes. By the
+republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa forestal legislation was
+attempted at various periods from the 15th century downwards. These
+efforts were not successful, as the governments were lax in enforcing
+the laws. In 1789 Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling
+without licence, and later orders were published by his successors in
+the pontifical states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached
+nearly down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como
+contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same may also
+be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna there is still a
+large forest of stone pine, _Pinus pinea_, though it has been much
+reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned with planted trees, the
+olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia is rich in woods, which cover
+one-fifth of the area, and contain a large amount of oak, _Quercus
+suber, robur_ and _cerris_. In Sicily the forests have long been felled,
+save the zone at the base of Mount Etna.
+
+The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent; at the end of
+the 17th century the effects of denudation were first felt in the
+destructive force given to mountain torrents by the deforesting of the
+Apennines. The work of devastation continued until a comparatively
+recent time.
+
+In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany, 30 m. from
+Florence, was purchased by government for the purposes of a forest
+academy, which was opened in 1869. As only 4% of the total forest area
+belongs to the state, it is doubtful whether much good can now be done.
+
+_Great Britain and Ireland._--The British Isles were formerly much more
+extensively wooded than at present. The rapid increase of population led
+to the disforesting of woodland; the climate required the maintenance of
+household fires during a great part of the year, and the increasing
+demand for arable land and the extension of manufacturing industries
+combined to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest
+is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual
+supply of timber which is imported with facility from America, northern
+Europe and the numerous British colonies.
+
+Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands, with its
+abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from such extremes of heat
+and cold as are prevalent in continental Europe, a great variety of
+trees are successfully cultivated. In England and Ireland oak and beech
+are on the whole the most plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts;
+in the south of Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common,
+while the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous
+vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests now exist,
+woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees, coppice and
+hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country, constituting a
+mass of wood of considerable importance, giving a clothed appearance in
+many parts, and affording illustrations of skilled arboriculture not to
+be found in any other country.
+
+The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park, 14,000 acres;
+the New Forest, &c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres; and the Dean Forest in
+Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total extent of crown forests is
+about 125,000 acres. A large proportion of the crown forests, having
+been formed with the object of supplying timber for the navy, consists
+of oak. The largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire,
+Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the
+earl of Mansfield's near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl's larch
+plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a large
+extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, belonging to the
+earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Invercauld, the native pine
+attains a great size, and there are also large tracts of indigenous
+birch in various districts. Ireland was at one time richly clothed with
+wood; this is proved by the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs
+which occupy a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes
+above alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled
+state of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.
+
+The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large imports
+of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to the present time
+because (1) the rate at which foreign timber has been laid down in
+Britain is very low, thus keeping down the price of home-grown timber;
+(2) foreign timber is preferred to home-grown material, because it is in
+many cases of superior quality, while the latter comes into the market
+in an irregular and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the
+waste lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown that
+the lowest point was reached about the year 1888, in consequence of the
+remarkable development of means of communication, that prices then
+remained fairly stationary for some years, and that about 1894 a slow
+but steady rise set in, showing during the years 1894-1904 an increase
+of about 20% all round. This was due to the gradual approach of the
+coming crisis in the supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be
+shown that even with present prices the growing of timber can be made to
+pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic manner.
+Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so as to produce a
+better class of timber, and the forests must be managed according to
+well-arranged working plans, which provide for a regular and sustained
+out-turn of timber year by year, so as to develop a healthy and steady
+market for locally-grown material. Unfortunately the private proprietors
+of the waste lands are in many cases not in a financial position to
+plant. Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the
+proprietor must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived from
+the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In these
+circumstances the state may well be expected to help in one or all of
+the following ways: (1) The equipment of forest schools, where economic
+forestry, as elaborated by research, is taught; (2) the management of
+the crown forests on economic principles, so as to serve as patterns to
+private proprietors; (3) advances should be made to landed proprietors
+who desire to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the
+case of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state might
+acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country, such as congested
+districts, and convert them into forests. Action in these directions
+would soon lead to substantial benefits. The income of landed
+proprietors would rise, a considerable sum of money now sent abroad
+would remain in the country, and forest industries would spring up, thus
+helping to counteract the ever-increasing flow of people from the
+country into the large towns, where only too many must join the army of
+the unemployed. Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres of
+land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns. In
+Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized, and it is
+well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Commissioners whether the
+lands remaining on their hands, when buying and breaking up large
+estates, should not be converted into state forests. Such a measure
+might become a useful auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish
+land question. No doubt success depends upon the probable financial
+results. There are at present no British statistics to prove such
+success; hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the
+results have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial
+point of view, is comparable with England. That country has 432,085
+acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth are stocked with
+broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with conifers. Some of the
+forests are situated on low lands, but the bulk of the area is found in
+the hilly parts of the country up to an elevation of 3000 ft. above the
+sea. The average price realized of late years per cubic foot of wood
+amounts to 5d., and yet to such perfection has the management been
+brought by a well-trained staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after
+meeting all expenses, comes to 21s. an acre all round. There can be no
+doubt that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even
+better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered that
+foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at any rate,
+the price per cubic foot rise considerably.
+
+These things have been recognized to some extent, and a movement has
+been set on foot to improve matters. The Commissioners of Woods and a
+number of private proprietors had rational working plans prepared for
+their forests, and instruction in forestry has been developed. There is
+now a well-equipped school of forestry connected with the university of
+Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction in
+forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham College of
+Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places. The Commissioners of
+Woods have purchased an estate of 12,500 acres in Scotland, which will
+be converted into a crown forest, so as to serve as an example. The
+experience thus gained will prove valuable should action ever be taken
+on the lines suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion,
+Reclamation of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last
+subject in 1909.
+
+_India._--The history of forest administration in India is exceedingly
+instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of the British
+Empire, because it places before the reader an account of the gradual
+destruction of the greater part of the natural forests, a process
+through which most other British colonies are now passing, and then it
+shows how India emerged triumphantly from the self-inflicted calamity.
+As far as information goes, India was, in the early times, for the most
+part covered with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country
+along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving from
+pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process went on
+for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest destruction became
+more rapid than ever, owing to the increase of population, extension of
+cultivation, the multiplication of herds of cattle, and the universal
+firing of the forests to produce fresh crops of grass. Then railways
+came, and with their extension the forests suffered anew, partly on
+account of the increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on
+account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their routes.
+Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of public works was
+brought to notice, it was recognized that a grievous mistake had been
+made in allowing the forests to be recklessly destroyed. Already in the
+early part of the 19th century sporadic efforts were made to protect the
+forests in various parts of the country, and these continued
+intermittently; but the first organized steps were taken about the year
+1855, when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time
+conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma. Soon
+afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an organized state
+department, presided over by the inspector-general of forests, was
+established. Since then the Indian Forest Department has steadily grown,
+so that it has now become of considerable importance for the welfare of
+the people, as well as for the Indian exchequer.
+
+The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position and
+extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly of that portion
+which still belonged to the state. Then a special forest law was passed,
+which was superseded in 1878 by an improved act, providing for the legal
+formation of permanent state forests; the determination, regulation,
+and, if necessary, commutation of forest rights; the protection of the
+forests against unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the
+protection of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of
+forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers,
+and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers who
+administered the department in its infancy were mostly botanists and
+military officers. Some of these became excellent foresters. In order to
+provide a technically trained staff arrangements were made in 1866 by
+Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first inspector-general of forests, for the
+training of young Englishmen at the French Forest School at Nancy and at
+similar institutions in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated
+at Nancy, and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized
+in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's Hill.
+In 1905 the school was transferred to the university of Oxford. The
+imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909 of--officers not
+specially trained before entering the department, 17; officers trained
+in France and Germany, 23; officers trained at Cooper's Hill, 143--total
+184.
+
+In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United Provinces, for
+the training of natives of India as executive officers on the provincial
+staff. Since then a similar school, though on a smaller scale, has been
+established at Tharrawaddy in Burma. About 500 officers of this class
+have been appointed. In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates,
+foresters and forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school
+at Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest College.
+
+The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According to the
+latest available returns, the areas taken under the management of the
+department are--reserved state forests, or permanent forest estates,
+91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.; or a total of
+232,941 sq. m., equal to 24% of the area over which they are scattered.
+At present, therefore, the average charge of each member of the
+controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.; that of each executive officer,
+446 sq. m.; and that of each protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the
+intention to increase the executive and protective staff considerably,
+in the same degree as the management of the forests becomes more
+detailed. Of the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch,
+established in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq.
+m. From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic
+management into the forests, based upon working plans, but, as the
+management had been provincialized, there was no central or continuous
+control. This was remedied in 1884, when a central Working Plans Office,
+under the inspector-general of forests, was established. This officer
+has since then controlled the preparation and execution of the plans, a
+procedure which has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to
+about 38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable
+lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance which is
+not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle of a sustained
+yield. While the danger of overworking the forests is thus being
+gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is increased by suitable
+silvicultural treatment and by fire protection. Formerly most of the
+important forests were annually or periodically devastated by jungle
+fires, sometimes lighted accidentally, in other cases purposely. Now
+38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually protected against fire by the
+efforts of the department, and it is the intention gradually to extend
+protection to all permanent state forests. Grazing of cattle is of
+great importance in India; at the same time it is liable to interfere
+seriously with the reproduction of the forests. To meet both
+requirements careful and minute arrangements have been made, according
+to which at present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m.
+are closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while
+176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle. The areas
+closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in years of drought
+and scarcity. During famine years they are either opened to grazing, or
+grass is cut in them and transported to districts where the cattle are
+in danger of starvation. The service rendered in this way by a wise
+forest administration should not be underrated, since one of the most
+serious calamities of a famine--the want of cattle to cultivate the
+land--is thus, if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During
+1907 the government of India established a Research Institute, with six
+members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture, forest
+botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans, and chemistry
+in connexion with forest produce and production. The institute is likely
+to lead to further substantial progress in the management of the
+forests.
+
+The financial results of forest administration in India for the years
+1865 to 1905 show the progress made:
+
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+  |           | Mean Annual  |  Percentage of  |
+  |  Period.  | Net Revenue. | Annual Increase |
+  |           |              |  during Period. |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+  |           |   Rupees.    |                 |
+  |           |              |                 |
+  | 1865-1870 |  1,372,733   |       . .       |
+  | 1870-1875 |  1,783,248   |       30        |
+  | 1875-1880 |  2,224,687   |       25        |
+  | 1880-1885 |  3,385,745   |       52        |
+  | 1885-1890 |  5,066,671   |       50        |
+  | 1890-1895 |  7,370,572   |       44        |
+  | 1895-1900 |  7,923,484   |        7        |
+  | 1900-1905 |  9,004,367   |       12        |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+
+The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period 1880-1885. The
+revenue since 1886 has been considerably increased by the annexation of
+Upper Burma.
+
+Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are given free
+of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the country. Thus, in
+1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce
+given free or at reduced rates was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a
+total net benefit derived from the state forests during that year of Rs.
+14,562,755, or in round figures one million pounds sterling. The
+out-turn during the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber
+and fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of other
+forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total gross revenue of
+24 million rupees.
+
+These results are highly creditable to the government of India, which
+has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest management
+into the British empire, thus setting an example which has been followed
+more or less by various colonies. Even the movement in the United
+Kingdom during late years is due to it. Apart from India, substantial
+progress has been made in Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements
+and the Federated Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward
+in this respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in
+Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is threatened
+by destruction.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following works of special interest may be mentioned:
+  W. Schlich, _A Manual of Forestry_ (London) (vols. i., ii. and iii. by
+  W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W.R. Fisher; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1906,
+  of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv., 1907; 2nd
+  ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, _Forest Law_ (London, 1893);
+  Brown, _The Forester_ (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London, 1905);
+  Broilliard, _Le Traitement des bois_ (Paris, 1894); Huffel, _Économie
+  forestière_ (Paris, 1904-1907); Lorey, _Handbuch der
+  Forstwissenschaft_ (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tübingen, 1903); Rossmässler,
+  _Der Wald_.     (W. Sch.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+_The Forest Regions._--The great treeless region east of the Rocky
+Mountains separates the wooded area of the United States into two grand
+divisions, which may be called the Eastern and the Western forests. The
+Eastern forest is characterized by the predominance, on the whole, of
+broad-leafed trees, the comparative uniformity of its general types over
+wide areas, and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western
+forest conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species
+often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the forest is
+frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the transitions from one
+type to another are often exceedingly abrupt. Both divisions are
+botanically and commercially rich in species.
+
+The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three members:
+
+1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large volume of
+standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its virgin condition,
+from fire. The characteristic trees are maples, birches and beech
+(_Fagus atropunicea_), among the hardwoods and white pine (_Pinus
+strobus_), spruce (_Picea rubens_ and _Picea mariana_) and hemlock
+(_Tsuga canadensis_) among conifers.
+
+2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the Northern, and
+more frequently burned over. Among its characteristic trees are the
+longleaf (_Pinus palustris_) and other pines, oaks, gums, bald cypress
+(_Taxodium distichum_) and white cedar (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_).
+
+3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively little from
+adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern forests except in the
+absence of conifers. Among its trees are the chestnut (_Castanea
+dentata_), hickories, ashes and other hardwoods already mentioned.
+
+The Western division has two members:
+
+1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its trees and
+the vast accumulations of merchantable timber. Among its characteristic
+species are the redwood (_Sequoia sempervirens_) and the big tree (_S.
+Washingtoniana_), the Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), sugar pine
+(_Pinus lambertiana_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), giant
+arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_) and Sitka spruce (_Picea sitchensis_).
+
+2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species are the
+western yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Engelmann spruce (_Picea
+engelmanni_) and lodgepole pine (_Pinus murrayana_). This forest is
+frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less extent,
+especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from fire. Subarid
+in character, except to the north and at high elevations, the vast
+mining interests of the region and its treeless surroundings give this
+forest an economic value out of proportion to the quantities of timber
+it contains.
+
+This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first of
+the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the situation of the
+national forests hereafter mentioned.
+
+The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the commercial
+though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast, which occur along
+the streams and on the lower slopes of the mountains and consist chiefly
+of western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Sitka spruce (_Picea
+sitchensis_), yellow cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and giant
+arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_), usually of large size and uninjured by
+fire; and the vast interior forests, swept by severe fires, and
+consisting chiefly of white and black spruces (_Picea canadensis_ and
+_nigra_), paper birch (_Betula papyrifera_) and aspen (_Populus
+tremuloides_), all of small size but of great importance in connexion
+with mining. Northern Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are
+entirely barren.
+
+[Illustration: Forest Regions of the United States
+
+_The unshaded areas are treeless, except along the Streams_]
+
+_The National Forest Policy._--The forest policy of the United States
+may be said to have had its origin in 1799 in the enactment of a law
+which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for the use of the
+navy, or of land upon which such timber was growing. It is true that
+laws were in force under the early governments of Massachusetts, New
+Jersey and other colonies, providing for the care and protection of
+forest interests in various ways, but these laws were distinctly
+survivals of tendencies acquired in Europe, and for the most part of
+little use. It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous
+shortage in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest
+policy was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from 1817
+to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment, but
+without permanent influence towards the preservation of the live oak
+(_Quercus virginiana_ Mill.), which was the object in view. A long
+period of inaction followed these early measures. In 1831 the
+solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility for the care
+and protection of the public timber lands, and in 1855 this duty was
+transferred to the commissioner of the general land office in the
+Department of the Interior. The effect of these changes upon forest
+protection was unimportant. When, however, at the close of the Civil War
+railway building in the United States took on an unparalleled activity,
+the destruction of forests by fire and the axe increased in a
+corresponding ratio, and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by
+several of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government,
+but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial from
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science, authorized the
+appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough) under the commissioner
+of agriculture, to collect and distribute information upon forest
+matters. His office became in 1880 the division of forestry in what is
+now the United States Department of Agriculture.
+
+As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public interest in
+tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed and later amended and
+repealed the timber culture acts, which granted homesteads on the
+treeless public lands to settlers who planted one-fourth of their
+entries with trees. Though these measures were not successful in
+themselves they directed attention towards forestry. The act which
+repealed them in 1891 contained a clause which lies at the foundation of
+the present forest policy of the United States. By it the president was
+authorized to set aside "any part of the public lands wholly or in part
+covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not,
+as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation,
+declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof."
+Some eighteen million acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the
+time when, in 1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the
+secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report upon "the
+inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest lands of the
+United States." Upon the recommendation of a commission named by the
+Academy, President Cleveland established more than twenty-one million
+acres of new reserves on the 22nd of February 1897. His action was
+widely misunderstood and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in
+forest questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the
+United States since that time could never have been made.
+
+Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland reserves the
+present national forest policy took definite shape. Under this policy
+the national government holds and manages, in the common interest of all
+users of the forests or its products, such portions of the public lands
+as have been set aside by presidential proclamation in accordance with
+the act of 1891. These lands are held against private acquisition under
+the Homestead Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter
+mentioned), the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the
+United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain, but not
+against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws. They are
+selected from lands believed to be more valuable for forest purposes
+than for agriculture, and are managed with the purpose of securing from
+them the best and largest possible returns, present and future, whether
+in the form of water for irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for
+stock, or of any other beneficial product. The aggregate area of the
+reserves, or national forests, has been steadily increased until they
+now include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.
+
+The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by the
+commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to the secretary
+of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of June 4, 1897, which was
+largely shaped by the work of the commission. Until this act was passed
+the national forests had been in theory closed against any form of use;
+nor had the possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use
+received much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such a
+state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion would
+have forced the opening to use of the resources thus arbitrarily locked
+up, and in the absence of any administrative system providing for
+conservative use, the national forests would inevitably have been
+abolished, and the whole policy of government forest holdings would have
+ceased. The act of June 4, 1897 was therefore of the first importance.
+This act conferred upon the secretary of the interior general powers for
+the proper management of the national forests through the general land
+office of his department. It provided for the designation and sale of
+dead, mature and large timber; authorized the secretary to permit free
+use of timber in small quantities by settlers, miners and residents;
+empowered him to "make such rules and regulations and establish such
+service as will insure the objects of such reservations, namely, to
+regulate their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon
+from destruction"; and made violation of the act or of such rules and
+regulations a misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish
+forest reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the
+forest, securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a
+continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of
+the United States. Lands found, upon due examination, to be more
+valuable for other purposes than for forest uses might be eliminated
+from any reservation, and all mineral lands within the reservations were
+left open to private appropriation under the mineral laws. The rights of
+settlers and claimants were safeguarded, and civil and criminal
+jurisdiction, except so far as the punishment of offences against the
+United States in the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the
+States.
+
+While the administration of the national forests was entrusted to the
+general land office, the same act assigned the surveying and mapping of
+them to the United States Geological Survey, which has published
+descriptions and maps of some of the more important.
+
+No attempt was made in the general land office to develop a technical
+forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of passage of the act,
+less than ten trained foresters in the United States, no means of
+training more, and very little conception of what forestry actually
+meant. The purpose of the administration was therefore mainly protection
+against trespass and fire, particularly the latter. Regulations were
+made giving effect to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth
+above, but in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely
+be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the use of
+the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly developing in another
+branch of the government service an organization qualified for actual
+forest management.
+
+One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the division of
+forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased to be merely a bureau
+of information, and became an active agency for introducing the actual
+practice of forestry among private owners and for conducting the
+investigations upon which a sound American forest practice could be
+based. The work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted
+a powerful educational influence upon the country at large. The division
+extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the Bureau of Forestry. It
+drew into its employment for a time nearly all the men who were
+preparing themselves in increasing numbers (at first abroad, then in the
+newly-founded schools in the United States) for the profession of
+forestry, and was soon recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively
+on technical questions connected with the administration of the national
+forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior for
+the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans were
+accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The general land
+office, however, was not ready to attempt active forest management.
+Though some timber was sold and the grazing of stock regulated to some
+extent, the main object of the land office administration continued to
+be protection against fire. Many of the regulations which it made could
+not be enforced.
+
+The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government forest work
+among three separate agencies grew more and more apparent, until, on the
+1st of February 1905, control of the 63,000,000 acres of forest reserves
+which up to that time had been set aside was transferred from the
+general land office to the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its
+new duties the designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.
+
+[Illustration: National Forests and National Parks of the United States.]
+
+Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were that forest
+supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far as possible, from
+qualified citizens of the state or territory in which each forest was
+situated, and that all money received from the sale of any products or
+the use of any land or resources of the national forests should be
+covered into the treasury and constitute a special fund for their
+protection, administration, improvement and extension. Five days later a
+statute gave forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the
+3rd of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had
+opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worthless land
+by private owners within the forests for an equal area of valuable
+timber lands outside.
+
+The law has been modified since by the change of the old name "Forest
+Reserves" to "National Forests." The act of June 11, 1906, opened to
+homestead entry lands within national forests found by examination to be
+chiefly valuable for agriculture. The administration and improvement of
+the national forests are now provided for directly by congressional
+appropriation. The power to create national forests conferred on the
+president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the states of
+Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Colorado, but for no
+others.
+
+The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all the resources
+of the national forests. Mature timber was sold wherever there was a
+demand for it and the permanent welfare of the forests and protection of
+the streams permitted, but always so as to prevent waste, guard against
+fire, protect young growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were
+adopted which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay,
+secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and eliminated
+unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard the interests of the
+government and provide for the maintenance of good technical standards.
+The conduct of local business was entrusted to local officers. Large
+transactions with general policies were controlled from Washington, but
+with careful provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with
+the work in the field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the
+public were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created
+capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the complex
+business of making useful a forest property of vast extent, scattered
+through sixteen different states of an aggregate area of over 1,500,000
+sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000.
+
+The growth since the 1st of July 1897 of the area of the national
+forests, of the expenditures of the government for forestry, and of the
+receipts from the national forests, is shown by the statement which
+follows. Though the act of June 4, 1897, became effective immediately
+upon its passage, the fiscal year 1899 was the first of actual
+administration, because the first for which Congress made the
+appropriation necessary to carry out the law.
+
+  _Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal
+  Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration, and
+  Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909._
+
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+  |         |     Area of     |                    |              |                  |                  |                 |
+  | Fiscal  | National Forests|Division of Forestry|   General    |  Receipts from   |  Receipts from   |Expenditures upon|
+  | Year.[1]| at Close of Year|(Bureau of Forestry,| Land Office. | National Forests.| National Forests,|National Forests,|
+  |         |   (June 30).    |  Forest Service).  |              |                  |     per Acre.    |    per Acre.    |
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+  |         |      Acres.     |         $          |       $      |          $       |         $        |        $        |
+  |  1898   |    40,866,184   |      20,000.00     |     . .      |        . .       |       . .        |       . .       |
+  |  1899   |    46,168,439   |      28,520.00     | 175,000.00   |       7,534.83   |     0.00016      |     0.0038      |
+  |  1900   |    46,515,039   |      48,520.00     | 210,000.00   |      36,754.02   |      .00078      |      .0045      |
+  |  1901   |    46,324,479   |      88,520.00     | 325,000.00   |      29,250.88   |      .00063      |      .0070      |
+  |  1902   |    51,896,357   |     185,440.00     | 300,000.00   |      25,431.87   |      .00049      |      .0060      |
+  |  1903   |    62,211,240   |     291,860.00     | 304,135.00   |      45,838.08   |      .00074      |      .0054      |
+  |  1904   |    62,611,449   |     350,000.00     | 375,000.00   |      58,436.19   |      .00093      |      .0072      |
+  |  1905   |    85,693,422   |     632,232.36[2]  | 217,907.64[2]|      73,276.15   |      .00085      |      .0059      |
+  |  1906   |   106,994,018   |   1,191,400.21     |     . .      |     767,219.96   |      .00717      |      .0089      |
+  |  1907   |   150,832,665   |   1,800,595.20     |     . .      |   1,571,059.44   |      .01041      |      .0097      |
+  |  1909   |   167,677,749   |   2,948,153.08     |     . .      |   1,807,276.66   |      .00931      |      .0151      |
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+
+Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber. In the
+fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less than half the
+receipts. The following statement concerning the timber sales of the
+fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring out the change that followed
+the transfer of control to the forest service in the midst of the fiscal
+year 1905:--
+
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+  | Fiscal |   Amount of   |  Amount of  | Receipts from |
+  | Year.  |  Timber Sold. | Timber Cut. | Timber Sales. |
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+  |        |     Bd.-ft.   |   Bd.-ft.   |       $       |
+  |  1904  |   112,773,710 |  58,435,000 |   58,436.19   |
+  |  1905  |   113,661,508 |  68,475,000 |   73,270.15   |
+  |  1906  |   328,230,326 | 138,665,000 |  245,013.49   |
+  |  1907  | 1,044,855,000 | 194,872,000 |  686,813.12   |
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+
+These figures show (1) a large excess each year in the amount of timber
+sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much timber sold at
+the end of the four-year period as at the beginning and three times as
+much cut; and (3) a much higher price obtained per thousand board-feet
+at the end of the period than at the beginning. Each of these matters
+calls for comment. The sales are of stumpage only; the government does
+no logging on its own account.
+
+1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for, because many
+of the sales extend over several years. With increasing sales the amount
+sold each year for future removal has exceeded the amount to be removed
+during that year under sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a
+term of years are made because the national forests contain much
+overmature timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too
+inaccessible to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent speculation the
+time allowed for cutting is never more than five years, and cutting must
+begin at once and be continued steadily.
+
+2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much forest is ripe
+for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by trained men makes it
+safe to cut more freely. The increase is marked both in small and in
+large sales, but a score of sales for less than $5000 are made against
+one for more. The total cut is still far below the annual increment of
+the forests. As the demand grows restrictions must increase in order to
+husband the present supply until the next crop matures.
+
+3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures to have
+risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars per thousand
+board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one year are not exclusively
+for the timber cut in that year, since payments are made in advance. In
+the year 1907 the average price obtained was something less than $2.50
+per thousand. It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen
+greatly, although conditions new to the American lumbermen are imposed.
+Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of young growth
+in felling and logging, and the piling of brush, to be subsequently
+burned by the forest officers if burning is necessary, are among these
+conditions. Timber to be cut must first be marked by the forest
+officers. Sales of more than $100 in value are made only after public
+advertisement.
+
+Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been introduced. The
+vast area of the national forests, the comparatively sparse population
+of the West, the rough and broken character of the forests themselves,
+and the newness of the problems which their management presents, make
+the general application of intensive methods for the present
+impracticable. Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is
+most used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate
+diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed. The
+tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and effective
+application of the selection principle, as a better trained field force
+is developed and as market conditions improve.
+
+One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by fires on the
+national forests. During the unusually dry season of 1905 there were
+only eight fires of any importance, and the area burned over amounted
+only to about .16 of 1% of the total area. In 1900 about .12 of 1% was
+burned. This was accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the
+public, and by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush
+on cut-over areas.
+
+Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from the
+national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is one of the
+most important industries of the West. Formerly cattle and sheep grazed
+freely on all parts of the public domain. In the early days of the
+national forests the wisdom of permitting any grazing at all upon them
+was sharply questioned. Unrestricted grazing had led to friction between
+individuals, the deterioration of much of the range through
+overstocking, and serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The
+forests of the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain
+many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high mountain
+meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and other forage plants
+which they produce in great quantity can be used without detriment to
+the forests themselves, and with great benefit to the stock industry,
+which often can find summer pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern
+California grazing is now permitted on all national forests unless the
+watersheds furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and
+leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and the part
+of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed. Planted areas and
+cut-over areas are closed to stock until the young growth is safe from
+harm, and goats are allowed only in the brushland of the foothills.
+
+The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of forest
+growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes, improved range,
+better stock, stable conditions in the stock industry, and the best use
+of the range in the interest of progress and development. The first
+right to graze stock on the forests is given to residents, small owners
+and those who have used the range before. Thus the crowding out of the
+weaker by the stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has
+been stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate
+charge for the use of the national forest range. The following statement
+shows the amount of stock grazed on the national forests 1904-09, and
+the receipts for the grazing charge:--
+
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+  | Year.|    Number of     |   Number of    |   Receipts.   |
+  |      |Cattle and Horses.|Sheep and Goats.|               |
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+  |      |                  |                |       $       |
+  | 1904 |      610,091     |   1,806,722    |      . .      |
+  | 1905 |      692,124     |   1,709,987    |      . .      |
+  | 1906 |    1,015,148     |   5,763,100    |   514,692.87  |
+  | 1907 |    1,200,158     |   6,657,083    |   863,920.32  |
+  | 1909 |    1,581,404     |   7,819,594    | 1,032,185.70  |
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+
+A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting on the
+national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices and incomplete
+utilization of forest products, clear cutting with subsequent planting
+is not practicable. There are, however, many million acres of denuded
+land within the national forests which require planting. Such planting
+is still confined chiefly to watersheds which supply cities and towns
+with water. The first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since
+then similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado, Utah,
+Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the Black Hills national
+forest, where large areas of cut-over and burned-over land are entirely
+without seed trees, and in the sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908
+about 2,000,000 seedlings had been planted, on over 2000 acres--a small
+beginning, but the work was entirely new and presented many hard
+problems.
+
+The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated at seven
+stations, located in southern California, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico
+(2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is raised for local planting and for
+shipment elsewhere. These nurseries are small. Their annual productive
+capacity is between 8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is
+practically an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large
+variety of species are grown and various methods are tried.
+
+The organization of the administrative work of the national forests is
+by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total number of
+forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres (on April 7,
+1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the U.S. with 167,672,467
+acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626 and one in Porto Rico with
+65,950 acres). In charge of each forest is a forest supervisor. Under
+the supervisors are forest rangers and forest guards, whose duties
+include patrol, marking timber and scaling logs, enforcing the
+regulations and conducting some of the minor business arising from the
+use of the forests. Guards are temporary employés; rangers are employed
+by the year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions
+from the central office at Washington. In this office there are four
+branches--operation, grazing, silviculture and products--each of which
+directs that part of the work which belongs to it, dealing directly with
+the supervisor. For inspection purposes, however, the forests are
+separated into six districts, in each of which is located a chief
+inspector with a corps of assistants. The inspectors are without
+administrative authority, but assist by their counsel the supervisors,
+and through inspection reports keep the Washington office informed of
+the condition of all lines of administrative work in progress.
+Administrative officers alternate frequently between field and office
+duties.
+
+The number of forest officers in the several grades on the 1st of
+January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106 forest
+supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest rangers and 283
+forest guards. The total number of employés of the forest service on the
+same date, including the clerical force, was 2034.
+
+Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest service
+conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive educational
+work, and co-operates with private owners who contemplate forest
+management upon their own tracts. This last work is undertaken because
+of the need of bringing forestry into practice, the lack of trained
+foresters outside of the employ of the government, and the lack of
+information as to how to apply forestry and what returns may be
+obtained. Co-operation takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on
+occasion, of the making of working plans. The educational work of the
+service is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which
+is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry to
+the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests. The
+investigations which the service conducts extend from studies of the
+natural distribution and classification of American forests and of their
+varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber production and
+laboratory researches which bear upon the economical utilization of
+forest products. As examples of these researches may be mentioned tests
+of the strength of timber, studies of the preservative treatment of wood
+for various uses, wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood
+chemistry.
+
+_Forest Instruction._--Most of the men now in the forest service
+received their training in the United States. There are several
+professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which was
+opened as a department of Yale University in September 1900, offers a
+two-years' graduate course with abundant field work, and also conducts a
+summer school of forestry, especially adapted to the training of forest
+rangers and special students, at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university
+of Michigan and Harvard University also offer a two-years' graduate
+course in forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently
+established a four-years' undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore
+Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools, offers
+a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number of the
+agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among these are
+Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington and Mississippi
+agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and Iowa State College.
+Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special mention as a college which has
+done valuable work in teaching forestry without attempting to turn out
+professional foresters.
+
+_Forestry among the States._--Among the states forestry has hardly
+reached the stage of practical application on the ground. New York holds
+1,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commission to care for its
+forest preserve, and to protect the forest land throughout the state
+from fire. The constitution of the state, however, prohibits the cutting
+of timber on state land, and thus confines the work entirely to
+protection of the forest and to the planting of waste areas.
+Pennsylvania is at present showing the most efficient activity in
+working out a forest policy. It has state forests of 820,000 acres, a
+good fire law more and more satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries
+for growing planting material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings
+were set out. It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on
+the state forests, and it has just established a state professional
+school of forestry.
+
+Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers, six
+have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation with the
+forest service, and there is scarcely one which is not actively
+interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent damage from
+forest fires, have been enacted by practically all the states, but
+their enforcement has unfortunately been lax. Public sentiment, however,
+is making rapid progress. Among the best laws are those of Maine, New
+Hampshire, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York
+law, for example, provides for the appointment of one or more
+fire-wardens in each town of the counties in which damage by fire is
+especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns are
+_ex-officio_ fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general supervision
+of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose services is paid
+by the state, receive compensation only for the time actually employed
+in fighting fires. They may command the service of any citizen to assist
+them. Setting fire to woods or waste lands belonging to the state or to
+another, if such fire results in loss, is punishable by a fine not
+exceeding $250 or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and
+damages are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond
+question the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the
+measures taken against it are of vital importance.
+
+The following table shows the amount of forest land held by the
+different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:--
+
+  _Area of State Forest Reservations, 1907._
+
+  Connecticut       1,360 acres
+  Hawaii          117,532   "
+  Indiana           2,000   "
+  Maryland          3,540   "
+  Michigan         39,000   "
+  Minnesota        42,800   "
+  New Jersey        2,474   "
+  New York      1,439,998   "
+  Pennsylvania    820,000   "
+  Wisconsin       254,072   "
+
+_Forestry on Private Lands._--The practice of forestry among private
+owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances was that of Jared
+Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic cutting of timber land to
+supply charcoal for an iron furnace at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The
+successful planting of waste lands with timber trees in Massachusetts
+dates from about ten years later. But such examples were comparatively
+rare until recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber
+with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more common
+than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially frequent. It
+was begun among lumbermen by the late E.S. Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who
+made a practice of restricting the cut of spruce from his forests to
+trees 10, 12 or sometimes even 14 in. in diameter, with the result that
+much of his land yielded, during his life, a second crop as plentiful as
+the first. Many owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but
+until very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry on a
+large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks during the
+summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W.S. Webb and Hon. W.C. Whitney, of a
+combined area of over 100,000 acres, under the superintendence of the
+then Division of Forestry. In these forests spruce, maple, beech and
+birch predominate, but the spruce alone is at present of the first
+commercial importance. The treatment is a form of the selection system.
+Under it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in
+thirty-five years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work had
+been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great satisfaction to
+the owners and the lumbering contractors, as well as to the decided
+benefit of the forest. The lumbering is regulated by the following
+rules, and competent inspectors are employed to see that they are
+rightly carried out: (1) No trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2)
+All trees marked shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the
+woods, and none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All
+merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the small
+end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more than 6 in. higher
+than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall be used for bridges,
+corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose except building camps, dams
+or booms, unless it is absolutely necessary on account of lack of other
+timber. (7) All merchantable spruce used for skidways must be cut into
+logs and hauled out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage
+to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must discharge
+the men who did it.
+
+These two instances of forestry have been most useful and effective
+among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in the north-east. Among
+those which have followed their example are the Berlin Mills Paper
+Company in northern New Hampshire, the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in
+northern Michigan, and the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New
+York, all of which have employed professional foresters.
+
+The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the estate of
+George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N.C. This was the first case of
+systematic forestry under regular working plans in the United States. It
+was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres, and has since been extended until
+it now covers about 100,000 acres. A professional forester with a corps
+of trained rangers under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania
+Railroad has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants
+and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.
+
+The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private owners
+is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908 670 wood lots and
+timber tracts had been examined by agents of the forest service, of
+which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in extent, and planting plans had
+been made for 436 owners covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert
+advice is also given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the
+state foresters.
+
+_American Practice._--The conditions under which forestry is practised
+in Europe and in America differ so widely that rules which are received
+as axiomatic in the one must often be rejected in the other. Among these
+conditions in America are the highly developed and specialized methods
+and machinery of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation
+and consequent greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number of
+small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of low-grade wood
+in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest properties, cut-over as
+well as virgin, notably in the north-western pineries, and the firmly
+established habits of lumbermen, are factors of great importance. From
+these and other considerations it follows that such generally accepted
+essentials of European methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield,
+a permanent force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the
+like, are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at the
+present day in private forestry. Methods of forest management, to find
+acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible to existing
+methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity, the observance of
+which will yet secure the safety of the forest, must open the way for
+more refined methods in the future. For the present a periodic or
+irregular yield, temporary means of transport, constantly changing
+crews, and an almost total ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of
+the most important trees--all combine to enforce the simplest
+silvicultural treatment and the utmost concentration of purpose on the
+two main objects of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue
+and the perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed
+in practice by complete success.
+
+The forests with which the American forester deals are rich in species,
+usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction, and, over a large
+part of their range, greatly dependent for their composition and general
+character upon the action of forest fires. Of the commercially valuable
+trees there may be said to be, in round numbers, a hundred out of a
+total forest flora of about 500 species, but many trees not yet of
+importance in the lumber trade will become so hereafter, as has already
+happened in many cases. The attention of the forester must usually be
+concentrated upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and
+never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems which
+must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are fortunately
+less complicated than the presence of so many kinds of trees in forests
+of such diverse types would naturally seem to indicate.
+
+The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which the
+American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest fires have
+had more to do with the character and distribution of forests in America
+than any other factor except rainfall. With an annual range over
+thousands of square miles, in many portions of the United States they
+occur regularly year after year on the same ground. Trees whose thick
+bark or abundant seeding gives them peculiar powers of resistance,
+frequently owe their exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the
+action of fire. On the economic side fire is equally influential. The
+probability, or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first
+cut, commonly determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree
+standing. Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the
+introduction of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another
+of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut, and
+afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot afford to hold.
+This evil, which only the progress of public sentiment can control, is
+especially prevalent in certain portions of the white pine belt.
+
+_Forest Associations._--Public sentiment in favour of the protection of
+forests is now widespread and increasingly effective throughout the
+United States. As the general understanding of the objects and methods
+of forestry becomes clearer, the tendency, formerly very marked, to
+confound ornamental tree planting and botanical matters with forestry
+proper is rapidly growing less. At the same time, the number and
+activity of associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with
+notable rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the
+United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters, is
+composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American Forestry
+Association is the oldest and largest. It has been influential in
+preparing the ground work of popular interest in forestry, and
+especially in advocating and securing the adoption of the federal forest
+reservation policy, the most important step yet taken by the national
+government. It publishes as its organ a monthly magazine called
+_Forestry and Irrigation_. The Pennsylvania Forestry Association has
+been instrumental in placing that state in the forefront of forest
+progress. Its organ is a bi-monthly publication called _Forest Leaves_.
+Other states which have associations or societies of special influence
+in forest matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado,
+New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted in Nebraska in
+1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers who had settled on the
+treeless prairies, has been taken up as a means of interesting school
+children in the planting of trees, and has spread until it is now
+observed in every state and territory. It continues to serve an
+admirable purpose.
+
+_Lumbering._--According to the census report for 1905 the capital
+invested in logging operations in the United States was $90,454,596, the
+number of employés engaged 146,596, and their wages $66,990,000;
+sawmills represented an invested capital of $381,621,000, and employed
+223,674 persons, whose wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills
+represented a capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons
+whose wages were $66,434,000.
+
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              | Equivalent|Estimated|Estimated|Total Wood|
+  |     Product.      |         Output 1906.         |    Wood   |  Woods  |  Mill   |  Volume  |
+  |                   |                              |  Volume.  |Waste.[3]|Waste.[4]| Consumed.|
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              |  Million  | Million | Million | Million  |
+  |                   |                              |  cub. ft. | cub. ft.| cub. ft.| cub. ft. |
+  | Lumber--          |                              |           |         |         |          |
+  |   Conifers        |   30,200,000 thousand bd. ft.|   2517    |  1173   |  2170   |   5860   |
+  |   Hardwoods       |    7,300,000     "      "    |    612    |   577   |   461   |   1650   |
+  | Shingles          |   11,900,000     "      "    |    107    |    54   |   109   |    270   |
+  | Pulpwood          |    2,900,000 cords           |    261    |    79   |   . .   |    340   |
+  | Wood distillation |    1,200,000   "             |    108    |    12   |   . .   |    120   |
+  | Heading           |  146,000,000 sets            |     32    |    33   |    45   |    110   |
+  | Staves--          |                              |           |         |         |          |
+  |   Tight cooperage |  267,000,000                 |     22    |    36   |    32   |     90   |
+  |   Slack cooperage |1,097,000,000                 |     27    |    22   |    21   |     70   |
+  | Poles             |    3,500,000                 |     35    |    15   |   . .   |     50   |
+  | Veneer            |      300,000 thousand bd. ft.|     50    |    30   |   . .   |     80   |
+  | Round mine timbers|  165,000,000 cub. ft.        |    165    |    35   |   . .   |    200   |
+  | Hewn cross ties   |   77,500,000                 |    207    |   503   |   . .   |    710   |
+  |                   |                              +-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              |   4143    |  2569   |  2838   |   9550   |
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+
+All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are
+controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar unit of
+measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-foot, is generally
+defined as a board one foot long, one foot wide and one inch thick, but
+in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in. of manufactured lumber in
+any form. To purchase logs by this measure one must first know about
+what each log will yield in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or
+table is used, which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and
+lengths in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for
+nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable waste in
+slabs and sawdust costing him nothing.
+
+The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for certain
+purposes in the United States in 1906.
+
+In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is used each
+year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and the total annual
+consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft.
+
+The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the rank of the
+important timber trees with reference to the amount of timber cut, and a
+shifting of the important centres of production. Among coniferous trees,
+white pine has yielded successively to yellow pine and Douglas fir,
+while the scene of greatest activity has shifted from the Northern
+forest to the Southern, and from there is rapidly shifting to the
+Pacific Coast. The total cut of coniferous lumber has increased
+steadily, but that of the hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was
+15% less than in 1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming
+more and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed
+from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region.
+
+_Conifers._--The coniferous supply of the country is derived from four
+forest regions: (1) The Northern forest; (2) the Southern forest; (3)
+the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky Mountain forest.
+
+1. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coniferous
+lumber production in the United States. The principal timber tree of
+this region is the white pine, usually known in Europe as the Weymouth
+pine. It has an average height when mature of 110 ft., with a diameter a
+little less than 3 ft., but the virgin timber is approaching exhaustion.
+White pine was one of the first trees to be cut extensively in the
+United States, and Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre
+of production. In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was
+144 million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock 11 million.
+Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce had risen
+to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a million feet.
+Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed from the north woods to
+the Lake States, and for many years this region was the scene of the
+most vigorous lumbering activity in the world. The following figures
+show the cut for the Lake States from 1873 to 1906. It is certain that
+the remarkable decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show
+will continue still farther.
+
+  1873  3,993,780,000  |  1890  8,597,659,352
+  1874  3,751,306,000  |  1891  7,879,948,349
+  1875  3,968,553,000  |  1892  8,594,222,802
+  1876  3,879,046,000  |  1893  7,326,263,782
+  1877  3,595,333,496  |  1894  6,821,516,412
+  1878  3,629,472,759  |  1895  7,050,669,235
+  1879  4,806,943,000  |  1896  5,725,763,035
+  1880  5,651,295,000  |  1897  6,233,454,000
+  1881  6,768,856,749  |  1898  6,155,300,000
+  1882  7,552,150,744  |  1899  6,056,508,000
+  1883  7,624,789,786  |  1900  5,485,261,000
+  1884  7,935,033,054  |  1901  5,336,000,000
+  1885  7,053,094,555  |  1902  5,294,000,000
+  1886  7,425,368,443  |  1903  4,792,000,000
+  1887  7,757,916,784  |  1904  4,220,000,000
+  1888  8,388,716,460  |  1905  3,777,000,000
+  1889  8,183,050,755  |  1906  3,032,000,000
+
+Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees of the
+Northern forest is the hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_). It is used chiefly
+for construction purposes and furnishes a comparatively low grade of
+lumber.
+
+The spruce (_Picea rubens_) is used chiefly for lumber, but it is in
+large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper pulp. For the
+latter purpose hemlock, poplar (_Populus tremuloides_ and _P.
+grandidentata_) and several other woods are also employed, but on a
+smaller scale. The total consumption of wood for paper in the United
+States for 1906 was 3,660,000 cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of
+this, however, 720,000 cords were imported from Canada.
+
+2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow pine. This is
+the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban
+pines. Of these the longleaf pine (_Pinus palustris_ Mill.), called
+pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important. Its timber is probably
+superior in strength and durability to that of any other member of the
+genus _Pinus_, and in addition to its value as a timber tree it is the
+source of naval stores in the United States. The average size of the
+mature longleaf pine is 90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter.
+Shortleaf (_Pinus echinata_) and loblolly (_P. taeda_) are other
+important members of this group. Their wood very closely resembles that
+of the longleaf pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The
+trees are also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however,
+of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was
+11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its maximum,
+but is certainly near it.
+
+Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest is the bald
+cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), which grows in the swamps. The cut in
+1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of 69% over 1899.
+
+3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the Pacific
+Coast. The Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), also known as Douglas
+spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost tree in Oregon and
+Washington, and the redwood in California. When mature the Douglas fir
+averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft. in diameter, and the redwood 225
+ft. in height and 8 ft. in diameter. Other important trees of the
+Pacific Coast are sugar pine (_Pinus lambertiana_), western red cedar
+(_Thuja plicata_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), Sitka spruce
+(_Picea sitchensis_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) and western
+yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_). These trees will all be of increasing
+importance.
+
+Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of powerful
+machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous weights. This is
+especially true in California, where the logs of redwood and of the big
+tree (_Sequoia Washingtoniana_) are often more than 10 ft. in diameter.
+Logging is usually done by wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The
+journey to the mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great
+size, built on piles over tide water and so arranged that their product
+is delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored
+alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their way over
+land to the markets of the central and eastern states and into foreign
+markets. Among the lumber-producing states, Washington has in seven
+years jumped from fifth place to first, and its output has increased
+from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in 1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906.
+Oregon and California have increased their output from 734,000,000 each
+in 1899 to 1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of
+the total output of these three states (7,259,000,000 ft.) 4,880,000,000
+ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.
+
+4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest are the
+western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas fir and the
+Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely variable in size and
+value, reaches in this region average dimensions of perhaps 80 ft. in
+height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and
+the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by 2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses
+chiefly absorb the annual timber product, which is considerable in
+quantity, and of vast importance to the local population. The lumber
+output of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very rapidly
+both in the north and in the south-west. One of the largest mills in the
+United States is in Idaho.
+
+The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous
+species during the years 1899-1906:
+
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |       |       |       | Per Cent Increase|
+  |     Kind.    | 1899. | 1904. | 1906. | (+) or Decrease  |
+  |              |       |       |       |  (-) since 1899. |
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |Million|Million|Million|                  |
+  |              |  ft.  |   ft. |  ft.  |                  |
+  | Yellow Pine  | 9,659 |11,533 |11,661 |     +  20.7      |
+  | Douglas Fir  | 1,737 | 2,928 | 4,970 |     + 186.2      |
+  | White Pine   | 7,742 | 5,333 | 4,584 |     -  40.8      |
+  | Hemlock      | 3,421 | 3,269 | 3,537 |     +   3.4      |
+  | Spruce       | 1,448 | 1,304 | 1,645 |     +  13.6      |
+  | Western Pine |   944 | 1,279 | 1,387 |     +  46.9      |
+  | Cypress      |   496 |   750 |   839 |     +  69.3      |
+  | Redwood      |   360 |   519 |   683 |     +  83.2      |
+  | Cedar        |   233 |   223 |   358 |     +  53.7      |
+  |              +-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |26,040 | 27,138|29,664 |     +  14        |
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+
+_Hardwoods._--The hardwood supply of the country is derived almost
+entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and comes from each of
+the three great Eastern forest regions.
+
+The following table shows the cut of the important species of hardwoods
+for 1899 and 1906:
+
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |              |           |           |    Per Cent     |
+  |     Kind.    |   1899.   |   1906.   |   Increase (+)  |
+  |              |           |           | or Decrease (-).|
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |              | Thousand  | Thousand  |                 |
+  |              |  Feet.    |  Feet.    |                 |
+  | Oak          | 4,438,027 | 2,820,393 |    -  36.5      |
+  | Maple        |   633,466 |   882,878 |    +  39.4      |
+  | Poplar       | 1,115,242 |   693,076 |    -  37.9      |
+  | Red gum      |   285,417 |   453,678 |    +  59.0      |
+  | Chestnut     |   206,688 |   407,379 |    +  97.1      |
+  | Basswood     |   308,069 |   376,838 |    +  22.3      |
+  | Birch        |   132,601 |   370,432 |    + 179.4      |
+  | Cottonwood   |   415,124 |   263,996 |    -  36.4      |
+  | Beech        |       (a) |   275,661 |                 |
+  | Elm          |   456,731 |   224,795 |    -  50.8      |
+  | Ash          |   269,120 |   214,460 |    -  20.8      |
+  | Hickory      |    96,636 |   148,212 |    +  53.4      |
+  | Tupelo       |       (a) |    47,882 |                 |
+  | Walnut       |    38,681 |    48,174 |    +  24.5      |
+  | Sycamore     |    29,715 |       (a) |                 |
+  | All other    |   208,504 |    87,637 |    -  58.0      |
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |    Total     | 8,634,021 | 7,315,491 |    -  15.3      |
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  a Not separately reported.
+
+Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output, has fallen off
+36.5%. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second among the hardwoods, has
+fallen off 38% and now occupies third place; and elm, the great stand-by
+in slack cooperage, has fallen 50.8%. On the other hand less valuable
+species like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59% respectively.
+
+The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods grow
+naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern United
+States where the population has always been the densest, and as a
+consequence of this, a large proportion of the original hardwood land
+has been cleared up and put under cultivation. The hardwood supply of
+the future must be obtained chiefly from the Appalachian region, where
+the conditions are less favourable to agriculture.
+
+In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hardwoods are used
+each year for railroad ties, telephone and other poles, piles, fence
+posts and fuel, and there is a great amount of waste in the course of
+lumbering and manufacture.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sargent, _Silva of North America_ (Boston, 1891-1897),
+  _Manual of Trees of North America_ (Boston, 1903); Lemmon, _Handbook
+  of West American Cone-Bearers_ (San Francisco, 1895); Bruncken, _North
+  American Forests and Forestry_ (New York, 1900); Fernow, _Economics of
+  Forestry_ (New York, 1902); Pinchot, _The Adirondack Spruce_ (New
+  York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, _The White Pine_ (New York, 1896).
+  See also the various publications of the U.S. forest service,
+  including especially the following general works: _Forest Influences_;
+  _Primer of Forestry_; the _Timber Supply of the United States_; the
+  _Waning Hardwood Supply_; _Forest Products of the United States in
+  1906_; _Exports and Imports of Forest Products in 1906_; _Federal and
+  State Forest Laws_; _Regulations and Instructions for the Use of the
+  National Forests_; _The Use of the National Forests_; also part v. of
+  the _Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports of the United
+  States Geological Survey_, and vol. ix. of the _10th Census Report on
+  the Forests of North America_; and _Reports_ of the State Forestry
+  Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
+  Ohio, &c., and of the State Geological Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland
+  and North Carolina.     (G. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its
+    designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus, the
+    fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1, 1897-June 30, 1898.
+
+  [2] Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1,
+    1905.
+
+  [3] Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does
+    not include defective trees left or trees used for road purposes.
+
+  [4] Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings.
+
+
+
+
+FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC (1804-1872), marshal of France, was born at Paris
+on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the army from St Cyr in 1824. He
+took part in the earlier Algerian campaigns, and became captain in 1835.
+Four years later he was given command of a battalion of _chasseurs à
+pied_ and in 1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac
+made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the _coup
+d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III. made him a
+general of division shortly afterwards. He held a superior command in
+the Crimean War, and in the Italian campaign of 1859 distinguished
+himself very greatly in the action of Montebello (20th May). In 1862
+Forey was placed in command of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico,
+with the fullest civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful
+campaign by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his
+reward the marshal's bâton. From December 1863 to 1867 he held high
+commands in France, but in the latter year he was struck with paralysis
+and had to retire. Marshal Forey died at Paris on the 20th of June 1872.
+
+
+
+
+FORFAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of the county
+of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117. It lies at the east end of
+the Loch of Forfar in the valley of Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of
+Dundee by road and 21¼ m. by the Caledonian railway. It is also situated
+on the same company's main line to Aberdeen and sends off a branch to
+Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house, the county
+hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and others), the town
+hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free library), the infirmary,
+poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded by Peter Reid, a merchant in the
+burgh who also gave the public park. The burgh unites with Montrose,
+Arbroath, Brechin and Inverbervie (the Montrose group of burghs) in
+returning one member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1¼ m. long by ¼
+m. wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and perch. On a
+gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood a castle which
+was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore.
+The staple industries are linen and jute manufactures, but brewing,
+tanning, bleaching, rope-making and iron-founding are also carried on.
+
+Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for the first
+parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old castle, which
+stood on a mound on the northern side of the town. The parliaments of
+William the Lion, Alexander II. and Robert II. also assembled within its
+walls. The town, which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt
+down about the middle of the 13th century. Edward I. captured the
+castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized it,
+put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site being now
+marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of James VI. the weekly
+market was held on Sunday, but after the union of the crowns parliament
+enacted that it should be held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I.
+during the Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of
+regard for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played
+a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a crown
+commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable creatures, some
+of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the same year one John Ford for
+his services as a witch-finder was admitted a burgess along with Lord
+Kinghorne. The witches' bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking
+whilst being led to execution, is still preserved in the county hall.
+One mile to the E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of
+Robert Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation it
+was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episcopalians, until
+they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.
+
+
+
+
+FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
+shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by Perthshire, S. by the Firth of
+Tay and E. by the North Sea. It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873.7
+sq. m. The island of Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.
+
+Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and may be
+divided physically into four well-marked sections. In the most northerly
+of these many of the rugged masses of the Grampians are found; this belt
+is succeeded by Strathmore, or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from
+6 to 8 m. broad, which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and
+runs south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of
+Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated heights,
+which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the Firth. The
+mountains are all in the northern division and belong to the Binchinnin
+group (sometimes rather inexactly called the Braes of Angus) of the
+Grampian ranges. Among the highest masses, most of which lie on or near
+the confines of the bordering counties, are Glas Maol(3502 ft.), on the
+summit of which the shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet,
+Cairn-na-Glasha (3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag
+Leacach (3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105), Mount
+Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of 2000 ft. are
+numerous. The Sidlaw Hills--the greater part of which, however, belongs
+to Perthshire--are much less lofty and of less striking appearance. They
+have a breadth of from 3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county
+being Craigowl Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill
+(1242). None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any
+importance. The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards, then
+turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a course of 45
+m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth, Ericht and Lunan,
+and on the left the Newton, Melgam and Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the
+fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.), so named from the fact that when the
+stream is in flood the spray rises in a dense cloud like smoke (_reek_).
+Near old Airlie Castle are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie.
+The North Esk, formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at
+Invermark, after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea 3
+m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West Water and
+Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives the title of earl
+of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family. The South Esk rises in
+the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and not far from its source forms the
+Falls of Bachnagairn; after flowing towards the south-east, it bends
+eastwards near Tannadice and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the
+length of its course being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen
+on the right and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of
+Southesk to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the
+two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt Loch Lee (1
+m. long by ¼ m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape and about ¾ m.
+across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies Dundee with drinking
+water. The glens of the Forfarshire Grampians are remarkable for their
+beauty, and several of them for the wealth of their botanical specimens.
+The largest and finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of
+Forter Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie's
+shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance to which
+stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie; Glen Esk and
+Glen Prosen.
+
+  _Geology._--A great earth fracture traverses this county from near
+  Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between Cortachy and
+  the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old Red Sandstone, but
+  north-east of that place it forms the junction line of Silurian and
+  Old Red; and in a general way we may say that on the N.W. side of the
+  fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks are found, while the remainder
+  of the county is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone. On the margin of
+  the disturbance the Silurian rocks are little-altered grey and green
+  clay slates with bands of pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we
+  find the same rocks metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with
+  pebbly quartzites. Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock
+  and Mount Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone
+  extends from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire; here
+  some 20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being
+  formed of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in
+  the sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower
+  beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably
+  the remains of an old vent through which some of the contemporaneous
+  lavas, &c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been subjected to
+  a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast. The principal
+  direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal fold occupies
+  Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose the northern extension
+  of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold. Two fish-bearing beds occur
+  in the county; from the lower one many large _Eurypterids_ have been
+  obtained. The well-known paving flags of Arbroath belong to the lower
+  part of the formation. The Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in
+  one spot about a mile north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the
+  ice travelled south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw
+  Hills; abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in
+  the form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great
+  transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a
+  mile in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are
+  found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and 25
+  ft. above the present sea-level.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--On the whole the climate is healthy and
+favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature for the year
+is 47.3° F., for January 38° and for July 59°. The average annual
+rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably drier than the uplands.
+In the low-lying districts of the south the harvest is nearly as early
+as it is in the rest of Scotland, but in the north it is often late. The
+principal wheat districts are Strathmore and the neighbourhood of Dundee
+and Arbroath; and the yield is well up to the best Scottish average.
+Barley, an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats, however, though
+still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes are mostly
+grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips also are largely
+raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste land, has been turned
+into sheep walks and deer forests. The black-faced sheep are the most
+common in the mountainous country; cross-bred sheep in the lowlands.
+Though it is their native county (where they date from 1808), polled
+Angus are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of
+Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle are
+imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of the towns
+there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised successfully, Clydesdales
+being the commonest breed, but the small native garrons are now little
+used. Pigs also are reared. Save perhaps in the case of the crofts, or
+very small holdings of less than 10 acres, farm management is fully
+abreast of the times.
+
+_Other Industries._--The staple industries are the jute and flax
+manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but they flourish also
+at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at Dundee, Arbroath and
+Montrose. The manufactures of jams, confectionery, leather, machinery,
+soap and chemicals, are all of great and growing value. Sandstone
+quarries employ many hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose
+is the centre, are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at
+the mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit.
+
+Two railway companies serve the county. The North British, entering from
+the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast north-eastwards, sending
+off at Montrose a branch to Bervie. The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to
+Forfar, whence it diverges due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes
+its north-easterly course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from
+Perth by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from
+Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth Junction via
+Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it touch with Montrose.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 277,735 in 1891, and
+284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English, and 13 Gaelic only.
+The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901, 22,398), Brechin (8941),
+Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie (5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar
+(11,397), Kirriemuir (4096), Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427).
+Forfarshire returns one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and
+there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar,
+the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In addition to
+numerous board schools there are secondary schools at Dundee, Montrose,
+Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir, and technical schools at
+Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the elementary schools earn grants for
+higher education. The county council and the Dundee and Arbroath town
+councils expend the "residue" grant in subsidizing science and art and
+technical schools and classes, including University College, the textile
+school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the workshop
+schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath, besides cookery,
+dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and veterinary science classes
+at different places.
+
+_History._--In the time of the Romans the country now known as
+Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation there are
+evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses. Traces of Roman
+camps and stone forts are common, and there are vitrified forts at
+Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of Laws near Monifieth and at other
+points. Spearheads, battle-axes, sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian
+bronze pins, and other antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm
+and stress before the land settled down into order, towards which the
+Church was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was
+frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is supposed to
+have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (A.D. 84); the Northumbrian
+King Egfrith and the Pictish king Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685,
+the former being slain; conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno
+and other spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the
+parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and Scots had
+a bitter encounter. In later times the principal historical events,
+whether of peace or war, were more immediately connected with burghs
+than with the county as a whole. There is some doubt whether the county
+was named Angus, its title for several centuries, after a legendary
+Scottish prince or from the hill of Angus to the east of the church of
+Aberlemno. It was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a
+hereditary sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter
+of 1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the 1st earl of
+Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in her own right.
+On the death of the 1st and only duke of Douglas, who was also 13th earl
+of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged in the dukedom of Hamilton.
+Precisely when the shire became known by the name of the county town has
+not been ascertained, but probably the usage dates from the 16th
+century. Among old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle
+at the mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck; the
+stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of Finhaven; the
+two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of Melgund Castle, which are
+fairly complete; the small castle of Newtyle, and the old square tower
+and gateway of the castle of Craig.
+
+  See A. Jervise, _Memorials of Angus and Mearns_ (Edinburgh, 1895);
+  _Land of the Lindsays_ (Edinburgh, 1882); _Epitaphs and Inscriptions_
+  (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, _Lives of the_ _Lindsays_
+  (London, 1835); Sir W. Fraser, _History of the Carnegies_ (Edinburgh,
+  1867); A.H. Millar, _Historical Castles and Mansions_ (Paisley, 1890);
+  G. Hay, _History of Arbroath_ (Arbroath, 1876); D.D. Black, _History
+  of Brechin_ (Edinburgh, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+FORFEITURE (from "forfeit," originally an offence, and hence a fine
+exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the O. Fr. _forfait_,
+from the late Lat. _foris factum_, a trespass, that which is done
+_foris_, outside), in English law, the term applied (1) to loss or
+liability to the loss of property in consequence of an offence or breach
+of contract; (2) to the property of which the party is deprived.
+
+Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indictment for treason
+or felony was followed not only by forfeiture of the life of the
+offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and goods. In the case of
+treason all the traitor's lands of whomsoever holden were forfeited to
+the king; in the case of felony (including _felo-de-se_, or suicide),
+the felon's lands escheated (_exceciderunt_) to his immediate lord,
+subject to the king's right to waste them for a year and a day. This
+rule did not apply to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The
+goods of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of
+the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures
+was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the king's
+justices throughout England; and from time to time conflicts arose from
+attempts by these justices to extend the law of treason--under which the
+king levied all the forfeitures--at the expense of felony, in which the
+lord of the felon benefited by the escheats. As regards theft, the
+king's rights overrode those of the owner of the stolen property, until,
+in the reign of Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the
+goods to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys's
+_Diary_, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration of the
+working of the old law. We find that on the suicide of his
+brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally and
+obtained a grant of the brother-in-law's estate in favour of his widow
+and children should the inquest find a verdict of _felo-de-se_. It was
+common practice for persons anticipating conviction for treason or
+felony to assign all their property to others to avoid the forfeiture;
+and in some instances the accused refused to plead to the indictment and
+endured the _peine forte et dure_, until death supervened, to avoid
+these consequences of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures
+arising within particular areas were frequently granted by charter to
+corporations or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such
+charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448. All
+forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and attainder for
+treason and felony were abolished as from the 4th of July 1870, except
+forfeitures consequent upon the now disused process of outlawry, and the
+forfeitures included in the penalties of praemunire.
+
+The term "forfeit" is also applied to penalties imposed by statute for
+acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor felonious. In such
+statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of the crown unless the statute
+indicates another destination; and unless a particular method of
+enforcing the forfeiture is indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the
+crown and has priority as such. The words "forfeit and pay" are often
+used in imposing a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where
+they are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict the
+offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.
+
+Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels, e.g. of
+a British merchant-ship when her character as such is fraudulently
+dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76), or of goods smuggled
+in contravention of the customs acts or books introduced in violation of
+the copyright acts. Recognisances are said to be forfeited when the
+conditions are broken and an order of court is made for their
+enforcement as a crown debt against the persons bound by them.
+
+The term "forfeiture" is now most commonly used with reference to real
+property, i.e. with reference to the rights of lords of the manor or
+lessors to determine the estate or interest of a copyholder or lessee
+for breach of the customary or contractual terms of tenure. It is also
+applied to express the deprivation of a limited owner of settled
+property, real or personal, for breach of the conditions by which his
+rights are limited; e.g. by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or
+alienate his interest. As a general rule, the courts "lean against
+forfeitures" of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the
+superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them. By
+legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant relief upon
+terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of certain classes of
+covenant, e.g. to pay rent or to insure.
+
+
+
+
+FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin _fabricare_, to
+construct), in English law, "the fraudulent making or alteration of a
+writing to the prejudice of another man's right," or "the false making,
+or making _malo animo_, of any written instrument for the purpose of
+fraud or deceit." This definition, it will be seen, comprehends all
+fraudulent tampering with documents. "Not only the fabrication and false
+making of the whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion,
+alteration or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true
+instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount to
+forgery,--and this though it be afterwards executed by another person
+ignorant of the deceit" (Russell on _Crimes and Misdemeanours_, vol.
+ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale in a lease, so that it appears to
+be a lease of the manor of Sale instead of the manor of Dale, is a
+forgery. And when a country banker's note was made payable at the house
+of a banker in London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the
+name of such London banker to that of another London banker with whom
+the country banker had subsequently made his notes payable. As to the
+fraud, "an intent to defraud is presumed to exist if it appears that at
+the time when the false document was made there was in existence a
+specific person, ascertained or unascertained, capable of being
+defrauded thereby; and this presumption is not rebutted by proof that
+the offender took or intended to take measures to prevent such person
+from being defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he
+had a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document"
+(Stephen's _Digest of the Criminal Law_). Thus when a man makes a false
+acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it, intending to take
+it up and actually taking it up before it is presented for payment, he
+is guilty of forgery. Even if it be proved as a matter of fact that no
+person could be defrauded (as when A forges a cheque in B's name on a
+bank from which B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will
+be presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had withdrawn his
+account, the absence of fraudulent intention would be inferred. A
+general intention to cheat the public is not the kind of fraud necessary
+to constitute forgery. Thus if a quack forges a diploma of the college
+of surgeons, in order to make people believe that he is a member of that
+body, he is not guilty of forgery.
+
+The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to time dealt
+with in an enormous number of statutes. It was first made a statutory
+offence in 1562, and was punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory,
+having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the
+forfeiture of land and perpetual imprisonment. It was made capital,
+without benefit of clergy in 1634. The most notable cases of those who
+have suffered the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W.
+Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield's name on a bond, and Henry
+Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for
+the appropriation by means of forged instruments of money entrusted to
+the bank, in 1824. "Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his
+_Criminal Code_, has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain
+provisions against the offence" (Sir J.T. Coleridge's notes to
+Blackstone). Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the
+legislature against forgery, and says that "through the number of these
+general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible to be
+conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether in the name of
+a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital crime." These acts
+were consolidated in 1830. The later statutes, fixing penalties from
+penal servitude for life downwards, were consolidated by the Forgery Act
+1861. It would take too much space to enumerate all the varieties of the
+offence with their appropriate punishments. The following condensed
+summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen's _Digest of the
+Criminal Law_:
+
+  1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum
+  are--
+
+  (a) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c.
+
+  (b) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills,
+  bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c.
+
+  (c) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque.
+
+  (d) Forgeries of registers of birth, &c., or of copies thereof and
+  others.
+
+  2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years' penal servitude are--
+
+  (a) Forgeries of debentures.
+
+  (b) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &c.
+
+  (c) Forgeries of instruments purporting to be made by the accountant
+  general and other officers of the court of chancery, &c.
+
+  (d) Drawing bill of exchange, &c., on account of another, per
+  procuration or otherwise, without authority.
+
+  (e) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing it to
+  be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c.
+
+  3. Forgeries punishable with seven years' penal servitude:--Forgeries
+  of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates, and of
+  documents to be used in evidence, &c.
+
+By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of trade marks is
+an offence punishable on conviction by indictment with imprisonment not
+exceeding two years or to fine, or both, and on conviction by summary
+proceedings with imprisonment not exceeding four months or with a fine.
+
+The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the Forged
+Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local authorities to make
+compensation by a cash payment out of their funds for any loss arising
+from a transfer of their stocks, shares or securities through a forged
+transfer.
+
+_United States._--Forgery is made a crime by statute in most if not all
+the states, in addition to being a common law cheat. These statutes have
+much enlarged the common definition of this crime. It is also made a
+crime by a Federal statute (U.S. Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes
+forgery of national banknotes, letters patent, public bid, record,
+signature of a judge, land warrants, powers of attorney, ships' papers
+or custom-house documents, certificates of naturalization, &c.; the
+punishment is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with
+or without hard labour.
+
+In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts of several
+banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to produce one additional
+note or instrument with intent to pass all as genuine, is a forgery of
+each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch. 38, § 108). The alleged instrument
+must be apparently capable of defrauding (_Goodman_ v. _People_ [1907],
+228, Ill. 154).
+
+In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of credit
+issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by any other
+officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank bill of any bank, is
+punishable by imprisonment for life or any term of years (Rev. Laws
+1902, ch. 209, §§ 4 and 5).
+
+In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting,
+alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument (Penal Code,
+§ 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who with intent to defraud
+sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip, share certificate, is
+guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely making any instrument which
+purports to be issued by a corporation bearing a pretended signature of
+a person falsely indicated as an officer of the company, is forgery just
+as if such person were in truth such officer (id. § 519). Counterfeiting
+railroad tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that
+the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id. § 511). So
+also is the forging a fictitious name (_People_ v. _Browne_ [1907], 103
+N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the first degree may be
+twenty years, in the second degree ten years, in the third degree five
+years.
+
+In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, uttering or
+publishing any written instrument other than bank bills, cheques or
+drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonment "by separate or
+solitary confinement at labour for a term not exceeding ten years" (L.
+1860, March 31); forging bank bills, &c., for a term not exceeding five
+years. Defacing, removing, or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating
+in any river is punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two
+years or a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered
+mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment by
+solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.).
+
+In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the body of and
+signature to an instrument which may be the subject of forgery (1906;
+_State_ v. _Bradley_, 116 Tenn. 711).
+
+In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, § 24, authorizes licensees
+to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written prescription of a
+legally qualified physician stating that it "is given and necessary for
+medicinal use." It was held that a prescription containing no such
+statement was invalid and the alteration thereof was not forgery (1906;
+_State_ v. _McManus_, 78 St. 433).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen,
+  _Digest of Criminal Law_; _History of Criminal Law_; L.O. Pike,
+  _History of Crime in England_, 1873-1876; Russell, _On Crimes_;
+  Archbold, _Criminal Pleadings_.
+
+
+
+
+FORGET-ME-NOT, or SCORPION-GRASS (Ger. _Vergissmeinnicht_, Fr.
+_grémillet_, _scorpionne_), the name popularly applied to the small
+annual or perennial herbs forming the genus _Myosotis_ of the natural
+order _Boraginaceae_, so called from the Greek [Greek: mys], a mouse,
+and [Greek: ous], an ear, on account of the shape of the leaves. The
+genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North America and Australia,
+and is characterized by oblong or linear stem-leaves, flowers in
+terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue, pink or white flowers, a
+five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver- or funnel-shaped corolla, having
+its mouth closed by five short scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets.
+The common or true forget-me-not, _M. palustris_, is a perennial plant
+growing to a height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem
+clothed with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat
+shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla rotate,
+broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow centre. The
+divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third the length of the
+corolla, whereas in the other British species of _Myosotis_ it is deeply
+cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite with poets, and the symbol of
+constancy, is a frequent ornament of brooks, rivers and ditches, and,
+according to an old German tradition, received its name from the last
+words of a knight who was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower
+for his lady. It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and,
+as it flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for garden
+borders; a variety, _M. strigulosa_, is more hairy and erect, and its
+flowers are smaller. In _M. versicolor_ the flowers are yellow when
+first open and change generally to a dull blue; sometimes they are
+permanently yellowish-white. Of the species in cultivation, _M.
+dissitiflora_, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome abundant sky-blue
+flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it
+does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
+renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, or _M.
+alpestris_, 2 to 3 in., intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring
+shady situations and gritty soil; _M. azorica_ (a native of the Azores)
+with purple, ultimately blue flowers about half an inch across, has a
+similar habit but larger flowers; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or
+white, used for spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
+
+
+
+
+FORGING, the craft of the smith, or "blacksmith," exercised on malleable
+iron and steel, in the production of works of constructive utility and
+of ornament. It differs from founding (q.v.) in the fact that the metal
+is never melted. It is essentially a moulding process, the iron or steel
+being worked at a full red, or white, heat when it is in a plastic and
+more or less pasty condition. Consequently the tools used are in the
+main counterparts of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All
+the operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones: (1)
+Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section ("fullering"
+and "swaging"); (2) enlargement of a smaller to a larger portion
+("upsetting"); (3) bending, or turning round to any angle of curvature;
+(4) uniting one piece of metal to another ("welding"); (5) the formation
+of holes by punching; and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include
+all the operations that are done at the anvil. In none of these
+processes, the last excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool
+involved, and therefore there is no violence done to the fibre of the
+malleable metal. Nor have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except
+the cutting-off tools or "setts." The essential fact of the flow of the
+metal, which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost
+sight of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must be
+exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best
+calculated to secure maximum strength.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+
+    Fullering and swaging.
+
+  Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material
+  between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or
+  finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape, nearly
+  hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be reduced from larger to
+  smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a fuller or round-faced stake, set
+  in the anvil, or, in some cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows
+  are dealt upon that portion of the face which lies exactly opposite
+  with a fullering tool A, grasped by a rather loosely-fitting handle
+  and struck on its head by a sledge. The position of the piece of work
+  is quickly changed at brief intervals in order to bring successive
+  portions under the action of the swages until the reduction is
+  completed; the upper face, and if a bottom fuller is used the under
+  face also, is thus left corrugated slightly. These corrugations are
+  then removed either by a flatter, if the surfaces are plane (fig. 2),
+  or by hollow swages, if the cross section is circular (fig. 3). Spring
+  swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead of separate "top and
+  bottom tools." Frequently swaging is practised at once, without the
+  preliminary detail of fullering. It is adopted when the amount of
+  reduction is slight, and also when a steam hammer or other type of
+  power hammer is available. This process of drawing down or fullering
+  is, when practicable, adopted in preference to either upsetting or
+  welding, because it is open to no objection, and involves no risk of
+  damage to the material, while it improves the metal by consolidating
+  its fibres. But its limitations in anvil work lie in the tediousness
+  of the operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in
+  diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar. Then
+  there are other alternatives.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+
+    Upsetting.
+
+  If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of its
+  length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of great
+  length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part to be enlarged is
+  heated, the parts adjacent remaining cold, and an end is hammered, or
+  else lifted and dropped heavily on the anvil or on an iron plate, with
+  the result that the heated portion becomes both shortened and enlarged
+  (figs. 5 and 6). This process is only suitable for relatively short
+  lengths, and has the disadvantage that the fibres of wrought iron are
+  liable to open, and so cause weakening of the upset portion. But
+  steel, which has no direction of fibre, can be upset without injury;
+  this method is therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power
+  presses to an equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to
+  upsetting is generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section,
+  or to encircle the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then
+  to impart any shape desired to the ring in swages.
+
+
+    Bending.
+
+  Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise of
+  leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is always,
+  when practicable, preferable to cutting out a curved or angular shape
+  with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of the fibre in iron is
+  preserved by bending, and the risk of an imperfect weld is avoided.
+  Hence it is a simple and safe process which is constantly being
+  performed at the anvil. An objection to sharp bends, or those having a
+  small radius, is that the fibres become extended on the outer radius,
+  the cross section being at the same time reduced below that of the bar
+  itself. This is met by imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to
+  the part to be bent, sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction
+  due to extension of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the
+  corners of dip cranks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+    Welding.
+
+  The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting
+  autogeneously while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable.
+  When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to be united,
+  welding is the only method practicable at the anvil. It is also
+  generally the best to adopt when union has to be made between pieces
+  at right angles, or when a piece on which much work has to be done is
+  required at the end of a long plain bar, as in the tension rods of
+  cranes and other structures with eyes. The art of welding depends
+  chiefly on having perfectly clean joint faces, free from scale, so
+  that metal can unite to metal; union would be prevented by the
+  presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is essential to have a
+  temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to overheat the metal.
+  A dazzling white, at which small particles of metal begin to drop off,
+  is suitable for iron, but steel must not be made so hot. A very few
+  hammer blows suffice to effect the actual union; if the joint be
+  faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering will weld it. The forms of
+  weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and 9), the butt (fig. 10), the
+  V (fig. 11) and the glut, one form of which is shown in fig. 12; the
+  illustrations are of bars prepared for welding. These forms give the
+  smith a suitable choice for different conditions. A convexity is
+  imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the expulsion of slag
+  and dirt during the closing of the joint; these undesirable matters
+  become entangled between concave faces. The ends are upset or enlarged
+  in order to leave enough metal to be dressed down flush, by swaging or
+  by flattering. The proportional lengths of the joint faces shown are
+  those which conform to good practice. The fluxes used for welding are
+  numerous. Sand alone is generally dusted on wrought iron, but steel
+  requires borax applied on the joint while in the fire, and also dusted
+  on the joint at the anvil and on the face of the latter itself.
+  Electric welding is largely taking the place of the hand process, but
+  machines are required to maintain the parts in contact during the
+  passage of the current. Butt joints are employed, and a large quantity
+  of power is absorbed, but the output is immensely greater than that of
+  hand-made welds.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+    Punching.
+
+  When holes are not very large they are formed by punching, but large
+  holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round and welding it,
+  so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes are often punched simply as a
+  preliminary stage in the formation of a larger hole by a process of
+  drifting. A piece of work to be punched is supported either on the
+  anvil or on a ring of metal termed a bolster, laid on the anvil,
+  through which the burr, when severed, falls. But in making small holes
+  through a thick mass, no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways
+  and forming an enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron
+  stanchions that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has
+  to be punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under
+  power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time.
+
+
+    Cutting-off.
+
+  The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or cold
+  metal. In the first case the chisels used, "hot setts," have keener
+  cutting angles than those employed for the second, termed "cold
+  setts." One sett is held in a hole in the anvil face, the "anvil
+  chisel," the other is handled and struck with a sledge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron
+possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many forgings
+therefore must be made differently according as they are in iron or in
+steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed to run transversely
+to the axis of greatest tensile or bending stress, but must be in line
+therewith. For this reason many forgings, of which a common eye or loop
+(fig. 13) is a typical example, that would be stamped from a solid piece
+if made in steel, must be bent round from bar and welded if in wrought
+iron. Further, welding which is practically uniformly trustworthy in
+wrought iron, is distrusted in steel. The difference is due to the very
+fibrous character of iron, the welding of which gives much less anxiety
+to the smith than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently made
+without any flux, those in steel never. Though mention has only been
+made of iron and steel, other alloys are forged, as those of aluminium,
+delta metal, &c. But the essential operations are alike, the differences
+being in temperature at which the forging is done and nature of the
+fluxes used for welding. For hardening and tempering, an important
+section of smith's work, see ANNEALING.
+
+_Die Forging._--The smith operating by hand uses the above methods only.
+There is, however, a large and increasing volume of forgings produced in
+other ways, and comprehended under the general terms, "die forging" or
+"drop forging."
+
+Little proof is needed to show that the various operations done at the
+anvil might be performed in a more expeditious way by the aid of
+power-operated appliances; for the elementary processes of reducing, and
+enlarging, bending, punching, &c., are extremely simple, and the most
+elaborate forged work involves only a repetition of these. The fact that
+the material used is entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is
+most favourable to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white
+hot mass of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a
+few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be stamped in
+steel dies under a coining press. But much detail is involved in the
+translation of the principle into practice. The parallel between coining
+dies and forging dies does not go far. The blank for the coin is
+prepared to such exact dimensions that no surplus material is left over
+by the striking of the coin, which is struck while cold. But the blank
+used in die forging is generally a shapeless piece, taken without any
+preliminary preparation, a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may
+be square or round irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be
+square, or round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the
+welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of the
+impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die, the metal yields
+like lead, and flows and fills the dies.
+
+Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding a forging.
+A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the concavity of the
+forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow over between the
+joints, prevent the dies from being closed on the forging. There are two
+methods adopted for removing this "fin," or "flash" as it is termed, one
+being that of suppression, applicable to circular work, the other that
+of stripping, applied to almost all other cases.
+
+  The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the
+  dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few
+  blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when
+  formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section is
+  being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.
+
+  Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has been
+  formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced right
+  through with an opening of the same shape and area as the forging, and
+  then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer. The forging is thus
+  knocked through the die, leaving the severed or stripped fin behind.
+  The forging is then returned to the dies and again treated, and the
+  stripping may be repeated twice, or even oftener, before the forging
+  can be completed.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+  Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate the bottom dies of a set for forging in a
+  particular form of eye, the top dies being of exactly the same shape.
+  The first operation takes place in fig. 15, in which a bar of metal is
+  reduced to a globular and cylindrical form, being constantly rotated
+  meanwhile. The shank portion is then drawn down in the parallel recess
+  to the left. The shape of the eye is completed in fig. 16, and the
+  shank in the recess to the left of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is
+  stamped between top and bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is
+  formed by punching, the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the
+  centre for the hole to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is
+  located by a conical projection in the top die.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained
+  here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive
+  application.
+
+  An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a
+  quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in dies
+  within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the cost of
+  the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the
+  question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of
+  dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required. From
+  this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings,
+  ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over
+  the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which are
+  produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimensions
+  than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage when
+  forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer's
+  machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there.
+  Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at
+  all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in
+  consequence of their slight inaccuracies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies much
+  of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when thousands
+  of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a hundred, or
+  even to a dozen, similar forgings. In such cases economy is secured by
+  using dies of a very cheap character; or, by employing such dies as
+  supplementary to anvil work for effecting neat finish to more precise
+  dimensions than can be ensured at the anvil. In the first case use is
+  made of dies of cast iron moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of
+  having their matrices laboriously cut in steel with drills, chisels
+  and milling tools. In the second, preliminary drawing down is done
+  under the steam hammer, and bending and welding at the anvil, or under
+  the steam hammer, until the forgings are brought approximately to
+  their final shape and dimensions. Then they are reheated and inserted
+  in the dies, when a few blows under the steam or drop hammer suffice
+  to impart a neat and accurate finish.
+
+  The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large
+  dimensions. The system is most successful for the smallest forgings
+  and dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of
+  cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers as
+  are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles
+  manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings, in
+  which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is
+  utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped from steel
+  plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute by far the
+  largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are massive, and a
+  single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press employed bends the
+  steel plate between the dies to shape at once. Fairly massive forgings
+  are also produced in these presses.
+
+  Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the
+  skilled smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only
+  craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the shops.
+  The men who attend to the machines are not smiths, but unskilled
+  helpers.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FORK (Lat. _furca_), an implement formed of two or more prongs at the
+end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type of which is the
+table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and horticulture the fork
+is used for pitching hay, and other green crops, manure, &c.; commonly
+this has two prongs, "tines"; for digging, breaking up surface soil,
+preparing for hand weeding and for planting the three-pronged fork is
+used. The word is also applied to many objects which are characterized
+by branching ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs,
+which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to give a
+standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams of a river, or the
+junction where a tributary runs into the main river; and in the human
+body, to that part where the legs branch off from the trunk.
+
+The _furca_, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form of the
+letter [Lambda], was used by the Romans as an instrument of punishment.
+It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal, and his hands were
+fastened to it, condemned slaves were compelled to carry it about with
+them, and those sentenced to be flogged would be tied to it;
+crucifixions were sometimes carried out on a similar shaped instrument.
+From the great defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the
+Caudine Forks (_Furculae Caudinae_), a narrow gorge, where the
+vanquished were compelled to pass under the yoke (_jugum_), as a sign of
+submission, the expression "to pass through or under the forks" has been
+loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The "forks" in any
+allusion to this defeat should refer to the topographical name and not
+to the _jugum_, which consisted of two upright spears with a third
+placed transversely as a cross-bar.
+
+
+
+
+FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1749-1818), German musician, was born on the
+22nd of February 1749 at Meeder in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler,
+and as a practical musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved
+some eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly upon
+his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical science
+and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J.S. Bach, whose music
+he did much to popularize. His library, which was accumulated with care
+and discrimination at a time when rare books were cheap, forms a
+valuable portion of the royal library in Berlin and also of the library
+of the Königlicher Institut für Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the
+university church of Göttingen, obtained the degree of doctor of
+philosophy, and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He
+died at Göttingen on the 20th of March 1818. The following is a list of
+his principal works: _Über die Theorie der Musik_ (Göttingen, 1777);
+_Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek_ (Gotha, 1778); _Allgemeine Geschichte
+der Musik_ (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most important work. He also
+wrote a _Dictionary of Musical Literature_, which is full of valuable
+material. To his musical compositions, which are numerous, little
+interest is to-day to be attached. But it is worth noting that he wrote
+variations on the English national anthem "God save the king" for the
+clavichord, and that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which
+appeared at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he
+conceived they ought to be written.
+
+
+
+
+FORLÌ (anc. _Forum Livii_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Forlì, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, 108
+ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town); 43,321 (commune). Forlì
+is situated on the railway between Bologna and Rimini. It is connected
+by steam tramways with Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the
+Apennines with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the
+principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good carved and
+inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The façade has been
+considerably altered, but the campanile, erected in 1178-1180, still
+exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built of brickwork, and is
+one of the finest of Lombard campanili. The pictures in this church are
+the work of Marco Palmezzano (1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the
+municipal picture gallery also contain works by him. The latter has
+other interesting pictures, including a fresco representing an
+apprentice with pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work
+in Forlì of Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style
+was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and who was the
+master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza chapel in SS. Biagio e
+Girolamo are from the former's designs, though executed by the latter.
+The church also contains the fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The
+cathedral (Santa Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The
+Palazzo del Podestà, now a private house, is a brick building of the
+15th century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about
+1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio Biondo,
+the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient Rome
+(1388-1463), was a native of Forlì.
+
+Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia, hardly
+anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forlì in league with
+Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of the province of Romagna
+resided there. In 1275 Forlì defeated Bologna with great loss. Martin
+IV. sent an army to besiege it in 1282, which was driven out after
+severe fighting in the streets; but the town soon afterwards
+surrendered. In the 14th and 15th centuries it was under the government
+of the Ordelaffi; and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a
+determined resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario.
+Forlì finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORLIMPOPOLI (anc. _Forum Popillii_), a village of Emilia, Italy, in the
+province of Forlì, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail, 105 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (commune). The ancient Forum
+Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia, was destroyed by Grimuald in
+672. Whether its site is occupied by the present town is not certain;
+the former should perhaps be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E.,
+where were found most of the inscriptions of which the place of
+discovery is certain. Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal
+Albornoz in 1360, and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed
+the well-preserved medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four
+circular towers at the corners.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORLORN HOPE (through Dutch _verloren hoop_, from Ger. _verlorene Haufe_
+= "lost troop"; _Haufe_, "heap," being equivalent in the 17th century to
+"body of troops"; the French equivalent is _enfants perdus_), a
+military term (sometimes shortened to "forlorn"), used in the 16th and
+17th centuries for a body of troops thrown out in front of the line of
+battle to engage the hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of
+skirmishers, though they were always solid closed bodies. These troops
+ran great risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines
+of battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or
+ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to facilitate
+the attacks of their own main body by striking the first blow against or
+meeting the first shock of the fresh and unshaken enemy. In the
+following century (18th), when lines of masses were no longer employed,
+a thin line of skirmishers alone preceded the three-deep line of battle,
+but the term "forlorn hope" continued to be used for picked bodies of
+men entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming
+party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense "forlorn hope" is
+often used at the present time. The misunderstanding of the word "hope"
+has led to various applications of "forlorn hope," such as to an
+enterprise offering little chance of success, or, further still from the
+original meaning, to the faint or desperate hope of such success.
+
+
+
+
+FORM (Lat. _forma_), in general, the external shape, appearance,
+configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of which
+it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent arguments,--the
+_matter_ may be good, while the style, grammar, arrangement,--the
+_form_--is bad. The term, with its adjective "formal" and the derived
+nouns "formality" and "formalism," is hence contemptuously used for that
+which is superficial, unessential, hypocritical: chap. xxiii. of
+Matthew's gospel is a classical instance of the distinction between the
+formalism of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be
+compared the popular phrases "good form" and "bad form" applied to
+behaviour in society: so "format" (from the French) is technically used
+of the shape and size, e.g. of a book (octavo, quarto, &c.) or of a
+cigarette. The word "form" is also applied to certain definite objects:
+in printing a body of type secured in a chase for printing at one
+impression ("form" or "forme"); a bench without a back, such as is used
+in schools (perhaps to be compared with O. Fr. _s'asseoir en forme_, to
+sit in a row); a mould or shape on or in which an object is
+manufactured; the lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of
+regulated order comes the application of the term to a class in a school
+("sixth form," "fifth form," &c.); this sense has been explained without
+sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same class
+sitting on a single form (bench).
+
+The word has been used technically in philosophy with various shades of
+meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic [Greek: idea],
+[Greek: eidos], the permanent reality which makes a thing what it is, in
+contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject to change.
+Whether Plato understood these forms as actually existent apart from all
+the particular examples, or as being of the nature of immutable physical
+laws, is matter of discussion. For practical purposes Aristotle was the
+first to distinguish between matter ([Greek: hylê]) and form ([Greek:
+eidos]). To Aristotle matter is the undifferentiated primal element: it
+is rather that from which things develop ([Greek: hypokeimenon], [Greek:
+dynamis]) than a thing in itself ([Greek: energeia]). The development of
+particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation,
+the acquiring of particular _forms_ of which the knowable universe
+consists (cf. CAUSATION for the Aristotelian "formal cause"). The
+perfection of the form of a thing is its entelechy ([Greek:
+entelecheia]) in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of
+function (_De anima_, ii. 2, [Greek: hê men hylê dynamis to de eidos
+entelecheia]). Thus the entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of
+the differentiation process is to be sought in a "prime mover" ([Greek:
+prôton kinoun]), i.e. pure form entirely separate ([Greek: chôriston])
+from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own
+activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in
+matter ([Greek: hôs erômenon], [Greek: ou kinoumenon]). The Aristotelian
+conception of form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases
+unintelligently, adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its
+origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely
+foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of
+Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its "subsistent
+forms" (_formae separatae_) from the material with its "inherent forms"
+which exist only in combination with matter. Bacon, returning to the
+physical standpoint, maintained that all true research must be devoted
+to the discovery of the real nature or essence of things. His induction
+searches for the true "form" of light, heat and so forth, analysing the
+external "form" given in perception into simpler "forms" and their
+"differences." Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot
+things, and discover that which is present in all, excluding all those
+qualities which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples
+investigated: the "form" of heat is the residuum common to all. Kant
+transferred the term from the objective to the subjective sphere. All
+perception is necessarily conditioned by pure "forms of sensibility,"
+i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived is perceived as having
+spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE AND TIME; KANT). These forms
+are not obtained by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they
+strictly speaking innate: they are obtained "by the very action of the
+mind from the co-ordination of its sensation."
+
+
+
+
+FORMALIN, or FORMALDEHYDE, CH2O or H·CHO, the first member of the series
+of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is most readily prepared by passing
+the vapour of methyl alcohol, mixed with air, over heated copper or
+platinum. In order to collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed
+and absorbed, either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained,
+although only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium
+formate. At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing a
+pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant, a 40%
+solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol, sold as _formalin_,
+being employed as a deodorant, fungicide and preservative. It is not
+possible to obtain the aldehyde in a pure condition, since it readily
+polymerizes. It is a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to
+form _hexamethylene tetramine_, (CH2)6N4, and easily "condenses" in the
+presence of many bases to produce compounds which apparently belong to
+the sugars (q.v.). It renders glue or gelatin insoluble in water, and is
+used in the coal-tar colour industry in the manufacture of
+para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines. Several polymers have been
+described. _Para-formaldehyde_, or trioxymethylene, obtained by
+concentrating solutions of formaldehyde _in vacuo_, is a white
+crystalline solid, which sublimes at about 100° C. and melts at a
+somewhat higher temperature, changing back into the original form. It is
+insoluble in cold water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed
+to separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform
+(Körber, _Pharm. Zeit._, 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach and H.
+Barschall (_Chem. Zentr._, 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three polymers by
+acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions of formaldehyde,
+and a fourth by heating one of the forms so obtained. The strength of
+solutions of formaldehyde may be ascertained by the addition of excess
+of standard ammonia to the aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine
+being formed), the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration
+with standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the oxidation of
+methane at high temperatures, see W.A. Bone (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1902,
+81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde also appears to be a
+reduction product of carbon dioxide (see _Annual Reports of the Chemical
+Society_).
+
+
+
+
+FORMAN, ANDREW (c. 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was educated at
+the university of St Andrews and entered the service of King James IV.
+about 1489. He soon earned the favour of this king, who treated him with
+great generosity and who on several occasions sent him on important
+embassies to the English, the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he
+became bishop of Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his
+appointment as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised to
+make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his own land
+Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant archbishopric of St
+Andrews and was made papal legate in Scotland, but it was some time
+before he secured possession of the see owing to the attempts of Henry
+VIII. to subject Scotland to England and to the efforts of his rivals,
+Gavin Douglas, the poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and
+their supporters. Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many
+benefices, the holding of which had made him unpopular, and through the
+good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of Albany, obtained the
+coveted archbishopric and the primacy of Scotland. Afterwards he was one
+of the vice-regents of the kingdom and he died on the 11th of March
+1521. As archbishop he issued a series of constitutions which are
+printed in J. Robertson's _Concilia Scotiae_ (1866). Mr Andrew Lang
+(_History of Scotland_, vol. i.) describes Forman as "the Wolsey of
+Scotland, and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden."
+
+  See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of _The
+  Archbishops of St Andrews_, by J. Herkless and R.K. Hannay (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FORMAN, SIMON (1552-1611), English physician and astrologer, was born in
+1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton, Wiltshire. At the age of
+fourteen he became apprentice to a druggist at Salisbury, but at the end
+of four years he exchanged this profession for that of a schoolmaster.
+Shortly afterwards he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied
+chiefly medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in
+Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane, London,
+but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account underwent more than
+one term of imprisonment. Ultimately, however, he obtained a diploma
+from Cambridge university, and established himself as a physician and
+astrologer at Lambeth, where he was consulted, especially as a
+physician, by many persons of rank, among others by the notorious
+countess of Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a
+boat on the 12th of September 1611.
+
+  A list of Forman's works on astrology is given in Bliss's edition of
+  the _Athenae Oxonienses_; many of his MS. works are contained in the
+  Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth Library. _A
+  Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public Library, Plymouth_,
+  was published in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+FORMERET, a French architectural term for the wall-rib carrying the web
+or filling-in of a vault (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL (1711-1797), Franco-German author, was
+born of French parentage at Berlin on the 31st of May 1711. He was
+educated for the ministry, and at the age of twenty became pastor of the
+French church at Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of
+a congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor
+of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739 professor of
+philosophy. On the organization of the academy of Berlin in 1744 he was
+named a member, and in 1748 became its perpetual secretary. He died at
+Berlin on the 7th of March 1797. His principal works are _La Belle
+Wolfienne_ (1741-1750, 6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view
+of enforcing the precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; _Bibliothèque
+critique, ou mémoires pour servir à l'histoire littéraire ancienne et
+moderne_ (1746); _Le Philosophe chrétien_ (1750); _L'Émile chrétien_
+(1764), intended as an answer to the _Émile_ of Rousseau; and _Souvenirs
+d'un citoyen_ (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense number of
+contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the Berlin Academy.
+
+
+
+
+FORMIA (anc. _Formiae_, called Mola di Gaeta until recent times), a town
+of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 48 m.
+W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 (town); 8452 (commune). It is situated
+at the N.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views.
+It lay on the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by
+wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property here and along
+the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are numerous remains of ancient
+villas along the coast and on the slopes above it. The so-called villa
+of Cicero contains two well-preserved _nymphaea_ with Doric
+architecture. Its site is now occupied by the villa Caposele, once a
+summer residence of the kings of Naples. There are many other modern
+villas, and the sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly
+behind the town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens.
+The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is also
+covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned by a large
+tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is a large villa with
+substructions in "Cyclopean" work. The ancient Formiae was, according to
+the legend, the home of the Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony
+([Greek: Hormiaidia to euormon], Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a
+Volscian town, and, like Fundi, received the _civitas sine suffragio_
+from Rome in 338 (or 332 B.C.) because the passage through its territory
+had always been secure. This was strategically important for the Romans,
+as the military road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312
+B.C., still easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the
+high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked,
+between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 B.C., with Fundi, it received the full
+citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under the control of
+a _praefectus_ sent from Rome, though it retained its three aediles.
+Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero possessed a favourite villa here,
+and was murdered in its vicinity in 43 B.C., but neither the villa nor
+the tomb can be identified with any certainty. It was devastated by
+Sextus Pompeius, and became a colony, with _duoviri_ as chief
+magistrates, under Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was
+dependent upon it.
+
+  See T. Ashby, "Dessins inédits de Carlo Labruzzi," in _Mélanges de
+  l'école française de Rome_ (1903), 410 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORMIC ACID, H2CO2 or H·COOH, the first member of the series of
+aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula CnH_(2n)O2. It is
+distinguished from the other members of the series by certain
+characteristic properties; for example, it shows an aldehydic character
+in reducing silver salts to metallic silver, and it does not form an
+acid chloride or an acid anhydride. Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an
+acid character, a property not possessed by the nitriles of the other
+members of the series; and, by the abstraction of the elements of water
+from the acid, carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no
+parallel in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is,
+as shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much stronger
+acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs naturally in red ants
+(Lat. _formica_), in stinging nettles, in some mineral waters, in animal
+secretions and in muscle. It may be prepared artificially by the
+oxidation of methyl alcohol and of formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of
+oxalic acid (J. Gay-Lussac, _Ann. chim. phys._, 1831 [2] 46, p. 218),
+but best by heating oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of
+100-110° C. (M. Berthelot, _Ann._, 1856, 98, p. 139). In this reaction a
+glycerol ester is formed as an intermediate product, and undergoes
+decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same time.
+
+    C3H5(OH)3 + H2C2O4 = C3H5(OH)2·OCHO+CO2 + H2O
+    C3H5(OH)2O·CHO + H2O = C3H5(OH)3 + H2CO2.
+
+  Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid or its
+  salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means of
+  hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with alcoholic
+  potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_,
+  vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition being shown by
+  chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, _Ann._, 1832, 1, p. 198).
+  Formates are also produced by the action of moist carbon monoxide on
+  soda lime at 190-220° C. (V. Merz and J. Tibiçira, _Ber._, 1880, 13,
+  p. 23; A. Geuther, _Ann._, 1880, 202, p. 317), or by the action of
+  moist carbon dioxide on potassium (H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, _Ann._,
+  1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissan (_Comptes rend._, 1902, 134, p. 261)
+  prepared potassium formate by passing a current of carbon monoxide or
+  carbon dioxide over heated potassium hydride,
+
+    KH + CO2 = KHCO2 and KH + 2CO = KHCO2 + C.
+
+  A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either by
+  neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being then
+  dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous oxalic acid
+  (Lorin, _Bull. soc. chim._, 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper salt
+  may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130° C. L. Maquenne
+  (_Bull. soc. chim._, 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial acid,
+  _in vacuo_, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75° C.
+
+  Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystallizes
+  at 0° C., melts at 8.6° C. and boils at 100.8° C. Its specific gravity
+  is 1.22 (20°/4°). It is miscible in all proportions with water,
+  alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, the acid decomposes
+  into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and potassium salts,
+  when heated to 400° C., give oxalates and carbonates of the alkali
+  metals, but the magnesium, calcium and barium salts yield carbonates
+  only. The free acid, when heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, is
+  decomposed into water and pure carbon monoxide; when heated with
+  nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic acid and finally to carbon
+  dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as _formates_, and are mostly
+  soluble in water, those of silver and lead being the least soluble.
+  They crystallize well and are readily decomposed. Concentrated
+  sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, with simultaneous
+  liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt, when heated with the
+  calcium salts of higher homologues, gives aldehydes. The silver and
+  mercury salts, when heated, yield the metal, with liberation of carbon
+  dioxide and formation of free formic acid; and the ammonium salt, when
+  distilled, gives some formamide, HCONH2. The esters of the acid may be
+  obtained by distilling a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts and
+  the corresponding alcohol with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.
+
+  _Formamide_, HCONH2, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with
+  ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140° C.,
+
+    2HCO·ONH4 + CO(NH2)2 = 2HCONH2 + (NH4)2CO3;
+
+  by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at 230°
+  C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of potassium
+  cyanate (H. Basarow, _Ber._, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid which
+  boils _in vacuo_ at 150°, but at 192-195° C. under ordinary
+  atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon monoxide
+  and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the formation of
+  mercuric formamide, (HCONH)2Hg.
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic, bounded N. by
+Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by the Chaco Territory, and W. by
+Salta, with the Pilcomayo and Bermejo forming its northern and southern
+boundaries. Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping
+gently to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very
+little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and Paraguay
+rivers, where attempts have been made to form settlements. The
+unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes of wild Indians. The
+climate is hot, the summer temperature rising to a maximum of 104° F.
+Timber-cutting is the principal occupation of the settlers, though
+stock-raising and agriculture engage some attention in the settlements
+on the Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small
+settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in 1900. The
+settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, which it was
+estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The nomadic Indians are
+estimated at 8000.
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSA (called _Taiwan_ by the Chinese, and following them by the
+Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in
+1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean, between the Southern and
+the Eastern China Sea, separated from the Chinese mainland by the
+Formosa Strait, which has a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part.
+The island is 225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line
+measuring 731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.--being thus nearly the same
+size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands forming the
+Japanese empire proper--and extends from 20° 56' to 25° 15' N. and from
+120° to 122° E. It forms part of the long line of islands which are
+interposed as a protective barrier between the Asiatic coast and the
+outer Pacific, and is the cause of the immunity from typhoons enjoyed by
+the ports of China from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. Along the western coast
+is a low plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme width; on the east coast
+there is a rich plain called Giran, and there are also some fertile
+valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, extending up the
+longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan, between which and
+the east coast the Taito range intervenes; but the rest of the island is
+mountainous and covered with virgin forest. In the plains the soil is
+generally of sand or alluvial clay, covered in the valleys with a rich
+vegetable mould. The scenery of Formosa is frequently of majestic
+beauty, and to this it is indebted for its European name, happily
+bestowed by the early Spanish navigators.
+
+On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased to be Japan's
+highest mountain, and took the third place on the list. Mount Morrison
+(14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed Niitaka-yama (New High
+Mountain), stands first, and Mount Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they
+give the name of Setzu-zan (Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount
+Morrison stands nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic,
+but consists of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr
+Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to a height of
+6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval forests of palms,
+banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns, interlacing creepers and
+dense thickets of rattan or stretches of grass higher than a man's
+stature. The next interval of 1000 ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and
+chamoecyparis; then follow pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad
+plateau, and then alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top,
+which consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount Morrison,
+being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous object. Mount
+Sylvia lies in 24° 30' N. lat. There are many other mountains of
+considerable elevation. In the north is Getsurôbi-zan (4101 ft.); and on
+either side of Setzu-zan, with which they form a range running due east
+and west across the island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan
+(7027 ft.). Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan
+(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins a chain of
+three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928), and Niitaka-yama.
+These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and
+Niitaka-yama, stand almost exactly under 121° E. long., in the very
+centre of the island. But the backbone of the island lies east of them,
+extending S. from Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other
+peaks and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and still
+lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan (3752
+ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and Kado-zan (9055
+ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan (4985 ft.). These, it
+will be observed, are all Japanese names, and the heights have been
+determined by Japanese observers. In addition to these remarkable inland
+mountains, Formosa's eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the
+bases of the hills on the seaside taking the form of almost
+perpendicular walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks
+of steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous
+character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to the
+sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has many
+streams, but the only two of any considerable length are the Kotansui,
+which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth at Toko after a course of
+some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters
+the sea at a point 57 m. farther north after a course of 90 m.
+
+The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the driest and
+best months are October, November and December; in the south, December,
+January, February and March. The sea immediately south of Formosa is the
+birthplace of innumerable typhoons, but the high mountains of the island
+protect it partially against the extreme violence of the wind.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation of the island is characterized by
+tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense
+forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (_Laurus
+Camphora_), and the aloe are conspicuous. Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no
+fewer than 65 different kinds of timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu;
+and his specimens are now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree
+which supplies the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not
+uncommon, and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are
+especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers, more
+especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European greenhouses
+have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and other ornamental
+plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance. In the lowlands of the
+western portion, the Chinese have introduced a large number of
+cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice is grown in such quantities as
+to procure for Formosa, in former days, the title of the "granary of
+China"; and the sweet potato, taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are
+also cultivated. Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute,
+hemp, oil and rattans are all articles of export.
+
+The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but at least
+three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys (probably
+_Macacus speciosus_), squirrels, and flying squirrels are fairly
+common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent. A poisonous but
+beautiful green snake is often mentioned by travellers. Pheasants,
+ducks, geese and snipe are abundant, and Dr C. Collingwood in his
+_Naturalist's Rambles in the China Seas_ mentions _Ardea prasinosceles_
+and other species of herons, several species of fly-catchers,
+kingfishers, shrikes and larks, the black drongo, the _Cotyle sinensis_
+and the _Prinia sonitans_. Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The
+horse is hardly known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is
+regularly bridled and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers
+and neighbouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial
+mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant
+coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the _Kurosiwo_ current,
+the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an important article of
+diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines along the coast--a species
+of _Cyrena_, a species of _Tapes_, _Cytheraea petechiana_ and _Modiola
+teres_ being most abundant.
+
+_Population._--The population of Formosa, according to a census in 1904,
+is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows: aborigines 104,334,
+Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770. The inhabitants of Formosa may be
+divided into four classes: the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as
+there has not been much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of
+whom immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the dialect of
+that district, while others were Hakkas from the vicinity of Swatow; the
+subjugated aborigines, who largely intermingled with the Chinese; and
+the uncivilized aborigines of the eastern region who refuse to recognize
+authority and carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized
+aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs, were
+called Pe-pa-hwan (_Anglice_ Pepo-hoans), while their wilder brethren
+bear the name of Chin-hwan or "green savages," otherwise Sheng-fan or
+"wild savages." They appear to belong to the Malay stock, and their
+language bears out the supposition. They are broken up into almost
+countless tribes and clans, many of which number only a few hundred
+individuals, and their language consequently presents a variety of
+dialects, of which no classification has yet been effected: in the
+district of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission
+distinguished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The
+people themselves are described as of "middle height, broad-chested and
+muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet, the eyes large, the
+forehead round, and not narrow or receding in many instances, the nose
+broad, the mouth large and disfigured with betel." The custom of
+tattooing is universal. In the north of the island at least, the dead
+are buried in a sitting posture under the bed on which they have
+expired. Petty wars are extremely common, not only along the Chinese
+frontiers, but between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the
+slain are carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young
+men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they may be
+inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had least intercourse
+with the Chinese show a considerable amount of skill in the arts of
+civilization. The use of Manchester prints and other European goods is
+fairly general; and the women, who make a fine native cloth from hemp,
+introduce coloured threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce
+ornamental devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.
+
+The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku), which is on
+the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about 118,000, including
+5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have two ports; one, Tamsui, at the
+mouth of the river Tamsui-yei, 10 m. distant on the north-west coast,
+the other Kelung (called by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east
+shore, with which it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The
+foreign settlement at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is
+called Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient Pekiang)
+is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful. There are
+coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui (called Tansui by the Japanese)
+is usually termed Hobe by foreigners. It is the site of the first
+foreign settlement, has a population of about 7000, but cannot be made a
+good harbour without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there
+is no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23° N. lat.), a
+port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the sugar
+trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats, and a hotbed of
+malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese and 200 Japanese. At a
+distance of some 2½ m. inland is the former capital of Formosa, the
+walled city of Tainan, which has a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300
+Japanese, and a few British merchants and missionaries. Connected with
+Anping by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port.
+It has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides of a
+large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous Chinese town
+called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages on the east coast are
+Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do not call for special notice.
+Forty-seven m. east of the extreme south coast there is a little island
+called Botel-tobago (Japanese, Koto-sho), which rises to a height of
+1914 ft. and is inhabited by a tribe whose customs differ essentially
+from those of the natives on the main island.
+
+_Administration and Commerce._--The island is treated as an outlying
+territory; it has not been brought within the full purview of the
+Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered by a
+governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the forces, by a
+bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural governors, below
+whom are the heads of twenty territorial divisions called _cho_; its
+finances are not included in the general budget of the Japanese empire;
+it is garrisoned by a mixed brigade taken from the home divisions; and
+its currency is on a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which
+the Japanese had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese
+settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether, as is
+done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public opinion. But,
+influenced by medical views and by the almost insuperable difficulty of
+enforcing any drastic import veto in the face of Formosa's large
+communications by junk with China, the Japanese finally adopted the
+middle course of licensing the preparation and sale of the drug, and
+limiting its use to persons in receipt of medical sanction. Under the
+administration of the Japanese the island has been largely developed.
+Among other industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400
+oz. of gold representing a value of £168,626 were obtained from the
+mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large quantities near
+Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north of the island.
+
+An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned, the four
+main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan; (2) from Tainan to
+Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from Shoka to Kelung; these four
+forming, in effect, a main trunk road running from the south-west to the
+north-east, its course being along the foot of the mountains that border
+the western coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to
+traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line of 259
+m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also are projected,
+but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of capital constitutes a
+fatal obstacle to rapid development.
+
+There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the total
+business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the staple exports. The
+greater part of the former goes to Amoy for re-shipment to the west, but
+it is believed that if harbour improvements were effected at Tamsui so
+as to render it accessible for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be
+made thence direct to New York. The camphor trade being a government
+monopoly, the quantity exported is under strict control.
+
+_History._--The island of Formosa must have been known from a very early
+date to the Chinese who were established in the Pescadores. The
+inhabitants are mentioned in the official works of the Yuan dynasty as
+_Tung-fan_ or eastern barbarians; and under the Ming dynasty the island
+begins to appear as Kilung. In the beginning of the 16th century it
+began to be known to the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the
+latter at least made some attempts at establishing settlements or
+missions. The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the
+island; in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where
+subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was maintained
+for thirty-seven years. On the expulsion of the Ming dynasty in China, a
+number of their defeated adherents came over to Formosa, and under a
+leader called in European accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the
+Dutch and taking possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the
+Chinese of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the island then
+began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close of the 17th
+century a long era of conflict ensued between the Chinese and the
+aborigines. A more debased population than the peoples thus struggling
+for supremacy could scarcely be conceived. The aborigines, _Sheng-fan_,
+or "wild savages," deserved the appellation in some respects, for they
+lived by the chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the
+Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no right except
+that of might. The former were not implacably cruel or vindictive. They
+merely clung to their homesteads, and harboured a natural resentment
+against the raiders who had dispossessed them. Their disposition was to
+leave the Chinese in unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the
+most valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be
+found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they ventured too
+far in search of these products, fell into ambushes of hill-men who
+neither gave nor sought quarter, and who regarded a Chinese skull as a
+specially attractive article of household furniture. A violent rebellion
+is mentioned in 1788, put down only after the loss, it is said, of
+100,000 men by disease and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels
+of silver. Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it
+is true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of
+administrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening of
+partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a section of
+the _Sheng-fan_, who thenceforth became known as Pe-pa-hwan
+(_Pepohoan_).
+
+In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly known to
+Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place on its coasts, and
+the dangers that the crews had to run from the cannibal propensities of
+the aborigines, and the almost equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese.
+Among the most notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig "Ann,"
+with fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed at
+Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened to European
+commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable for a port of trade,
+and the harbour of Tamsui was selected instead. From 1859 both
+Protestant and Presbyterian missions were established in the island. An
+attack made on those at Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation
+of Fort Zelandia and Anping by British forces; but this action was
+disapproved by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from the
+Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the Japanese for the
+purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder of a shipwrecked crew
+who had been put to death by one of the semi-savage tribes on the
+southern coast, the Chinese government being either unable or unwilling
+to punish the culprits. A war was averted through the good offices of
+the British minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment
+of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the island
+during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872 there is recorded a
+proverb among the official classes, "every three years an outbreak,
+every five a rebellion"; but subsequent to 1877 some improvement was
+manifested, and public works were pushed forward by the Chinese
+authorities. In 1884, in the course of belligerent proceedings arising
+out of the Tongking dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were
+bombarded by the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for
+some months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town of
+Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained by the
+French fleet during the winter and spring of 1884-1885. The troops were
+withdrawn on the conclusion of peace in June 1885.
+
+In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki at
+the close of the Japanese war. The resident Chinese officials, however,
+refused to recognize the cession, declared a republic, and prepared to
+offer resistance. It is even said they offered to transfer the
+sovereignty to Great Britain if that power would accept it. A formal
+transfer to Japan was made in June of the same year in pursuance of the
+treaty, the ceremony taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the
+Chinese commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were thus
+left to take possession as best they could, and some four months elapsed
+before they effected a landing on the south of the island. Takau was
+bombarded and captured on the 15th of October, and the resistance
+collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious Black Flag general, and the
+back-bone of the resistance, sought refuge in flight. The general state
+of the island when the Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of
+Giran on the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by
+semi-barbarous folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,
+and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous
+feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and murderous violence. By
+many of these Chinese settlers the Japanese conquerors, when they came
+to occupy the island, were regarded in precisely the same light as the
+Chinese themselves had been regarded from time immemorial by the
+aborigines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving
+secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties of the
+Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of the country,
+which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find almost inaccessible
+refuge, but also by the unwillingness of experienced officials to
+abandon their home posts for the purpose of taking service in the new
+territory.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. Imbault-Huart, _L'Île Formose, histoire et
+  description_ (Paris, 1893), 4^o; J.D. Clark, _Formosa_ (Shanghai,
+  1896); W.A. Pickering, _Pioneering in Formosa_ (London, 1898); George
+  Candidius, _A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the Indies_
+  ..., vol. i.; Churchill's _Collection of Voyages_ (1744); Robert
+  Swinhoe, _Notes on the Island of Formosa_, read before the British
+  Association (1863); W. Campbell, "Aboriginal Savages of Formosa,"
+  _Ocean Highways_ (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, _Description de l'île de
+  Formose, mém. rel. à l'Asie_ (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes, _Notes of a Six
+  Years' Residence in Formosa_ (London, 1881); Y. Takekoshi, _Japanese
+  Rule in Formosa_ (transl. by G. Braithwaite) (London, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen V. (or VI.). He
+first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, he was sent on an
+embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards sided with a faction
+against John VIII., he was excommunicated, and compelled to take an oath
+never to return to Rome or again to assume his priestly functions. From
+this oath he was, however, absolved by Marinus, the successor of John
+VIII., and restored to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in
+891 he was chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a
+struggle against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a
+powerful party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,
+king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus himself
+shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances and to
+consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had
+already been consecrated by Stephen V., and died in 894. In the
+following year Arnulf succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned
+him emperor. But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf
+was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.
+Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April 896. The
+discords in which he had been involved continued after his death. The
+validity of his acts was contested on the pretext that, having been
+originally bishop of Porto, he could not be a legitimate pope. The
+fundamental factor in these dissensions was the rivalry between the
+princes of Spoleto and the Carolingian house, represented by the king of
+Germany. The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., and
+treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal throne; but
+Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at a council presided
+over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus was declared valid and all
+his acts confirmed.     (L. D.*)
+
+
+
+
+FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of _forma_, shape, pattern, &c., especially
+used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a stereotyped form of
+words to be used on stated occasions, for specific purposes, ceremonies,
+&c. In the sciences, the word usually denotes a symbolical statement of
+certain facts; for example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition
+of a substance (see CHEMISTRY); a botanical formula gives the
+differentia of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement
+and number of the teeth of an animal.
+
+
+
+
+FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756-1799), Spanish satirist and scholar,
+was born at Mérida (Badajoz) on the 23rd of February 1756, studied at
+the university of Salamanca, and was called to the bar at Madrid in
+1783. During the next few years--under the pseudonyms of "Tomé Cecial,"
+"Pablo Segarra," "Don Antonio Varas," "Bartolo," "Pablo Ignocausto," "El
+Bachiller Regañadientes," and "Silvio Liberio"--Forner was engaged in a
+series of polemics with García de la Huerta, Iriarte and other writers;
+the violence of his attacks was so extreme that he was finally forbidden
+to publish any controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal
+post at Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where he
+died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner's brutality is almost unexampled,
+and his satirical writings give a false impression of his powers. His
+_Oración apologética por la España y su mérito literario_ (1787) is an
+excellent example of learned advocacy, far superior to similar efforts
+made by Denina and Antonio Cavanilles; and his posthumous _Exequias de
+la lengua castellana_ (printed in the _Biblioteca de autores españoles_,
+vol. lxiii.) testifies to his scholarship and taste.
+
+
+
+
+FORRES (Gaelic, _far uis_, "near water"), a royal and police burgh of
+Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901) 4317. It is situated on
+the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town and is crossed by a suspension
+bridge about a mile to the W., 11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland
+railway, and 6 m. by road from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one
+of the most ancient towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald
+(892-900), son of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of
+poisoning, and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said
+to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name to
+Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in 1297 by the
+adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal residence from 1189 to
+1371 and was occupied occasionally by William the Lion, Alexander II.
+and David II. It was burned down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The
+ruins on the hill, however, are those of a later edifice and are
+surmounted by a granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of
+Surgeon James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his life
+tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The public
+buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious house on the site
+of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum, containing among other
+exhibits several valuable fossils, and named after Dr Hugh Falconer
+(1808-1865), the distinguished palaeontologist and botanist, a native of
+the town; the mechanics' institute; the agricultural and market hall;
+Leanchoil hospital and Anderson's Institution for poor boys. The cross,
+in Decorated Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on
+the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite public
+resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which was erected
+in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern slopes a well-known
+hydropathic. An excellent golf-course extends from Kinloss to Findhorn.
+The industries comprise the manufacture of chemicals and artificial
+manures, granite polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making,
+carriage-building and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable
+trade in cattle.
+
+Sueno's Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured
+monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town. Its
+origin and character have given rise to endless surmises. It is carved
+with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and captives on one
+side, and on the other with a cross and Runic ornamentation. One theory
+is that it is a relic of the early Christian church, symbolizing the
+battle of life and the triumph of good over evil. According to an older
+tradition it was named after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who
+won a victory on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it
+commemorates the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene's view
+is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of
+Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied stone is called
+the Witches' Stone, because it marks the place near Forres where Macbeth
+is said to have encountered the weird sisters.
+
+Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs,
+the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness. The town is
+amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest rainfall in the
+county.
+
+Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of Altyre,
+the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther south is Relugas
+House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, romantically
+situated on a height near the confluence of the Divie and the Findhorn.
+Not far away stand the ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left
+bank of the Findhorn, 3½ m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle,
+partly ancient and partly modern. The Brodies--the old name of their
+estate was Brothie, from the Irish _broth_, a ditch, in allusion to the
+trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of the house--were
+a family of great consequence at the period of the Covenant. Alexander
+Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth laird, was one of the commissioners
+who went to the Hague to treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a
+Scottish lord of session and an English judge. He and his son were
+regarded as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south
+is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands the earl
+of Moray's mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies the site of the
+castle which was built by Thomas Randolph, the first earl. Attached to
+it is the great hall, capable of accommodating 1000 men, with an open
+roof of fine dark oak, the only remaining portion of the castle that was
+erected by Archibald Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a
+council in it in 1562. Earl Randolph's chair, not unlike the coronation
+chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands some 2½
+m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by David I., and
+remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its suppression at the
+Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from 1526 to 1540, was its greatest
+abbot. His hobby was gardening, and it is believed that many of the 123
+varieties of pears and 146 varieties of apples for which the district is
+famous were due to his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the
+abbey for a short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in
+1562.
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, EDWIN (1806-1872), American actor, was born at Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of Scottish and German descent.
+He made his first stage appearance on the 27th of November 1820, at the
+Walnut Street theatre, in Home's _Douglas_. In 1826 he had a great
+success in New York as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the
+_Gladiator_ in 1836, but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English
+audience, and his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly
+afterwards--when he stood up in a private box and hissed him,--was fatal
+to his popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted in
+the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine, daughter
+of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce suit in 1852 was a
+_cause célèbre_ which hurt his reputation and soured his temper. His
+last appearance was as Richelieu in Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th
+of December 1872. He had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left
+by will to found a home for aged actors.
+
+  See Lawrence Barrett's _Edwin Forrest_ (Boston, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, SIR JOHN (1847- ), West Australian statesman and explorer, son
+of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia, was born near Bunbury,
+on the 22nd of August 1847, and educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he
+became connected with the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in
+1869 led an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D.
+Leichardt, penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as
+123° E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to Adelaide,
+along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother Alexander Forrest
+(born 1849), he explored eastwards from Champion Bay, following as far
+as possible the 26th parallel, and striking the telegraph line between
+Adelaide and Port Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in
+about five months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine
+achievement (see AUSTRALIA: _Exploration_). John Forrest also surveyed
+in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers Ashburton and Lady
+Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district. In 1876 he was made deputy
+surveyor-general, receiving the thanks of the colony for his services
+and a grant of 5000 acres of land; for a few months at the end of 1878
+he acted as commissioner of crown lands and surveyor-general, being
+given the full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the
+colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government, Sir John
+Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G. in 1901) became its
+first premier, and he held that position till in 1901 he joined the
+Commonwealth government, first as minister for defence, later as
+minister for home affairs and postmaster-general, resigning the office
+of federal treasurer in July 1907. His influence in West Australia was
+one of an almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his
+personality and his success in enforcing his views (see WESTERN
+AUSTRALIA: _History_). In 1897 he was made a member of the Privy
+Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret Hamersley. He
+published _Explorations in Australia_ (1876) and _Notes on Western
+Australia_ (1884-1887).
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-1877), Confederate cavalry general in the
+American Civil War, was born near Chapel Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of
+July 1821. Before his father's death in 1837 the family had removed to
+Mississippi, and for some years thereafter it was supported principally
+by Nathan, who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal
+education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling of his
+war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very fair success,
+and is said to have possessed considerable ability as a mathematician.
+He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in Mississippi, and a slave
+dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until 1859, when he took to cotton
+planting in north-western Mississippi, where he acquired considerable
+wealth. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a
+private, raised a cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and
+in February 1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and
+refusing, like Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of
+the Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with all
+the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel and regimental
+commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction, receiving a severe
+wound. Shortly after this he was promoted brigadier-general (July 1862).
+At the head of a mounted brigade he took a brilliant part in General
+Bragg's autumn campaign, and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was
+continually active in raiding the hostile lines of communication. These
+raids have been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole
+their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time, and apart
+from the question of their utility, Forrest's raids were uniformly bold
+and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the history of the
+cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan, he was the finest
+cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the most remarkable of his
+actions was his capture, near Rome, Georgia, after five days of marching
+and fighting, of an entire cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight
+(April 1863). He was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September,
+after which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the
+army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest was made
+a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of 1863-1864 he was as
+active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he raided as far north as
+Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864 he assaulted and captured Fort
+Pillow, in Tennessee on the Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a
+large part of the garrison and according to survivors many were
+massacred after the fort had surrendered. The "Massacre of Fort Pillow"
+has been the subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting
+testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself had
+no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated a
+superior Federal force at Brice's Cross Roads, Miss., and throughout the
+year, though the greatest efforts were made by the Federals to crush
+him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and Alabama with almost
+unvarying success. He was once more with the main Confederate army of
+the West in the last disastrous campaign of Nashville, and fought
+stubborn rearguard actions to cover the retreat of the broken
+Confederates. In February 1865 he was made a lieut.-general, but the
+struggle was almost at an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the
+ablest of the Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few
+Confederates, now under Forrest's command, and stormed Selma, Alabama,
+on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his whole
+command, under the agreement between General Richard Taylor and General
+E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May. After the war he lived in
+Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation in 1867, and for some years was
+president of the Selma, Marion and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis,
+Tennessee, on the 29th of October 1877.
+
+The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions of his
+technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his arm of the
+service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He never commanded a
+large force of all arms. He was uneducated, and had neither experience
+of nor training for the strategical handling of great armies. Yet his
+personality and his natural soldierly gifts were such that General
+Sherman considered him "the most remarkable man the Civil War produced
+on either side." Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose
+greatness lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that
+Forrest, had he had the advantage of a thorough military training,
+"would have been the great central figure of the war."
+
+  See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FORSKÅL, PETER (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was born
+in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Göttingen, where he published a
+dissertation entitled _Dubia de principiis philosophiae recentioris_
+(1756). Thence he returned to his native country, which, however, he had
+to leave after the publication of a pamphlet entitled _Pensées sur la
+liberté civile_ (1759). By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V.
+of Denmark, who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an
+expedition to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at Jerim
+in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763.
+
+  His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the care of
+  editing his MSS., and published in 1775 _Descriptiones animalium,
+  avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium, quae in itin.
+  Orient. observavit Petrus Forskål_. In the same year appeared also his
+  account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower Egypt, under the
+  title of _Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica_.
+
+
+
+
+FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG (1843-1901), Swedish historian and political
+writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished mathematician, was
+born at Gefle, where his father was professor, on 14th January 1843. At
+the age of sixteen he became a student in Upsala University, where he
+distinguished himself, and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of
+doctor, he was appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty,
+however, Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity,
+was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post after
+another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was appointed head of
+the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to the department of inland
+revenue, of which he continued to be president until the time of his
+death. In addition to the responsibilities which these offices devolved
+upon him, Forssell was constantly called to serve on royal commissions,
+and his political influence was immense. In spite of all these public
+duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence, Forssell
+also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of his historical
+writings the most important were: _The Administrative and Economical
+History of Sweden after Gustavus I._ (1869-1875) and _Sweden in 1571_
+(1872). He was also for several years, in company with the poet Wirsén,
+editor of the _Swedish Literary Review_. He published two volumes of
+_Studies and_ _Criticisms_ (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death
+of the historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat
+on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great, and he
+understood so little the economy of strength, that he unquestionably
+overtaxed his vital force. His death, however, which occurred with great
+suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901 while he was staying at San
+Bernardino in Switzerland, was wholly unexpected. There was little of
+the typical Swedish urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was
+somewhat dry and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life
+administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain want of
+sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were distinct, and held
+with great firmness; for example, he was a free-trader, and his
+consistent opposition to what he called "the new system" had a
+considerable effect on Swedish policy. He was not exactly an attractive
+man, but he was a capable, upright and efficient public servant. In 1867
+he married Miss Zulamith Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known
+pomologist of Upsala; she survived him, with two sons and two daughters.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FORST (originally FORSTA or FORSTE), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old
+Lutheran church; there are two schools and two hospitals in the town.
+The chief industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,
+dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on. Founded
+in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke of Saxe-Merseburg,
+becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740. It was ceded to Prussia in
+1815.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, FRANÇOIS (1790-1872), French engraver, was born at Locle in
+Neufchâtel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In 1805 he was apprenticed to an
+engraver in Paris, and he also studied painting and engraving
+simultaneously in the École des Beaux-Arts. His preference was
+ultimately fixed on the latter art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the
+first "grand prix de gravure," the king of Prussia, who was then with
+the allies in Paris, bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500
+francs for two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in
+Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works of Raphael.
+In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy. He died at Paris on the
+27th of June 1872. Forster occupied the first position among the French
+engravers of his time, and was equally successful in historical pieces
+and in portraits. Among his works may be mentioned--The Three Graces,
+and _La Vierge de la légende_, after Raphael; _La Vierge au bas-relief_,
+after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros; St
+Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Dürer and Henry IV., after Porbus;
+Wellington, after Gérard; and Queen Victoria, after Winterhalter.
+
+
+
+
+FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German historian and poet, was
+the second son of Karl Christoph Förster (1751-1811), and consequently a
+brother of the painter, Ernest Joachim Förster (1800-1885). Born at
+Münchengosserstadt on the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he
+received his early education at Altenburg, and after a course of
+theology at Jena, devoted some time to archaeology and the history of
+art. At the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the
+army, quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs added
+to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the war he was
+appointed professor at the school of engineering and artillery in
+Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings he was dismissed from
+this office in 1817. He then became connected with various journals
+until about 1829, when he received an appointment at the royal museum in
+Berlin, with the title of court councillor (_Hofrat_). He was the
+founder and secretary of the _Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein_ in Berlin,
+and died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Förster's principal
+works are: _Beiträge zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1816);
+_Grundzüge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates_ (Berlin, 1818); _Der
+Feldmarschall Blücher und seine Umgebungen_ (Leipzig, 1820); _Friedrich
+der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist_ (Berlin, 1822); _Albrecht
+von Wallenstein_ (Potsdam, 1834); _Friedrich Wilhelm I., König von
+Preussen_ (Potsdam, 1834-1835); _Die Höfe und Kabinette Europas im 18.
+Jahrhundert_ (Potsdam, 1836-1839); _Leben und Taten Friedrichs des
+Grossen_ (Meissen, 1840-1841); _Wallensteins Prozess_ (Leipzig, 1844);
+and _Preussens Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste
+preussische Geschichte_, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three
+concluding volumes of this work contain the history of the war of
+liberation of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel's works,
+adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote a number
+of poems and an historical drama, _Gustav Adolf_ (Berlin, 1832).
+
+  Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as
+  _Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzählungen und Legenden_ (Berlin, 1838). The
+  beginning of an autobiography of Förster, edited by H. Kletke, has
+  been published under the title, _Kunst und Leben_ (Berlin, 1873).
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794), German traveller and author, was
+born at Nassenhuben, a small village near Danzig, on the 27th of
+November 1754. His father, Johann Reinhold Forster, a man of great
+scientific attainments but an intractable temper, was at that time
+pastor of the place; the family are said to have been of Scottish
+extraction. In 1765 the elder Forster was commissioned by the empress
+Catherine to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov,
+which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian language and
+the elements of a scientific education. After a few years the father
+quarrelled with the Russian government, and went to England, where he
+obtained a professorship of natural history and the modern languages at
+the famous non-conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon
+compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years he and his
+son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in London--a
+practical education, however, exceedingly useful to the younger Forster,
+who became a thorough master of English, and acquired many of the ideas
+which chiefly influenced his subsequent life. At length the turning
+point in his career came in the shape of an invitation for him and his
+father to accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world.
+Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth Forster's
+peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voyage (_A Voyage round the
+World_, London, 1777; in German, Berlin, 1778-1780), is almost the first
+example of the glowing yet faithful description of natural phenomena
+which has since made a knowledge of them the common property of the
+educated world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for
+some time by differences with the admiralty, during which Forster
+proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment for his father as
+professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise that it was conferred
+upon himself. The elder Forster, however, was soon provided for
+elsewhere, being appointed professor of natural history at Halle. At
+Cassel Forster formed an intimate friendship with the great anatomist
+Sömmerring, and about the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who
+gave him a leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently
+emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus at
+Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Göttingen, where he became
+betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the illustrious philologist,
+a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited to be Forster's wife. To
+be able to marry he accepted (1784) a professorship at the university of
+Wilna, which he did not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of
+Polish circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife's
+letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he
+resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition
+projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment of this
+undertaking became librarian to the elector of Mainz. He actively
+promoted the incorporation of the left bank of the Rhine with France and
+in 1793 went to Paris to carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however,
+the Germans seized Mainz, and Forster--already disheartened by the turn
+of events in France--was cut off from all return. Domestic sorrows were
+added to his political troubles and he died suddenly at Paris on the
+10th of January 1794.
+
+Forster's masterpiece is his _Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant,
+Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich_ (1791-1794), one of the
+ablest books of travel of the 18th century. His style is clear and
+vivid; his method of describing what he sees extraordinarily plastic;
+above all, he has the art of presenting objects to us from their most
+interesting and attractive side. The same qualities are also more or
+less conspicuous in his minor writings. By his translation (from the
+English) of the _Sakuntala_ of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German
+interest in Indian literature.
+
+  Forster's _Sämtliche Werke_ appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843.
+  The _Ansichten vom Rhein_, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best
+  edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published
+  (Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster's _Kleine Schriften_, which
+  originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence was
+  published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his _Briefwechsel mit
+  Sömmerring_ by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See J. Moleschott, _G.
+  Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks_ (1854; 3rd ed., 1874); K. Klein,
+  _G. Forster in Mainz_ (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann, _G. Forster_
+  (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876), English biographer and critic, was born on
+the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father, who was a Unitarian and
+belonged to the junior branch of a good Northumberland family, was a
+cattle-dealer. After being well grounded in classics and mathematics at
+the grammar school of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to
+Cambridge, but after only a month's residence he removed to London,
+where he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the
+Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary pursuits.
+He contributed to _The True Sun, The Morning Chronicle_ and to _The
+Examiner_, for which he acted as literary and dramatic critic; and the
+influence of his powerful individuality soon made itself felt. His
+_Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1836-1839) appeared partly
+in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with
+a _Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History_. Its merits
+obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became a prominent figure in
+that distinguished circle of literary men which included Bulwer,
+Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor, Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is
+said to have been for some time engaged to Letitia Landon, but the
+engagement was broken off, and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In
+1843 he was called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.
+For some years he edited the _Foreign Quarterly Review_; in 1846, on the
+retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some months of the
+_Daily News_; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the _Examiner_. From 1836
+onwards he contributed to the _Edinburgh Quarterly_ and _Foreign
+Quarterly_ Reviews a variety of articles, some of which were republished
+in two volumes of _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1858). In 1848
+appeared his admirable _Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith_ (revised in
+1854). Continuing his researches into English history under the early
+Stuarts, he published in 1860 the _Arrest of the Five Members by Charles
+I.--A Chapter of English History rewritten_, and _The Debates on the
+Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English Freedom_.
+These were followed by his _Sir John Eliot: a Biography_ (1864),
+elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the _Lives of Eminent
+British Statesmen_. In 1868 appeared his _Life of Landor_, and, on the
+death of his friend Alexander Dyce, Forster undertook the publication of
+his third edition of Shakespeare. For several years he had been
+collecting materials for a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies
+in this direction to write his standard _Life of Charles Dickens_. He
+had long been intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that
+John Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared in
+1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the close of 1875
+the first volume of his _Life of Swift_ was published; and he had made
+some progress in the preparation of the second at the time of his death
+on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855 Forster had been appointed
+secretary to the lunacy commission, and from 1861 to 1872 he held the
+office of a commissioner in lunacy. His valuable collection of
+manuscripts, including the original copies of Charles Dickens's novels,
+together with his books and pictures, was bequeathed to South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+  An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the
+  official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886), British surgeon, was born in 1823 in
+Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather before him had been
+local medical practitioners. He entered Guy's hospital in 1841, was
+appointed demonstrator of anatomy in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and
+surgeon, 1870. He became a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844,
+fellow in 1849 and president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold
+operator. In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in
+England for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known
+papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,
+intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and colloid
+cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book on _Surgical
+Diseases of Children_ in 1860, founded on his experience as surgeon to
+the hospital for children and women in Waterloo Road. He died suddenly
+in London on the 2nd of March 1886.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886), British statesman, was born of Quaker
+parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire on the 11th of July 1818. He was
+educated at the Friends' school at Tottenham, where his father's family
+had long been settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He
+declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming in due time
+a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford, Yorkshire (from which
+after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale), he soon made himself
+known as a practical philanthropist. In 1846-1847 he accompanied his
+father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the
+famine in Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression
+on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's _Life of
+William Penn_, defending the Quaker statesman against Macaulay's
+criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of the famous
+Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a Quaker, and her husband was formally
+excommunicated for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to
+announce the sentence "shook hands and stayed to luncheon." Forster
+thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England, for which,
+indeed, he was in later life charged with having too great a partiality.
+There were no children of the marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother,
+William Arnold, died in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted
+them as their own.
+
+One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909), the
+well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament, who eventually became
+a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he was secretary to the admiralty
+(1900-1903), and then secretary of state for war (1903-1905), and was
+the author of numerous educational books published by Cassell & Co., of
+which firm he was a director.
+
+W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public affairs by
+speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture before the Leeds
+Philosophical Institution on "How we Tax India." In 1859 he stood as
+Liberal candidate for Leeds, but was beaten. But he was highly esteemed
+in the West Riding, and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford.
+In 1865 (unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again
+returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the
+American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary for the
+colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then that he first became a
+prominent advocate of imperial federation. In 1866 his attitude on
+parliamentary reform attracted a good deal of attention. His speeches
+were full of knowledge of the real condition of the people, and
+contained something like an original programme of Radical legislation.
+"We have other things to do," he said, "besides extending the franchise.
+We want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid of
+pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class which is
+more to be dreaded than the holders of a £7 franchise--I mean the
+dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see whether we cannot
+make for the agricultural labourer some better hope than the workhouse
+in his old age. We want to have Old England as well taught as New
+England." In these words he heralded the education campaign which
+occupied the country for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform
+Bill had passed, the necessity of "inducing our masters to learn their
+letters" (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr Forster and Mr
+Cardwell, as private members in opposition, brought in Education Bills
+in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when the Liberal party returned to
+office, Mr Forster was appointed vice-president of the council, with the
+duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The
+Elementary Education Bill (see EDUCATION) was introduced on the 17th of
+February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. The
+Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education League had
+already formulated in the provinces the two opposing theories, the
+former standing for the preservation of denominational interests, the
+latter advocating secular rate-aided education as the only means of
+protecting Nonconformity against the Church. The Dissenters were by no
+means satisfied with Forster's "conscience clause" as contained in the
+bill, and they regarded him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own
+side; while they resented the "25th clause," permitting school boards to
+pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the
+rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th of March,
+when the second reading came on, the controversy had assumed threatening
+proportions; and Mr Dixon, the Liberal member for Birmingham and
+chairman of the Education League, moved an amendment, the effect of
+which was to prohibit all religious education in board schools. The
+government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the
+amendment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the
+Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed. Extremists
+on both sides abused Forster, but the government had a difficult set of
+circumstances to deal with, and he acted like a prudent statesman in
+contenting himself with what he could get. An ideal bill was
+impracticable; it is to Forster's enduring credit that the bill of 1870,
+imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of
+national education in England without running absolutely counter to the
+most cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal agencies
+already in existence.
+
+Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act of 1872, but
+for several years afterwards his life was uneventful. In 1874 he was
+again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting attacks, and he took
+his full share of the work of the Opposition Front Bench. In 1875, when
+Mr Gladstone "retired," he was strongly supported for the leadership of
+the Liberal party, but declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington.
+In the same year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen
+University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming large, he
+visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches on the subject
+were marked by studious moderation, distasteful to extremists on both
+sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office in 1880 he was made chief
+secretary for Ireland, with Lord Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried
+the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see
+it thrown out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the
+agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy autumn and
+winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion in grappling with the
+situation in Ireland (see IRELAND) were indefatigable, his labour was
+enormous, and the personal risks he ran were many; but he enjoyed the
+Irish character in spite of all obstacles, and inspired genuine
+admiration in all his coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he
+introduced a new Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the
+growth of the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it
+to be "the most painful duty" he had ever had to perform, and one which
+would have prevented his accepting his office if he had known that it
+would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its provisions being one
+enabling the Irish government to arrest without trial persons
+"reasonably suspected" of crime and conspiracy. The Irish party used
+every opportunity in and out of parliament for resenting this act, and
+Forster was kept constantly on the move between Dublin and London,
+conducting his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in
+the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and anxiety to
+meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing with such antagonists,
+and the strain was intense and continuous. He was nicknamed "Buckshot"
+by the Nationalist press, on the supposition that he had ordered its use
+by the police when firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell
+was arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed. From that
+time Forster's life was in constant danger, and he had to be escorted by
+mounted police when he drove in Dublin. Early in March 1882 he visited
+some of the worst districts in Ireland, and addressed the crowd at
+Tullamore on the subject of outrages, denouncing the people for their
+want of courage in not assisting the government, but adding, "whether
+you do or not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages,
+and stop them we will." Forster's pluck in speaking out like this was
+fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the revelations
+connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the dangers he had
+confronted were properly realized, and it became known that several
+plans to murder him had only been frustrated by the merest accidents. On
+the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone announced that the government intended to
+release Mr Parnell and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both
+Lord Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and the
+following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was,
+with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It was characteristic of the
+man that Forster at once offered to go back to Dublin temporarily as
+chief secretary, but the offer was declined. His position naturally
+attracted universal attention towards him, particularly during the
+debates which ensued in parliament on the "Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr
+Gladstone's influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of
+the damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and Forster's
+pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans to accuse him of
+a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the next session that he
+delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in the debate on the address,
+denouncing him for his connexion with the Land League, and quoting
+against him the violent speeches of his supporters and the articles of
+his newspaper organs. It was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's
+charging him, not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or
+murder, but with conniving at them, ejaculated "It's a lie"; and,
+replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving
+Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration.
+Though, during the few remaining years of his life, Forster's political
+record covered various interesting subjects, his connexion with these
+stormy times in Ireland throws them all into shadow. He died on the 6th
+of April 1886, on the eve of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to
+which he was stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other
+questions on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian
+Liberalism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor
+was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the Birmingham
+programme. When the Redistribution Act divided Bradford into three
+constituencies, Forster was returned for the central division, but he
+never took his seat in the new parliament.
+
+Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative of the
+English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic, independent,
+incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed not only with great
+sympathy with progress, but also with a full faculty for resistance to
+mere democraticism. He was tall (the Yorkshiremen called him "Long
+Forster") and strongly though stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes
+and straightforward manners and methods, was a typical North-country
+figure. His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and
+force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing to the
+government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum, spoke of Mr
+Gladstone as able "to persuade most people of most things, and himself
+of almost anything," and though the phrase was much resented by Mr
+Gladstone's _entourage_, the truth that underlay it may be taken as
+representing the very converse of his own character. His personal
+difficulties with some of his colleagues, both in regard to the
+Education Act of 1870 and his Irish administration, must be properly
+understood if a complete comprehension of his political career is to be
+obtained. For an account of them we need only refer to the _Life of the
+Right Hon. W.E. Forster_, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born
+at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class honours in classics at
+Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Göttingen (under Ritschl) and at New
+College, Hampstead, and entered the Congregational ministry. Having held
+pastorates at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he
+became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, in 1901. In
+1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching at Yale
+University, published as _Positive Preaching and Modern Mind_. Among his
+other publications may be mentioned _Religion in Recent Art_, and
+articles in the _Contemporary Review_, _Hibbert Journal_, and _London
+Quarterly_. He was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and
+Wales in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+FORTALEZA (usually called CEARÁ by foreigners), a city and port of
+Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceará, on a crescent-shaped
+indentation of the coast-line immediately W. of Cape Mucuripe or
+Mocoripe, 7½ m. from the mouth of the Ceará river, in lat. 3° 42' S.,
+long. 38° 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, including a large
+rural district, 40,902. The city stands on an open sandy plain
+overlooking the sea, and is regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved,
+gas-lighted streets and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the
+climate the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.
+The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong sea
+winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of yellow-fever,
+small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered to be healthy. A
+small branch of the Ceará river, called the Pajehú, traverses the city
+and divides it into two parts, that on its right bank being locally
+known as Outeiro. Fortaleza is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854,
+but it has no cathedral, one of its ten churches being used for that
+purpose. Its public buildings include the government house, legislative
+chambers, bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high
+school), Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the
+insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1¾ m. from the
+railway station in the city, with which it is connected by rail. The
+port is the principal outlet for the products of the state, but its
+anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most dangerous on the
+northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are compelled to anchor well out
+from shore and discharge into lighters. Port improvements designed by
+the eminent engineer Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for
+many years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturité railway,
+built by the national government partly to give employment to starving
+refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects the city and its
+port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends to Senador Pompeu,
+178 m. distant. The exports include sugar, coffee, rubber, cotton, rum,
+rice, beans, fruits, hides and skins.
+
+Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort established
+at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took the name of Villa
+do Forte da Assumpçã, but it was generally spoken of as Fortaleza. In
+1810 it became the capital of Ceará, and in 1823 it was raised to the
+dignity of a city under the title of Fortaleza da Nova Bragança.
+
+
+
+
+FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 706.
+It is delightfully situated at the south-western extremity of Loch Ness,
+about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the rivers Oich and Tarff and the
+Caledonian Canal. A branch line connects with Spean Bridge on the West
+Highland railway via Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was
+built in 1716 for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and
+was enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the Jacobites
+in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden, when it received
+its present name in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the
+victorious general. The fort was used as a sanatorium until 1857, when
+it was bought by the 12th Lord Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to
+the English order of Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its
+site a pile of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey
+and school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the
+higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and gentry.
+The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery, hospice and
+scriptorium--the four forming a quadrangle connected by beautiful
+cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were many Catholic Scots and English
+peers and gentlemen whose arms are emblazoned on the windows of the
+spacious refectory hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft.
+high.
+
+
+
+
+FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county, Iowa, U.S.A.,
+on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W. from Des Moines. Pop.
+(1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state census) 14,369, (2269 being
+foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Chicago Great Western, the Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort
+Dodge, Des Moines & Southern railways, the last an electric interurban
+line. Eureka Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and
+attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering bluffs.
+The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western railway steel
+bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country. Fort Dodge is the
+seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908), a commercial and
+business school, with preparatory, normal and classical departments, and
+courses in oratory and music; among its other institutions are St Paul's
+school (Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus
+Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of Lourdes convent
+and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and Reynold's Park are the city's
+principal parks. Immediately surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming
+country. To the E. of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area
+of about 50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United
+States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries and
+deposits of clay in the vicinity--the clay being, for the most part,
+obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products of the
+surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable
+importance. It has various manufactures, including gypsum, plaster,
+oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery, foundry and machine-shop
+products, and shoes. In 1905 the value of all the factory products was
+$3,025,659, an increase of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was
+erected on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in
+1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to Fort Dodge
+in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867), who was a
+lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War of 1812, served
+with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted Volunteers in the
+Black Hawk War, resigned from the military service in March 1833, was
+governor of Wisconsin Territory from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848,
+and was a delegate from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to
+1845, and a United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort
+was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out. It was chartered
+as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds near Fort Dodge was taken in
+1868 the block of gypsum from which was modelled the "Cardiff Giant," a
+rudely-fashioned human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga
+county, New York, where it was "discovered" late in 1869. It was then
+exhibited in various parts of the country as a "petrified man." The hoax
+was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C. Marsh of Yale; and George
+Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed to the fraud, his object having been
+to discredit belief in the "giants" of Genesis vi. 4. (See "The Cardiff
+Giant: the True Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in
+the _Century Magazine_, vol. xlii., 1902.)
+
+
+
+
+FORT EDWARD, a village of Washington county, New York, U.S.A., in the
+township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, 56 m. by rail N. of
+Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of whom 385 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of the township, including the village
+(1900), 5216; (1905), 5300; (1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the
+foot of a steep hill, is at the junction of the main line and the Glens
+Falls branch of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by
+electric line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting Lake
+Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here. The river
+furnishes good water-power, which is used in the manufacture of paper
+and wood pulp, the leading industry. Shirts and pottery (flower pots,
+jars and drain tile) are manufactured also. The village is the seat of
+the Fort Edward Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls,
+which was founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village
+owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their way to
+Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this place, the head of
+navigation for small boats on the Hudson, to Lake George or Lake
+Champlain, and hence it was known as the Great Carrying Place. Governor
+(afterwards Sir) Francis Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against
+Canada, built here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years
+afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a settlement and
+protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius, but this was destroyed by
+the French and Indians in 1745. In 1755, a third fort was built by
+General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774), as preliminary to the expedition
+against Crown Point under General William Johnson, and was named Fort
+Lyman; in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward, Duke
+of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was the headquarters of
+General Philip Schuyler while he and his troops were blocking the march
+of General Burgoyne's army from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of
+Burgoyne's forces was distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort
+Edward Hill, on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band
+whose assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered
+Jane McCrea (c. 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting friends
+in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day to the British
+camp and there to be married to David Jones, a loyalist serving as a
+lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible that she was shot
+accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian escorts, but her death did
+much to rouse local sentiment against Burgoyne and his Indian allies,
+and caused many volunteers to join the American army resisting
+Burgoyne's invasion. A monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea
+Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where
+she was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward. Fort
+Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the township of
+Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated in 1852.
+
+  See R.O. Bascom, _The Fort Edward Book_ (Fort Edward, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476), English lawyer, the second son of
+Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in Devonshire, was born at
+Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire. He was educated at Exeter
+College, Oxford. During the reign of Henry VI. he was three times
+appointed one of the governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a
+king's sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the
+king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for his wisdom,
+gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great favour with
+the king, who is said to have given him some substantial proofs of
+esteem and regard. He held his office during the remainder of the reign
+of Henry VI., to whom he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served
+that unfortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of
+treason in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently
+fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, who
+appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor of England. In
+1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret and her court in their exile
+on the Continent, and returned with them afterwards to England. During
+their wanderings abroad the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the
+young prince Edward his celebrated work _De laudibus legum Angliae_. On
+the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission to Edward
+IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated Westminster, October
+13, 1471. He died at an advanced age, but the exact date of his death
+has not been ascertained.
+
+  Fortescue's masterly vindication of the laws of England, though
+  received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom it
+  was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of Henry
+  VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was subsequently
+  many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned work by Fortescue,
+  written in English, was published in 1714, under the title of _The
+  Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_. In the Cotton
+  library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title of which it
+  is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many passages show
+  plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV. A revised edition
+  of this work, with a very valuable historical and biographical
+  introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer, under the
+  title _The Governance of England_. All of Fortescue's minor writings
+  appear in _The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected and
+  Arranged_, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his
+  descendant, Lord Clermont.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Plummer's Introduction to _The Governance of England_;
+  _Life_ in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdner's _Paston Letters_; Foss's
+  _Lives of the Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English statesman, was the eldest
+son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539), and of his second wife,
+Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or Rede of Borstall in
+Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded.[1] He was
+restored in blood and to his estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551.
+Through his father's mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he
+was a second cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early
+a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct the
+Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign. On the accession
+of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great wardrobe. He was
+returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford, in 1586 for Buckingham
+borough, in 1588 and 1597 for Buckingham county, and in 1601 for
+Middlesex. In 1589 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a
+member of the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November
+1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative
+employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought large estates
+in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up much state and a large
+household. He took a prominent part in public business, was a member of
+the court of the star chamber and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on
+various important commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer
+explained the queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in
+parliament. On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain
+restrictions should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably to
+limit the appointment of Scotchmen to office,[2] but his advice was not
+followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of the
+exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he retained his
+two other offices and entertained James several times at Henden and
+Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for Buckinghamshire, was defeated by
+Sir Francis Goodwin, whose election, however, was declared void by the
+lord chancellor on the ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he
+lay, and Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This
+incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor's
+jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament, which was
+repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the king. The matter after
+much debate was ended by a compromise, which, while leaving the
+principle unsettled, set aside the elections of both candidates and
+provided for the issue of a new writ. Fortescue was then in February
+1606 returned for Middlesex, which he represented till his death on the
+23rd of December 1607. He was buried in Mursley church in
+Buckinghamshire, where a monument was erected to his memory. His long
+public career was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and
+country with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments
+too were considerable--Camden styles him "vir integer, Graece,
+Latineque apprime eruditus,"[3] and his scholarship is also praised by
+Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured gifts of
+books and manuscripts to the latter's library. Fortescue married (1)
+Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme, by whom, besides a
+daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and Sir William; and (2) Alice,
+daughter of Christopher Smyth of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he
+had one daughter. His descent in the male line became extinct with the
+death of Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_; Lord
+  Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues_; _Hist. Notices of
+  the Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme_, by A. Napier, p. 390; D.
+  Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), p. 556; _Add. MSS._ 12497 f. 143
+  ("Sir John Fortescue's meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir
+  Julius Caesar]"); _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS._;
+  Spedding's _Life of Bacon_; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for
+  Bucks, _Records of Bucks_, vol. i. p. 86.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death on
+    the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of
+    Fortescue_, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself,
+    he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533
+    (Bucks. Architect. and Archaeolog. Soc. _Records of Bucks_, i. p.
+    89).
+
+  [2] David Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), 556.
+
+  [3] _Annales_, 613.
+
+
+
+
+FORTEVIOT, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on the Water of
+May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6¾ m. S.W. of Perth. Pop. of
+parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote antiquity, having been a
+capital of the Picts, when the district was known as Fortrenn, and
+afterwards of the Scots. The army led by Edward Baliol camped here
+before the battle of Dupplin (1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl
+of Mar, was slain along with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of
+Findo-Gask adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road,
+station and outpost, besides the "auld hoose" of Gask in which the
+Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one of her most
+popular songs. The new house in which she died dates from 1801.
+
+
+
+
+FORT GEORGE, a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland. It lies 12
+m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small branch line
+connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield junction. It
+occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme end of the southern
+shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the Firth of Inverness), which
+is here only 1 m. wide. There is communication by ferry with Fortrose on
+the opposite coast of the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly
+after the plan of one of Vauban's works, and named in honour of George
+II. Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much impressed
+with it and thought it would, when finished, be "the most considerable
+fortress and best situated in Great Britain." It covers 16 acres and
+contains accommodation for nearly 2200 men. It is the depot of the
+Seaforth Highlanders, and a military training-ground of some size and
+importance because the surrounding country gives ample facilities for
+exercise and manoeuvres. General Wade's road is maintained in good
+order. Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of
+detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put forward.
+About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown, in growing
+repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort and Inverness stands
+Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl of Moray.
+
+
+
+
+FORTH, a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river is formed by
+two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan
+as it is called after it leaves Loch Ard, both rising in the north-east
+of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire, and uniting 1 m. west of Aberfoyle. From
+this point till it receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a
+Perthshire stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between
+the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the
+Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1½ m. due west of
+Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the shires of Stirling
+and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely tortuous character of its course
+between Gartmore and Alloa--the famous "links of the Forth,"--the actual
+length of the river is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct
+line (30 m.) between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the
+firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general
+direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the south, and
+the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie, Teith, Allan and
+Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan and Bannock. The alluvial
+plain extending from Gartmore to the county town is called the Carse of
+Stirling. The places of interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen,
+Stirling, Cambuskenneth, Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the
+Highland line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable
+beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip and
+Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa, and there
+are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for South Alloa) and
+Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 4½ m. above Stirling, where
+the river is navigable at high water by vessels of 100 tons. There is,
+however, a brisk shipping trade at Alloa, where the dock accommodates
+vessels of at least 300 tons.
+
+The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea, that is, to
+an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May, from the East
+Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Haddingtonshire--a distance of
+48 m. Thus, according to some calculations, the Forth measures from
+source to sea 114 m. The width of the firth varies from ½ m. at
+Kincardine and 1½ m. at Queensferry to 6½ m. at Leith and 17½ m. at the
+mouth. The chief affluents are, on the south, the Carron, Avon, Almond,
+Leith, Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven, Kiel and Dreel.
+The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth, Bo'ness, Granton
+and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and Kirkcaldy; but fishery
+centres and holiday resorts are very numerous on both coasts. Since the
+opening of the Forth Bridge (see Bridges) in 1890 the ferries at
+Queensferry and Burntisland have greatly diminished in importance. The
+fisheries are still considerable, though the oyster trade is dwindling.
+The larger islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of an abbey, Inchkeith,
+with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle of May, with a
+lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret's Hope, with the naval base of
+Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to the west of the Forth
+Bridge.
+
+The Forth was the _Bodotria_ of Tacitus and the Scots Water of the
+chroniclers of the 11th and 12th centuries; while Bede (d. 735) knew the
+firth as _Sinus orientalis_ (the Eastern Gulf), and Nennius (fl. 796) as
+_Mare Friesicum_ (the Frisian Sea).
+
+
+
+
+FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. "Fortification" is the military art of
+strengthening positions against attack. The word (Lat. _fortis_, strong,
+and _facere_, to make) implies the creation of defences. Thus the boy
+who from the top of a mound defies his comrades, or shelters from their
+snowballs behind a fence, is merely taking advantage of ground; but if
+he puts up a hurdle on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified
+his position.
+
+Fortification consists of two elements, viz. _protection_ and
+_obstacle_. The protection shields the defender from the enemy's
+missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close quarters,
+and delays him under fire.
+
+_Protection_ may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct
+protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough to stop
+the enemy's missiles. The value of this is reduced in proportion as the
+defender has to expose himself to return the enemy's fire, or to resist
+his attempts to destroy the defences. Indirect protection is given by
+_distance_, as for instance by a high wall placed on a cliff so that the
+defender on the top of the wall is out of reach of the enemy's missiles
+if these are of short range, such as arrows. This kind of defence was
+very popular in the middle ages. In the present day the same object is
+attained by pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town
+they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town as long as
+he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect protection of great
+importance is concealment.
+
+The _obstacle_ may consist of anything which will impede the enemy's
+advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters. In the earliest
+forms of fortification the protecting wall was also the obstacle, or it
+may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement, a swamp, a thorn hedge, a
+spiked palisade, or some temporary expedient, such as crows' feet or
+chevaux de frise. The two elements must of course be arranged in
+combination. The besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their
+protected position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at
+leisure. But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of
+modern firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the
+obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.
+
+Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the enemy's methods
+of attack and the weapons he uses. The obstacle, on the other hand,
+should be of such a nature as to bring out the best effects of the
+defender's weapons. It follows from this that a well-armed force
+operating against a badly-armed uncivilized enemy may use with advantage
+very simple old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with
+it altogether if the obstacle is a good one.
+
+When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of protection is
+very great. In fact, it may be said that in proportion as missile
+weapons have grown more effective, the importance of protection and the
+difficulty of providing it have increased, while the necessity for a
+monumental physical obstacle has decreased.
+
+The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in appreciating
+and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem, such as the weapons
+in use, nature of the ground, materials available, temper of assailants
+and defenders, strategical possibilities, expenditure to be incurred,
+and so forth. Few of these conditions are in themselves difficult to
+understand, but they are so many and their reactions are so complex that
+a real familiarity with all of them is essential to successful work. The
+keynote of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first
+point usually lost sight of by the makers of "systems," especially by
+those who during a long period of peace have time to give play to their
+imaginations.
+
+Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely _permanent
+fortification_ and _field fortification_. Permanent fortifications are
+erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of
+constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials.
+Field fortifications are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps
+assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable, and with
+materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood
+and light timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as
+_semi-permanent fortification_. This is employed when in the course of a
+campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best
+imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample
+resources and skilled civilian labour being available.
+
+The _objects of fortification_ are various. The vast enceintes of
+Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war they might give
+shelter to the whole population of the country except the field army,
+with their flocks and herds and household stuff. The same idea may be
+seen to-day in the walls of such cities as Kano. In the middle ages
+feudal lords built castles for security against the attacks of their
+neighbours, and also to watch over towns or bridges or fords from which
+they drew revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely
+for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property. The
+feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-founding was
+fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the 17th and 18th
+centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm of fortified towns,
+large and small, played a great part in delaying the march of victorious
+armies.
+
+In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for such
+purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts. Fortresses are
+used either to protect points of vital importance, such as capital
+cities, military depots and dockyards, or at strategic points such as
+railway junctions. Combinations of fortresses are also used for more
+general strategic purposes, as will be explained later.
+
+
+I. HISTORY
+
+
+  Ancient methods.
+
+The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn _hedge_, a type
+which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive conditions. Thus,
+Alexander found the villages of the Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges,
+and the same arrangements may be seen to-day among the least civilized
+tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is the _bank_ of
+earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments of sods or
+hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the hedge, as, besides
+being a better obstacle against assault, it gives the defenders an
+advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight. Such banks formed the
+defences of the German towns in Caesar's time, and they were constructed
+with a high degree of skill. Timber being plentiful, the parapets were
+built of alternate layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter
+were built in at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were
+thus very difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being
+set on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree
+trunks or hurdle-work.
+
+After the bank the most important step in advance for a nation
+progressing in the arts was the _wall_, of masonry, sun-dried brick or
+mud. The history of the development of the wall and of the methods of
+attacking it is the history of fortification for several thousand years.
+
+The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security against
+escalade. The second-was thickness, so that the defenders might have a
+platform on the top which would give them space to circulate freely and
+to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick enough at the top for purposes
+of defence, would be very expensive if built of solid masonry; therefore
+the plan was early introduced of building two walls with a filling of
+earth or rubble between them. The face of the outer wall would be
+carried up a few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give
+protection against arrows and other projectiles.
+
+The next forward step for the defence was the construction of _towers_
+at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking fire along the
+front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison in case of a
+successful escalade, and from them the platform could be enfiladed.
+
+The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main requirements
+were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus the finest examples of
+the system known to history are also amongst the earliest. One of these
+was Nineveh, built more than 2000 years B.C. The object of its huge
+perimeter, more than 50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft.
+high and 30 ft. thick; and there were 1500 towers.
+
+After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was made for
+a very long time, from a constructional point of view. Many centuries
+indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of man evolved engines and
+methods of attack fit to cope with such colossal obstacles.
+
+The earliest form of attack was of course _escalade_, either by ladders
+or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable materials. When the
+increasing height of walls made escalade too difficult, other means of
+attack had to be invented. Probably the first of these were the _ram_,
+for battering down the walls, and _mining_. The latter might have two
+objects: (a) to drive an underground gallery below the wall from the
+besiegers' position into the fortress, or (b) to destroy the wall itself
+by undermining.
+
+The use of missile _engines_ for throwing heavy projectiles probably
+came later. They are mentioned in the preparations made for the defence
+of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the 8th century B.C. They are
+not mentioned in connexion with the siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre
+and Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of the
+ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.
+
+
+  Classical times.
+
+The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary for a
+systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for the Greeks
+practically to create this science. Taking it up in the 5th century B.C.
+they soon, under Philip of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high
+degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods which were
+afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexander's siegecraft was extremely
+practical. His successors endeavoured to improve on it by increasing the
+size of their missile and other engines, which, however, were so
+cumbrous that they were of little use. When the Romans a little later
+took up the science they returned to the practical methods of Alexander,
+and by the time of Caesar's wars had become past-masters of it. The
+highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder was
+probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire. The beginning
+of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period at which to take a
+survey of the arts of fortification and siegecraft as practised by the
+ancients.
+
+
+    Conditions at opening of the Christian era.
+
+  In fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea. The
+  towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the best
+  resistance to the ram. The wall was usually reinforced by a ditch,
+  which had three advantages: it increased the height of the obstacle,
+  made the bringing up of the engines of attack more difficult, and
+  supplied material for the filling of the wall. In special cases, as at
+  Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled and trebled.
+  Citadels were also built on a large scale.
+
+  The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town was on
+  high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep slopes
+  falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point was a
+  castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed in
+  accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where the
+  enemy's approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking towers
+  stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers were made
+  high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the river, it was
+  defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades defended by
+  towers were built out from either bank above and below the bridge,
+  between which chains or booms could be stretched to bar the passage.
+
+  The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus when
+  a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills, the
+  enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in the
+  intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger, but
+  would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence from the
+  hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two strong
+  masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with earth and
+  stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable, the outside
+  of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the parapet walk
+  perhaps being but a little above the level of the town. Palisades were
+  used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the gates.
+
+  There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of Roman
+  warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work of attack
+  and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were specially apt. No
+  modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed to rely on machinery,
+  steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope to emulate the feats of the
+  legionaries. In earthworks they excelled; and in such work as building
+  and moving about colossal wooden towers under war conditions, they
+  accomplished things at which nowadays we can only wonder.
+
+  The attack was carried on mainly by the use of "engines," under which
+  head were included all mechanical means of attack--towers, missile
+  engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different kinds,
+  "tortoises" (see below), &c. Mining, too, was freely resorted to, also
+  approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced by the Greeks.
+
+  The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a
+  gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the
+  destruction of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large
+  chambers under the foundations. These were supported while the
+  excavation was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the
+  chambers were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall
+  collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by countermines.
+  With these they would undermine and destroy the besiegers' galleries,
+  or would break into them and drive out the workers, either by force of
+  arms or by filling the galleries with smoke.
+
+  Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two kinds. For
+  dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the wall, steel-pointed
+  heads were used; when this was done, another head, shaped like a ram's
+  head, was substituted for battering down the filling of the wall.
+
+  For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but the
+  most important means of attack against a high wall were the movable
+  towers of wood. These were built so high that from their tops the
+  parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and stones; and
+  drawbridges were let down from them, by which a storming party could
+  reach the top of the wall. The height of the towers was from 70 to 150
+  ft. They were moved on wheels of solid oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in
+  diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground floor contained one or two
+  rams. The upper floors, of which there might be as many as fifteen,
+  were furnished with missile engines of a smaller kind. The archers
+  occupied the top floor. There also were placed reservoirs of water to
+  extinguish fire. These were filled by force pumps and fitted with hose
+  made of the intestines of cattle. Drawbridges, either hanging or
+  worked on rollers, were placed at the proper height to give access to
+  the top of the wall, or to a breach, as might be required. Apollodorus
+  proposed to place a couple of rams in the upper part of the tower to
+  destroy the crenellations of the wall.
+
+  The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong
+  timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the
+  defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers,
+  plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order to
+  gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In that
+  case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles,
+  described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed on
+  account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and their
+  frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort, with brick
+  walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one of the
+  towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subsequently
+  raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which
+  projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy
+  mats made of ships' cables. The mats protected the men working at the
+  walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually raised by the
+  use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy beams and planks,
+  over which were laid bricks and clay, and the whole was covered with
+  mats and hides to prevent the bricks from being dislodged. This
+  structure was completed without the loss of a man, and could only have
+  been built by the Romans, whose soldiers were all skilled workmen.
+
+  Although these towers were provided with bridges by which storming
+  parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object was usually
+  to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from the walls and
+  towers. Under this protection breaching operations could be carried
+  on. The approaches to the wall were usually made under shelter of
+  galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed on wheels and
+  moved into position as required. When the wall was reached, a shelter
+  of stronger construction, known as a "rat," was placed in position
+  against it. Under this a ram was swung or worked on rollers; or the
+  rat might be used as a shelter for miners or for workmen cutting away
+  the face of the wall. The great rat at Marseilles, which extended from
+  the tower already described to the base of the tower of the city, was
+  60 ft. long, and built largely of great beams 2 ft. square, connected
+  by iron pins and bands. It was unusually narrow, the ground sills of
+  the side walls being only 4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to
+  keep down the weight of the structure, which, massive as it was, had
+  to be movable. The sloping roof and sides of timber were protected,
+  like those of the tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool
+  mattresses. Huge stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from
+  the wall upon this rat without effect, and under its cover the
+  soldiers loosened and removed the foundations of the tower until it
+  fell down.
+
+  In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures, it
+  was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of
+  the ground. For this purpose an "approach tortoise" was often used.
+  This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery and the
+  rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an open front
+  with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up for filling the
+  ditch was distributed.
+
+  The missile engines threw stones up to 600 lb. weight, heavy darts
+  from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege of
+  Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 lb. The ranges varied, according
+  to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds. for direct fire
+  and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jerusalem Titus
+  employed three hundred catapults of different sizes and forty
+  balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 lb. weight. At
+  Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium catapults, 23 large and
+  52 small balistae, and a great number of scorpions and other small
+  missile engines.
+
+  Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers were
+  used in great variety.
+
+  In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in the
+  construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes. A kind
+  of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used to hoist a
+  cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall. A long spar with
+  a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from a lofty frame,
+  served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and overhanging
+  galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow in replying with
+  similar devices. Fenders were let down from the wall to soften the
+  blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught and held by cranes.
+  Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the rats and overturn them.
+  Archimedes used the same idea in the defence of Syracuse for lifting
+  and sinking the Roman galleys. Wooden towers were built on the walls
+  to overtop the towers of the besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire
+  were employed. The tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or
+  a portion of it, at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with
+  reflectors, is supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With
+  a reflector having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small
+  mirrors each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and
+  wood was set on fire at 160 ft.
+
+  The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long since
+  reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the
+  destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized defences
+  were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger, and the
+  attack was stronger than the defence.
+
+
+  Middle ages.
+
+Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the twin sciences of
+fortification and siegecraft long enough for the Crusaders to learn from
+them what had been lost in the West. Byzantium, however, always a
+storehouse of military science, while conserving a knowledge of the
+ancient methods and the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas
+to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the Byzantines favoured
+multiplied enceintes or several concentric lines of defence. This of
+course is always a tendency of decadent nations.
+
+In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and the
+Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the defences of
+Carcassonne, Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century. Viollet-le-Duc's
+description and illustrations of the defences of Carcassonne will give a
+very good idea of the methods then in use:--
+
+  "The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is still
+  preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those described
+  by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated than the
+  ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks. The curtain
+  walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces of small cubical
+  masonry alternating with courses of brick; the middle portion being
+  filled, not with earth but with rubble run with lime. The towers were
+  raised above these curtains, and their communication with the latter
+  might be cut off, so as to make of each tower a small independent
+  fort; externally these towers are cylindrical, and on the side of the
+  town square; they rest, also towards the country, upon a cubical base
+  or foundation. We subjoin (fig. 1) the plan of one of these towers
+  with the curtains adjoining. A is the plan of the ground-level; B the
+  plan of the first storey at the level of the parapet. We see, at C and
+  D, the two excavations formed in front of the gates of the tower to
+  intercept, when the drawbridges were raised, all communication between
+  the town or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower.
+  From the first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or
+  battlemented portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed
+  interiorly against the side of the flat wall. The external
+  ground-level was much lower than that of the tower, and also beneath
+  the ground-level of the town, from which it was reached by a
+  descending flight of from ten to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower
+  and its two curtains on the side of the town; the bridges of
+  communication are supposed to have been removed. The battlemented
+  portion at the top is covered with a roof, and open on the side of the
+  town in order to permit the defenders of the tower to see what was
+  going on therein, and also to allow of their hoisting up stones and
+  other projectiles by means of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same
+  tower on the side towards the country; we have added a postern, the
+  sill of which is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate
+  the use of a scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is
+  defended, as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or
+  postern being provided with a work of this kind."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Plan of one of the Towers at Carcassonne.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.]
+
+Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost disappeared. Its
+perfect development was only possible for an army like that of the
+Romans. The Huns and Goths knew nothing of it, and the efforts of
+Charlemagne and others of the Frankish kings to restore the art were
+hampered by the fact that their warriors despised handicrafts and
+understood nothing but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages
+the towns of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences,
+which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the sieges of
+that period dragged themselves out through long years, and if ultimately
+successful were so as a rule only through blockade and famine. It was
+not until the 11th century that siegecraft was revived in the West on
+the ancient lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, outside view.]
+
+
+  Castles.
+
+By this time a new departure of great importance had been made in the
+seigneurial castle (q.v.), which restored for some centuries a definite
+superiority to the defence. Built primarily as strongholds for local
+magnates or for small bodies of warriors dominating a conquered country,
+the conditions which called them into existence offered several marked
+advantages. The defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town,
+and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be expected that a
+town would develop itself in the manner most suitable for defence; nor
+indeed that any position large enough for a town could be found that
+would be naturally strong all round. But the site of a castle could be
+chosen purely for its natural strength, without regard, except as a
+secondary consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and
+as its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position
+entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened that the
+existence of such a position was the _raison d'être_ of the castle. A
+small hill with steep sides might well be unapproachable in every
+direction by such cumbrous structures as towers and rats, while the
+height of the hill, added to the height of the walls, would be too much
+for the besiegers' missiles. If the sides of the hill were precipitous
+and rocky, mining became impossible, and the site was perfect for
+defence. A castle built under such conditions was practically
+impregnable; and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in
+the 11th and 12th centuries. They could only be reduced by blockade, and
+a blockade of long duration was very difficult in the feudal age.
+
+A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the Château Gaillard,
+built by Richard Coeur-de-Lion in 1196. This great castle, with ditches
+and escarpments cut out of the solid rock, and extensive outworks, was
+completed in one year. In the article CASTLE will be found the plan of
+the main work, which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon
+(or keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle,
+giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature in
+advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of the
+machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which at that time
+was usually given by wooden hoardings. After the death of Richard,
+Philip Augustus besieged the château, and carried it after a blockade of
+seven months and a regular attack of one month. In this attack the tower
+at A was first mined, after which the whole of that outwork was
+abandoned by the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by
+surprise; and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the
+pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers prevented
+the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter of the donjon, and
+they had to lay down their arms.
+
+Château Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general of his time,
+exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of the designs of
+the 12th century. It is easy to understand how at each step gained by
+the besiegers the very difficulties which had been placed in the way of
+their further advance prevented the garrison from reinforcing strongly
+the points attacked.
+
+In the 13th century many influences were at work in the development of
+castellar fortification. The experience of such sieges as that of
+Château Gaillard, and still more that gained in the Crusades, the larger
+garrisons at the disposal of the great feudal lords, and the importance
+of the interests which they had to protect in their towns, led to a
+freer style of design. We must also take note of an essential difference
+between the forms of attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the
+medieval chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers,
+preferred in siege works the certain if laborious methods of breaching
+and mining. The latter, who considered all manual labour beneath them
+and whose only ideal of warfare was personal combat, affected the tower
+and its bridge, giving access to the top of the wall rather than the rat
+and battering-ram. They were also fond of surprises, which the bad
+discipline of the time favoured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Donjon, Château Gaillard.]
+
+We find, therefore, important progress in enlarging the area of defence
+and in improving arrangements for flanking. The size and height of all
+works were increased. The keep of Coucy Castle, built in 1220, was 200
+ft. high. Montargis Castle, also built about this time, had a central
+donjon and a large open enclosure, within which the whole garrison could
+move freely, to reinforce quickly any threatened point. The effect of
+flanking fire was increased by giving more projection to the towers,
+whose sides were in some cases made at right angles to the curtain
+walls.
+
+We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long after
+medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication of defences, to
+guard against surprise and localize successful assaults. Great attention
+was paid to the "step by step" defence. Flanking towers were cut off
+from their walls and arranged for separate resistance. Complicated
+entrances with traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence
+was from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the lower
+storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring. Machicouli
+galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either by stone walls
+built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings built in war time,
+for which the walls were prepared beforehand by recesses left in the
+masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were protected by shutters. Great care
+and much ingenuity were expended on details of all kinds.
+
+Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence had made
+provision for countermining, by building chambers and galleries at the
+base of the towers and walls. Further protection for the towers against
+the pioneer attack was given by carrying out the masonry in front of the
+tower in a kind of projecting horn. This was found later to have the
+further advantages of doing away with the dead ground in front of the
+tower unseen from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and
+therefore the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is
+seen in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ of
+the idea of the bastion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.]
+
+  The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the 13th
+  century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of the best
+  work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-le-Duc)
+  show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a bird's-eye
+  view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick black line shows
+  the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then the moat. It will be
+  noted that the wall of the lists as well as the main wall is defended
+  by towers. There are only two gates. That on the east is defended by
+  two great towers and a semicircular barbican. The gate of the castle,
+  on the west, has a most complicated approach defended by a labyrinth
+  of gates and flanking walls, which cannot be shown on this small
+  scale, and beyond these is a huge circular barbican in several
+  storeys, capable of holding 1500 men. On the side of the town the
+  castle is protected by a wide moat, and the entrance is masked by
+  another large semicircular barbican. An interesting feature of the
+  general arrangement is the importance which the lists have assumed.
+  The slight wooden barricade of older times has developed into a wall
+  with towers; and the effect is that the besieger, if he gains a
+  footing in the lists, has a very narrow space in which to work the
+  engines of attack. The castle, after the Roman fashion, adjoins the
+  outer wall of the town, so that there may be a possibility of
+  communicating with a relieving force from outside after the town has
+  fallen. There were also several posterns, small openings made in the
+  wall at some height above the ground, for use with rope ladders.
+
+The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients. Mining was
+the most effective form of attack, and the approach to the walls was
+covered by engines throwing great stones against the hoardings of the
+parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were sheltered behind light mantlets
+moved on wheels. Barrels of burning pitch and other incendiary
+projectiles were thrown as before; and at one siege we read of the
+carcasses of dead horses and barrels of sewage being thrown into the
+town to breed pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a
+capitulation.
+
+With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As Professor
+C.W.C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical application of the three
+powers of tension, torsion and counterpoise (in the missile engines) had
+its limits. If these engines were enlarged they grew too costly and
+unwieldy. If they were multiplied it was impossible on account of their
+short range and great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on
+a single portion of the wall.
+
+
+  Introduction of gunpowder.
+
+It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a small
+space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the first two
+centuries after the introduction of gunpowder. The number of existing
+fortifications that had to be modified was infinite, so also was the
+number of attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers had not yet
+begun to publish descriptions of their "systems"; also the new names and
+terms which came into use with the new works were spread over Europe by
+engineers of different countries, and adopted into new languages without
+much accuracy.
+
+Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any effect on
+the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw so very light a
+projectile that they had no effect on masonry and were more useful for
+the defence than the attack. Later, larger pieces were made, which acted
+practically as mortars, throwing stone balls with high elevation, and
+barrels of burning composition. In the middle of the 15th century the
+art of cannon-founding was much developed by the brothers Bureau in
+France. They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened the
+guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely defeated by
+the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450 Charles VII. was
+furnished with so powerful a siege train that he captured the whole of
+the castles in Normandy from the English in one year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.]
+
+But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII.
+with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The astonishing rapidity
+with which castles and fortified towns fell before him proved the
+uselessness of the old defences. It became necessary to create a new
+system of defences, and, says Cosseron de Villenoisy, "thanks to the
+mental activity of the Renaissance and the warlike conditions prevailing
+everywhere, the time could not have been more favourable." There is no
+doubt that the engineers of Italy as a body were responsible for the
+first advance in fortification. There, where vital and mental energy
+were at boiling-point, and where the first striking demonstration of the
+new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such as Leonardo
+da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied themselves over the
+problem of defence.
+
+It has been claimed that Albert Dürer was the first writer on modern
+fortification. This was not so; Dürer's work was published in 1527, and
+more than one Italian engineer, certainly Martini of Siena and San
+Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machiavelli, writing between 1512 and
+1527, had offered some most valuable criticisms and general principles.
+Dürer, moreover, had little influence on the progress of fortification;
+though we may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the
+"polygonal" system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Dürer's
+work was to some extent a connecting link between the old fortification
+and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the old towers; and he
+provided both them and the curtains with vaulted chambers for guns
+(casemates) in several tiers, so as to command both the ditch and the
+ground beyond it. His projects were too massive and costly for
+execution, but his name is associated with the first practical gun
+casemates.
+
+Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the design of
+fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened the influence of
+the castles. First, their owners were slow to adopt the new ideas and
+abandon their high strong walls for low extended parapets, and,
+secondly, they had not the men necessary for long lines of defence. At
+the same time the corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active
+part in warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large
+numbers.
+
+When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry from a distance
+two results followed: it was necessary to modify the masonry defences so
+as to make them less vulnerable, and to improve the means of employing
+the guns of the defence. For both these purposes the older castles with
+their restricted area were little suited, and we must now trace the
+development of the fortified towns.
+
+
+    The bulwark.
+
+  Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appearance
+  of the new weapons was the bulwark (_boulevard, baluardo_ or
+  _bollwerk_). This was an outwork usually semicircular in plan, built
+  of earth consolidated with timber and revetted with hurdles. Such
+  works were placed as a shield in front of the gates, which could be
+  destroyed even by the early light cannon-balls; and they offered at
+  the same time advanced positions for the guns of the defence. They
+  were found so useful for gun positions for flanking fire that later
+  they were placed in front of towers or at intervals along the walls
+  for that purpose.
+
+  This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now to
+  consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected both the
+  construction and trace of the walls.
+
+
+    The wall.
+
+  The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls
+  should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened.
+  One method of doing this in the case of old works was by placing
+  bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the lists or outer walls,
+  being surrounded by moats, were already partially screened and
+  suitable for conversion into the main defence; and as with improved
+  flanking defence great height was no longer essential, the tops of the
+  walls were in some cases cut down. In new works it was natural to sink
+  the wall in a ditch, the earth from which was useful for making
+  ramparts.
+
+  As regards resistance to the effect of shot, it was found that thin
+  masonry walls with rubble filling behind them were very easily
+  destroyed. A bank of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of
+  the shot, but once a breach was made the earth came down, making a
+  slope easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood,
+  timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank, and
+  answered very well (fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counterforts.
+  The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built _inward_ from
+  the wall into the rampart instead of _outward_ (fig. 8). Their effect
+  was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more difficult of
+  ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening the wall was an
+  arched gallery built behind it under the rampart (fig. 9). This
+  construction was in harmony with the idea, already familiar, of a
+  passage in the wall from which countermines could be started; but it
+  has the obvious weakness that the destruction of the face wall takes
+  away one of the supports of the arch. The best arrangement, which is
+  ascribed to Albert Dürer, was the "counter-arched revetment." This
+  consisted of a series of arches built between the counterforts, with
+  their axes at right angles to the face of the wall. Their advantage
+  was that, while supporting the wall and taking all the weight of the
+  rampart, they formed an obstacle after the destruction of the wall
+  more difficult to surmount than the wall itself and very hard to
+  destroy. The counter-arches might be in one, two or three tiers,
+  according to the height of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter
+  without the earth of the rampart and showing also a countermine
+  gallery).
+
+
+    The rampart.
+
+  A more important question, however, than the improvement of the
+  passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active defence
+  by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room for the
+  working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question of
+  modifying the existing defences at as little cost as possible. With
+  this object the roofs of towers were removed and platforms for guns
+  substituted, but this only gave room for one or two guns. Also the
+  loopholes in the lower storeys of towers were converted into
+  embrasures to give a grazing fire over the ditch; this became the
+  commonest method of strengthening old works for cannon, but was of
+  little use as the resulting field of fire was so small. In some cases
+  the towers were made larger, with a semicircular front and side walls
+  at right angles to the curtain. Such towers built at Langres early in
+  the 16th century had walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery defence
+  with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Dürer in theory, and
+  the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the best examples of
+  this. The Italian engineers also showed much ingenuity in arranging
+  for the defence of ditches with masonry caponiers. These were
+  developed from external buttresses, and equally with the casemated
+  flanking towers of Dürer contained the germs of the idea of
+  "polygonal" defence.
+
+  The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted, was
+  the rampart; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall,
+  which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
+  plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.
+
+
+    The ditch.
+
+  The _ditch_, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and
+  medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic.
+  Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying earth for a
+  rampart and allowing the wall to be sunk for concealment, it was found
+  also to have a definite use as an obstacle. Hitherto the wall had
+  sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being useful mainly to prevent
+  the besieger from bringing up his engines of attack.
+
+  When the wall (or escarp) was lowered, the obstacle offered by the
+  ditch was increased by revetting the far side of it with a
+  _counterscarp_. Beyond the counterscarp wall some of the earth
+  excavated from the ditch was piled up to increase the protection given
+  to the escarp wall. This earth was sloped down gently on the outer
+  side to meet the natural surface of the ground in such a manner as to
+  be swept by the fire from the ramparts and was called the _glacis_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  Now, however, a new difficulty arose. In all times a chief element in
+  a successful defence has consisted in action by the besieged outside
+  the walls. The old ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on
+  the far side leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a
+  convenient place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble
+  without being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their
+  attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented sorties
+  from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the introduction of
+  the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of it, behind the
+  glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty was met by
+  widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft., in which there
+  was room for troops to assemble. This was known as the _covered way_.
+
+  With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of modern
+  fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+  The trace.
+
+Up to the gunpowder period the _trace_ of fortifications, that is, the
+plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very simple. It was
+merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted to the site and provided
+with towers at suitable intervals. The foot of the wall could be seen
+and defended everywhere, from the tops of the towers and the machicoulis
+galleries. The introduction of ramparts and artillery made this more
+difficult in two ways. The rampart, interposed between the defenders and
+the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical defence. Also with the
+inferior gun-carriages of the time very little depression could be given
+to the guns, and thus the top of the enceinte wall, with or without a
+rampart, was not a suitable position for guns intended to flank the
+ditch in their immediate neighbourhood. The problem of the "trace"
+therefore at the beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line
+of defence so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the
+besieged, both to oppose the besiegers' breaching batteries and later to
+defend the breaches. At the outset the latter rôle was the more
+important.
+
+In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this problem we
+must remember that for economical reasons they had to make the best use
+they could of the existing walls. At first for flanking purposes
+casemates on the ditch level were used, the old flanking towers being
+enlarged for the purpose. Masonry galleries were constructed across the
+ditch, containing casemates which could fire to either side, and after
+this casemates were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of
+the fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that the
+flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be dependent on
+outworks, and that greater freedom was required for guns than was
+consistent with casemate defence. The _bulwark_ (which in its earliest
+shape suggests that it was in some sort the offspring of the barbican,
+placed to protect an entrance) gave plenty of space for guns, but was
+too detached for security. The enlarged tower, as an integral part of
+the lines, gave security, and its walls at right angles to the curtain
+gave direct flanking fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The
+blending of the two ideas produced the _bastion_, an element of
+fortification which dominated the science for three hundred years, and
+so impressed itself on the imagination that to this day any strong
+advanced position in a defensive line is called by that name by
+unscientific writers. The word had been in use for a long time in
+connexion with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes,
+the earliest forms being _bastille_, _bastide_, _bastillon_, and in its
+origin it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the
+construction than to its defensive intention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Bastion at Troyes.]
+
+  The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces and
+  flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers often
+  acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion were more
+  or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a contemporary MS. by
+  Viollet-le-Duc, shows a bastion added to the old wall of Troyes about
+  1528. On the other hand, in fig. 14 (taken from an English MS. of
+  1559, which again is based on the Italian work of Zanchi published in
+  1554), we find _a a_ spoken of as "bulwarks" and _b b_ as
+  "bastilions." The triangular works between the bastilions are
+  described as "ramparts," intended to protect the curtains from
+  breaching fire. (We may also notice in this design the broad ditch,
+  the counterscarp with narrow covered way, and loopholes indicating
+  counterscarp galleries.)
+
+Towards the end of the 16th century the term "bulwark" began to be
+reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance in front of the
+main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it thus reverted to its
+original defensive intention. The term "bastion" henceforth denoted an
+artillery position connected by flanks to the main wall; and the
+question of the arrangement of these flanks was one of the main
+preoccupations of engineers. Flanks retired, casemated or open, or
+sometimes in several tiers were proposed in infinite variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual
+modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on account
+of the expense involved, the era of theoretical "systems" had begun,
+based on the mutual relations of flank and face. These can be grouped
+under three heads as follows:--
+
+  1. The _crémaillère_ or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
+  each other in regular order (fig. 15).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+  2. The _tenaille_ trace: Flanks back to back between the faces (fig.
+  16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the _star_
+  trace (fig. 17).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  3. The _bastioned_ trace: Flanks facing each other and connected by
+  curtains (fig. 18).
+
+In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless
+casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete. Guns on
+the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and therefore there
+are "dead" angles in the ditch. In the bastioned trace there is no
+"dead" ground, provided the flanks are so far apart that a shot from the
+rampart of a flank can reach the ditch at the centre of the curtain.
+
+
+  The bastioned trace.
+
+Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who objected to
+casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of salvation. They were
+soon in the majority; perhaps because the symmetry and completeness of
+the idea captivated the imagination. At all events the bastioned trace,
+once fairly developed, held the field in one form or another practically
+without a rival until near the end of the 18th century. The Italian
+engineers, who were supreme throughout most of the 16th century, started
+it; the French, who took the lead in the following century, developed
+it, and officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century,
+when the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary
+importance.
+
+  It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple
+  of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component parts
+  of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its outworks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round the
+  place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.
+
+  ABC is an _exterior angle_ or angle of the polygon.
+
+  BC is an _exterior side_.
+
+  _zz_ is an _interior side_.
+
+  _abcdefghijk_ is the trace of the _enceinte_.
+
+  _bcdef_ is a _bastion_.
+
+  _zdef_ is a _demi-bastion_.
+
+  _de_ is a _face_ of the bastion.
+
+  _ef_ is a _flank_ of the bastion.
+
+  _fg_ is the _curtain_.
+
+  _bf_ is the _gorge_.
+
+  (Two demi-bastions with the connecting curtain make the bastioned
+  front, _defghi_.)
+
+  _zd_ bisecting the _exterior angle_ ABC is the _capital_ of the
+  bastion.
+
+  _xy_ is the _perpendicular_, the proportionate length of which to the
+  exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element of
+  the trace.
+
+  _ef_C is the angle of _defence_.
+
+  BC_f_ is the _diminished angle_.
+
+  _cde_ is the _flanked angle_ or _salient angle_ of the bastion.
+
+  _e_ is the _shoulder_ of the bastion.
+
+  _def_ is the _angle of the shoulder_.
+
+  _efg_ is the _angle of the flank_.
+
+  The line of the escarp is called the _magistral line_ since it
+  regulates the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without
+  much detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of
+  the parapet, are often the only ones shown,--the crest of the parapet,
+  as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being
+  usually emphasized by a thick black line.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+  Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an
+  imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the
+  different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the
+  explanation of its figuring and lettering.
+
+  1. _Flat bastion:_ Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines of
+  defence were too long for musketry range.
+
+  2. _Demi-bastion:_ Used generally on the bank of a river.
+
+  3. _Tenaille bastion:_ Used when the flanked angle is too acute; that
+  is, less than 70°.
+
+  4. _Redans:_ Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet of
+  the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.
+
+  A, B. _Ravelins._
+
+  C. _Demi-lunes:_ So called from the shape of the gorge. They differ
+  from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions instead of
+  the curtains.
+
+  D. _Counter-guards:_ Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then going
+  out of fashion.
+
+  E. _Simple tenaille._
+
+  F. _Double tenaille_ (see L and M).
+
+  (If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown
+  alternatively, it is called a _swallow-tail_. If the double tenaille
+  is reduced as at G, it is called a _bonnet de prêtre_. Such works
+  were rarely used.)
+
+  H. _Hornwork:_ Much used for gates, &c.
+
+  I. _Crown-work._
+
+  K. _Crowned hornwork._
+
+  L. M. New forms of _tenaille_: (N.B.--These are the forms which
+  ultimately retained the name.)
+
+  N. New form of work called a _demi-lune lunettée_, the ravelin N being
+  protected by two counterguards, O.
+
+  P. _Re-entering places of arms._
+
+  Q. _Traverses._
+
+  R. _Salient places of arms._
+
+  S. _Places of arms_ without _traverses_.
+
+  T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.
+
+  X. A _double bastion_ or _cavalier_.
+
+  Y. A _retrenchment_ with a ditch, of the breach Z.
+
+  &. _Traverses_ to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from
+  enfilade.
+
+Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find in the early
+examples of the use of the bastion that there is no attempt made to
+defend its faces by flanking fire, the curtains being considered the
+only weak points of the enceinte. Accordingly, the flanks are arranged
+at right angles to the curtain, and the prolongation of the faces
+sometimes falls near the middle of it. When it was found that the faces
+needed protection, the first attempts to give it were made by erecting
+_cavaliers_, or raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in
+the bastions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in
+Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we have
+faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces long enough to
+contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able to defend both curtain
+and faces. The weak points of this trace, due to its being arranged on a
+small pentagon, are that the terreplein or interior space of the
+bastions is rather cramped, and the salient angles too acute.
+
+
+  The 16th century.
+
+In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589 we find a
+distinct advance. Speckle's actual constructions in fortification are of
+no great importance; but he was a great traveller and observer, and in
+his work, published just before his death, he has evidently assimilated,
+and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put forward up
+to that time.
+
+Two specimens from Speckle's work are well worth studying as connecting
+links between the 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+  Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no
+  outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a battery
+  in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large, but the
+  faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the flanks.
+  To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers in the
+  middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank should be
+  noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of which is
+  arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great saliency of the
+  bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement is simple and
+  strong.
+
+  In the second example, known as Speckle's "reinforced trace" (fig.
+  23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century. The
+  ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are in
+  prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle's other favourite
+  ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own
+  particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering place
+  of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries did not find
+  favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily destroyed by
+  the besiegers' batteries crowning the salients of the covered way.
+
+  Speckle's book is of great importance as embodying the best work of
+  the period. His own ideas are large and simple, but rather in advance
+  of the powers of the artillery of his day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 22.]
+
+
+  The 17th century.
+
+At the beginning of the 17th century we find the Italian engineers
+following Paciotto in developing the complete bastioned trace; but they
+got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything to
+symmetry and system. The era of geometrical fortification (or, as Sir
+George Clarke has called it, "drawing-board" fortification) had already
+begun with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in
+finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical
+bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the oval, club,
+heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one of the first to
+think of prolonging the resistance of a place by means of outworks such
+as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that Busca was the first to discuss
+the proportions and functions of all the component parts of a front; and
+Floriani, about 1630, was the last of the important Italians. The
+characteristics of a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at
+this time were, according to the same authority, that the works were
+well adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed,
+while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German schools will be
+referred to later.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Speckle's Reinforced Trace.]
+
+The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting the
+principles already established to actual sites. In the first half of the
+century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as having contributed
+valuable studies to the advancement of the science. In putting forward
+their designs they discussed very fully such practical questions as the
+length of the line of defence, whether this should be governed by the
+range of artillery or musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in
+them of orillons, casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions,
+&c.
+
+It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which is one of the
+most important periods in the history of fortification, chiefly because
+it was illuminated by the work of Vauban. It was at this time also that
+a prodigious output of purely theoretical fortification began, which
+went on till the French Revolution. Many of the "systems" published at
+this time were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge of the
+subject, some of them priests who were engaged in educating the sons of
+the upper classes, and who had to teach the elements of fortification
+among other things. They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable
+for their clearness of style; and with their industry and ingenuity the
+elaboration of existing methods was a very congenial task. Most of these
+essays took the form of multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an
+impossible scale, and they culminated in such fantastic extravagances as
+the system of Rhana, published in 1769 (fig. 24). These proposals,
+however, were of no practical importance.
+
+
+  Vauban.
+
+The work of the real masters who knew more than they published can
+always be recognized by its comparative simplicity. The greatest of
+these was Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (q.v.). Born in 1633, and
+busied from his eighteenth year till his death in 1707 in war or
+preparations for war, he earned alike by his genius, his experience, his
+industry and his personal character the chief place among modern
+military engineers. His experience alone puts him in a category apart
+from others. Of this it is enough to say that he took part in
+forty-eight sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer without
+a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than 160 places.
+Vauban's genius was essentially practical, and he was no believer in
+systems. He would say, "One does not fortify by systems but by common
+sense." Of new ideas in fortification he introduced practically none,
+but he improved and modified existing ideas with consummate skill in
+actual construction. His most original work was in the attack (see
+below), which he reduced to a scientific method most certain in its
+results. It is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should
+be chiefly known to us by three so-called "systems," known as his
+"first," "second" and "third." How far he was from following a system is
+shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight fronts constructed
+by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of which are quite alike and most
+of which vary very considerably to suit local conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+Vauban's "first system," as variously described by other writers even in
+his own time, is pieced together from some of the early examples of his
+work. The "second system" is the "tower bastion" defence of Belfort and
+Landau (1684-1688), obviously suggested by a design of Castriotto's one
+hundred years earlier; and the "third system" is the front of
+Neu-Breisach (1698), which is merely Landau slightly improved. In other
+works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower bastion idea.
+
+It will be convenient to take the "first system," as reproduced in the
+Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25) as typical
+of much of Vauban's work. It may be observed that he sometimes uses the
+straight flank, and sometimes the curved flank with orillon. Parapets in
+several tiers are never used, nor cavaliers. The ravelin is almost
+always used. It is small, having little artillery power and giving no
+protection to the shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and
+occasionally a keep.
+
+The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a shield to
+the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by him. Fig. 25
+shows two forms. In both the parapet of the tenaille had to be kept low,
+so that the flanks might defend a breach at the shoulder of the opposite
+bastion, with artillery fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the
+escarp. Traverses are used for the first time on the covered way to
+guard against enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which
+Vauban attached considerable importance, is large.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Vauban's First System.]
+
+  For the construction of the trace an average length of about 400 yds.
+  (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the site) may be
+  taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except for polygons of
+  less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the bastions
+  two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords of arcs
+  struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described with
+  the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and
+  cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of the
+  ravelin; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon the
+  faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The main ditch
+  has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the
+  counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions.
+  The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout.
+
+  As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command of 25
+  ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft.
+  over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The parapets
+  are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works he used
+  demi-revetments.
+
+Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the so-called
+"third system." It is worth introducing, simply as showing that even a
+mind like Vauban's could not resist in old age the tendency to duplicate
+defences. Here the main bastions and tenaille are detached from the
+enceinte. The line of the enceinte is broken with flanks and further
+flanked by the towers. The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section
+through the face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm,
+and a hedge as an additional obstacle.
+
+
+  18th and 19th centuries.
+
+After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable additions
+to the system were few. Among his successors in the early part of the
+18th century Cormontaingne (q.v.) has the greatest reputation, though
+his experience and authority fell far short of Vauban's. He was a clear
+thinker and writer, and the elements of the system were distinctly
+advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged ravelin with flanks, the
+ends of which were intended to close the gaps at the end of the
+tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with flanks. He provides a very
+large re-entering place of arms, also with a keep, the ditches of which
+are carefully traced so as to be protected from enfilade by the salients
+of the ravelin and bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent
+retrenchment of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with
+many alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as a
+text-book for the school of Mézières. This school was established in
+1748, and from this time forward there was an official school of
+thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne's work, therefore, represents
+the modifications of Vauban's ideas accepted by French engineers in the
+latter part of the 18th century. The school of Mézières was afterwards
+replaced by that of Metz, which carried on its traditions. Such schools
+are necessarily conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual
+improvement in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the
+bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of the
+Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us that, before the
+Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification was to write one's
+self down ignorant. How far the general form of the bastion with its
+outworks had become crystallized is evident from a cursory comparison of
+fig. 27 with Vauban's early work. This figure is the front of the Metz
+school in 1822, by General Noizet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Neu-Breisach.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Noizet.]
+
+Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines of the
+system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from
+Cormontaingne's time onwards were given to improvements of detail, and
+mainly to retard breaching operations as long as possible. We find
+enormous pains being bestowed on the study of the comparative heights of
+the masonry walls and crest levels; with the introduction here and there
+of glacis slopes in the ditches, put in both to facilitate their
+defence and to protect portions of the escarps.
+
+Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first of these is
+Chasseloup-Laubat (q.v.), who served throughout the wars of the Republic
+and Empire, and constructed the fortress of Alessandria in Piedmont.
+
+  Chasseloup's main proposals to improve the bastioned system were two:
+
+  First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached through
+  the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward the
+  ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the further
+  advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-fire over
+  the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the ravelin
+  liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this system would
+  have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able commander with a
+  strong force; but under the opposite conditions it has a dangerous
+  element of weakness.
+
+  Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those
+  admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend his
+  exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his
+  bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the flank
+  of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence, and
+  the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length, being
+  defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the
+  tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it
+  combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal
+  systems without getting the full advantages of either.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Chasseloup-Laubat.
+
+  Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup's system, of ordinary length,
+  as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting detail, viz.
+  the Chasseloup mask--a detached mask with tunnels for the casemate
+  guns to fire through, the intention of which is to save them from
+  being destroyed from a distance.
+
+The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French Engineers,
+born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827. Two leading ideas are
+due to him. The first is that of the "independence of parapets." A
+glance at any of the plans that have already been shown will show that
+hitherto the crests of parapets had always been traced parallel to the
+escarp or magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was
+necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with reference
+to the flanking arrangements, there was no such necessity as regards the
+parapets. By making the crest of the parapet quite independent of the
+escarp line he obtained great freedom of direction for his fire. The
+second idea is that of the "inner glacis." This was a glacis parapet
+placed in the main ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to
+prevent the escarp of the body of the place from being breached in the
+usual way by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.
+
+The need for Choumara's improvements has passed by, but he was in his
+time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a resounding note:
+"What is chiefly required in fortification is simplicity and strength.
+It is not on a few little contrivances carefully hidden that one can
+rely for a good defence. _The fate of a place should not depend on the
+intelligence of a corporal shut up in a small post prepared for his
+detachment._"
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sedan in 1705.]
+
+  Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study a
+  couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one regular.
+  Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the end of the
+  17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and there, but the
+  work is for the most part apparently early 17th century. It will be
+  observed that on the river side of the town the defence consists of
+  very irregular bastions with duplicated wet ditches (see the Dutch
+  style, below); and on the other side, where water is not available,
+  strength is sought for by pushing a succession of hornworks far out.
+
+  Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early
+  manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course never
+  thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good nor
+  bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the
+  system.
+
+  It must here be remarked that the reproach of "geometrical"
+  fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and his
+  immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which
+  worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already pointed
+  out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his fellows
+  excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the engineer.
+
+  The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the
+  fortification problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range
+  and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an
+  obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of
+  protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the
+  bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was
+  the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability
+  and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the
+  authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French
+  school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while the
+  conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they could
+  admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not help being
+  original, were struggling against the whole weight of official
+  opposition.
+
+  Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not
+  geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the
+  attack, on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As
+  to the policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us
+  think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and
+  that a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of
+  retreat. There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of
+  outworks, difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral
+  effect of their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and
+  Candia might well say, "Oh, if only when we had held on to that
+  bastion for so many months we had had a second and a third line of
+  permanent retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place
+  for ever." And who shall say that they were wrong? Let us at all
+  events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men who
+  had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves in
+  comparison with them are the theorists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+
+  The Dutch school.
+
+From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods of fortification
+acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout resistance offered to
+the Spaniards by some of their fortresses, the three years' defence of
+Ostend being perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged defences,
+which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the besieged, were
+credited to the quality of their defences. In point of fact the Dutch
+owed more to nature, and more still to their own spirit, than to art;
+but they showed a good deal of skill in adapting recent ideas to their
+needs.
+
+Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch works at this
+time, viz. want of time, want of money and abundance of water. When the
+Netherlands began their revolt against Spain, they would no doubt have
+been glad enough of expensive masonry fortresses on such models as
+Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for
+such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately for them
+they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted walls.
+Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or canals were
+available for inundations. A wide and shallow ditch, while making a good
+obstacle, was also the readiest means of obtaining earth for the
+ramparts. High command was, owing to the flatness of the country,
+unnecessary and even undesirable, as it did not allow of grazing fire.
+
+What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns gives little
+evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an existing enceinte,
+sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide a broad wet ditch. No
+further provision was usually made on the sides of the town which were
+additionally protected by a river or inundation. On the other sides the
+wet ditch was made still broader, and sometimes contained a
+counterguard, sometimes ravelins and lunettes. These were quite
+irregular in their design and relation to each other. At the foot of the
+glacis would be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a
+peculiarly Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a
+river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line,
+strengthened by several redans.
+
+Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want of a
+first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches, and
+further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities of palisading,
+for which purpose the timber of old ships was used. They also recognized
+the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches, as, for instance, that when
+frozen they no longer provide an obstacle; and they studied the means,
+not only of causing inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well
+as to fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this
+work.
+
+Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence at this
+time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon Stevin, Maurice
+and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag. The fortress of Coevorden,
+constructed by Prince Maurice, of which fig. 31 shows a front, is a
+well-known example of this, and the section shows clearly some typical
+features of the school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Coevorden.]
+
+  The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace, but
+  we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design.
+  There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding the
+  rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work, which
+  partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard, served
+  several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the rampart
+  should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch, and the
+  fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead ground at the
+  foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire over the ditch,
+  which was very important, and which the rampart supported by a
+  plunging fire.
+
+
+  Coehoorn.
+
+Coehoorn (q.v.), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban, was the
+greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was distinguished as
+a fighting engineer, both in attack and defence; but in the attack he
+differed from him in relying more on powerful artillery fire than
+systematic earthworks. He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His "first
+system," which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is reproduced for the
+sake of comparison with the Coevorden front designed a hundred years
+earlier. Among other points will be noticed the combination of wet and
+dry ditches; the very broad main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep
+of the ravelin; the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent
+low parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Coehoorn's First System.]
+
+
+  German school.
+
+The "tenaille" system and the "polygonal" system which grew out of it
+are mainly identified with the _German school_. That school, says von
+Zastrow, does not, like that of France, represent the authoritative
+teaching of an official establishment, but rather the general practice
+of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of Dürer,
+Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in execution by
+Montalembert. "The German engineers desired a simple trace, a strong
+fortification with retrenchments and keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and
+an organization suitable for an offensive defence."
+
+These had always been the German principles. Already in the 16th century
+the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and Peitz had large bomb-proof
+casemates sufficient for a great part of the garrison. The same thing is
+seen in the defences of Giogau, Schweidnitz, &c., built by Frederick the
+Great. These works show various applications of the tenaille system. In
+1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalembert, and his
+influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel.
+
+Whether through the influence of Albert Dürer or not cannot be said, but
+while the bastion was being developed in France the tenaille and the
+accompanying casemates from the first found acceptance in Germany, and
+thence in eastern and northern Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618,
+produced a sort of tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of
+Rimpler. Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d'Aach
+(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion and
+tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion being usually
+distinguished by short faces and long flanks.
+
+Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the Turks in
+1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a great influence.
+He had been struck by the weakness of the early Italian bastions at
+Candia, and published a book in 1673 called _Fortification with Central
+Bastions_, which was practically the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks
+that Rimpler inspired Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to
+illustrate his ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the Prussian
+service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence. He appears to
+have been the first who frankly advocated the tenaille alone, chiefly on
+the ground that the flank, which was the most important part of the
+bastioned system, was also the weakest. Fig. 33 shows his system,
+published in 1712.
+
+
+  Montalembert and Carnot.
+
+It was, however, ultimately a Frenchman, Marc René Montalembert (q.v.),
+who was the great apostle of the tenaille, though in his later years he
+leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected to the bastioned trace
+on many grounds; principally that the bastion was a shell trap, that the
+flanks by crossing their fire lost the advantage of the full range of
+their weapons, and that the curtain was useless for defence. He took the
+view that the bastions with their ravelins constituted practically a
+tenaille trace, spoilt by the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by
+the presence of the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted
+of redans, with salient angles of 60° or more, flanking each other at
+right angles; from which he gave to his system the name of
+"perpendicular fortification."
+
+Lazare Carnot (q.v.), the "Organizer of Victory," was, in
+fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797 a
+tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+  In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he
+  recommended a bastioned trace; but for wet ditches and for irregular
+  ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797
+  trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose
+  faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients.
+  There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends
+  overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between the
+  _tenaille trace_ and the _tenaille_, it should be noted that the
+  latter is a low detached parapet placed in front of the escarp of the
+  body of the place, partly as a shield, and partly as an additional
+  line of defence. It is used in front of the curtain in the bastioned
+  trace, and in the re-entering angle in the tenaille trace.)
+
+  Other important features of Carnot's work were: a continuous general
+  retrenchment, or interior parapet, following more or less the lines of
+  the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place of the escarp
+  revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last (of which Carnot
+  was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently outwards from a crest
+  raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level of the ground, sloped
+  inwards from the ground-level to the bottom of the ditch. The
+  advantage of the additional obstacle of the counterscarp was thus lost
+  to the defence. On the other hand, the besiegers' saps, as they
+  progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a plunging fire from the
+  parapet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall.]
+
+Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great believer in the mortar; but
+while Coehoorn introduced the small portable mortar that bears his name,
+Carnot expected great results from a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron
+balls at each discharge. He endeavoured to prove mathematically that the
+discharge of these mortars would in due course kill off the whole of the
+besieging force. These mortars he emplaced in open fronted
+mortar-casemates, in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one
+of these mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the
+retrenchment and a detached wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Montalembert, 1786.]
+
+
+  The polygonal trace.
+
+The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful defence it
+was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that of the enemy.
+This idea led him to the adoption of casemates in several tiers; in
+preference to open parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds,
+high angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects of bastions
+he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking purposes two forms of
+trace were preferable; either the tenaille form, connecting the ravelins
+with the body of the place, or the form in which the primary flanking
+elements, instead of facing each other with overlapping fire, as with
+the bastions, should be placed back to back in the middle of the
+exterior side. Fig. 36 is an example of this. The central flanking work
+resulting from this arrangement is the caponier of the early Italians,
+reintroduced and developed; and with it Montalembert laid the foundation
+of the polygonal system of our own time.
+
+Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming necessity for
+detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly proposed to use
+his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille system for large places.
+In abandoning the bastioned trace he was already committed to the
+principle of casemate defence for ditches; and the combination of this
+principle with his desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him
+in the course of years of controversial writing into somewhat
+extravagant proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds.
+side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his caponier
+sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one above the other.
+Confiding in the power of such an artillery, he freely exposed the upper
+parts of his casemates to direct fire.
+
+Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas to fortification
+than any other man. His designs must be considered in some ways
+unworkable and unsound, but all the best work of the 19th century rests
+on his teaching. The Germans, who already used the tenaille system and
+made free provision of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal
+trace and the idea of the entrenched camp.
+
+The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or slightly
+broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers. The caponier is
+the vital point of the front, and is protected in important works by a
+ravelin and keep. The essence of the system is its simplicity, which
+allows of its being applied to any sort of ground, level or broken, and
+to long or short fronts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Front at Posen.]
+
+
+  1815-1855, entrenched camps.
+
+The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one in the
+history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive works that
+were constructed at this time were obsolete almost as soon as they were
+finished; but this was inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world
+was travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic Confederation
+began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering that they had not
+derived much strategic advantage from their existing fortresses, the
+Germans took up Montalembert's idea of entrenched camps, utilizing at
+the same time his polygonal system with modifications for the main
+enceintes. The Prussians began with the fortresses of Coblenz and
+Cologne; later Posen, Königsberg and other places were treated on the
+same lines. The Austrians constructed, among other places, Linz and
+Verona. The Germanic Confederation reinforced Mainz with improved works,
+and reorganized entirely Rastatt and Ulm. The Bavarians built
+Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these works were conceived in the
+spirit of Rimpler and Montalembert, they showed the differences of
+national temperament. The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon
+powerful artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the
+enemy's view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth and
+gave more attention to detail.
+
+The German development of the polygonal system at this time is not of
+great importance, since the great masonry caponiers were designed
+without sufficient consideration for the increasing powers of artillery.
+One example (fig. 37) is given for the sake of historical comparison. It
+is a front of Posen.
+
+  "The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long.
+  It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a _detached
+  bastion_.... The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the
+  bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.
+
+
+    Posen.
+
+  "The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and sweeps
+  both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has two
+  floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and on the top is a
+  parapet completely commanding alike the outworks and the body of the
+  place. It contains barrack accommodation for a battalion of 1000 men,
+  and has a large inner courtyard closed at the gorge by a detached
+  wall. The caponier is itself flanked by three small caponiers at the
+  head, and one at the inner end of each flank.
+
+  "The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall; that
+  of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and
+  arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion
+  there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated traverse
+  for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion are
+  parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from it as
+  the faces.
+
+  "Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as keeps of
+  the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter case they
+  have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery, which serves as
+  a base for countermine galleries, and is connected with the detached
+  bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counterscarp is not revetted
+  if the ditch is wet.
+
+  "The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160°, in order that
+  the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients of the
+  detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry of the
+  caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view." (R.M.A. _Text-book of
+  F. & M.E._, 1886.)
+
+
+  The detached fort.
+
+We have now reached a period when the "detached fort" becomes of more
+importance than the organization of the enceinte. The early conception
+of the rôle of detached forts in connexion with the fortress was to form
+an entrenched camp within which an army corps could seek safety if
+necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who added to the permanent
+defences of Toulon a large camp defended by field parapets attached to
+one side of the fortress. The substitution of a ring of detached forts,
+while giving it the greater safety of permanent instead of field
+defences, gave also a wider area and freer scope for the operations of
+an army seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same
+time made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment. The
+use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body of the place
+from bombardment had not yet been made necessary by increased range of
+artillery.
+
+When these detached forts were first used by Germany the scope of the
+idea had evidently not been realised, as they were placed much too close
+to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for instance, were only some 400 or
+500 yds. in advance of the ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in
+most of these forts as in the new enceintes; i.e. a lunette, with a
+casemated keep at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work,
+the rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery
+fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to flank
+its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring works with
+guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable arrangement, which
+is still sometimes used. The front ditches of the lunettes were flanked
+by caponiers. Some of the larger forts were simple quadrangular works
+with casemate barracks and caponier ditch defence.
+
+In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely fresh
+departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to provide an
+entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose works should require
+the smallest possible garrison. With this object Linz was surrounded
+with a belt of circular towers spaced about 600 yds. apart. The towers,
+25 metres in diameter, were enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and
+contained 3 tiers of casemates. The masonry was concealed from view by
+the ditch and glacis. On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over
+which a battery of 13 guns fired _en barbette_. In order to find room
+for so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed
+parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.
+
+This new departure was received with a certain amount of approval at the
+time, which is somewhat difficult to account for, as a more faulty
+system could hardly be devised; but the experiment was never repeated.
+
+The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made in Germany
+during this period is due to General von Brese-Winiari,
+inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.
+
+France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for
+fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor improvements
+on the old lines. Belgium, having some money in hand, rebuilt and
+improved in detail a number of bastioned fortresses which had fallen
+into disrepair.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. The Fortress of Antwerp.]
+
+In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with entrenched
+camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed, and detached forts were
+added at a cost, according to von Zastrow, of £8,000,000. The Belgian
+and German frontiers of France being considered fairly protected by the
+existing fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and
+Italian frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts
+at Belfort, Besançon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at Lyons
+was, according to the same writer, £1,000,000 without the armament. Here
+and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified on account of the advanced
+defences. That of Paris, which was influenced by political
+considerations, was a simple bastioned trace with rather long fronts and
+without ravelins or other outworks; the escarp was high and therefore
+exposed, and the counterscarp was not revetted.
+
+As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of clearness of
+conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses in miniature, square
+or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts and containing defensible
+barracks. Those of Lyons were much more carefully designed, but the
+authors wavered between two ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but
+evidently hankering after the new caponiers, they produced a type which
+it is difficult to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or
+five-sided figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole
+interior space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the
+polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had defensible
+barracks in the gorge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+
+  Period from 1855 to 1870.
+
+During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given to the
+science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the arrival of the
+rifled gun. One immediate result of these was the condemnation of
+masonry exposed to artillery fire. The most important work of the period
+was the new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859. This is
+chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest expression of the
+medieval enceinte, at a time when the war between the polygonal and
+bastioned traces was still raging, though the boom of the long-range
+guns had already given warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also
+associated with the name of General Brialmont (q.v.), of the Belgian
+engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as the greatest writer on
+fortification of the latter half of the 19th century.
+
+
+  Antwerp.
+
+We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859 defences of
+Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its sections, as
+showing almost the last word of fortification before the arrival of high
+explosives.
+
+The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre of the
+national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for 100,000 men. The
+length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The detached forts, which on the
+sides not defended by inundation are about 1¼ m. apart and from 2 to 3
+m. in front of the enceinte, are powerful works, arranged for a garrison
+of 1000 men. They have each a frontal crest-line of over 700 yds. and
+are intended for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Sections of fig. 39.]
+
+  The general arrangement of the fronts of the enceinte should be
+  compared with the earlier German type of Posen. It will be noticed
+  that while the large casemated caponier at Posen breaks the enceinte
+  and flanks it both without and within, at Antwerp the caponier is
+  detached--a much sounder arrangement--and flanks the front only. The
+  defence of the faces rests on the width of the wet ditches and on the
+  flanking power of the caponier; there is no attempt to add to it by
+  fausse-braie or detached wall. The dimensions are everywhere very
+  generous, allowing free movement for the troops of the defence; the
+  covered way is 22 yds. wide and there is a double terreplein on the
+  face. The parapet of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the
+  casemate guns in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is
+  protected by earth, _à la_ Haxo.
+
+In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery with
+some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by Radetzky in 1848
+were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from the ramparts. Those now
+added, of which fig. 41 is an example, were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Austrian Fort at Verona.]
+
+In the same year the land defences of some of the British dockyards were
+taken in hand. These first serious attempts at permanent fortification
+in England were received with approval on the continent, as constituting
+an advance on anything that had been done before. The detached forts
+intended to keep an enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works
+with small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the
+ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries. The forts
+were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to support each other
+by their fire.
+
+
+  Period from 1870 to 1885.
+
+The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded to in the
+section below dealing with the "Attack of Fortresses." As regards their
+effect on the designs of fortification the most important thing to note
+is the distance to which it was thought necessary to throw out the
+detached forts. These distances were of course influenced by the
+character of the ground, but for the most part they were very largely
+increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr was 18,000 yds. from the
+enceinte; at Verdun the distances varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at
+Belfort the new forts were from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to
+4500; and at Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased
+distances was of course to increase very largely the length of the zone
+of investment, and therefore the strength necessary for the besieging
+force.
+
+As regards the character of the works, the typical shape adopted both in
+France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled lunette, shallow from front
+to rear. The German type had one parapet only, which was organized for
+artillery and heavily traversed, the living casemates being under this
+parapet. The ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached
+wall (see fig. 42).
+
+The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being placed over
+living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section of fig. 43 by a
+dotted line), and commanding the front one. There was a long controversy
+as to whether the artillery of the fort should be on the upper or the
+lower parapet, the advocates of the upper parapet attaching great
+importance to the command that the guns would have over the country in
+front. The other school, objecting to having guns on the skyline,
+preferred to sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet,
+as in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be
+observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches, like those
+of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--German Fort about 1880.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--French Fort about 1880.]
+
+While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very active
+controversy had already begun on the general question as to whether guns
+should be employed in forts at all. Some declared that the accuracy and
+power of artillery had already developed so far, that guns in fixed and
+visible positions must needs be put out of action in a very short time.
+The remedy proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts
+into "wing-batteries" which should be less conspicuous; but soon the
+broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed positions
+and moving them from one to another by means of previously prepared
+roads or railways. Others declared that there was no safety for the guns
+outside the forts, and that the use of steel turrets and disappearing
+cupolas was the only solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who
+had by this time become the first European authority on fortification
+questions, ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger
+school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed themselves
+eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.
+
+It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced, namely, the
+obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive bursting charge. With
+its appearance we say good-bye to the old school and enter upon the
+consideration of the fortification of to-day.
+
+
+II. MODERN PERMANENT FORTIFICATION
+
+  High-angle fire with long shell.
+
+Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885. The Germans
+had begun experiments a year or two before this, with long shell
+containing large charges of gun-cotton. But it was the experiments at
+Fort Malmaison in France in 1886 that set the military world speculating
+on the future of fortification. The fort was used as a target for 8-in.
+shell of five calibres length containing large charges of melinite. The
+reported effects of these made a tremendous sensation, and it was
+thought at first that the days of permanent fortification were over.
+Magazine casemates were destroyed by a single shell, and revetment walls
+were overturned and practicable breaches made by two or three shells
+falling behind them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were
+not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had enough earth
+over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but not enough to prevent it
+from coming into contact with the masonry, and the latter was not thick
+enough to resist the explosion of the big charges. Other experiments
+were made in the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and
+Austria. The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 lb. of high
+explosive.
+
+After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about adapting
+their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments were enormously
+strengthened, and designed so that their weight resisted overturning.
+Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft. thick, and in many cases the
+surface of the concrete was left bare so as to expose a hard surface to
+the shell without any earth tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded
+guns gained ground, and is now practically accepted all over the
+continent of Europe. In many cases the main armament, in some only the
+safety armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.
+
+[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+fortification_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 44.--Metz in 1899.]
+
+But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature on the subject,
+and the whole policy of fortification as well as its minutest details
+were discussed _ab ovo_. The extremists of both sides revelled in their
+opportunity. Some declared that, with the use of heavy guns and armour,
+fortresses could be made stronger than ever. Others held that modern
+fortresses were far too expensive, that their use led to strategic
+mistakes, and (arguing from certain well-known examples) that
+extemporized field defences could offer as good a resistance as
+permanent works.
+
+European military opinion generally is now more or less agreed on the
+following lines:--
+
+  1. Important places must be defended by fortresses.
+
+  2. Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the
+  bombardment of the place.
+
+  3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate.
+
+  4. A few guns (called "safety armament") should be in the forts, and
+  these must be protected by armour.
+
+  5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the
+  forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers in
+  concealed positions.
+
+  6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry
+  positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being provided
+  for the infantry.
+
+  7. There should be ample communications--radial and
+  peripheral--between the place and the forts, both by road and rail.
+
+  8. Special lines of communication--such as mountain passes--should be
+  closed by barrier forts.
+
+These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in detail, but
+first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz in 1899 (fig. 44).
+
+
+    Metz.
+
+  Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily
+  recognized. First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now
+  _déclassée_. Next the detached forts, begun by the French engineers in
+  1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be readily recognized by their
+  bastioned trace. Among them are Fort Manteuffel, formerly St Julien,
+  and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly Queuleu. These were not altered in
+  their general lines.
+
+  [Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+  fortification_, by permission.
+
+  FIG. 45.--Fort Goeben, Metz.]
+
+  This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the
+  enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal type
+  such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a very
+  important point, was converted into a fortified position, with two
+  forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running north to
+  Fort Alvensleben.
+
+  The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts can be
+  clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by other
+  batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate
+  important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal
+  battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries.
+
+  There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in connexion
+  with this line.
+
+  Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899 at about
+  9000 yds. from the place.
+
+
+  Fortresses.
+
+Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of groups of
+fortresses, the places which, as mentioned above, are intrinsically
+worth being defended as fortresses are:--
+
+  (a) Centres of national, industrial or military resources.
+
+  (b) Places which may serve as _points d'appui_ for manoeuvres.
+
+  (c) Points of intersection of important railroads.
+
+  (d) Bridges over considerable rivers.
+
+  (e) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.
+
+Examples of (a) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again for (a) and
+(b), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz in the hands of the
+Germans may serve both as a base of supplies and a _point d'appui_ for
+one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head giving the Germans a secure
+retreat across the Rhine if beaten in the plains of Alsace, and an
+opportunity of resuming the offensive when they have re-formed behind
+the river.
+
+[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+fortification_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 46.--St Quentin position, Metz.]
+
+
+  The ring of detached forts.
+
+The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the range of
+the siege artillery and the distance at which it can usually be
+established from the forts, and is variously given by different
+continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. (4500 to 10,000 yds.). The
+bombarding range of siege howitzers with heavy shells is considered to
+be about 8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within
+say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance of 6000
+yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers extend the
+minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds. In practice, however, it
+must happen that the position of the forts is determined to a very large
+extent by the lie of the ground. Thus some good positions for forts may
+be found within 4000 or 5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable
+on the same front within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of
+expense might necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples
+of the actual distances of existing forts have already been given.
+Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-10½, Copenhagen
+7-8 and Paris 14-17. _Strategic pivots_ are in a different category from
+other fortresses. While not necessarily protected from bombardment, they
+may yet have one or two forts thrown out from 9 to 12 km., to get
+advantage of ground. Such are Langres, Epinal and Belfort.
+
+  _The Enceinte._--The desirability of this is almost universally
+  allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for
+  any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is
+  the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should
+  be provisionally fortified to assist in a "step-by-step" defence: and
+  behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a
+  last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last
+  moment. It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of
+  an enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be
+  the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is
+  the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large
+  modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to
+  construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of
+  the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief
+  advantages claimed for an enceinte.
+
+  In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in
+  France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft.
+  high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can
+  only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in face
+  of modern artillery, it is a _reductio ad absurdum_.
+
+  _The Safety Armament._--If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed
+  in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very
+  necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently in
+  position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance, forcing
+  him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the advance
+  of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in secure
+  positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from such
+  positions they must have armour to shield them from the concentrated
+  fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger could bring to
+  bear from the first.
+
+
+  The question of artillery positions.
+
+Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important part of the
+defence, and there is room for much discussion as to whether it should
+have positions prepared for it beforehand or should be placed in
+positions selected as the attack develops itself. On the one hand the
+preparation of the positions beforehand, which in many cases means the
+use of armour and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense
+of the defence, and ties the defender somewhat in the special
+dispositions that become desirable once the attack has taken shape.
+Moreover, such expenditure must be incurred on all the fronts of the
+fortress, whereas the results would only be realized on the front or
+fronts actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour are
+involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with extemporized
+protection, and this becomes a serious consideration when one remembers
+how much work of all kinds is necessary in preparing a fortress against
+attack. Again, to avoid the danger of a successful attack on the
+intervals between the forts before their defences have been fully
+completed, the fire of the guns in the intermediate positions might be
+urgently required. The solution in any given case would no doubt depend
+on the importance of the place. In most cases a certain amount of
+compromise will come in, some preparation being made for batteries,
+without their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind must
+in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be overlooked that
+as, whatever theories may exist about successive lines of defence, the
+onus of the defence will now lie on the fort line, just as it formerly
+did on the enceintes, so that line should be fully prepared, and should
+not have to commence its fight in a position of inequality.
+
+[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progrès de la défense des états et de
+la fortification permanente depuis Vauban_, by permission of M. le
+Commandant G. Meeüs.
+
+FIG. 47.]
+
+  _Defence of Intervals of Forts._--The frontal fire of the batteries in
+  the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts
+  will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on
+  infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically a
+  complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between
+  the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously
+  attacked. The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with
+  good communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there
+  must be some _points d'appui_ in the shape of redoubts or infantry
+  forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores near
+  the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts. If they
+  are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built in peace
+  time.
+
+  _Communications_ are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate
+  the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials
+  required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully
+  utilize the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include
+  both railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the
+  different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of
+  forts; also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment
+  is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must
+  be got from earth parapets or plantations.
+
+
+  Barrier forts.
+
+The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the necessary
+line of communication cannot be easily diverted. For instance, in a
+comparatively flat country a barrier fort commanding a road or railway
+is of little use because roads may be found passing round it, or a line
+of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. But in
+mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will be
+necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before he can advance; and
+the impossibility of surrounding it, the few positions from which siege
+artillery can be brought into play, and the fact that there is
+practically only one road of approach to be denied, make these positions
+peculiarly suitable for forts with armoured batteries. Italy makes
+considerable use of such forts for the defence of frontier passes.
+
+  _General Brialmont's Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a
+  Country._--Before going into details, it is worth while to state the
+  full claim of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont,
+  the most thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:--
+
+  A. Fortify the capital.
+
+  B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a
+  strategic barrier.
+
+  C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of
+  communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by one or two
+  places arranged so as to make a fortified district.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progrès de la défense des états et de
+  la fortification depuis Vauban_, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.
+
+  FIG. 48.]
+
+  D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across
+  mountains or marshes.
+
+  E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for the
+  army watching it.
+
+  F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications.
+
+  G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the
+  principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to establish
+  himself.
+
+  H. Fortify coasts and harbours.
+
+  Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the
+  officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the
+  active armies.
+
+
+  Types of detached forts.
+
+So many types of detached forts have been proposed by competent
+authorities, as well as actually constructed in recent years, that it is
+impossible here to consider all of them, and a few only will be
+reproduced of those which are most representative of modern continental
+thought.
+
+  Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns for
+  the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give
+  precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are taken
+  from the _Progrès de la défense des états, &c._, published in 1898.
+  The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section 1
+  is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the
+  defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment
+  preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the
+  counterscarp galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face
+  of the counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been
+  made to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps
+  drive the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials
+  into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may save
+  the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious fumes,
+  but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the view.
+
+  The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing it
+  with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the
+  rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a
+  counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks have no
+  counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the slope, and the
+  covered way which is utilized for a wire entanglement which is under
+  the fire of the parapet. The gorge has a very slight bastioned
+  indentation, which allows for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a
+  couple of machine guns placed in a single casemate on either side.
+
+  The abolition of the covered way as such is noteworthy. It marks an
+  essential difference between the fort and the old enceinte profiles;
+  showing that offensive action is not expected from the garrison of the
+  fort, and is the duty of the troops of the intermediate lines.
+
+  The great central mass of concrete containing all the casemates and
+  the gun-cupolas, a very popular feature, is omitted in this design,
+  advantage being taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to
+  spread the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge, with a
+  communication across the centre of the fort. This arrangement gives
+  more freedom to the disposition of the cupolas. The thickness of the
+  concrete over the casemate arches is more than 8 ft. Communication
+  between the faces and the counterscarp galleries is obtained by
+  posterns under the ditch. The armament, which is all protected by
+  cupolas, is powerful. It consists of two 150-mm. (6 in.) guns, four
+  120-mm. (4.7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (8.4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm.
+  (8.4 in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is
+  also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.
+
+  This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont's designs before
+  1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets and
+  various _chicanes_ which would not long survive bombardment. This type
+  is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.
+
+  The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a
+  keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture
+  of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the necessity
+  of keeps for all important works. History of course gives instances of
+  citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture the main work
+  with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the progress of
+  the general attack. It affords still more instances in which the keeps
+  have made no resistance, or none of any value. Some think that the
+  existence of a keep encourages the defenders of the main work; others
+  that it encourages the idea of retreat. The British school of thought
+  is against keeps. In any case they add largely to expense.
+
+  In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends
+  for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the
+  main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically
+  useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from
+  establishing themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a
+  reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying
+  bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and
+  inner gorge parapets.
+
+  As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the ditch
+  and the armament are similar to the design last considered. This
+  parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The casemates are
+  all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all round
+  giving access to the parapet and the cupolas.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progrès de la défense des états,
+  &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.
+
+  FIG. 49.--Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.]
+
+  Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is a
+  simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on the
+  gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air to
+  the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the artillery
+  fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each face are
+  two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which purpose,
+  it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the angles are
+  look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp, and is
+  defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no covered
+  way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where it is
+  uncovered, is about 10 ft.
+
+  Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen defences are
+  very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original thought, and
+  effectiveness combined with economy. There is one special feature
+  worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which Lyngby is one.
+  These works are intended for the artillery fight only, their main
+  armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in. howitzers,
+  all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is trifling,
+  consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun. There is no
+  provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp or
+  counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.
+
+  It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own
+  defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to
+  withdraw them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers,
+  however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line,
+  some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries. The
+  object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery
+  at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance
+  to the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries,
+  being withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require
+  expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the
+  advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend on
+  the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and what
+  that may be, war alone can tell us.
+
+  In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of
+  defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use of
+  layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness of
+  concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened underneath
+  with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps of
+  concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates look out
+  on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the magazines are
+  under the cupolas.
+
+  The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking an
+  important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be
+  considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example
+  of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent as
+  _batteries traditores_, which seem to be growing in popularity.
+
+  This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a medium
+  armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but to command
+  the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the intervals. The
+  fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accommodation. It
+  contains eight 4.7-in. guns. Two of these are in a cupola concealed
+  from view, though not protected, by a bank of earth in front. The
+  other six are in an armoured battery behind the cupola. It may be
+  remarked that as the cupola gets no real protection from the covering
+  mass of earth, it would be better to be able to utilize the fire of
+  its guns to the front. The _batterie traditore_, if properly protected
+  overhead, would be very difficult to silence, and its flanking fire
+  would probably be available up to the last moment. There is very much
+  to be said both for and against the policy of so emplacing the guns.
+  The immediate defence of the work, with the aid of a broad wet ditch,
+  is easy; but the great mass of concrete, which is intended to form an
+  indestructible platform and breastwork for the infantry, would seem to
+  be a needless expense.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progrès de la défense des états,
+  &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.
+
+  FIG. 50.--Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Beständige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 51.]
+
+  Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian lieutenant field-marshal Moritz
+  Ritter von Brunner (1839-1904), is selected as a type of the
+  intermediate fort which is intended only to be a strong point in the
+  infantry line of defence between the main forts. It has a protected
+  armament, but this, which consists only of four small Q.F. guns in
+  cupolas, is for its own defence, and not to take part in the artillery
+  duel. There is also a movable armament of four light Q.F. guns on
+  wheels, for which a shelter is provided between the two observatory
+  cupolas. The garrison would be a half company of infantry, for whom
+  casemates are provided in the gorge. The gorge ditch is flanked by a
+  caponier, but there is no flank defence for the front ditch. This is
+  defended by a glacis parapet. At the bottom of the ditch is a wire
+  entanglement and the glacis slope is planted with thorns. The
+  thickness of concrete on the casemates is 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This
+  is a strong and simple form of infantry work, but considering its rôle
+  it appears to be needlessly expensive.
+
+  Fig. 53 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country. A
+  powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson shield
+  commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling casemates is
+  surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries. There
+  are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties of
+  the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in mind.
+
+_Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle._--After considering the
+above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the details in
+which modern construction has been modified to provide against the
+increasing power of artillery.
+
+[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progrès de la défense des états, &c._,
+by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.
+
+FIG. 52.]
+
+
+  Bomb-proof protection.
+
+The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature of the
+soil--the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers the greatest
+resistance to penetration, clay the least. Since, however, the
+penetration of heavy shells fired from long ranges with high elevation
+may be 20 ft. or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth
+alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again a moderate
+quantity of earth over a casemate increases the explosive effect of a
+shell by "tamping" it, that is by preventing the force of the explosion
+from being wasted in the open air. We find therefore that in most modern
+designs the tops of casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few
+inches of earth over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.
+
+For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed to fire,
+concrete (q.v.) has entirely replaced masonry and brickwork, not because
+of its convenience in construction, but because it offers the best
+resistance. The exact composition of the concrete is a matter that
+demands great care and knowledge. It should be, like an armour plate,
+hard on the surface and tough within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of
+concrete for casemate arches, very generally prescribed on the continent
+in important positions, is meant to meet the danger of several
+successive shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any
+siege calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough.
+A good deal is expected from the use of "reinforced concrete" (that is
+concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment walls and casemates.
+
+
+  Parapets.
+
+Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that is the
+superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so that the whole
+rampart can be swept by the fire of the defenders from the crest, and
+there is no dead ground in front of it. It is also common to build the
+crest of the parapet in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete
+banquette, so that bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders
+have to man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be
+further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give head
+cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest.
+
+[Illustration: From General Rocchi's _Traccia per lo studio della
+fortificazione_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 53.]
+
+
+  Obstacles.
+
+The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great expense of
+a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A counterscarp of very
+solid construction is generally used. It is low and gives cover to a
+wire entanglement in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel
+unclimbable fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the
+covered way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are
+attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of
+revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against the action
+of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to overturn them, by
+thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows most of these dispositions.
+
+
+  Search-lights.
+
+Electric search-lights are now used in all important works and
+batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas. They are of
+great value for discovering working parties at night, and lighting up
+the foreground during an attack; and since only the projector need be
+exposed, they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not be
+over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no way compare
+with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other mechanical
+contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks in war. They may give
+rise to a false confidence; an important light may fail at a critical
+moment; and in foggy weather they are useless.
+
+
+  Armour.
+
+The use of armour (see also ARMOUR-PLATES) for coast batteries followed
+closely upon its employment for ships, for those were the days of short
+ranges and close fighting, and it seemed natural not to leave the
+battery in a position of inferiority to the ship in the matter of
+protection. In England the coast battery for a generation after the
+Crimean War was a combination of masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont
+employed armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which commanded the
+Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however, engineers were very slow to
+adopt armour. Apart from all questions of difficulty of manufacture,
+expense, &c., the idea was that sea and land fronts were radically
+different. It was pointed out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady
+platform, had not enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same
+spot; so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot
+would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on the other
+hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which could strike
+successive blows on the same spot, and break down the resistance of the
+strongest shield. But in time continental opinion gradually began to
+turn in favour of iron protection. Practical types of disappearing and
+revolving cupolas were produced, and many engineers were influenced in
+their favour by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually
+it was argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to
+obtain a resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a
+work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long as
+possible against a superior force; and that from this point of view
+armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.
+
+[Illustration: From Deguise's _La Fortification permanente_, by
+permission of J. Polleunis.
+
+FIG. 54.]
+
+The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of theory.
+Practically every European state uses iron or steel casemates and
+cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other types of forts so armed have
+been shown. Recent French types have not been published, but it is known
+that cupolas are employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an
+uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his views. These
+countries have had to proceed gradually, by improving existing
+fortresses, and with such resources as could be spared from the needs of
+the active armies. Among the smaller states Rumania and Belgium have
+entered most freely into the new way. In England, which is less directly
+interested, opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the
+publication in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having
+witnessed officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St
+Chamond turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly
+against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly the
+theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the constructions
+under experiment, he added: "The cost of the French turret was about
+£10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for this sum about six movable
+overbank guns of greater power could be provided." In view of the weight
+that belongs of right to his criticisms it is as well to point out that
+while this remark is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six
+gun detachments, with arrangements for supply, &c.; a consideration
+which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum. The whole
+object of protection is to enable a few men and guns successfully to
+oppose a larger number.
+
+  At the time when Sir George Clarke's first edition came out, such
+  extravagances were before the public as Mougin's fort; "a mastless
+  turret ship," as he called it, "buried up to the deck-level in the
+  ground and manned by mechanics." Such ideas tended to throw discredit
+  on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether the system be right
+  or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken account of. Nowhere has it
+  been applied more boldly than in Rumania. The defences of Bucharest
+  (designed by Brialmont) consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with
+  intermediate batteries. The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and
+  11,000 to 12,000 yds. from the centre of the place. The typical
+  armament of a main fort is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for
+  indirect fire), two 8.4-in. howitzers in cupolas, one 4.7-in. howitzer
+  in a cupola, six small Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total
+  armament of the place (all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns,
+  seventy-four 8.4-in. howitzers, eighteen 4.7-in. howitzers, 127 small
+  calibre Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns
+  in casemates for flanking the ditches. The "Sereth Line" will be
+  described later.
+
+_Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &c._--The broad
+difference between casemates or shielded batteries and turrets and
+cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter revolve and in
+some cases disappear. The casemate thus has the disadvantages that the
+arc of fire of the gun, which has to fire through a fixed embrasure or
+port-hole, is very limited, and that the muzzle of the gun and the
+port-hole, the weak points of the system, are constantly exposed to the
+fire of the enemy. The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative
+cheapness and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well
+suited for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and
+the Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such places as
+the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron casemates are also
+useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).
+
+[Illustration: From Leithner's _Beständige Befestigung_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 55.]
+
+_Turrets and Cupolas._--The difference between a turret and a cupola is
+that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat top and
+presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened dome, the
+vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The turret appears to
+be little used. The object of both forms is at once to give an all-round
+arc of fire to the guns and to allow of the weak point of the structure,
+the port-hole and muzzle of the gun, being turned away from the enemy in
+the intervals of firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete,
+which is strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron
+about 12 to 15 in. thick.
+
+
+    Cupolas.
+
+  There are four types of cupolas, viz. (a) Disappearing, (b)
+  Oscillating, (c) Central pivot, (d) On roller rings.
+
+  (a) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing guns,
+  on account of the expense of the various systems. They can be used for
+  medium guns. The details of the best foreign systems are secret. (b)
+  The oscillating turret is a Mougin type, in which the turret is
+  supported in the centre by a knife-edge on which it can swing. The
+  oscillation is controlled by powerful springs. The effect of it is
+  that after firing, the front of the cupola with the port-hole swings
+  downwards under cover, and is held there until the gun is ready to
+  fire again. (c) Schumann's centre pivot is understood to be approved
+  in Germany. It has been adopted in Rumania and Belgium for howitzer
+  cupolas. It is only suitable for a single piece; d is strong and
+  steady--the best cupola for coast batteries; c and d are best for
+  rapid fire because they can be loaded without lowering. They are
+  suited for long guns.
+
+  The following types are illustrated as being generally representative
+  of the different classes of cupola.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).]
+
+  Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp's typical cupola for one 6-in.
+  gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small
+  space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the
+  possibility of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are
+  muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition of a
+  ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is
+  controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to prevent
+  the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola. To facilitate
+  the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle pivotings the
+  breech has of course to be moved through a much larger arc than with
+  ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight. The cupola
+  rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can be turned
+  through a complete circle in about one minute.
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Beständige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 57.--Gruson Spherical Mortar.]
+
+  Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar,
+  _Kugelmörser_). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is
+  replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar
+  (8.4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close
+  completely the opening of the collar in any position.
+
+  Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4.7-in. Q.F. howitzer.
+
+  Fig. 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector.
+
+  Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5.7-cm. gun. This is
+  drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into action slides
+  on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs about 2½ tons,
+  and with carriage and platform about 4 tons.
+
+  The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than it
+  appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for the
+  lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace with
+  improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first made popular
+  by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such purposes as the
+  collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and compound plates for the
+  tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most recent Krupp-Gruson
+  designs being of nickel steel.
+
+  The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with
+  suitable enlargements in the port-hole; in others by sights affixed to
+  the cupola itself (which of course can give horizontal direction
+  only); in others training and elevation are given in accordance with
+  the readings on electric dials, or instructions by telephone or
+  speaking tube. There is of course nothing unreasonable in this in the
+  case of indirect fire guns and howitzers, for if not firing from
+  cupolas they would be behind the shelter of some wood or quarry.
+
+  _Schumann's System: "Armoured Fronts."_--Lieut.-Colonel Maximilian
+  Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian engineers, who took a very
+  prominent part in the design and advocacy of armoured defences,
+  eventually produced a system which dispensed entirely with forts and
+  relied on the fire of protected guns. It consists of several lines of
+  batteries for Q.F. guns and howitzers in cupolas. He considered that
+  such batteries would be able to defend their own front, and the
+  infantry garrison was not to be called into action except in the case
+  of the enemy breaking through at some point of the line.
+
+  This system was actually adopted by Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth
+  Line. There are three routes by which the Russians can enter the
+  country across the Sereth river: through Focshani, Nemolassa and
+  Galatz. These three routes are barred by bridge-heads, those at
+  Focshani, the most important, being on the left bank of the Milkov, a
+  tributary of the Sereth.
+
+  The Focshani works consist of 71 batteries arranged on a semicircular
+  front about 12 m. long and from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the
+  bridges. The batteries are placed in three lines, which are about 500
+  yds. apart, and are subdivided into groups. The normal group consists
+  of 5 batteries, of which 3 are in the first line, 1 in the second, and
+  1 in the third. The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F.
+  guns in travelling cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small
+  Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The third-line batteries have one
+  120-mm. gun in a cupola, and two 210-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson
+  shields. The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis
+  planted with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Beständige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 58.--Cupola for 4.7-in. Howitzer.]
+
+  The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost
+  about £1,100,000. But the system of "armoured fronts" is never likely
+  to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative
+  continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter as
+  follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security
+  against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the
+  defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most serious
+  of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should expect
+  half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with a gun,
+  to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But imagine the
+  feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone in his box,
+  his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment and nights of
+  watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around; he knows nothing
+  of the progress of the attack, but expects everything, and feels every
+  moment the door of his box being opened and the bayonet entering his
+  back. No wise commander would submit his troops to such a test.
+
+_Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems._--Before leaving the subject
+of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of those who, while
+recognizing the necessity for places permanently organized for defence,
+prefer to treat them more from the point of view of perfected field
+defences. It is to the credit of English military science that Sir
+George Clarke may be taken as the representative of this school of
+thought. His study of fortification, as he tells us, began with a
+history of the defence of Plevna (q.v.). He was led to compare the
+resistance made behind extemporized defences at such places as
+Sevastopol, Kars and Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the
+most complete manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the
+conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend on
+great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast expense, but on
+organization, communications and invisibility. In his 1907 edition he
+says:--
+
+  "Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the following
+  categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in peace time and
+  forming the key points of the position. (2) Gun emplacements,
+  magazines and shelters for men in rear of the main line, all concrete
+  structures and platforms to be completed, though some earthwork may be
+  left until the position is placed in a state of defence. (3) Field
+  works, trenches, &c., guarding the intervals between the permanent
+  defences in the main line, or providing rear positions. These should
+  be deliberately planned in time of peace ready to be put in hand at
+  short notice. The essence of a well-fortified position is that the
+  weapons of the defender shall obtain the utmost possible scope of
+  action, and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances
+  of effecting injury."
+
+[Illustration: Drawn from illustration in Leithner's _Beständige
+Befestigung_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 59.--Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.]
+
+
+  Infantry redoubts.
+
+Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 continental
+ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement as to the three
+categories of defences would be accepted anywhere now: the differences
+of opinion come in when we reach the stage of classifying under the
+first head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time. In most
+countries these would include forts with guns for the artillery duel,
+forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with or without armour, and
+forts for infantry only. Sir George Clarke will have no armour for guns
+except in certain special cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and
+howitzers requiring permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.)
+must either be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions.
+The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry. They are
+redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men, with casemate
+accommodation for three-fourths of that number. Fig. 61 shows the
+design:--two rows of casemates, one under the front parapet, one under a
+parados; frontal musketry defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements,
+mines, &c., with or without escarp and counterscarp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Transportable Cupola for 5.7-cm. Gun (Friedr.
+Krupp A.G.).]
+
+  "The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be about
+  2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the conformation of
+  the ground. Where there are good artillery positions falling within
+  the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals will be
+  permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence where
+  the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a continuous
+  chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour of groups of
+  redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case, the redoubts
+  in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back in approximately
+  horse-shoe form."
+
+[Illustration: From Sir George S. Clarke's Fortification, by permission
+of John Murray.
+
+FIG. 61.]
+
+The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in future will
+undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore it is of great
+interest to compare with the above types two studies put forward by
+Schroeter (_Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung_), one in his first
+edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the other in the second in 1905 (fig.
+63). In both these the defensive arrangements are merely trenches of
+field profile with entanglements, the command and the obstacle being
+less than in Sir George Clarke's work; and it will be noticed that in
+the 1905 type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much
+less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been
+introduced. But these works of Schroeter's are merely infantry
+supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular type
+with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very complete
+arrangement of field defences and communications; while Sir G. Clarke's
+redoubts are the only permanent works giving casemate protection in the
+front line.
+
+[Illustration: From Schoeter's Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung,
+by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.
+
+FIG. 62.]
+
+The comparative merits of either design for an infantry redoubt are not
+of much importance. It is agreed that the main line of defence must
+consist of a more or less continuous line of field defences and
+obstacles, and that at some points in the line there should be infantry
+supporting points with bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big
+shells. The open question is, what additional works, if any, are
+required for the artillery, whether for the medium and heavy guns that
+will take part in the "artillery duel," or for the lighter natures that
+will help in the close fight and defence of the intervals. Is it best
+for the defenders to rely on armoured protection or on concealment for
+his guns?
+
+
+  Opposing views as to armour, gun positions, &c.
+
+Official opinion outside England has certainly sanctioned armour, since
+all over the continent it is to some extent adopted in practice.
+National practice is usually based on the advice of the most
+distinguished officers of the day, and therefore it is unsafe to condemn
+it hastily. Sir George Clarke and those who are with him--and they are
+many, both in Great Britain and abroad--object entirely to armour. He
+says (_Fortification_, ed. 1907, p. 96): "The great advantage possessed
+by the attack in all ages has been the employment of a mobile artillery
+against armaments cribbed, cabined and confined by fortification. It is
+necessary to perpetuate this advantage?" Of course the effect of
+long-range weapons, in increasing the length of front that can be held
+by a given force, has given much greater freedom of action to the
+defence and this should be taken full advantage of.
+
+[Illustration: From Schroeter's _Die Festung in der heutigen
+Kriegführung_, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.
+
+FIG. 63.]
+
+The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is not at present
+strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), "If the high angle fire ... is ever
+to find a favourable opportunity, it will surely be against a cupola,
+the site of which can generally be determined with accuracy." On the
+other hand he says (p. 90), "During the long and costly experiments
+carried on at Bucharest in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the
+Krupp 21 cm. mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area" (about 430
+sq. ft.) "without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the
+targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting conditions
+were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned back to the firing
+point; but it must have been evident to the least instructed observer
+that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells on an invisible area 2 metres
+square would have been absolutely futile." These facts are adduced to
+prove that it is not necessary to give great thickness to concrete
+casemates, to resist successive bursts of shells in the same place; but
+surely they are equally applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), "The
+experience gained at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as
+regards the use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour
+were sunk by opening their sea-valves.... Fire was subsequently directed
+upon them from 11 in. howitzers at ranges up to about 7500 yds. This was
+deliberate practice from siege batteries at stationary targets; but the
+effect was distinctly disappointing." The cupolas therefore can hardly
+be considered ideal targets: and the probability is that they would hold
+their own against both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There
+are other and stronger arguments against the general use of them, all of
+which are clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.
+
+The worst objections to the cupola are the military disadvantages of
+isolation and immobility, and the multiplication of mechanical
+arrangements. For a successful round from a disappearing cupola, the
+elevating and traversing arrangements, the elevating and loading gear of
+the gun, and the telephone communication, must all be in good order. At
+night the successful co-operation of the searchlight is also in many
+cases necessary.
+
+The teaching of history is all against immobile mechanical defences.
+Initiative, surprise, unforeseen offensive action, keeping the besieger
+in ignorance of the dispositions of the garrison, and of what progress
+he is making: all these, with their influence on the morale of both
+sides, tend towards successful defences and do not point towards the use
+of armour.
+
+It may further be said that the use of armour as a general rule is
+unnecessary, because a concealed battery is a protected one; and with
+the long ranges now usual for heavy guns and howitzers, there is not
+generally much difficulty about concealment.
+
+In the opinion, however, of the present writer an exception must be made
+for guns intended to flank the line of defence, which would generally
+need bomb-proof over-head cover. Further, when we leave theory and come
+to the consideration of actual problems of defence, it will often be
+found that it is necessary to place guns in certain positions where good
+concealment cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection must be
+given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of the attack.
+
+
+III. THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES
+
+In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction of
+gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to follow, viz. the
+gradually increasing power of artillery, the systematizing of the works
+of attack, and in recent times the change that has been brought about by
+the effect of modern small-arm fire.
+
+Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars, to destroy
+hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of burning composition.
+Early in the 15th century we find cannon throwing metal balls, not only
+against hoarding and battlements, but also to breach the bases of the
+walls. It was only possible to work the guns very slowly, and archers or
+crossbowmen were needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from
+the crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period the
+artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and in much
+the same manner. The guns of the defence were inaccurate, and being
+placed high on the walls were made ineffective by bad mountings, which
+did not allow of proper depression. The besieger therefore could place
+his guns close to the walls, with only the protection of a few large
+gabions filled with earth, set up on the ground on either side of the
+muzzle.
+
+In the course of the 15th century the power of artillery was largely
+increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it in an
+astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed. The guns of
+the defence having gained equally in effectiveness, greater protection
+was needed for the attack batteries; bastions and outworks were
+introduced to keep the besieger at a distance from the inner walls; and
+the walls were sunk in ditches so that they could only be breached by
+batteries placed on the edge of the glacis.
+
+Early in the 16th century fortresses were being rapidly remodelled on
+these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at once very much
+increased. The tendency of the assailants was still to make for the
+curtain, which had always been considered the weak point; but the
+besiegers now found that they had to bring their guns right up to the
+edge of the ditch before they could make a breach, and in doing so had
+to pass over ground which was covered by the converging fire from the
+faces of the bastions. Towards the end of the century the attack of the
+curtain was delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front
+increased by the introduction of ravelins.
+
+The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at first
+replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found inadequate; but a
+still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the siege guns to their
+positions, emplacing them and maintaining communication with them under
+fire. In addition to this, the guns of the defence until they could be
+overpowered (a slow process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of
+the fortress; and unless the besiegers could find some means of
+maintaining a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to
+be destroyed by sorties from the covered way.
+
+
+  Siegecraft before Vauban.
+
+Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the artillery.
+The besiegers found that they had first to bring up enough guns to
+overpower those of the defence; then to advance their guns to positions
+from which they could breach the walls; and throughout these operations
+to protect them against sorties. Breaches once made, the assault could
+follow on the old lines.
+
+The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the battery
+positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the first to make
+systematic use of them, having probably inherited the idea from the
+Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom, however, strongly disliked
+digging, and at first great leaders like Bayard and Montluc had
+themselves to use pick and shovel, to give their men an example. In due
+course the necessity of the trenches was recognized, but the soldiers
+never took kindly to them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner
+reminiscent of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry
+as workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.
+
+Through the 16th and most of the 17th century, therefore, we find the
+attack being conducted by means of trenches leading to the batteries,
+and supported by redoubts often called "places of arms" also made by
+trench work. During this period the result of a siege was always
+doubtful. Both trenches and batteries were arranged more or less at
+haphazard without any definite plan; and naturally it often happened
+that offensive action by the besieged against the trenches would
+disorder the attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken
+from a late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of
+the general practice of that day when Vauban's methods were not yet
+generally known.
+
+Another weak point about the attack was that after the escarp walls had
+been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has been described, there
+was no clear idea as to how they should be breached. The usual process
+was merely an indiscriminate pounding from batteries established on the
+crest of the glacis. Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned
+after they had been carried as far as the attempt to breach.
+
+It is in no way strange that this want of method should have
+characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had begun to
+assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had to be assimilated.
+Guns were gradually growing in power; sieges were conducted under all
+sorts of conditions, sometimes against medieval castles, sometimes
+against various and widely-differing examples of the new fortification;
+and the military systems of the time were not favourable to the
+evolution of method. It is the special feature of Vauban's practical
+genius for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and
+made the issue of a siege under normal conditions, a mere matter of
+time, usually a very short time.
+
+
+  Vauban's teaching.
+
+The whole of Vauban's teaching and practice cannot be condensed into the
+limits of this article, but special reference must be made to several
+points. The most important of these is his general arrangement of the
+attack. The ultimate object of the attack works was to make a breach for
+the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary to establish
+breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and before this could be
+done it was necessary to overpower the enemy's artillery. This
+preliminary operation is nowadays called the "artillery duel." In
+Vauban's day the effective range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us
+that it was customary to establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the
+place, but that at that range they did little more than make a great
+deal of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the
+preliminary operations of investment, &c., had been completed, was to
+establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place, to
+counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front of attack;
+and to protect these batteries against sorties. After the artillery of
+the defences had been subdued--if it could not be absolutely
+silenced--it was necessary to push trenches to the front so that guns
+might be conveyed to the breaching positions and emplaced there in
+batteries. Throughout these processes it was necessary to protect the
+working parties and the batteries against sorties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Siege-works of the 17th century.]
+
+For this purpose Vauban devised the _Places d'armes_ or _lignes
+parallèles_. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the siege
+of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which was captured in
+thirteen days after the opening of the trenches. The object of these
+parallels was to provide successive positions for the guard of the
+trenches, where they could be at hand to repel sorties. The latter were
+most commonly directed against the trenches and batteries, to destroy
+them and drive out the working parties. The most vulnerable points were
+the heads of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that
+the guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads of
+the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so from the
+covered way. This was provided for as follows.
+
+The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds. from the
+place, this being considered the limiting range of action of a sortie.
+The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, the
+excavated earth being thrown forward to make a parapet 3 or 4 ft. high.
+In front of the first parallel and close to it were placed the batteries
+of the "first artillery position."
+
+
+  The attack.
+
+While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy's artillery,
+for which purpose most of them were placed in prolongation of the faces
+of the fortress so as to enfilade them, the "Approach Trenches" were
+being pushed forward. The normal attack included a couple of bastions
+and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress as could
+support them; and the approach trenches (usually three sets) were
+directed on the capitals of the bastions and ravelin, advancing in a
+zigzag so arranged that the prolongations of the trenches always fell
+clear of the fortress and could not be enfiladed.
+
+Fig. 65, taken from Vauban's _Attack and Defence of Places_, shows
+clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.
+
+  After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly half-way
+  to the most advanced points of the covered way, the "second parallel"
+  was constructed, and again the approach trenches were pushed forward.
+  Midway between the second parallel and the covered way, short branches
+  called _Demi-parallels_ were thrown out to either flank of the
+  attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis came the third
+  parallel. Thus there was always a secure position for a sufficient
+  guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working parties could fall
+  back and the guard would advance.
+
+  Trenches were either made by _common trenchwork, flying trenchwork or
+  sap_. In the first two a considerable length of trench was excavated
+  at one time by a large working party extended along the trench: flying
+  trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being distinguished from
+  common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by the help of which
+  protection could be more quickly obtained. Both these kinds of
+  trenchwork were commenced at night, the position of the trench having
+  been previously marked out by tape. The "tasks" or quantities of earth
+  to be excavated by each man were so calculated that by daybreak the
+  trench would afford a fair amount of cover. Flying trenchwork was
+  generally used for the 2nd parallel and its approaches, and as far
+  beyond it as possible. In proportion as the attack drew nearer to the
+  covered way, the fire of the defenders' small-arms and wall-pieces
+  naturally grew more effective, though by this time most of their
+  artillery would have been dismounted by the fire of the siege
+  batteries. It therefore became necessary before reaching the 3rd
+  parallel to have recourse to sap.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Regular Attack (Vauban).]
+
+
+    Sapping.
+
+  Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing
+  forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the
+  sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a trench 1
+  ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench he had a
+  shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the gabions in
+  position one after another as the sap-head progressed. Other men
+  following strengthened the parapet with fascines, and increased the
+  trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig.
+  66, taken from Vauban's treatise on the attack, shows the process
+  clearly. The sap after being completed to this extent could be widened
+  at leisure to ordinary trench dimensions by infantry working parties.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--Sapping (Vauban).]
+
+  As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged his
+  sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which increased
+  rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all concerned to
+  do their best, and reckoned that under average conditions he could
+  depend on a rate of progress for an ordinary sap of about 50 yds. in
+  24 hours.
+
+  It is interesting to compare the more recent method of sapping with
+  that above described (fig. 67 taken from the _Instruction in Military
+  Engineering_, 1896). It is no longer possible to place gabions in
+  position at the sap-head under fire. Accordingly the leading sapper
+  excavates to the full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and the rate of progress
+  is retarded proportionately, so that an advance of only 15 to 30 yds.
+  in 24 hours can be reckoned on instead of 50. The head of the sap is
+  protected by a number of half-filled sandbags, which the leading
+  sapper throws forward as he goes on.
+
+  The nearer the approaches drew to the covered way, the more oblique
+  became the zig-zags, so that little forward progress was made in
+  proportion to the length of the trench. The approaches were then
+  carried straight to the front, by means of the "double sap," which
+  consisted of two single saps worked together with a parapet on each
+  side (fig. 68). To protect these from being enfiladed from the front,
+  traverses had to be left at intervals, usually by turning the two saps
+  at right angles to right or left for a few feet, then forward, and so
+  on as shown in fig. 69, the distance apart of these traverses being of
+  course regulated by the height from which the enemy's fire commanded
+  the trench.
+
+
+  Later stages of the attack.
+
+The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From the
+third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis by means of
+the double sap. It was then pushed right and left along the glacis, a
+little distance from the crest of the covered way. This was called
+"crowning" the covered way, and on the position thus gained breaching
+batteries were established in full view of the escarp. While the escarp
+was being breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack
+throughout, a mine gallery (see _Mining_ below) was driven under the
+covered way and an opening made through the counterscarp into the ditch.
+The sap was then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the
+breach, the defenders' resistance being kept under by musketry and
+artillery fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus
+captured successively, and where the bastions had been retrenched the
+same methods were used against the retrenchment.
+
+[Illustration: From _Military Engineering_, by permission of the
+Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 67.--"Deep" Sap.]
+
+Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least expenditure of
+ammunition. This was done by making, with successive shots placed close
+together (which was feasible even in those days from a position so close
+as the crest of the covered way) horizontal and vertical cuts through
+the revetment wall. The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being
+thus detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the earth
+from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention of Vauban. He
+showed how, in enfilading the face of a work, by using greatly reduced
+charges a shot could be made to drop over the crest of the parapet and
+skim along the terreplein, dismounting guns and killing men as it went.
+
+
+  18th-century principles of defence.
+
+The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method and thorough
+organization. There was a deadly certainty about his system that gave
+rise to the saying "Place assiégée, place prise." He left nothing to
+chance, and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress of saps
+across the ditch and up the breach to the loss and delay that might
+follow an unsuccessful assault. His contemporary and nearest rival
+Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges by heavy artillery fire and attacks
+across the open; but in the long run his sieges were slower than
+Vauban's.
+
+So much a matter of form did the attack become under these conditions,
+that in comparing the supposed defensive powers of different systems of
+fortification it was usual to calculate the number of days that would be
+required in each case before the breach was opened, the time being
+measured by the number of hours of work required for the construction of
+the various trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of
+course that no place under any circumstances could hold out more than a
+given number of days; and naturally, when the whole question had become
+one of formula, it is not surprising to find that places were very often
+surrendered without more than a perfunctory show of resistance.
+
+The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since it was
+impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected progress of the
+besiegers' trenches, no real resistance was possible until after they
+had reached the covered way, and this idea is at the root of the
+extraordinary complications of outworks and multiplied lines of ramparts
+that characterized the "systems" of this period. No doubt if a successor
+to Vauban could have brought the same genius to bear on the actual
+defence of places as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that
+the essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the
+body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want of such a
+man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves contentedly to the
+loss of the open ground outside their walls, and relied either upon
+successive permanent lines of defence, or if these did not exist, upon
+extemporized retrenchments, usually at the gorge of the bastion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Double Sap.]
+
+It is curious that such experienced soldiers as most of them were should
+not have realized the fatal effect upon the minds of the defenders which
+this almost passive abandonment of line after line must needs produce.
+Even a civilian--Machiavelli--had seen into the truth of the matter
+years before when he said (_Treatise on the Art of War_, Book vii.):
+"And here I ought to give an advice ... to those who are constructing a
+fortress, and that is, not to establish within its circuit
+fortifications which may serve as a retreat to troops who have been
+driven back from the first line.... I maintain that there is no greater
+danger for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire
+in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a secure
+retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does in fact abandon
+it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Direct advance by Double Sap.]
+
+It must, however, be remembered that in those days when soldiers were
+mostly of a separate or professional caste, the whole thing had become a
+matter of business. Fighting was so much regulated by the laws and
+customs of war that men thought nothing of giving up a place if,
+according to accepted opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they
+could no longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set
+in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now and then
+when some officer of very unusual resolution was in command. This is the
+real reason for the feeble resistance so often made by fortresses in the
+17th and 18th centuries, which has been attributed to inherent weakness
+in fortifications. Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a
+place until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at
+least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation of the
+powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign he was trying
+to impress upon his governors the importance of their charge. The
+limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for history at that time could
+have afforded plenty of instances of places that had been successfully
+defended for many months after breaches were opened, and assault after
+assault repulsed on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the 17th
+and 18th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs,
+established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison which
+surrendered without giving too much trouble after a breach had been
+opened should have honourable consideration; while if they put the
+besiegers to the pains of storming the breach, they were liable to be
+put to the sword.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).]
+
+
+  Peninsular War.
+
+It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft of
+Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest, but because
+the system he introduced was practically unaltered until the end of the
+19th century. The sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his
+lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposition of
+siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained in the Crimea,
+the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish War. The sieges in the
+Napoleonic wars were few, except in the Iberian peninsula. These last
+differed from those of the Vauban period and the 18th century in this,
+that instead of being deliberately undertaken with ample means, against
+fortresses that answered to the requirements of the time, they were
+attempted with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date
+works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had rudimentary
+outworks, and escarps that could be seen and breached from a distance.
+At that time, though the power of small arms had increased very slightly
+since the last century, there had been a distinct improvement in
+artillery, so that it was possible to breach a visible revetment at
+ranges from 500 to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for
+engineers, siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be
+carried out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great
+importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical
+advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp from a
+distance--a new departure--and launching assaults from trenches that had
+not reached the covered way. Under these circumstances the direct
+attacks on breaches failed several times, with great loss of life.
+Wellington in one or two earlier despatches reflected on his engineers
+for not establishing their batteries on the crest of the glacis. The
+failures are, however, clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a
+conclusion without proper preparation.
+
+  So much has been written of late years in criticism of the
+  fortification to what may be called the Vauban period that it is
+  important to note what were the preparations considered necessary for
+  a siege at that time (_Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814_).
+  Sir John Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data
+  accumulated by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of
+  Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work of
+  entrenching, sapping, &c., on the front attacked was much the same
+  whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the other hand
+  the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting men inside
+  the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to be sufficient
+  to allow three or four complete shifts or "reliefs" for all work and
+  duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other duties, he
+  calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place situated in
+  open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080 effectives,
+  and remarks further that this force would be greatly exhausted after a
+  month's service. The same place held by 10,000 would call for a
+  besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties increasing, but not
+  working parties). Thus the besieger should if possible have a
+  superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000, 6 to 1 if 10,000
+  and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery, he should have
+  as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those of the defender
+  on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweeping every line
+  subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses, &c. Later in
+  the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the covered way and
+  places of arms, and finally, after the covering of the covered way,
+  fifty additional battering guns would be required. It is apparent from
+  this that the practical engineers of the day looked upon a siege as a
+  serious matter, and did not find permanent fortifications wanting in
+  defensive strength.
+
+
+  Crimea.
+
+During the long peace that followed the Napoleonic wars, one advance was
+made in siegecraft. In England in 1824 successful experiments were
+carried out in breaching an unseen wall by curved or indirect fire from
+howitzers. At Antwerp in 1830 the increasing power and range of
+artillery, and especially of howitzers, were used for bombarding
+purposes, the breaches there being mostly made by mines. Then came one
+of the world's great sieges; that of Sevastopol in 1854-1855 (see
+CRIMEAN WAR). The outstanding lesson of Sevastopol is the value of an
+active defence; of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench
+and countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in proportion
+to the increased power of the rifle.
+
+  In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of Sevastopol
+  with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is essential to
+  remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal. Sir John Jones
+  has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and besieged should
+  be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery for the attack. The
+  following quotations may be added:
+
+  "The siege corps should be sufficiently strong--(1) To invest the
+  fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the
+  efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to
+  execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete
+  investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has repeatedly
+  shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously increased if the
+  garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies from outside, and
+  to rid themselves of their sick and wounded." (Lewis). Again as
+  regards artillery: "In a regular attack, where every point is gained
+  inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without overpowering the
+  defensive artillery"; and "it is useless to attempt to sap near a
+  place till its artillery fire is subdued..." (Jones).
+
+  These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol that
+  (a) there was no investment--in fact the Russians came nearer to
+  investing the Allies; (b) the Russians had the preponderance in guns
+  almost throughout; (c) the Russian force in and about Sevastopol was
+  numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must add to this that
+  Todleben had been able to get rid of most of his civilian population,
+  and those who remained were chiefly dockyard workmen, able to give
+  most valuable assistance on the defence works. The circumstances were
+  therefore exceptionally favourable to an active defence. The weak
+  point about the extemporized earthworks, which eventually led to the
+  fall of the place, was the want of good bomb-proof cover near the
+  parapets.
+
+
+  Franco-German War.
+
+The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty. The Germans
+were not anxious to undertake siege operations when it could be avoided.
+In several cases minor fortresses surrendered after a slight
+bombardment. In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans
+contented themselves with establishing a blockade or detaching a small
+observing force. By far the most interesting siege was that of Belfort
+(q.v.). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau employed the active defence so
+successfully by extemporizing detached redoubts and fortifying outlying
+villages, that he obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small
+force at first) to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded
+in holding the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the
+enceinte, for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect
+fire, withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the
+ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French found
+great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous positions outside
+the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a disadvantage in being fired
+through embrasures. These had served their purpose when artillery fire
+was very inaccurate, but had now for a long time been recognized by the
+best engineers as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Düppel in
+1864 had mounted their siege guns on "overbank" carriages; that is, high
+carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the parapet of
+the battery without embrasures. The guns in the Paris forts which were
+further handicapped by conspicuous parapets and the bad shooting of the
+gunners were easily silenced.
+
+At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The escarp of
+Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method. The breaching
+battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck the face of the wall
+at an angle (horizontally) of 55°, the effect being observed and
+reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds from 60-pounder guns
+sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.
+
+  Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will be
+  observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in
+  the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was crossed
+  by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a parapet or
+  screen of sandbags.
+
+  "Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds. wide,
+  and 6 to 9 ft. deep.... It was determined to effect the passage by a
+  cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by breweries near at
+  hand.... The formation of the bridge was begun at nightfall. A pioneer
+  swam across, hauled over a cable, and made it fast to the hedge on the
+  berm. Four men were stationed in the water, close to the covered way,
+  the casks were rolled down to them one after the other, and fitted
+  with saddles, so as to form piers ... these piers were successively
+  boomed out along the line of the cable.... In two hours the bridge was
+  finished, and the lunette was entered.... The work had not been
+  discovered by the besieged, and the formation of lodgments inside the
+  lunette was already begun, when the noise made by some troops in
+  passing the bridge attracted attention, and drew a fire which cost the
+  besiegers about 50 men. A dam was afterwards substituted for the
+  bridge, as it was repeatedly struck by shells." (_R.E. Professional
+  Papers_, vol. xix.)
+
+  It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time. Such
+  operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending guns
+  remained in action.
+
+
+  Modern siege warfare.
+
+On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically nothing
+from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish war taught less, Plevna
+(q.v.) having been defended by field works and attacked by the
+old-fashioned methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century
+military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the sieges of the future
+would work out. As guns and projectiles continued to improve the
+"attaque brusquée" proposed by von Sauer had many adherents. It was
+thought that a heavy bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the
+way for an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special
+appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the strength of
+the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works, would be greater
+than ever when the field works were backed by permanent works, good
+communications and the resources of a fortress. One thing was
+obvious--namely, that as long as the artillery of the place, of even the
+smallest calibres, remained unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and
+sapping would be enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed
+a clear conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture
+delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair example of
+the vagueness of idea then prevailing: "For the attack, the following is
+the actual procedure: Accumulation and preparation of material for
+attack before the fortress: advance of attacking artillery, covered by
+infantry. Artillery duel. Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of
+the capability for defence of the position attacked; when possible by
+long-range artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers.
+Occupation of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines of the
+fortress." That seemed quite a simple prescription, but the necessary
+drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur great uncertainty as to
+the future of the attack remains.
+
+[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the
+Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 71.--Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.]
+
+  Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege
+  batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed each
+  other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided human
+  eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the
+  parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly the
+  task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets and
+  embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege batteries
+  were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the construction of
+  such batteries, with traverses, &c., involved much work. The height of
+  parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft., a
+  great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the gun-platforms about
+  4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this was only possible
+  where rock or water were not near the surface.
+
+  The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of earth
+  necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very easily
+  deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is especially
+  the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted earth, and
+  clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These facts were
+  taken note of in England more than on the Continent in the design of
+  instructional siege batteries.
+
+  The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the
+  long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule
+  be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even
+  from balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct
+  fire batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets
+  unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light
+  splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of common
+  shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure and by
+  daylight.
+
+  The most important point about the modern battery is the gun platform
+  for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require very solid
+  construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not long ago it
+  was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance than the
+  attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required a concrete
+  bed, which could not be made at short notice. The Japanese, however,
+  at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 11 in. howitzers. It may be
+  remarked that difficulties which loom largely in peace are often
+  overcome easily enough under the stress of war.
+
+  Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The old
+  powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to batteries,
+  and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such propellants as
+  cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open. They are
+  very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode like
+  gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof magazines
+  for them in connexion with the batteries.
+
+  In future sieges the question of supply will be more important than it
+  has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up of supplies
+  from the base of operations, the task of distribution at the front is
+  a very large one. The Paris siege manoeuvres of 1894 furnish some
+  instructive data on this point. The main siege park was at Meaux, 10
+  m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average distance from the
+  1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked was 5000 yds.
+  The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral batteries
+  covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st artillery
+  position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds. To connect
+  Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of narrow gauge
+  railway largely along existing roads. The line was single, with
+  numerous branches and sidings. They ran 11 regular trains to the front
+  daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The amount of artillery material
+  sent up was over 5000 tons, without any projectiles; but it can easily
+  be imagined that large demands were also made on transport for other
+  purposes. For instance, one complete bakery train was sent up daily.
+  The amount of ammunition sent up would be limited only by the power of
+  transporting it. A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of
+  from 500 to 1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of
+  firing.
+
+  But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future
+  (putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of
+  the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour the
+  artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery
+  duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers' guns do not succeed
+  in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery
+  position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed
+  positions, will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will
+  be necessary for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points,
+  and to fight for those that offer better positions for fire and
+  observation. In doing this they will have to face the defenders'
+  infantry, entrenched, backed by their unsilenced guns, and having
+  secure places of assembly from which to deliver counter-attacks. The
+  distance to which they can work forward and establish themselves under
+  these conditions will depend on the ground. It will then be for the
+  engineers to cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present
+  conditions, will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough
+  to cause the failure of the siege.
+
+  As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be "deep," as long as
+  the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap
+  already described was first introduced, it was known as a "deep sap";
+  but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep
+  sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got
+  below the surface of the earth.
+
+  Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the whole
+  of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench to the
+  rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by
+  splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a
+  foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should
+  be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is
+  completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet in
+  places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the
+  guard of the trenches.
+
+  The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders'
+  trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be
+  made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better of
+  the defenders in a contest with shells from short-range mortars.
+
+  Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary
+  eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so in
+  the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle of
+  a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground give
+  the utmost opportunity to the defenders' fire, and the least chance of
+  concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable latitude of
+  choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course, the same
+  latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the _raison
+  d'être_ of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the whole
+  country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be
+  unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the
+  difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will
+  provide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated
+  by searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be
+  crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great
+  the task will be for the besieger.
+
+  There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed, the use
+  of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is expected of
+  balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to correspond to
+  peace expectations. They must be kept at a considerable distance from
+  the enemy's guns, a distance which will increase as the means of
+  range-finding improve; and as the height from which they can observe
+  usefully is limited, so is the observers' power to search out hidden
+  objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a captive balloon at a
+  height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from an enemy's howitzer
+  battery: and suppose the battery placed behind a steep hill-side or a
+  grove of trees, at such a distance that a shell fired with 30°
+  elevation can just clear this screen. The line of sight from the
+  observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal at {2000/3 x
+  4000}, that is 1/6, or roughly 10°. It is obvious, therefore, that
+  the observer cannot see the battery.
+
+  Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking the
+  effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale a
+  balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100
+  guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number of
+  highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in
+  existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and
+  the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an enemy
+  were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions.
+
+  Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly
+  are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps
+  marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery
+  fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give
+  better results than ever before, and the question of communication and
+  transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs
+  detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and supplies
+  that will have to be handled.
+
+  The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn and
+  revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great attention.
+  It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges in the future,
+  when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient resources, will
+  depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in trench work, on mining
+  and countermining in connexion with the trenches, and on the use of
+  light mortars made to throw large charges of high explosive for short
+  distances with great accuracy.
+
+  For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of the
+  greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its
+  military importance, the reader is referred to the article
+  RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.
+
+  DEFINITIONS.--The following definitions may be useful, but have no
+  place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is mainly
+  devoted.
+
+  _Investment._--This most necessary, almost indispensable operation of
+  every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged,
+  so as to cut off its communications with the outside world.
+  _Preliminary investment_ which is carried out by cavalry and light
+  troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing
+  the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. _Close
+  investment_ should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of
+  communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term
+  "_blockade_" is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.
+
+  _Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation._--These now obsolete
+  terms were in great use until the 19th century. The _circumvallation_
+  was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing
+  position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of
+  attack by a relieving army. The line of _contravallation_ was the line
+  of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the
+  town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.
+
+  _Observing Force._--When circumstances make the reduction of a
+  particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force
+  is often detached to "observe" it. The duty of this force will be to
+  watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids on the
+  lines of communications.
+
+  _Bombardment._--This operation, common to all ages, consists in a
+  general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole
+  target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target.
+  In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment--whether of
+  ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters
+  tending to breed pestilence--upon a population closely crowded within
+  its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military
+  importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern conditions
+  it cannot do much real harm.
+
+
+IV. MILITARY MINING
+
+It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient
+resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining operations
+dates from the end of the 15th century. When Shakespeare makes Fluellen
+say, at Henry V.'s siege of Harfleur, "th'athversary is digt himself
+four yards under the countermines; I think 'a will plow up all, if there
+is not better directions," he is anticipating the development of
+siegecraft by nearly 100 years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is
+credited with the first practical use of explosive mines. He employed
+them with great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards,
+when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably the
+first to make permanent provision for their use in countermines.
+Countermining had been a measure of defence against the earlier methods
+of attack-mining; the object being to break into the besiegers'
+galleries and fight hand to hand for the possession of them. When the
+explosive mine was introduced, it became the object of the defenders to
+establish their countermines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy
+them by the effect of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have
+passed this branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods
+of mining have not advanced much, and the increased power of high
+explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least advantage in moving
+masses of earth.
+
+When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a certain
+distance of the enemy's works without having subdued their fire, he may
+find that the advance by sap becomes too slow and too dangerous. He can
+then advance underground by means of mine galleries, and by exploding
+large charges at the heads of these galleries can make a series of
+craters. These craters are then occupied by infantry, and are connected
+with each other and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming
+a new parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger can
+advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp. His mines will
+now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the counterscarp and
+afterwards the escarp. This is done by placing suitable charges at
+intervals behind the scarps at such a height above the foundations that
+the pressure of the earth above the mine will more than counterbalance
+the resistance of the masonry.
+
+
+  Mines and countermines.
+
+But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There is as a
+general rule this broad difference between the mines of the defence and
+those of the attack, that the defenders do not wish the surface of the
+ground broken, lest increased opportunities of getting cover should be
+offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence, therefore, is to
+destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming craters, and for this
+purpose they generally endeavour to get underneath the attack galleries.
+The defenders may, however, wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to
+explode mines under the attack parallels, in which case there is of
+course no objection to disturbing the surface.
+
+  "At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object of the
+  defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations as early
+  as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the siege.
+  Every endeavour must be made to push forward countermines so as to
+  meet and check the attack. On the approach of the opponents to each
+  other careful listening for the enemy must be resorted to. To this end
+  it is necessary at _irregular_ intervals to suspend all work for some
+  minutes at a time, closing doors of communication and employing
+  experienced listeners at the heads of the countermines. This matter is
+  a most important one, as a premature explosion of the defender's mines
+  is a double loss to the defender, a loss of a mine and an advantage to
+  the enemy in more than one way. As soon as the overcharged mines of
+  the besieger have been fired, a heavy fire should be brought to bear
+  on the craters, and if possible sorties should be made to prevent the
+  enemy occupying them. At the same time every effort should be made
+  underground to surround with galleries, and as it were isolate, the
+  craters so as to prevent the besieger making a new advance from them.
+  The efforts of the attack at this stage will probably be directed to
+  the formation of what are called "Boule shafts" (i.e. shafts partially
+  lined in which charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping),
+  and to meet these in time the defender may resort to the use of boring
+  tools, and so place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the
+  countermines. His great object must be to prevent as long as possible
+  the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions, when
+  the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater than,
+  that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence."
+  (Lewis, _Text-book on Fortification, &c._, 1893.)
+
+The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of being able
+to establish beforehand a system of countermine galleries in masonry.
+Many systems have been worked out for this purpose. A good typical
+arrangement is that of General Marescot, published in 1799, shown in
+fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the
+Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 72.]
+
+The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from the
+counterscarp gallery _e_ to three of the points _a_) fall gently to the
+front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface--the deeper they are
+the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines. Branch galleries
+(marked _c b + d c_) run obliquely upward from them to right and to
+left, leading to the mines, which are placed at various depths,
+according to circumstances.
+
+Two main points must be observed in any system of countermines: the
+branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as not to present their
+sides to the action of the enemy's mines; and the distance between the
+ends of the branches from adjacent main galleries should be such that
+the enemy cannot pass between them unheard. This distance will vary with
+the nature of the soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient
+size for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries
+may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other branch
+galleries, called _listeners_, will be pushed out from main and branch
+galleries. The section to fig. 1 of fig. 72 shows openings left for the
+purpose.
+
+Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches. A
+permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour, is shown in
+fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity was expended in the
+18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments.
+
+
+  Different kinds of mines.
+
+The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which is desired.
+When the charge is strong enough to produce a crater, the radius of the
+circular opening on the surface of the ground is called the _radius of
+the crater_. The line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest
+surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the _line of least
+resistance_ (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the diameter of
+which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is called a one-lined
+crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R., a _two-lined crater_ and
+so on. _Common mines_ are those which produce a two-lined crater.
+_Over-charged mines_ produce craters greater than two-lined, and
+_undercharged mines_ less. A _camouflet_ does not produce a crater; it
+is used when the object is to destroy an enemy's gallery without
+breaking the surface. Fig. 73 shows sections of the different kinds of
+mines, with their craters and the effect they will produce downwards and
+horizontally in ordinary earth.
+
+[Illustration: Action of a Common Mine
+
+Probable spheroids of rupture for overcharged Mines
+
+From _Instructions in Military Engineering_, by permission of the
+Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 73.--Mines.]
+
+Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place a
+long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will destroy all
+galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius, without much
+disturbing the surface of the ground.
+
+  Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively
+  recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in one of his
+  galleries and his position approximately determined by the sound, it
+  is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that
+  direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to
+  load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own
+  mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations of
+  war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most
+  skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made less
+  dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a hole
+  several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction. With
+  suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore hole
+  20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then pushed up
+  to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small camouflet
+  chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this chamber the
+  charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No tamping of course
+  is required.
+
+Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results. It will
+certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may do so
+indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence, namely
+that when ground has been much mined it becomes charged with poisonous
+gases. Some explosives are less noxious than others in this way, and it
+will be advantageous for the attack, but not necessarily for the
+defence, to make use of these.
+
+  _Calculation of Charges._--The quantity of powder required for a
+  charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.³, and the following
+  formulae are used:
+
+  l = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in
+  pounds, s = a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.
+
+                        s
+  For a common mine c = -- l³
+                        10
+                              s
+  For an overcharged mine c = -- {l + .9(r - l)}³.
+                              10
+
+                               s
+  For an undercharged mine c = -- {l - .9(l - r)}³.
+                               10
+
+  The values to be given to s are:
+
+       Nature of Soil.            Value of s.
+    Very light earth                 0.80
+    Common earth                     1.00
+    Hard sand                        1.25
+    Earth mixed with stones          1.40
+    Clay mixed with loam             1.55
+    Inferior brickwork               1.66
+    Rock or good new brickwork       2.25
+    Very good old brickwork          2.50
+
+Military mining is carried on by means of vertical _shafts_ and
+horizontal or inclined _galleries_. When the soil is very stiff, very
+little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but
+usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.
+
+  Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used at
+  intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases
+  are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they
+  take up more timber.
+
+
+    Shafts and galleries.
+
+  There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British service,
+  namely the _common gallery_ whose interior dimensions with cases are 5
+  ft. 6 in. × 2 ft., and the _branch gallery_ which is 4 ft. × 2 ft. The
+  _shaft_ has about the same dimensions as a branch gallery. Formerly it
+  was sometimes necessary in the systematic attack of a fortress to get
+  guns down into the ditch. For this purpose a "great gallery" was used,
+  6 ft. 6 in. in height and 6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.
+
+  _Miners' Tools._--These are few and simple. The pick and shovel differ
+  from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable for
+  the confined space in which they are used. There is also a
+  _push-pick_, an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel
+  head 6 in. long and 3½ in. wide. The _miner's truck_, used for drawing
+  the earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a
+  small wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. Formerly the
+  noise of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden floor
+  of the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy. To obviate
+  this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens nailed to
+  the floor. The _miner's bucket_ is a small canvas bucket with a couple
+  of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up the shaft.
+  Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to it, by
+  which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface. By
+  this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and
+  labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the
+  bucket.
+
+  _Ventilation_ is an important point. The breath of the miners and the
+  burning of their candles (when electric light is not available)
+  vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a
+  gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing some
+  means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing fresh air,
+  by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to the head of
+  the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by, there is great
+  danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil into the
+  gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of special
+  apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped, so that the
+  wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all. Ventilation
+  can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the surface of the
+  ground.
+
+  Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a mine,
+  a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the side of
+  the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of the
+  direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the
+  explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or boxes,
+  precautions being taken against damp.
+
+
+    Charging mines.
+
+  The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine
+  is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which
+  may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably be necessary
+  to untamp the mine in order to renew the fuze; an operation attended
+  by considerable danger. The loading of the mine should therefore be
+  done by the officer in charge with his own hands. He has to work in a
+  very cramped position and practically in the dark (unless with
+  electric light) as of course no naked lights can be allowed near
+  powder. Everything should therefore be prepared beforehand to
+  facilitate the loading of the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham
+  a 1000 lb. mine, at the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded
+  in 30 minutes. The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in
+  sandbags, and emptied into a box of the required size.
+
+  Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer who
+  loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to
+  make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery are
+  not liable to damage in the process of tamping.
+
+  _Tamping._--This operation consists in filling up the head of the
+  gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no
+  possibility of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The
+  distance depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For
+  a common mine it should extend to about 3/2 L.L.R. from the charge,
+  when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to
+  about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of timber
+  across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.
+
+  _Firing._--This may be done electrically, or by means of _safety_ or
+  _instantaneous fuze_ or _powder hose_.
+
+  Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being
+  exploded at any given moment. For this purpose _electric fuzes_ (for
+  powder) or _electric detonators_ (for guncotton or other high
+  explosive) are employed. The current that fires them is passed through
+  copper wire leads.
+
+  The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of about
+  3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile a
+  minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in
+  conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading from
+  the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.
+
+  Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by making a
+  tube of strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with
+  powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second.
+
+  _Explosives._--The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black
+  variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and
+  prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because their
+  action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape
+  through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick
+  shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than
+  gunpowder in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them
+  give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent high
+  explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively
+  innocuous in this respect.
+
+
+  Effects of mines.
+
+Some formulae have been given above for the calculation of charges. It
+will, however, simplify matters for the reader to record some actual
+instances of charges fired both in peace and war.
+
+  In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual leading
+  the way, and the following results among others were obtained by him
+  at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 lb. placed 13 ft. below
+  the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined crater, or
+  "common mine"). Galleries were destroyed at distances equal to the
+  L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions. Double the charge,
+  placed at double the depth, i.e. 324 lb. with an L.L.R. of 27 ft. made
+  no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries below it and on each
+  side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge of 3828 lb. with L.L.R.
+  of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed a gallery distant 61
+  ft. horizontally.
+
+  Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experiments at
+  La Fère about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer and
+  inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His experiments
+  were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries at greater
+  distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by means of very
+  large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he called "globes of
+  compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 lb. of powder placed
+  only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or "compressed" a gallery
+  distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.
+
+  At Frederick the Great's siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very large
+  charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 lb. with an L.L.R. of 16
+  ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle's
+  _Frederick the Great_ may recall his description of the contest of the
+  rival engineers on this occasion.
+
+  At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 lb. of powder
+  placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of 15
+  ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 lb. of guncotton, calculated as
+  being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under the
+  same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence of
+  tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a
+  disadvantage.
+
+
+    The Petersburg Mine, 1864.
+
+  Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the siege of
+  Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The circumstances
+  were all abnormal, and the untechnical account of it in _Battles and
+  Leaders of the Civil War_ (vol. iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining
+  tools or materials and no military miners were available; and no one
+  had any confidence in the success of the attempt except its
+  originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession,
+  his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and General
+  Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrenchments were 130 yds.
+  apart. The mine gallery was started behind the Federal lines and
+  driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a field redoubt in the
+  Confederate lines. There two branches were made right and left, each
+  about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines aggregating 8000 lb. of
+  powder were placed. The first attempt to fire them failed, and an
+  officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter the gallery to seek the
+  cause of the failure. A defective splice in two lengths of fuze was
+  thus discovered and repaired. At the second attempt all the mines were
+  fired simultaneously with success, and made a gigantic crater 170 ft.
+  long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. The occupants of the redoubt, at
+  least several hundred men (they have been stated at 1000), were blown
+  up and mostly killed. The assault which followed, however, failed
+  completely, for want of organization. The infantry was drawn up in
+  readiness to advance, but no outlets had been provided from the
+  parallel, and this and other causes delayed the occupation of the
+  crater and gave the defending artillery a moment's respite. Thus the
+  assailants gained the crater but could not advance beyond it in face
+  of the defenders' fire, nor could they establish themselves within it,
+  on its steep clay sides, for want of entrenching tools. A good many
+  troops were sent forwards in support, but being in many cases of
+  inferior quality, they could not be induced to go forward, and huddled
+  in disorder in the already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were
+  captured when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack
+  and the total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000.
+
+The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing to advance
+the science of military mining, but a good deal has been done in peace
+to improve the means. Electric lighting and electric firing of mines
+will be a great help; modern drilling machines may be used to go through
+rock; ventilating arrangements are much improved; and the use of bored
+mines is sure to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught
+nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but the
+siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in future, in
+the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose trench, so in
+fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than ever. It appears that
+they will be essential to destroy both the ditch-flanking arrangements
+of forts and the escarp or other permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.
+
+
+V. FIELD FORTIFICATION
+
+_Field Fortifications_, now more often spoken of as field defences, are
+those which are constructed at short notice, with the means locally
+available, usually when the enemy is near at hand. Subject to the
+question of time, a very high degree of strength can be given to them,
+if the military situation makes it worth while to expend sufficient
+labour. A century or more ago, the dividing line between permanent and
+field fortification was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high
+masonry escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent
+fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized. Works without
+masonry, in other ways made as strong as possible with deep ditches and
+heavy timbers,--such as would require about six weeks for their
+construction--were known as _semi-permanent_, and were used for the
+defence of places which acquired strategic importance in the course of a
+war, but were not immediately threatened. The term _field_ fortification
+was reserved for works constructed of lighter materials, with parapets
+and ditches of only moderate development. Redoubts of this class
+required a fortnight at most for their construction.
+
+In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches were
+essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would be equally
+clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally admitted, and
+where the resources exist, the use of our present means of
+construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, reinforced concrete
+and wire, in conjunction with the defensive power of modern firearms,
+makes it possible to extemporize in a very short time works having much
+of the resisting power of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can
+be expanded from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too
+exposed, in the presence of the enemy.
+
+Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions, a very
+limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration will show that
+its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected by the change from
+machine-thrown projectiles to those fired by rude smooth-bore guns.
+There is therefore nothing in the history of this branch of the subject
+that is worth tracing, from the earliest ages to about the end of the
+18th century. One or two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is
+probably one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile
+weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth while to
+seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been found desirable to
+have some means of checking the onrush of an enemy physically or
+numerically superior. Hence the use by savage tribes, to this day, of
+pits, pointed stakes hidden in the grass, entanglements and similar
+obstacles. In this direction the ages have made no change, and the most
+highly civilized nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.
+
+Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protection of
+camps at night, where small forces are operating against an enemy more
+numerous but inferior in arms and discipline. In daylight such an enemy
+is not feared, but at night his numbers might be dangerous. Hence the
+Roman practice of making each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for
+palisades; and the simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British
+for their camps in the Sudan.
+
+Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have always been
+used. Except wire, there is practically no new material. As to methods,
+the laagers of the Boers are preceded by the wagon-forts of the
+Hussites, and those no doubt by similar arrangements of British or
+Assyrian war chariots; and so in almost every direction it will be found
+that the expedient of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the
+countless yesterdays. The only really marked change in the arrangements
+of field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing
+rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to consider briefly
+what were the principles of field fortification at the end of the 18th
+century. That period has been chosen because it gives us the result of a
+couple of centuries of constant fighting between disciplined troops with
+fairly effective firearms. The field defences of the 19th century are
+transitional in character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show
+only faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not till
+quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted began to take
+shape.
+
+The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the Peninsular
+War were _command_ and _obstacle_; now they are _protection_ and
+_concealment_.
+
+
+  Old type of field defences.
+
+The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of smooth-bore
+muskets and guns as in those of javelins and arrows. When the enemy
+could get close up to a work without serious loss, and attack in close
+order, the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front of them.
+Moreover, since they could not rely on their fire alone to repulse the
+attack, they needed a two-deep line, with reserves close at hand, to
+meet it with the "arme blanche." For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft.
+high, with a steep slope, perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must
+climb after passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after
+firing their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the
+parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had also the
+advantage that the attackers could not tell what was going on inside the
+redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered from their fire as well from
+view until the last moment.
+
+The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended
+principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little power
+of defence at the time, unless they held practically as many men as
+would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles on the other hand
+had a greater value, against the inelastic tactics of the time, than
+they have now. A good position therefore was one which offered good
+fire-positions for redoubts and plenty of facilities for creating
+obstacles. Strong redoubts which could resist determined assaults; good
+obstacles in the intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals,
+and troops in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes--these
+were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.
+
+The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns before the
+attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be made of a suitable
+thickness--from 4 or 5 ft. upwards--according to the time available, the
+resisting nature of the soil, and the severity of the bombardment
+expected.
+
+The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained from the
+ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this obstacle. The
+garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt were to be
+sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with this object
+great pains were bestowed on the principle of "defilade." The object of
+defilade, which was a great fetish in theoretical works, was so to
+arrange the height of the parapet with reference to the terreplein of a
+work that a straight line (not, be it observed, the trajectory of the
+projectiles) passing from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most
+commanding point of the enemy's position, over the crest of the parapet,
+should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of the
+work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date after the
+development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless taught with great
+rigour till within the last twenty years.
+
+The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with an addition
+of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of the parapet. If a
+wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary, the surplus earth could
+be used to form a glacis.
+
+The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to allow the
+garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter of some difficulty
+if a small irregularly shaped work had to contain a strong garrison.
+Consideration of the plan and sections of these works will show that the
+banquette for infantry with its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off
+a good deal from the interior space within the crest-line. Guns were
+usually placed at the salients, where they could get the widest field of
+fire. They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through
+embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to fire over
+the parapet (_en barbette_).
+
+As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to elaborate
+theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was made between forts
+and redoubts, the former being those which were arranged to flank their
+own ditches, while the redoubts did not. Redoubts again were classed as
+"closed," those which had an equally strong defence all round; and
+"half-closed," those which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade
+for the gorge or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge
+defence) were named according to their trace, as _redans_ and
+_lunettes_. A redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It
+was frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or
+breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming an
+obtuse angle, and two flanks.
+
+The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected, were
+designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-bastioned fronts,
+star traces, and so forth, and in the same books intricate calculations
+were entered into to balance the _remblai_ and _déblai_, that is, the
+amount of earth in the parapets with that excavated from the ditches. In
+practice such niceties of course disappeared, though occasionally when
+the ground allowed of it star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.
+
+On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt to the
+ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the foreground,
+and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter without adding
+the complications of flanking defences. Sir John Jones, speaking of the
+traces of the several works in the Torres Vedras lines, says:--
+
+
+    Torres Vedras.
+
+  "The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a,
+  limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and two
+  pieces of artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and six pieces
+  of artillery, the importance of the object to be attained being the
+  only guide in forming the dimensions. Many of the redoubts first
+  thrown up, even some of the smallest, were shaped like stars, under
+  the idea of procuring a flank defence for the ditches; but this
+  construction was latterly rejected, it being found to cut up the
+  interior space, and to be almost fallacious with respect to flank
+  defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in some cases equal
+  to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even when, from the
+  greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus gained, the
+  angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it demanded
+  more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably to be expected to
+  aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and further, this
+  construction prevented the fire of the work being more powerful in
+  front than in rear.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--Torres Vedras Works.]
+
+  In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to
+  consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing
+  himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to
+  insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity.
+  In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of
+  adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients. In
+  the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the
+  establishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too
+  simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most
+  fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or
+  musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present
+  the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object
+  to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of
+  proceeding.
+
+  This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to isolated
+  works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those considered
+  the key of any position. No labour or expense should be spared to
+  render such works capable of resisting the most furious assaults,
+  either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a flank defence
+  in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula shows that an
+  unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field profile, if
+  skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be carried....
+  Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior space, which
+  renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small works, apply
+  to works of large dimensions.... Under this view the great work on
+  Monte Agraça (fig. 75) must be considered as very defective, the flank
+  defence being confined to an occasional break of a few feet in the
+  trace, caused by a change of direction in the contour of the height,
+  whilst the interior space is more than doubly sufficient for the
+  number of its allotted garrison to encamp.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--Monte Agraça, Torres Vedras.]
+
+  _Interior and other Defences._--This work, however, had some of its
+  salient points ... cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply
+  revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the
+  interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within
+  it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient
+  points formed into an independent post. These interior defences and
+  retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic amongst
+  the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part of
+  indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by the
+  entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such
+  interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of
+  a large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or
+  tower, placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent
+  earthen works, and merit far more attention than they generally
+  receive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Torres Vedras Works.]
+
+  The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently found
+  occupying salient knolls ... readily converted into admirable interior
+  posts of that nature. The profile of the several works varied on every
+  face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked or
+  cannonaded; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches
+  should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the
+  crest of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the
+  counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless exposed
+  to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft.; and some, on
+  high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility be brought
+  against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft. in
+  thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the
+  use of the defenders' bayonets."
+
+  Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration because
+they offer very good historical examples, and also because of the value
+of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones, who as a captain was the
+engineer in charge of their construction. At the same time it must be
+remembered that they differ from ordinary field-works in having an
+unusual degree of strength, plenty of time and civilian labour having
+been available for their construction. In this respect they approximate
+more to semi-permanent works, the main reason why they did not receive
+under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and parapet being
+that in addition to the large number of works required, much labour was
+expended in abatis, inundations, scarping hill-sides and constructing
+roads.
+
+Some further remarks of Sir John on the _situations of the works_ are
+very instructive:--
+
+  "Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations on the
+  summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing appearance;
+  but it was in reality a defect ... for the fire of their artillery on
+  the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose half its
+  powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face of the hill
+  sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of most uncertain
+  effect.
+
+  "The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave confidence
+  to the young troops which composed their garrisons, protected them
+  from a cannonade, and screened their interior from musketry, unless
+  fired at a high angle, and consequently at random. These
+  considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites selected
+  for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot induce an
+  approval of them as a general measure."
+
+The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts were the
+most important features of lines of defence, and that they combined
+physical obstacle and protection with good musketry and artillery
+positions. The value of concealment was not ignored, but it was as a
+rule subordinated to other considerations.
+
+
+  19th century.
+
+The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the Crimean
+War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle began to assert
+itself, and it was found that a simple breastwork defended by a double
+rank of men could protect itself by its fire against an ordinary
+assault. This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to any
+defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls, hedges or any
+natural cover. About the period of the Franco-German War other
+considerations came in. The increased velocity of artillery projectiles
+reduced in some ways their destructive effects against earth parapets,
+because the shell had an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on
+striking a bank of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it
+impossible for troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some
+distance behind the parapet.
+
+These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that time. The
+reason was partly a want of touch between the engineers and the
+non-technical branches of most armies, and partly that original writers
+from the Napoleonic wars to the present day have been more occupied with
+the primary question of the value of field defences as a matter of
+tactics than with their details considered from the standpoint of
+fortification.
+
+There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed against
+all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so essential to
+success. Those writers who treated of the arrangements of defences
+devoted themselves to theoretical details of trace quite after the old
+style; discussing the size and shape of typical redoubts, their distance
+apart and relation to lines of trenches, &c. The profiles--the thick
+parapet with command of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the
+inadequate cover behind the parapet--remained as they had been for a
+century.
+
+The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind slight
+defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It proved the great
+resisting power of extemporized lines; but more than that, we begin to
+find new arrangements for protection against shell fire (see plans and
+sections in Greene's _The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey_). The
+trace of the works and the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres
+Vedras; but a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof
+shelters show the necessity for a different class of protection. The
+parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a better;
+the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the necessities of
+the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers of musketry fire, as
+for instance one from the crest of the glacis, one from the parapet, and
+one from a traverse in rear of it. This, however, is a development which
+will not be necessary in future, thanks to magazine rifles.
+
+
+  Principles of modern field defences.
+
+From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly increased,
+and certain new principles, causing the field defences of the present
+day to differ radically from those of the 18th century, remained to be
+developed. These may be considered under the following heads: the nature
+of protection required, the diminished need of obstacle, and the
+adaptation of works to ground.
+
+The principle that _thickness_ of parapet is no longer required, to
+resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896. The
+distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on parapets
+comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the crest of a
+parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way, and displace a
+bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the contents of the shell,
+whether shrapnel or explosive, that is the source of danger and not the
+shell itself. Thus the enemy's object is to burst his common shell
+immediately behind the parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in
+front of it, in order to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet
+is thick enough if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same
+thickness will _a fortiori_ keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of
+shell. For this purpose 3 ft. is enough.
+
+Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the parapet, deep
+enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel, and narrow enough to
+minimize the chance of a common shell dropping into it. This protection
+is increased by frequent traverses across the trench.
+
+The most essential point of all is _concealment_. In gaining this we say
+good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection is now given by the
+trench rather than the parapet; command and the ditch-obstacle (which
+furnished the earth for the high parapet) are alike unnecessary.
+Concealment can therefore be studied by keeping the parapet down to the
+lowest level above the surface from which the foreground can be seen.
+This may be 18 in. or less.
+
+The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders are not
+abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night work, or when the
+assailant is so strong as to be able to force home his attack in face of
+protected rifle fire, what is needed is not a deep ditch immediately in
+front of the parapet, difficult to climb, but also difficult to flank,
+but an obstacle that will detain him under fire at short range. It may
+be an entanglement, an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check
+the rush and make him move slowly.
+
+In the _adaptation of works to ground_, the governing factor is the
+power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in Peninsular
+times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence of lines by guns
+in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple line of trench could not
+resist a strong attack without such support. Now, however, infantry
+behind a slight trench, with a good field of fire should be able to
+defend themselves against any infantry attack.
+
+This being so, the enemy's artillery seeks to locate the trenches and to
+cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the defenders to
+keep down under cover. If they can succeed in doing this, it is possible
+for the attacking infantry to advance, and the artillery fire is kept up
+until the last moment, so that the attack may have the narrowest
+possible space to cover after the defenders have manned their parapets
+and opened fire. Fig. 78 shows the action of various natures of
+projectiles.
+
+[Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the Controller
+of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 78.--Effect of Projectiles.]
+
+We need not here discuss the rôle of the defenders' artillery in
+replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor for the
+moment consider how far the defence of the trenches while under
+artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover. The main question
+is--what is, in view of the nature of the attack, the best disposition
+of lines of trench; and do they require the addition of redoubts?
+
+The most important point, with the object of protection, is that the
+trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best defence against
+artillery. With the object of resistance by their own fire they must
+have a good view, or, as it is generally described, no _dead ground_ in
+front of them. For this purpose 300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the
+ground is even and affords no cover.
+
+This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness of the
+zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has of late
+years very much affected the choice of ground for a line of trenches.
+
+
+    Siting of trenches.
+
+  For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down
+  until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the
+  "military crest" (Fr. _crête militaire_), _i.e._ the highest point on
+  the hill from which the whole of the slopes in front can be seen. Thus
+  in the three sections of ground shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b
+  and c respectively. The simplicity of this prescription made it
+  attractive and it came to be rather abused in the text-books. There
+  were, even before the improvements in artillery, objections to it,
+  because on most slopes the military crest would be found at very
+  different elevations on different parts of the line, so that by a
+  strict adherence to the rule some of the trenches would be placed near
+  the top of the hill, and some in dangerous isolation near the bottom.
+  Moreover a rounded hill has no military crest.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+  Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of the
+  fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and the
+  whole question is extremely difficult.
+
+  For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not vary
+  along the line, the positions at _a_ and _b_, fig. 79, are bad because
+  they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery. That
+  at _b_ is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that
+  the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire down
+  it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the very
+  last moment. The position _c_ has the advantage of not being on the
+  sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+  Such a position as that at _d_, fig. 80, is good, but protected or
+  concealed communications must be made for the supports coming from _e_
+  over the brow of the hill.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+  Another possible position for the infantry line is at _f_, fig. 81,
+  with the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite
+  concealed from the enemy's artillery. The drawback is that no
+  retirement up the exposed slope would be possible for them, except at
+  night. The fire from _f_ will be _grazing_, which will be a great
+  advantage as compared with the _plunging_ fire that would be obtained
+  from a position up the hill.
+
+  It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration
+  to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on
+  the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and
+  only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the
+  advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid for
+  in some degree by exposure to the enemy's artillery; and at least as
+  much consideration--possibly as much labour--must be given to
+  communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches themselves.
+  Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment but also gives
+  cover to the enemy's approach. The lie of the ground will itself
+  dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the predispositions
+  of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the general
+  trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a more difficult
+  target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of cross and
+  flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care should,
+  however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique or enfilade
+  fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by traversing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+
+    Trenches.
+
+  Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the freshly
+  turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches or grass.
+  In this connexion it should be remembered that after a day or two cut
+  leaves and grass wither and may become conspicuous against a green
+  surface. Where the ground is so even that a good view of the
+  foreground is possible from the surface level, the trench may be made
+  without a parapet; but this entails great labour in removing and
+  disposing of the excavated earth. A common device is to conceal the
+  parapet as well as possible and to make a dummy trench some distance
+  away to draw fire.
+
+  Besides the direct concealment of trenches, care must be taken that
+  the site is not conspicuous. Thus a trench should not be placed along
+  the meeting line of two different kinds of cultivation, or along the
+  edge of a belt of heather on a hill-side, or where a difference of
+  gradient is sharply defined; or where any conspicuous landmark would
+  help the enemy's artillery to get the range.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+  Trenches are broadly distinguished as "fire trenches" and "cover
+  trenches," according as they are for the firing line or supporting
+  troops. The following simple types are taken from the 1908 edition of
+  _Military Engineering_ (part 1): "Field Defences."
+
+  Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour is
+  saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take 1½ to 2 hours
+  in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved by 2 or 3
+  hours' more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without parapet, with
+  cover trench and communication.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by
+  permission of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 84.]
+
+  The addition of a loophole of sandbags on the top for concealment
+  (called _head-cover_), gives increased protection, but at the cost of
+  greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead cover can only
+  be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still greater
+  height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench not used for
+  firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection by putting
+  over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches of earth: or
+  by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be had. A better
+  plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches immediately behind
+  and communicating with the fire trench.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 85.]
+
+
+    Redoubts.
+
+  The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly they
+  were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power of a
+  line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was always imagined
+  as one of the older type, with a high conspicuous parapet. Of course a
+  redoubt of such a nature would be readily identified and made
+  untenable. But the idea of a redoubt does not necessarily imply
+  command. Its object is that it shall be capable of all-round defence.
+  There can be no doubt that as there is always a possibility of lines
+  being pierced somewhere, it is desirable, unless the whole line is to
+  be thrown into confusion and forced back, to have some point at which
+  the defenders can maintain themselves. This is not possible unless at
+  such points there is provision for defence towards both flanks and
+  rear, that is to say, when there are redoubts, which can hold on after
+  certain portions of the line have been lost and thereby can localize
+  the enemy's success and simplify the action of supporting troops. In
+  order that redoubts may exercise this function, all that is necessary
+  is that their defenders should be able to see the ground for a furlong
+  in front of them in every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need
+  be in no way more conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire
+  trenches, and in that case there is no fear of their drawing special
+  attention from the enemy's artillery. Whatever theories may have been
+  put forward en the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and
+  in the Russo-Japanese War, where the experience of South Africa was
+  already available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+  The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more conspicuous
+  than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground that will
+  give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted angles.
+  Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches and improving
+  the overhead cover; and special use may here be made of obstacles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+  Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of those
+  required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and field
+  casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt, and figs.
+  87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a work can
+  easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives excellent
+  cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against howitzer
+  common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate fire to
+  bear on it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+  Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind it for
+  a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would require a
+  concealed position, which can often be found a little in rear of the
+  firing line.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by
+  permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 89.]
+
+
+    Boer, Russian and Japanese types.
+
+  In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by a type
+  of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the surface, giving
+  only just room for a man to stand; but undercut or hollowed out below,
+  so that he could sit down with very good cover. Such a section is
+  only possible in very firm soil. Apart from this, the type is really
+  only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper should have room for
+  officers and N.C.O's to move along within it. The Boers showed great
+  skill in concealing their trenches. One good point was that there was
+  generally something making a background immediately behind the men's
+  heads, so that they did not stand out in relief when raised above the
+  parapet.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Russo-Japanese War: British Officers' Reports_,
+  vol. ii., by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIGS. 90 and 91.]
+
+  In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset were of
+  old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better types were
+  evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from Port Arthur;
+  the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the top. The Japanese
+  appear to have taken their type mainly from the latest British
+  official books, but applied them with great skill to the ground
+  studying especially invisibility. In their prepared positions they
+  used large redoubts manned by several companies.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 92.--Gun-pit.]
+
+  _Cover for Guns._--Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the
+  shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface
+  of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank
+  is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and
+  3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up
+  to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for
+  the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the
+  shelter is called a gun-pit.
+
+  In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun. Shelter
+  can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but it is
+  generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.
+
+
+    Obstacles.
+
+  The commonest forms of _obstacle_ now used are _abatis_ and _wire
+  entanglements_. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The
+  branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are buried and pegged
+  firmly down. Wire entanglement may be added to this with advantage. An
+  abatis should be protected from artillery fire, which is sometimes
+  done by placing it in a shallow excavation with the earth thrown up in
+  front of it.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 93.--Abatis.]
+
+  Wire may be used as a _high_ or _low entanglement_ or as a fence or
+  trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire
+  entanglement consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long,
+  driven firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected
+  horizontally and diagonally with barbed wire.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 94.--Crows' Feet.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 95.--Plan and section of Trous-de-loup.]
+
+  _Palisades_ are still used, and need no description. They were
+  formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible.
+  _Fraises_ are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasionally
+  in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with deep
+  ditches, and are palisades placed so as to project horizontally from
+  the escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom of the ditch. _Military
+  pits_ both _deep_ and _shallow_ (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called
+  _trous de loup_) are not so much used as formerly, because the
+  obstacle is hardly worth the labour expended on it. Both, however,
+  were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. _Crows' feet_, formerly much
+  used as a defence against cavalry, are practically obsolete. They
+  consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their bases in such a
+  manner that however they were thrown down one point would always be
+  pointing upwards (fig. 94). _Chevaux-de-frise_ (q.v.) were formerly a
+  much-used type of obstacle.
+
+  The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object
+  with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of view
+  barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is that it
+  gives no cover whatever to the enemy.
+
+  _Fougasses_ have always for convenience been classed as obstacles. A
+  fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping pit.
+  Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over the
+  shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96,
+  gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form,
+  charged with 80 lb. of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a
+  surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder hose,
+  fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter of
+  chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.
+
+  _Dams_ are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of their
+  use. They are constructed by military engineers as small temporary
+  dams would be in civil works.
+
+
+    Illumination.
+
+  A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles, is
+  that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric
+  searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting the enemy's
+  movements at some distance; but their use will naturally always be
+  restricted. Star shells and parachute lights fired from guns are not
+  of much use for the immediate foreground, and do not burn very long.
+  They were formerly chiefly of use in siege works, to light up an
+  enemy's working parties. Germany has introduced lightballs fired from
+  pistols, which will probably have a considerable future.
+
+  Various civilian forms of _flare-light_ would be very useful to
+  illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field.
+  _Bonfires_ are very useful when material is available. They require
+  careful treatment, _e.g._ they must be so arranged that they can be
+  lighted instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means
+  of a trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once
+  (this can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum);
+  they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them
+  easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind them
+  so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.
+
+
+    Blockhouses.
+
+  Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played in
+  the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned permanent
+  fortification they were used as keeps in such positions as re-entering
+  places of arms and built of masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been
+  used in the Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built
+  cruciform, so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of
+  bullet-proof log-cabins they have played a great part in warfare
+  between pioneer settlers and savages.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the
+  Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 96.--Fougasse.]
+
+  In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to give partial
+  protection against field artillery; the walls being built of two
+  thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and covered
+  with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the walls up
+  to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in positions where
+  it is not likely that artillery will be brought against them: but they
+  may be made tenable for a while even under artillery fire if they are
+  surrounded by a trench and parapet.
+
+  Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such
+  points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy by
+  cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loopholed wall,
+  arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the
+  garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some
+  arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular blockhouses
+  were very popular in South Africa. They were made of sheets of
+  corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework, the space
+  between the sheets being filled with small stones. The loopholes were
+  made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls. Fig. 97 shows a
+  section of one of these blockhouses.
+
+  [Illustration: By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 97.--Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.]
+
+
+    Woods.
+
+  The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field
+  defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized,
+  trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood concealed the
+  numbers of the defenders. A wood was therefore generally considered a
+  useful addition to a line of defence. It was customary to hold the
+  front edge of the wood, the irregularities of the outline being
+  utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while obstacles were disposed
+  some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully prepared position, clearings
+  would be made parallel to the front and some distance back from it,
+  for support positions, and great attention was paid (in theory at
+  least) to clearing communications, erections, signposts, &c., so that
+  the defending troops might move freely in any desired direction.
+
+  Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is hard to
+  dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication, at the best,
+  is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered a strong
+  defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent ranging
+  mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not easily made,
+  because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that no
+  reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against the
+  modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood, the
+  position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action. If
+  a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that in
+  most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the
+  best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the
+  fighting line at the outset.
+
+
+    Villages.
+
+  The defence of villages is another question which has been much
+  affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages were
+  very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and strong points for a
+  detached force to hold. There were indeed always drawbacks. The
+  preparations for defence entailed a good deal of labour, and the
+  defending force was scattered in houses and enclosures, so that
+  control and united action were difficult. But the value of the
+  ready-made protection afforded by walls was so great--and sometimes
+  even decisive--that villages were occupied as a matter of course. This
+  is certainly now changed, but precisely to what extent it will be
+  impossible to say, until after the next European war. A village under
+  fire is not now an ideal defensive position. A single shrapnel
+  penetrating the outer wall may kill all the occupants of a room; a
+  single field-howitzer shell may practically ruin a house. At the same
+  time, a house or line of houses may (without any preliminary labour at
+  all) give very good protection against shell fire to troops _behind_
+  them. Further, the value to the defence of the slightest cover, once
+  the infantry attack has developed, is so great that the ruins of walls
+  and houses occupied at the right moment may prove an impregnable
+  stronghold. This class of fighting, however, does not properly come
+  under the present heading. For the details of the defence of walls,
+  houses, &c., see the official _Mil. Engineering_ (1908).
+
+  _Entrenching under Fire._--Progress in this direction has been delayed
+  by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable
+  entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry
+  soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic
+  inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the
+  pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or
+  corkscrew. A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom
+  satisfactory for any.
+
+
+    Extemporized cover.
+
+  The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry,
+  when their advance is checked by the enemy's fire, to maintain the
+  ground they have won by extemporizing cover where none exists. The
+  need of this was first felt in the American Civil War, and towards the
+  close of it a small entrenching spade 22 in. long and weighing only 1½
+  lb. was introduced by Brigadier-General H.W. Benham into the Army of
+  the Potomac. Since that time a great number of patterns have been
+  tried, including shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular of
+  these has been the Linnemann spade, which is used by most continental
+  armies and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool is a
+  rectangular spade with straight handle. The length over all is a
+  little less than 20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of
+  it has a saw edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the
+  blade is enclosed in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or
+  the waist-belt. In the British army the Wallace combined pick and
+  shovel was used for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was
+  always great doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool
+  was such as to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in
+  carrying it. But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to
+  have finally established the necessity of it, and also the fact that
+  it must generally be used lying down. For this purpose and for
+  convenience in carrying it on the person, a very light short-handled
+  tool is required.
+
+  The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can make a
+  little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of his
+  head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check in the
+  advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward, the
+  supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus
+  commenced.
+
+
+    General remarks.
+
+  There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of
+  training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it, it is tiring and
+  tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its importance.
+  At the same time it is a commonplace of recent history that men who
+  have been in action a few times develop a great affection for the
+  shovel. The need of trenches grows with the growth of firearms, and
+  the latest feature of modern tactics is the use of them in attack as
+  well as in defence. The observation has often been made--with what
+  truth as a general proposition we cannot here discuss--that modern
+  battles tend more and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is
+  said, entrenches itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining
+  as much ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall
+  and entrench; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment before
+  dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced to gaining
+  ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground, where the rifle and
+  gun have full play, the trench is to the modern soldier very much what
+  the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms, an absolute essential.
+
+  The most important point in connexion with modern field fortification
+  is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting
+  power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the
+  frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its
+  position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before.
+  This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite
+  possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification as
+  that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger than
+  itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out and
+  compel its surrender.
+
+
+VI. CONCLUSION
+
+In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in outlining
+the practice of our own time it has been necessary to dwell chiefly on
+the material means of defence and attack. The human element has had to
+be almost ignored. But here comes in the paradox, that the material
+means are after all the least important element of defence. Certainly it
+is inconceivable that the designer of a fortress should not try to make
+it as strong as is consistent with the object in view and the means at
+his disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly
+for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that the best
+defences recorded in history owed little to the builder's art. The
+splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte, of early Italian
+design, was already obsolete but whose capture cost the Turks 100,000
+men; the three years defence of Ostend in 1601; the holding of Arcot by
+Clive, are instances that present themselves to the memory at once. The
+very weight of the odds against them sometimes calls out the best
+qualities of the defenders; and the _man_ when at his best is worth many
+times more than the _rampart_ behind which he fights. But it would be a
+poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to evoke
+these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison will rise to the
+occasion, and the weakness of the place has very often been found an
+excuse for giving it up with little or no resistance.
+
+Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French saying, "tant vaut
+l'homme, tant vaut la place." Among modern men we think of Todleben (not
+governor, but the soul of the defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams
+at Kars, Denfert-Rochereau at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The
+sieges of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which the
+event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the governor; in
+some cases distinguished by courage, skill and foresight, in others by
+incapacity, cowardice or treachery. The reader is referred to Carnot's
+_Défense des places fortes_ for a most interesting summary of such
+cases, one or two of which are quoted below.
+
+
+  The spirit of the defence.
+
+Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September 1673 and
+defended by Philippe de Procé, sieur Dupas. The duke of Luxemburg
+visited the place some hours before it was invested, and arranged with
+Dupas to relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. But the
+governor lost his head when he saw the enemy encamped round the place,
+and surrendered it before he had even lost the covered way. He was
+subsequently tried by a council of war and sentenced to be degraded
+before the troops and imprisoned for life. The reason the court gave for
+not condemning him to death was that they could find no regulation which
+condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that period the
+decapitation of a governor who was considered to have failed in his duty
+was not uncommon.) This man, however, was not wanting in physical
+courage. He was in prison at Grave when it was besieged a year later,
+obtained leave to serve as a volunteer in the defence, fought well and
+was killed.
+
+A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the young
+governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was entertaining a
+party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell appeared and summoned him to
+surrender. The attacking force had no firearm more powerful than a
+carbine, but the governor, overawed by Cromwell's personality, yielded.
+Charles I., who was usually merciful to his officers, caused this
+governor to be shot.
+
+A defence of another kind was that of Quilleboeuf in 1592. Henry IV. had
+occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before the works had been
+well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake it. Bellegarde undertook its
+defence, with 115 soldiers, 45 gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had
+ammunition but not much provisions. With these forces and a line of
+defence a league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on
+the 17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The relieving
+forces were astonished to find that he had been defending not a
+fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the places where it
+had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft. wide and deep.
+
+At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already alluded to
+had been recognized, but many commanders retained the old spirit of
+chivalry in their reluctance to say the "loth word." The gallant Marshal
+d'Essé, who feared nothing but the idea of dying in his bed, was lying
+ill at his country house when he was sent for by the king. He was
+ordered to take command at Thérouanne, then threatened by Charles V.,
+and made his farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of
+Grenville: "Sire, je m'y en vais donc de bon et loyal coeur; mais j'ai
+ouï dire que la place est mal envitaillée, non pas seulement pourvue de
+palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la terre; mais
+lors, quand entendrez que Thérouanne est prise, dites hardiment que
+d'Essé est guéri de sa jaunisse et mort." And he made good his word, for
+he was killed at the breach by a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish
+soldier.
+
+Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of the
+inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of Rochelle (1627)
+and Saint-Jean de Lône (1636), but these are too long to quote. We may,
+however, mention Livron, which is curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one
+of his favourites, Saint Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the
+Dauphiné. Being entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to
+achieve some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of
+Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the inhabitants.
+But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the women of the town
+conceived such a contempt for him that they came in crowds to empty
+their slops at the breach by way of insult. This annoyed him very much,
+and he ordered a fresh assault. The women alone sustained this one,
+repulsed it lightheartedly, and the siege was raised.
+
+
+  Arcot.
+
+The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest than any
+other branch of military history. It is full of the personal element, of
+the nobility of human endurance and of dramatic surprises. And more than
+any battles in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage
+of men fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120
+Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two 18-pounders and 8 lighter guns, he
+held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000 native troops. "The
+fort" (says Orme) "seemed little capable of sustaining the impending
+siege. Its extent was more than a mile in circumference. The walls were
+in many places ruinous; the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of
+artillery; the parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers
+were decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one piece
+of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others dry and in
+some choked up," &c. These feeble ramparts were commanded almost
+everywhere by the enemy's musketry from the houses of the city outside
+the fort, so that the defenders were hardly able to show themselves
+without being hit, and much loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his
+tiny garrison, which timbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the
+enclosure, Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really
+severe assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and after
+which the enemy hastily decamped.
+
+Such feats as this make arguments about _successive lines of defence_
+and the _necessity of keeps_ seem very barren. History, as far as the
+writer knows, shows no instances where successive lines have been held
+with such brilliant results.
+
+Clive's defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted rules of
+war were untenable, brings us to another point which has been already
+mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honourably make terms when
+there was an open breach in their main line of defence. This is a
+question upon which Carnot delivers himself very strongly in
+endeavouring to impress upon French officers the necessity of defence to
+the last moment. Speaking of Cormontaingne's imaginary _Journal of the
+Attack of a Fortress_ (which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes
+by the words "It is now time to surrender"), he says with great scorn:
+"Crillon would have cried, 'It is time to begin fighting.' He would have
+said as at the siege of Quilleboeuf, 'Crillon is within, the enemy is
+without.' Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered walls of
+Mézières, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would have said,
+'It is time to surrender.' Thus when Guise was repairing the breaches
+of Metz under the redoubled fire of the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if
+he had been there, would have said, 'It is time to surrender.'" Carnot
+of course allows that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is
+for the accepted principle, not for the man.
+
+
+  Resisting "to the last."
+
+It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks by Sir John
+Jones, made in answer to Carnot's book. He says in the notes to the
+second volume of the _Journals of the Sieges in Spain_: "When the breach
+shall be pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon the
+ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed, as by so doing he
+spills the blood of many brave men without a justifiable object, his
+life and the lives of the garrison should be made the forfeit. A system
+enforced by terror must be counteracted by still greater terror.
+Humanity towards an enemy in such a case is cruelty to one's own
+troops.... The principle to be combated is not the obligation to resist
+behind the breach--for where there is a good retrenchment the bastion
+should be disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can
+as safely be so--but the doctrine that surrender shall not take place
+when successful resistance becomes hopeless."
+
+Carnot's word is "fight to the last." Sir John Jones says the commander
+has no right to provoke further carnage when resistance is hopeless. The
+question of course is, When is resistance hopeless? Sir John Jones's
+reputation leaves little doubt that if he had been commanding a fortress
+on British soil he would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as
+there was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these two men
+of similar temper are found in opposition is quite simple. When Carnot
+wrote, the French army occupied most of the important fortresses of
+Europe, and it was to the interest of the emperor that if attacked they
+should be held to the last moment, in order to cause the enemy as much
+delay and loss as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the
+engineers who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his
+arguments were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen whose lives
+were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.
+
+A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the ideas in
+which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic era. In
+the 18th century fortresses were many, good roads few, and campaigns for
+the most part leisurely. To the European nations of that time,
+inheritors of a perennial state of war, the idea of concentrating the
+national resources on a short and decisive campaign had not occurred.
+The "knock-out blow" had not been invented. All these conditions are now
+so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been set up, both
+for the defence of places and the general employment of fortification.
+
+As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a garrison as a
+penalty for holding out too long would meet with no sympathy in the
+present day. On the other hand, the issue of modern wars is worked out
+so rapidly that if a fortress is well defended, with the advantage of
+the present weapons, there is always a chance of holding out till the
+close of the war. If the place is worth holding, it should as a rule be
+held to the bitter end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs;
+moreover, the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions
+imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large number of
+his troops.
+
+
+  Permanent defences.
+
+In concluding this article some elementary considerations in connexion
+with the use of permanent defences may be noticed, though the general
+question of strategic fortification is outside its scope. The objects of
+fortification differ, as has been shown, from age to age. In former
+times a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical Norsemen might
+find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron might look on
+his castle as so much capital invested; a wealthy medieval town might
+prove the value of its walls more than once in a generation; a country
+without a standing army might gain time for preparation by means of
+fortresses barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the
+question stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize their
+full fighting strength at a few hours' notice? It can only be answered
+when the circumstances of a particular country are examined.
+
+
+  The use and abuse of fortresses.
+
+If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations of equal
+fighting strength and equal resources standing ready in arms to defend a
+common frontier, and that the theatre of war presents no difficulties on
+either side, then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as an
+adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses do not decide the
+issue of a campaign; they can only influence it. It is better,
+therefore, to put all the money the fortress would have cost, and all
+the man-power that its maintenance implies, into the increase and
+equipment of the active army. For the fate of the fortress must depend
+ultimately on the result of the operations of the active armies.
+Moreover, the very assumption that resources on both sides are equal
+means that the nation which has spent money on permanent fortifications
+will have the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself
+beforehand to a defensive rôle.
+
+This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the tendency to
+over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In practice there will
+always be occasion for some use of fortification. A mountain range may
+lend itself to an economical defence by a few men and some inexpensive
+barrier forts. A nation may have close to its frontier an important
+strategic centre, such as a railway junction, or a town of the first
+manufacturing importance, which must be protected. In such a case it may
+be necessary to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again,
+if one nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other, it
+may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by fortresses so
+as to force invasion into a district where concentration against it is
+easiest.
+
+As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary if it
+stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the active
+armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting strength of the
+country has been practically destroyed, it is not of much use to stand a
+siege in the capital. There can be but one end, and it is better, as
+business men say, to cut losses. If the fighting strength is not
+entirely destroyed and can be recruited within a reasonable time, say
+two or three months, then it appears that under modern conditions the
+capital might be held for that time by means of extemporized defences.
+The question is one that can only be decided by going into the
+circumstances of each particular case.
+
+The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive neighbours is in
+a different category. If she stands alone she will be eaten up in time,
+fortifications or no fortifications; but if she can reckon on assistance
+from outside, it may be worth while to expend most of the national
+resources on permanent defences.
+
+These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as
+illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual problems that
+soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too complex to be dealt with
+in generalities, and no mere treatise can supply the place of knowledge,
+thought and practice.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The more important works on the subject are: Dürer,
+  _Unterricht zur Befestigung_ (Nüremberg, 1527); Speckle, _Architectur
+  von Festungen_ (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, _L'Architecture mil. ou la
+  f. nouvelle_ (Paris, 1637); Pagan, _Les Fortif._ (Paris, 1689); de
+  Ville, _Les Fortif._ (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, _Introduction à la
+  fortification_ (Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, _Science des
+  Ingénieurs, &c._ (Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban,
+  Montalembert, Cormontaingne; Mandar, _De l'architecture des
+  forteresses_ (Paris, 1801); Chasseloup-Laubat, _Essais sur quelques
+  parties de l'artil. et de la fortification_ (Milan, 1811); Carnot,
+  _Défense des places fortes_ (Paris, 1812); Jones, _Journals of Sieges
+  in Spain_ (3rd ed., London, 1846); T. Choumara, _Mémoire sur la
+  fortification_ (1847); A. von Zastrow, _Geschichte der beständigen
+  Befestigung_ (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of Sir C. Pasley; Noizet,
+  _Principes de fortif._ (Paris, 1859); Dufour, _De la fortif.
+  permanente_ (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, _L'Architecture
+  militaire au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy, _Essai
+  historique sur la fortification_ (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont
+  (_q.v._); Delambre, _La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la
+  tactique et la stratégie_ (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, _Angriff und
+  Verteidigung fester Plätze_ (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, _Die Festung in
+  der heutigen Kriegführung_ (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner,
+  _Die beständige Befestigung und der Festungskrieg_ (Vienna,
+  1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen, _Grundriss der Befestigungslehre_ (Berlin,
+  1900-1909); Plessix and Legrand, _Manuel complet de fortification_
+  (Paris, 1900, new edition 1909); Ritter v. Brunner, _Die beständige
+  Befestigung_ (Vienna, 1909), _Die Feldbefestigung_ (Vienna, 1904);
+  Rocchi, _Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione permanente_
+  (Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Fortification_ (1907); V. Deguise,
+  _La Fortification permanente contemporaine_ (Brussels, 1908); Royal
+  Military Academy, _Text-book of Fortification_, pt. ii. (London,
+  1893); British official _Instruction in Military Engineering_, pts.
+  i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908).     (L. J.)
+
+
+
+
+FORTLAGE, KARL (1806-1881), German philosopher, was born at Osnabrück.
+After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin, he became professor of
+philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he held till his death.
+Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to Fichte and Beneke (q.v.),
+with whose insistence on psychology as the basis of all philosophy he
+fully agreed. The fundamental idea of his psychology is impulse, which
+combines representation (which presupposes consciousness) and feeling
+(i.e. pleasure). Reason is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine
+in its nature, God is the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his
+instruments.
+
+  Fortlage's chief works are: _Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit
+  Kant_ (Leipzig, 1852); _System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); _Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise für das
+  Dasein Gottes_ (Heidelberg, 1840); _Beiträge zur Psych. als
+  Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FORT LEE, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the N.E.
+part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson river, opposite the
+northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905) 3433; (1910) 4472. It is
+connected with the neighbouring towns and cities by electric railways,
+and by ferry with New York City, of which it is a residential suburb.
+The main part of the borough lies along the summit of the Palisades;
+north of Fort Lee is an Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of
+Independence the Americans erected here a fortification, first called
+Fort Constitution but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General
+Charles Lee. The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the
+village that grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until
+the 20th of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene
+with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of Fort
+Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the crossing of the
+Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made it necessary for Greene to
+abandon this post and join Washington in the famous "retreat across the
+Jerseys." An attempt to recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony
+Wayne in 1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,
+designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a
+Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908. The borough of
+Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on
+the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the state, and about 20 m.
+S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901; (1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910) 8900. Fort Madison is served by the
+Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé (which has repair shops here) and the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The city has various
+manufactures, including canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements;
+the value of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of
+50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of Iowa's
+penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site of the city in
+1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently settled in 1833, Fort Madison
+was laid out as a town in 1836, and was chartered as a city in 1839.
+
+
+
+
+FORTROSE (Gaelic for _t'rois_, "the wood on the promontory"), a royal
+and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated on the south-eastern coast of
+the peninsula of the Black Isle, 8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26¼ m. by
+rail. It is the terminus of the Black Isle branch of the Highland
+railway; there is communication by steamer with Inverness and also with
+Fort George, 2½ m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose
+consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1 m. apart,
+which were united into a free burgh by James II. in 1455 and created a
+royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable antiquity, a
+monastery having been established in the 6th century by St Moluag, a
+friend of Columba's, and St Peter's church built in the 8th century. In
+1124 David I. instituted the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and
+the town acquired some fame for its school of theology and law. The
+cathedral is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of
+Ross (her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and
+finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at Melrose is
+said to account for the Perpendicular features of his portion of the
+work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform in plan, and built of
+red sandstone, but all that is left are the south aisles of the nave and
+the chancel, with the chapter-house, a two-storeyed structure, standing
+apart near the north-eastern corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace
+were destroyed by order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great
+fort at Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of
+1460. These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but
+other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination
+poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some consequence, and
+the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie, in the churchyard of which is
+an ancient Celtic cross, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and there
+is a golf course in Chanonry Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness
+district group of parliamentary burghs.
+
+
+
+
+FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county, Kansas,
+U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of Kansas City, Missouri.
+Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946; (1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were
+negroes; (1910 census) 10,463. It is the point of intersection of the
+Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways, and has in
+consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a rolling plain. Among
+its institutions are an Epworth house (1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the
+Goodlander home, and a Carnegie library. Near the city there is a
+national cemetery. Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral
+fields, and its trade in bituminous coal is especially important.
+Building stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also
+found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water is procured
+from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is a mineral-water
+bath house. The city is also a trading centre for a rich farming region,
+and is a horse and mule market of considerable importance. Among its
+manufactures are mattresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry
+products. In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product was
+$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city owns and
+operates its waterworks. The fort after which the city is named was
+established by the Federal government in 1842, at a time when the whole
+of eastern Kansas was still parcelled out among Indian tribes; it was
+abandoned in 1855. The town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was
+chartered as a city in 1860.
+
+
+
+
+FORT SMITH, a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county, on the
+extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about 440 ft. above
+sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, at its junction with
+the Poteau, and at the point where the Arkansas breaks through the
+Boston mountains. Pop. (1890) 11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were
+of negro descent and 684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975.
+Transportation is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St
+Louis & San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the
+Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley and the
+Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business centre of the city
+facilitates freight transfers. Some of the business streets are
+unusually broad, and the streets in the residential district are well
+shaded. Fort Smith is the business centre of a fine agricultural country
+and of the Arkansas coal and natural gas region. It has extensive
+wholesale jobbing interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in
+its own manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,
+chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and bricks. In
+1905 the total value of the factory product was $2,329,454, an increase
+of 66.2% since 1900. The public schools have a rich endowment: the
+proceeds of lands (about 200 acres) once belonging to the local
+military reservation, which--except the part occupied by a national
+cemetery--was given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of
+the city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there is a
+Carnegie library. A United States army post was established here in
+1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county was created in 1851.
+Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a
+city in 1845. All transportation was by river and wagon until 1876, when
+the railway was completed from Little Rock. The military post, in
+earlier years the chief depôt for the western forts, was abandoned in
+1871. During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with the
+Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April 1861, and was
+reoccupied by the Union forces in September 1863. There was considerable
+unrest due to border "bushwhacking" throughout the war, and several
+skirmishes took place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than
+doubled in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNA (FORTUNE), an Italian goddess of great antiquity, but apparently
+not native at Rome, where, according to universal Roman tradition, she
+was introduced by the king Servius Tullius as Fors Fortuna, and
+established in a temple on the Etruscan side of the Tiber outside the
+city, and also under other titles in other shrines. In Latium she had
+two famous places of worship, one at Praeneste, where there was an
+oracle of _Fortuna primigenia_ (the first-born), frequented especially
+by women who, as we may suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their
+children or their own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well
+known from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna was
+never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented the hopes
+and fears of men and especially of women at different stages of their
+life and experience; thus we find her worshipped as time went on under
+numerous cult-titles, such as _muliebris_, _virilis_, _hujusce diei_,
+_equestris_, _redux_, &c., which connected her supposed powers with
+individuals, groups of individuals, or particular occasions. Gradually
+she became more or less closely identified with the Gr. [Greek: Tychê],
+and was represented on coins, &c., with a cornucopia as the giver of
+prosperity, a rudder as the controller of destinies, and with a wheel,
+or standing on a ball, to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this
+semi-Greek form she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and
+Pliny (_N.H._ ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all
+places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis, and as
+_Panthea_ was supposed to combine the attributes of all other deities.
+
+  The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher's
+  _Mythological Lexicon_ (s.v.); see also Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus
+  der Römer_, p. 206 foll.     (W. W. F.*)
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th century
+A.D. He was the author of a treatise on metres, dedicated to one of his
+pupils, a youth of senatorial rank, who desired to be instructed in the
+Horatian metres. The manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental
+ideas of metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed
+analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used are Caesius
+Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the grammarian of the [Greek:
+Technê] of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a common name in the African
+provinces, it is probable that the author was a countryman of Juba,
+Terentianus Maurus and Victorinus.
+
+  Editions of the _Ars_ in H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi., and
+  separately by him (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European chap-book. He was a
+native, says the story, of Famagusta in Cyprus, and meeting the goddess
+of Fortune in a forest received from her a purse which was continually
+replenished as often as he drew from it. With this he wandered through
+many lands, and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the
+treasures which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had
+the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired. Of this
+hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to Cyprus, where he
+led a luxurious life. On his death he left the purse and the hat to his
+sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they were jealous of each other, and by
+their recklessness and folly soon fell on evil days. The moral of the
+story is obvious: men should desire reason and wisdom before all the
+treasures of the world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus
+occupies in Karl Simrock's _Die deutschen Volksbücher_, vol. iii.,
+upwards of 158 pages. The scene is continually shifted--from Cyprus to
+Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France; and a large
+number of secondary characters appear. The style and allusions indicate
+a comparatively modern date for the authorship; but the nucleus of the
+legend can be traced back to a much earlier period. The stories of
+Jonathas and the three jewels in the _Gesta Romanorum_, of the emperor
+Frederick and the three precious stones in the _Cento Novelle antiche_,
+of the Mazin of Khorassan in the _Thousand and one Nights_, and the
+flying scaffold in the _Bahar Danush_, have all a certain similarity.
+The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus appeared at
+Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators are disposed to
+regard this as the original form. Innumerable versions occur in French,
+Italian, Dutch and English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in
+1553, and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter's comedy appeared in
+a German translation in _Englische Komödien und Tragödien_, 1620. Ludwig
+Tieck has utilized the legend in his _Phantasus_, and Adelbert von
+Chamisso in his _Peter Schlemihl_; and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished
+narrative poem entitled "Fortunatus and his Sons."
+
+  See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt's _Fortunatus und seine Söhne, eine
+  Zauber-Tragödie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang_, &c. (Berlin,
+  1819); Joseph Johann Görres, _Die deutschen Volksbücher_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609), bishop of
+Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time, was born near Ceneda in
+Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan and Ravenna, with the special object
+of excelling as a rhetorician and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to
+France, where he was received with much favour at the court of Sigbert,
+king of Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an
+_epithalamium_. After remaining a year or two at the court of Sigbert he
+travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons of distinction,
+and composing short pieces of poetry on any subject that occurred to
+him. At Poitiers he visited Queen Radegunda, who lived there in
+retirement, and she induced him to prolong his stay in the city
+indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed the friendship of the famous Gregory
+of Tours and other eminent ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of
+Poitiers in 599, and died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were
+collected in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the _Vexilla
+regis prodeunt_, Englished by J.M. Neale as "The royal banners forward
+go"), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour of his patroness
+Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of a nunnery at Poitiers. He
+also wrote a large poem in 4 books in honour of St Martin, and several
+lives of the saints in prose. His prose is stiff and mechanical, but
+most of his poetry has an easy rhythmical flow.
+
+  An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower at
+  Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A. Luschi
+  (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne's _Patrologiae cursus
+  completus_, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch (Berlin,
+  1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and Leroux (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and traveller, was born
+at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of September 1813. He was employed
+in the botanical garden at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal
+Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of
+the Chinese War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in
+China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of many
+beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in 1848 on behalf of
+the East India Company, had much more important consequences,
+occasioning the successful introduction into India of the tea-plant. In
+subsequent journeys he visited Formosa and Japan, described the culture
+of the silkworm and the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many
+trees, shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The
+incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting
+books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO (1838-1874), Spanish painter, was
+born at Reus on the 11th of June 1838. His parents, who were in poor
+circumstances, sent him for education to the primary school of his
+native town, where he received some instruction in the rudiments of art.
+When he was twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care
+of his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a collection
+of wax figures, with which he was travelling from town to town. In the
+working of this show the boy took an active part, modelling and painting
+many of the figures; and two years later, when he reached Barcelona, the
+cleverness of his handiwork made so much impression on some people in
+authority there that they induced the municipality to make him an
+allowance of forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go
+through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy of
+Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio Lorenzale, and
+in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that entitled him to complete his
+studies in Rome. Then followed a period of more than two years, during
+which he laboured steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had
+access at Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the war
+between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny was sent by the
+authorities of Barcelona to paint the most striking incidents of the
+campaign. The expedition lasted for about six months only, but it made
+upon him an impression that was powerful enough to affect the whole
+course of his subsequent development, and to implant permanently in his
+mind a preference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He
+returned to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned by the
+city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture of the camps
+of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the Spanish army. After making a
+large number of studies he went back to Rome, and began the composition
+on a canvas fifteen metres long; but though it occupied much of his time
+during the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself
+instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great size, in
+which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities of technique and
+modulations of colour. He visited Paris in 1868 and shortly afterwards
+married the daughter of Federico Madrazo, the director of the royal
+museum at Madrid. Another visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two
+years' stay at Granada, but then he returned to Rome, where he died
+somewhat suddenly on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of
+malarial fever, contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and
+Portici in the summer of 1874.
+
+The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life is
+distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a marvellous
+cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but the qualities of
+his art are those that are attainable by a master of technical resource
+rather than by a deep thinker. His insight into subtleties of
+illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity was remarkable in the
+extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious to the point of
+extravagance. At the same time in such pictures as "La Vicaria" and
+"Choosing a Model," and in some of his Moorish subjects, like "The Snake
+Charmers" and "Moors playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be
+endowed with a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a
+thorough understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love
+of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the
+fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.
+
+  See Davillier, _Fortuny, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance, &c._
+  (Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, _Fortuny_ (_Artistes célèbres_ series)
+  (Paris, 1889).     (A. L. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FORT WAYNE, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where the St Joseph and St
+Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890)
+35,393; (1900) 45,115, of whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+63,933. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort
+Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake
+Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban electric
+lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft. above sea-level) and
+level, and its land area was in 1906 a little more than 6 sq. m. The
+streets are laid out on a rectangular plan and bordered by a profusion
+of shade trees. The city has several parks, including Lawton Park (31
+acres), in which there is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry
+Ware Lawton (1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side
+Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre), and Old
+Fort Park (¼ acre), which is on the site of Old Fort Wayne. The
+educational institutions include the German Concordia Collegium
+(Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having 220 students in 1908, and the
+state school for feeble-minded youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie
+library. Fort Wayne is one of the most important railway centres in the
+Middle West, and several railways maintain here their principal car and
+repair shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing
+industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state in the
+value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway companies. The
+other manufactories include foundries and machine shops, iron and steel
+mills, knitting mills, planing mills, sash and door, car-wheel,
+electrical machinery, and woodenware factories and flour mills. In 1905
+the total value of the factory product of the city was $15,129,562,
+showing an increase of 34.3% since 1900.
+
+The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood,
+and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or Great Miami Village),
+was situated on the E. bank of the St Joseph river, within the limits of
+the present city. On the E. bank of the St Mary's a French trading post
+was built about 1680. In 1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was
+moved to the E. bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in
+1760 and Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than
+three months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September
+1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the Maumee river the
+stockade fort which was named in his honour, the site of which forms the
+present Old Fort Park. By the treaty of Greenville, concluded by General
+Wayne on the 3rd of August 1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area,
+including the tract of the Miami towns, was ceded to the United States,
+and free passage to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was
+guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians. By the
+treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H. Harrison on the 7th of
+June 1803, the tract about Vincennes reserved to the United States by
+the treaty of Greenville was described and defined; by the second treaty
+of Fort Wayne, concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the
+Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land, mostly
+S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort Wayne was besieged by
+Indians, who withdrew on the arrival, on the 12th of September, of
+General Harrison with about 2700 men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort
+was abandoned on the 19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The
+first permanent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was an
+important fur-trading depôt until 1830. The opening of the Wabash & Erie
+canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was platted and was made the
+county-seat in 1824; and in 1840 Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.
+
+  See W.A. Brice, _History of Fort Wayne_ (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John B.
+  Dillon, _History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by
+  Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816_
+  (Indianapolis, Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, _History of the
+  Maumee River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization
+  into Counties_ (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+FORT WILLIAM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district, Ontario,
+Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the Kaministiquia river,
+about a mile from Lake Superior. It is the lake terminus of the Canadian
+Pacific railway, of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several
+steamship lines. Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern
+railway, lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain
+elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export trade
+in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also exported from the
+mining district, of which it is the centre. Industries, such as saw,
+planing and flour mills, have also sprung up. The population was 4800 in
+1901, but has since increased with great rapidity.
+
+
+
+
+FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe, an arm of the
+sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or canal, and was, in
+bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands. It is 122½ m. N.E. of
+Glasgow by the West Highland railway. The fort, at first called
+Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in 1655 to hold the Cameron men in
+subjection, and was enlarged in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed
+it after William III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour
+of his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe met to
+share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully besieged it in 1715
+and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860, and demolished in 1890 to
+provide room for the railway and the station. Amongst the public
+buildings are the Belford hospital, public hall, court house and the
+low-level meteorological observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in
+connexion with the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter
+was closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the
+distilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape.
+Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory of Ewen
+Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born in the parish.
+Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place of call for the
+steamers passing through the Caledonian canal. The town is the point
+from which the ascent of Ben Nevis--4½ m. E.S.E. as the crow flies--is
+commonly made. At Corpach, about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins,
+the series of locks between here and Banavie--within little more than a
+mile--being known as "Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lochy and the Nevis
+enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort William. A mile and a
+half from the town, on the Lochy, stands the grand old ruin of
+Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular pile with a round tower at
+each corner, a favourite subject with landscape painters. Close by is
+the scene of the battle of the 2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose
+completely defeated the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the
+Scottish Baronial style, 1½ m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and
+farther from the river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.
+
+
+
+
+FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the West Fork of the Trinity
+river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890) 23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were
+foreign-born and 4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served
+by the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City, the
+Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco & Texas of the
+"Frisco" system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the Houston & Texas
+Central, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas &
+Texas, the St Louis South-Western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity
+& Brazos Valley (Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is
+beautifully situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of
+Fort Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College in
+1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy, a college
+of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a law school, a
+medical school, a school of commerce, and a department of oratory and
+elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students; the Polytechnic College
+(coeducational; Methodist Episcopal, South), which was established in
+1890, has preparatory, collegiate, normal, commercial, and fine arts
+departments and a summer school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and
+(altogether) 696 students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a
+kindergarten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant Episcopal),
+and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There are several good
+business, municipal and county buildings, and a Carnegie library. On the
+3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed ten blocks in the centre of the city.
+Fort Worth lies in the midst of a stock-raising and fertile
+agricultural region; there is an important stockyard and packing
+establishment just outside the city; and considerable quantities of
+cotton are raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,
+flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,
+clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and overalls;
+and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries. In 1905 the
+total value of the city's factory product was $5,668,391, an increase of
+62.5% since 1900; Fort Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of
+the state in the value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth.
+Fort Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance as a
+commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and
+the electric-lighting plant.
+
+A military post was established here in 1849, being called first Camp
+Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in 1853. A settlement grew
+up about the fort, and the city was incorporated in 1873. The fort and
+the settlement were named in honour of General William Jenkins Worth
+(1794-1849), a native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of
+1812, commanded the United States forces against the Seminole Indians in
+1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and General Scott in the
+Mexican War, distinguishing himself at Monterey (where he earned the
+brevet of major-general) and in other engagements, and later commanded
+the department of Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of
+government.
+
+
+
+
+FORTY, the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word is derived from
+the O. Eng. _feówertig_, a combination of _feówer_, four, and _tig_, an
+old form of "ten," used as a suffix, cf. Icel. _tiu_, Dan. _ti_, ten,
+and Ger. _vierzig_, forty. The name "The Forty" has been given to
+various bodies composed of that number of members, particularly to a
+judicial body in ancient Athens, who tried small cases in the rural
+districts, and to a court of criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal
+courts in the Venetian republic. The French Academy (see ACADEMIES) has
+also been known as "The Forty" or "The Forty Immortals." The period just
+before the repeal of the corn laws in the United Kingdom is frequently
+alluded to, particularly by the free trade school, as the "hungry
+forties"; and the "roaring forties" is a sailor's name for the stormy
+region between the 40th and 50th latitudes N. and S., but more
+particularly applied to the portion of the north Atlantic lying between
+those latitudes.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM (Lat. from _foris_, "out of doors"), in Roman antiquity, any open
+place used, like the Greek [Greek: agora], for the transaction of
+mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes merely as a
+promenade. It was level, rectangular in form, surrounded by porticoes,
+basilicas, courts of law and other public buildings. In the laws of the
+Twelve Tables the word is used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, _De
+legibus_, ii. 24); in a Roman camp the forum was an open place
+immediately beside the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally
+applied generally to the space in front of any public building or
+gateway. In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early
+history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and formerly
+marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills (also called
+Forum Romanum), which probably even during the regal period afforded the
+accommodation necessary for such public meetings as could not be held
+within the area Capitolina. In early times the Forum Romanum was used
+for athletic games, and over the porticoes were galleries for
+spectators; there were also shops of various kinds. But with the growth
+of the city and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum
+became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number of
+_civilia_ (judicial) and _venalia_ (mercantile) fora came into
+existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of Caesar and
+Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum _boarium_ (cattle),
+_holitorium_ (vegetable), _piscarium_ (fish), _pistorium_ (bread),
+_vinarium_ (wine), to the latter. The Fora of Nerva (also called
+_transitorium_ or _pervium_, because a main road led through it to the
+Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian, although partly intended to
+facilitate the course of public business, were chiefly erected to
+embellish the city. The construction of separate markets was not,
+however, necessarily the rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii,
+at the north-east end of the forum, there was a _macellum_ (market), and
+shops for provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a
+building supposed to have been the clothworkers' exchange, and at Timgad
+in North Africa (a military colony founded under Trajan) the whole of
+the south side of the forum was occupied by shops. The forum was usually
+paved, and although on festal occasions chariots were probably driven
+through, it was not a thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the
+entrances, of which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites
+for new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the centre,
+and the two main streets crossed one another close to but not through
+it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or 6 ft. lower than the forum.
+The word _forum_ frequently appears in the names of Roman market towns;
+as, for example, in Forum Appii, Forum Julii (_Fréjus_), Forum Livii
+(_Forli_), Forum Sempronii (_Fossombrone_). These _fora_ were
+distinguished from mere _vici_ by the possession of a municipal
+organization, which, however, was less complete than that of a
+prefecture. In legal phraseology, which distinguishes the _forum
+commune_ from the _forum privilegiatum_, and the _forum generale_ from
+the _forum speciale_, the word is practically equivalent to "court" or
+"jurisdiction."
+
+  For the fora at Rome, see ROME: _Archaeology_, and works quoted.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia, 43 m. S.E. of
+Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor of the road. Horace
+mentions it as the usual halt at the end of the first day's journey from
+Rome, and describes it as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The
+presence of the former was due to the fact that it was the
+starting-point of a canal which ran parallel to the road through the
+Pomptine Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and
+Horace (see APPIA, VIA). It is mentioned also as a halting place in the
+account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). Under Nerva and
+Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription records expressly the
+paving with silex (replacing the former gravelling) of the section from
+Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was
+similarly repaired, and that at Forum Appii, though it bears no
+inscription, is of the same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have
+been found here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via
+Appia was reconstructed.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about 23 m. N.W. of Rome
+(not 32 m. as in the _Antonine Itinerary_), situated above the western
+bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. Lake of Bracciano), and connected with
+the Via Cassia at Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side
+of the lake (_Ann. Inst._, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church
+of SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the 8th or
+9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses have come
+to light on the spot; and an inscription of the Augustan period, which
+probably stood over the door of a villa, calls the place Pausilypon--a
+name justified by the beauty of the site.
+
+  See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM TRAIANI (mod. _Fordongianus_), an ancient town of Sardinia, on the
+river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the Roman road through the
+centre of the island from Carales to Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of
+its ruins have been destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the
+baths, erected over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the
+water and the large central _piscina_ are noteworthy. The bridge over
+the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite bank are
+the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off is a group of
+_nuraghi_, of which that of St Barbara in the commune of Villanova
+Truschedda is one of the finest.
+
+  See Taramelli in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1903), 469.
+
+
+
+
+FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English antiquary, was born in
+London on the 27th of May 1770. He was educated at St Paul's school and
+Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was
+ordained and became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he
+remained till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and
+remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards
+as vicar. His first important work, _British Monachism_ (2 vols., 1802),
+was a compilation, from manuscripts in the British Museum and Bodleian
+libraries, of facts relating to English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke
+had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for
+which he is best remembered, the _Encyclopaedia of Antiquities_,
+appeared in 1824. A sequel to this, _Foreign Topography_, was published
+in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died at Walford on
+the 1st of January 1842.
+
+
+
+
+FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged to a noble
+Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices of the
+republic--ambassador, president of the Forty, member of the Council of
+Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, _avvogadore di comun_, &c. His
+first wife was Maria Priuli and his second Maria Nani; of his many
+children all save one son (Jacopo) died young. But although a capable
+administrator he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge
+Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the various
+candidates for the succession, warned the council against electing
+Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the republic into
+disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari was elected (1423) and
+reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming the new doge the customary
+formula which recognized the people's share in the appointment and asked
+for their approval--the last vestige of popular government--was finally
+dropped.
+
+Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of wars on the
+_terra ferma_, and through the doge's influence Venice joined the
+Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was carried on with
+varying success for eight years. In 1430 an attempt was made on
+Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had refused an appointment; and
+three years later a conspiracy of young bloods to secure the various
+offices for themselves by illicit intrigues was discovered. These
+events, as well as the long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory
+state of Venetian finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to
+abdicate, which was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic
+tragedy by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's son
+Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and irresponsible
+youth, was in that year accused of the serious crime of having accepted
+presents from various citizens and foreign princes who either desired
+government appointments or wished to influence the policy of the
+republic. Jacopo escaped, but was tried in contumacy before the Council
+of Ten and condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and to
+have his property confiscated. But the execution of the sentence was
+delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually the penalty was
+commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446). Four years later Ermolao
+Donato, a distinguished official who had been a member of the Ten at the
+time of the trial, was assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of
+complicity in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for
+the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed to his
+guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the accused, and so
+merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his life, with a pension
+of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the council received information
+from the rector (governor) of Candia to the effect that Jacopo Foscari
+had been in treasonable correspondence with the duke of Milan and the
+sultan of Turkey. He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a
+year's imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.
+His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to Jacopo's
+entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him, he replied
+advising him to bear his punishment without protest. When the year was
+up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died in January 1457. The doge
+was overwhelmed with grief at this bereavement and became quite
+incapable of attending to business. Consequently the council decided to
+ask him to abdicate; at first he refused, but was finally obliged to
+conform to their wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats.
+Within a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days
+later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.
+
+  The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added many
+  picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them tending to
+  show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo's judges and accusers,
+  whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional leniency.
+  The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin's _Storia
+  documentata di Venezia_, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice, 1855);
+  where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan, _I due
+  Foscari_ (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the subject
+  Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger's poem _Italy_
+  (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the subject entitled _I
+  due Foscari_.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at Zante in the
+Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the death of his father, a
+physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the family removed to Venice, and in
+the University of Padua Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the
+Dalmatian grammar school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was
+the abbé Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly
+popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo's literary
+tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies in
+ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the appearance
+in 1797 of his tragedy _Tieste_--a production which obtained a certain
+degree of success. Foscolo, who, from causes not clearly explained, had
+changed his Christian name Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an
+active part in the stormy political discussions which the fall of the
+republic of Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the
+national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the liberator,
+expecting from the military successes of the French general, not merely
+the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy, but the establishment of
+a free republican government.
+
+The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which Napoleon handed
+Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude shock to Foscolo, but did not
+quite destroy his hopes. The state of mind produced by that shock is
+reflected in the _Letters of Jacopo Ortis_ (1798), a species of
+political _Werther_,--for the hero of Foscolo embodies the mental
+sufferings and suicide of an undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero
+of Goethe places before us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering
+and at last cutting short the life of a private German scholar. The
+story of Foscolo, like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy
+fact. Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student of
+Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances akin to those
+described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo's mind appears to have been
+only too familiar with the thought of suicide. Cato and the many
+classical examples of self-destruction scattered through the pages of
+Plutarch appealed to the imaginations of young Italian patriots as they
+had done in France to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde.
+In the case of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the
+writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have been
+beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future rudely
+shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and sought relief in
+now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national poet. At Milan,
+whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he was engaged in other
+literary pursuits besides the composition of _Ortis_. The friendship
+formed there with the great poet Parini was ever afterwards remembered
+with pride and gratitude. The friendship formed with another celebrated
+Milanese poet soon gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still
+hoping that his country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a
+volunteer in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and
+the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When released he
+returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches to his _Ortis_,
+published a translation of and commentary upon _Callimachus_, commenced
+a version of the _Iliad_, and began his translation of Sterne's
+_Sentimental Journey_. The result of a memorandum prepared for Lyons,
+where, along with other Italian delegates, he was to have laid before
+Napoleon the state of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him
+for his country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of
+France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his _Carme sui
+sepolcri_, of which the entire spirit and language may be described as a
+sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the misery of the present
+and the darkness of the future. The mighty dead are summoned from their
+tombs, as ages before they had been in the masterpieces of Greek
+oratory, to fight again the battles of their country. The inaugural
+lecture on the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in
+January 1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,
+was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged his
+young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to academic
+traditions, but in their relation to individual and national life and
+growth. The sensation produced by this lecture had no slight share in
+provoking the decree of Napoleon by which the chair of national
+eloquence was abolished in all the Italian universities. Soon afterwards
+Foscolo's tragedy of _Ajax_ was represented but with little success at
+Milan, and its supposed allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an
+object of suspicion, he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The
+chief fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of _Ricciarda_, the
+_Ode to the Graces_, left unfinished, and the completion of his version
+of the _Sentimental Journey_ (1813). His version of Sterne is an
+important feature in his personal history. When serving with the French
+he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had traversed much of the ground
+gone over by Yorick; and in his memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the
+version is ascribed, he throws much curious light on his own character.
+He returned to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence
+he passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin on
+his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the shores
+of England at the close of 1816.
+
+During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until his death
+there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the most brilliant
+circles of the English capital confer on foreigners of political and
+literary renown, and experienced all the misery which follows on a
+disregard of the first conditions of domestic economy. His contributions
+to the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_, his dissertations in Italian
+on the text of Dante and Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on
+Petrarch, of which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable
+translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his
+previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and forethought
+in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment, and at last
+consigned him to a prison; and when released he felt bitterly the change
+in his social position, and the coldness now shown to him by many whom
+he had been accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in
+society--if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an
+observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott--had unhappily not
+been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships. He died at Turnham
+Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four years after his death, in
+1871, his remains were brought to Florence, and with all the pride, pomp
+and circumstance of a great national mourning, found their final
+resting-place beside the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of
+Michelangelo and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of
+Santa Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully entitled.
+For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour of his diction his
+country honours him as a great classic author. He had assigned to the
+literature of his nation higher aims than any which it previously
+recognized. With all his defects of character, and through all his
+vicissitudes of fortune, he was always a sincere and courageous patriot.
+
+  Ample materials for the study of Foscolo's character and career may be
+  found in the complete series of his works published in Florence by Le
+  Monnier. The series consists of _Prose letterarie_, (4 vols., 1850);
+  _Epistolario_ (3 vols., 1854); _Prose politiche_ (1 vol., 1850);
+  _Poesie_ (1 vol., 1856); _Lettere di Ortis_ (1 vol., 1858); _Saggi di
+  critica storico-letteraria_ (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this
+  series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn in
+  1876, _Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di
+  Staël, a Vincenzo Monti_. The work published at Florence in the summer
+  of 1878, _Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi_, throws much
+  doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo's writings as given in
+  the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some curious and
+  original illustrations of Foscolo's familiarity with the English
+  language.     (J. M. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer, was born in
+London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a solicitor by profession,
+and on his retirement from practice in 1840, he devoted himself to the
+study of legal antiquities. His _Judges of England_ (9 vols., 1848-1864)
+is a standard work, characterized by accuracy and extensive research.
+_Biographia Juridica_, _a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges_,
+appeared shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the
+Incorporated Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He
+died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
+Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
+7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has an imposing castle with four
+towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia in 1314. The cathedral was
+reconstructed at the end of the 18th century. The place began to acquire
+some importance in the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237,
+but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to
+Filippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy.
+It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has a branch line to
+Mondovì.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the railway
+station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It is the finest example of a
+Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian Early Gothic style, in Italy,
+and dates from the end of the 12th to the end of the 13th century. The
+church (1187-1208) is closely similar to that of Casamari. The other
+conventual buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in
+1274.
+
+  See C. Enlart, _Origines françaises de l'architecture gothique en
+  Italie_ (Paris, 1894) (_Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes
+  et de Rome_, fasc. 66).
+
+
+
+
+FOSSE (or FOSS) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman road or series of
+roads in Britain, used later by the English, running from Lincoln by
+Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost all the Roman line is still in use
+as modern road or lane. It passes from Lincoln through Newark and
+Leicester (the Roman _Ratae_) to High Cross (_Venonae_), where it
+intersects Watling Street at a point often called "the centre of
+England." Hence it runs to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and
+Ilchester, crosses the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and
+enters Exeter. Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but
+without warrant. (See further under ERMINE STREET.)     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning fussy or
+troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of Australia to the
+search for gold by solitary individuals, in untried localities or in
+abandoned diggings. A "fossicker," or pocket miner, is one who buys up
+the right to search old claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked
+by previous diggers.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSOMBRONE (anc. _Forum Sempronii_), a town and episcopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 11 m. E.S.E. of
+the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 7531,
+commune, 10,847. The town is situated in the valley of the Metauro, in
+the centre of fine scenery, at the meeting-point of roads to Fano, to
+the Furlo pass and Fossato di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino
+and to Sinigaglia, the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The
+cathedral, rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor
+Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured _ancona_ of 1480. S.
+Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal. The library, founded by
+a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains some antiquities. Above the
+town is a medieval castle. There is a considerable trade in silk.
+
+The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E. at S. Martino al
+Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station on the Via Flaminia
+and a _municipium_. The date of its foundation is not known. Excavations
+in 1879-1880 led to the discovery of a house and of other buildings on
+the ancient road (A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 458).
+It already had a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta
+obtained possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold,
+with Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the latter
+it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1754-1844), Tuscan statesman and
+mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was educated at the university of
+Pisa, where he devoted himself particularly to mathematics. He obtained
+an official appointment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was
+entrusted by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the
+drainage of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a
+treatise in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but
+on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily. On the
+erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom of Etruria, under
+the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed president of the
+commission of finance. In 1809 he went to Paris as one of the senators
+for Tuscany to pay homage to Napoleon. He was made president of the
+legislative commission on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand
+III. in 1814, and subsequently prime minister, which position he
+retained under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which was
+only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote the
+well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany, and the
+bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the law, honesty
+in the administration of justice and toleration of opinion, but he
+totally neglected the moral improvement of the people. At the age of
+seventy-eight he married, and twelve years afterwards died, in 1844.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Gino Capponi, _Il Conte V. Fossombroni_, A. von
+  Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg_
+  (Gotha, 1877); Zobi, _Storia civile delta Toscana_ (Florence,
+  1850-1853); Galeotti, _Delle Leggi e dell' amministrazione della
+  Toscana_ (Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II_. (Florence,
+  1871); see also under CAPPONI, GINO; FERDINAND III., of Tuscany, and
+  LEOPOLD II., of Tuscany.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904), English geologist and
+mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve Foster (for many years
+secretary of the Society of Arts), was born at Camberwell on the 23rd of
+March 1841. After receiving his early education at Boulogne and Amiens,
+he studied successively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at
+the mining college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the
+Geological Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards
+in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894) he
+communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865 the now classic
+paper "On the superficial deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with
+remarks on the Denudation of the Weald." In this paper the sculpturing
+of the Wealden area by rain and rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from
+the Geological Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to
+mineralogy and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was
+appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for the S.W. of
+England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N. Wales district. In
+1890 he was appointed professor of mining at the Royal College of
+Science and he held this post until the close of his life. His later
+work is embodied largely in the reports of mines and quarries issued
+annually by the home office. He was distinguished for his extensive
+scientific and practical knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone
+quarrying. He was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While
+investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man in 1897
+his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide gas, and he
+never fully recovered from the effects. He died in London on the 19th of
+April 1904. He published _Ore and Stone Mining_, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and
+_The Elements of Mining and Quarrying_, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician and financier, was
+born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist
+descent. After a brilliant university career at the university of
+Brunswick, at Edinburgh and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught
+in various local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and
+history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative member
+for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament, and in 1885 entered
+the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries;
+in 1888 he became minister of finance, which position he held till the
+defeat of his party in 1896. A careful and even brilliant financier, and
+a keen debater, he became known as a strong believer in protection for
+Canadian industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and dissenting minister,
+generally known as the "Essayist," was born in a small farmhouse near
+Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September 1770. Partly from
+constitutional causes, but partly also from the want of proper
+companions, as well as from the grave and severe habits of his parents,
+his earlier years were enshrouded in a somewhat gloomy and sombre
+atmosphere, which was never afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful
+energy, finding no proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to
+morbid intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own
+testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of a "painful
+sense of an awkward but entire individuality."
+
+The small income accruing to Foster's parents from their farm they
+supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he began to assist them by
+spinning wool by the hand wheel, and from his fourteenth year by weaving
+double stuffs. Even "when a child," however, he had the "feelings of a
+foreigner in the place"; and though he performed his monotonous task
+with conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing
+his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without difficulty
+passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a great taste for
+reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut himself up alone in a barn,
+afterwards working at his loom "like a horse," to make up for lost time.
+He had also at this period "a passion for making pictures with a pen."
+Shortly after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of the
+Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents were connected;
+and with the view of preparing himself for the ministerial office he
+began about the same time to attend a seminary at Brearley Hall
+conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.
+
+After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted to the
+Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of study at this
+institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he
+preached to an audience of less than a hundred persons, in a small and
+dingy room situated near the river at the top of a flight of steps
+called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he remained only three months. In
+the beginning of 1793 he proceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a
+preacher, he attempted to revive a classical and mathematical school,
+but with so little success that he did not prosecute the experiment for
+more than eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a
+Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself with more
+earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the discharge of his
+ministerial duties, his efforts produced little apparent impression, and
+the gradual diminution of his hearers necessitated his resignation.
+After employing himself for a few months at Battersea in the instruction
+of twenty African youths brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with
+the view of having them trained to aid as missionaries to their
+fellow-countrymen, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small
+congregation at Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years.
+In 1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he became
+pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the thyroid gland
+compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the same year he
+published the volume of _Essays_ on which his literary fame most largely
+if not mainly rests. They were written in the form of letters addressed
+to the lady whom he afterwards married, and consist of four papers,--"On
+a Man writing Memoirs of himself"; "On Decision of Character"; "On the
+Application of the Epithet Romantic"; and "On some Causes by which
+Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable to Men of Cultivated
+Taste." The success of this work was immediate, and was so considerable
+that on resigning his charge he determined to adopt literature as his
+profession. The _Eclectic Review_ was the only periodical with which he
+established a connexion; but his contributions to that journal, which
+were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles. On his marriage
+in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water, a small village in
+Gloucestershire, where he remained till 1817, when he returned to
+Downend and resumed his duties to his old congregation. Here he
+published in 1820 his _Essay on Popular Ignorance_, which was the
+enlargement of a sermon originally preached on behalf of the British and
+Foreign School Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol,
+and in 1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead
+chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the settlement of
+Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued, as in such
+circumstances it appeared to Foster to be "altogether superfluous and
+even bordering on impertinent." The health of Foster during the later
+years of his life was somewhat infirm, the result chiefly of the toil
+and effort of literary composition; and the death of his only son, his
+wife and the greater number of his most intimate friends combined with
+his bodily ailments to lend additional sombreness to his manner of
+regarding the events and arrangements of the present world--the "visage
+of death" being almost his "one remaining luminary." He died at
+Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.
+
+The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather than
+logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately Calvinistic
+views, his language even in preaching very seldom took the mould of
+theological forms. Though always retaining his connexion with the
+Baptist denomination, the evils resulting from organized religious
+communities seemed to him so great that he came to be "strongly of
+opinion that churches are useless and mischievous institutions, and the
+sooner they are dissolved the better." The only Christian observances
+which he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the
+Lord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered the
+ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured by a
+constant reference to the "endless future." He was a firm believer in
+supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing hope that a ray of
+light from the other world might sometimes in this way be vouchsafed to
+mortals. As a writer he was most painstaking and laborious in his choice
+of diction, and his style has its natural consequent defects, though the
+result is eloquent in its way.
+
+  Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a
+  _Discourse on Missions_ (1818); "Introductory Essay" to Doddridge's
+  _Rise and Progress of Religion_ (1825); "Observations on Mr Hall's
+  Character as a Preacher," prefixed to the collected edition of Hall's
+  _Works_ (1832); an "Introduction" to a pamphlet by Mr Marshman on the
+  Serampore Missionaries; several political letters to the _Morning
+  Chronicle_, and contributions to the _Eclectic Review_, published
+  posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. _His Life and Correspondence_, edited
+  by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1907), English physiologist, was born at
+Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After graduating in medicine at
+London University in 1859, he began to practise in his native town, but
+in 1867 he returned to London as teacher of practical physiology at
+University College, where two years afterwards he became professor. In
+1870 he was appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its
+praelectorship in physiology, and thirteen years later he became the
+first occupant of the newly-created chair of physiology in the
+university, holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and
+administrator, and had a very large share in the organization and
+development of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was
+one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity
+exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great Britain. In
+1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president of the British
+Association at its meeting at Dover. In the following year he was
+elected to represent the university of London in parliament. Though
+returned as a Unionist, his political action was not to be dictated by
+party considerations, and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he
+played no prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was
+defeated. His chief writings were a _Textbook of Physiology_ (1876),
+which became a standard work, and _Lectures on the History of Physiology
+in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1901), which consisted of
+lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, in
+1900. He died suddenly in London on the 29th of January 1907.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter, was born at North
+Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the workshop of Ebenezer
+Landells, a wood engraver, with whom he worked for six years as an
+illustrative draughtsman, devoting himself mainly to landscape. During
+the succeeding fifteen years he became famous as a prolific and
+accomplished illustrator, but about 1861 abandoned illustration for
+painting, and gained wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water
+colours, of landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of
+children. He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of
+the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable
+for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and
+pleasantness of sentiment.
+
+  See _Birket Foster, his Life and Work_ (extra number of the _Art
+  Journal_) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and
+  _Birket Foster, R.W.S._, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very
+  complete and fully illustrated biography.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song and ballad writer,
+was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of July 1826. He was
+the youngest child of a merchant of Irish descent who became a member of
+the state legislature and was related by marriage to President Buchanan.
+Stephen early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,
+the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge of French
+and German. He was sent to school in Towanda, Pennsylvania, and later to
+Athens, Pennsylvania, and when thirteen years old he wrote the song
+"Sadly to Mine Heart Appealing." At sixteen he wrote "Open thy Lattice,
+Love"; at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati,
+Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile such
+popular pieces as "Old Uncle Ned," "O Susannah!" and others. He then
+adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief successes were songs
+written for the negro melodists or Christy minstrels. Besides those
+mentioned the following attained great popularity: "Nelly was a Lady,"
+"Old Kentucky Home," "Old Folks at Home," "Massa's in de Cold, Cold
+Ground," &c. For these and other songs the composer received
+considerable sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000
+dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music. In
+1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned to Pittsburg.
+His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies, many of which have
+been popular on both sides of the Atlantic and sung in many tongues.
+"Old Black Joe," the last of these negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His
+later songs were sentimental ballads. Among these are "Old Dog Tray,"
+"Gentle Annie," "Willie, we have missed you," &c. His "Come where my
+Love lies Dreaming" is a well known vocal quartet. Although as a
+musician and composer Foster has little claim to high rank, his
+song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern developments of
+popular music. He died at New York on the 13th of January 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTORIA, a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and partly in
+Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7070;
+(1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the Ohio Central,
+the Lake Erie & Western, and the Hocking Valley railways, and by two
+interurban electric lines. The city is situated in an agricultural
+region, and oil abounds in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures
+are glass, flour, planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages,
+barrels, incandescent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile
+engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear. The
+waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. In 1832, upon the
+coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome and Risdon, were laid out
+on the site of what is now Fostoria. A bitter rivalry arose between
+them, but they were finally united under one government, and the city
+thus formed was named in honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles
+Foster (1828-1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and
+secretary of the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to
+promote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.
+
+
+
+
+FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was born of a Quaker
+family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End in Yorkshire. He took the
+degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736, and after visiting the continent of
+Europe he in 1740 settled in London, where he gained an extensive
+practice. In the epidemics of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to
+have had sixty patients daily. In his leisure he made a study of
+conchology and botany; and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive
+botanical garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various
+parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the South Sea
+voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by Anthony Purver, a
+Quaker, was made and printed at his expense. His pamphlet entitled
+"Account of the Sore Throat attended with Ulcers" (1748) contains one of
+the first descriptions of diphtheria in English, and was translated into
+several languages. He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.
+
+
+
+
+FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, picturesquely
+situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1½ m. from Elton station on
+the Peterborough branch of the London & North-Western railway. The
+castle, of which nothing but the earthworks and foundations remain, is
+famous as the scene of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from
+September 1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587.
+The earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of very
+early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times. It became an
+important stronghold of the Plantagenets from the time of Edward III.,
+and was the birthplace of Richard III. in 1452. The church of St Mary
+and All Saints, originally collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the
+nave with aisles, and the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but
+the building is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of
+York, who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the
+third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the earl of
+Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of Wakefield in
+1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments were erected by Queen
+Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs in ruins.
+
+
+
+
+FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON (1819-1868), French physicist, was the son
+of a publisher at Paris, where he was born on the 18th of September
+1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine,
+which, however, he speedily abandoned for physical science, the
+improvement of L.J.M. Daguerre's photographic processes being the object
+to which he first directed his attention. During three years he was
+experimental assistant to Alfred Donné (1801-1878) in his course of
+lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he carried on a
+series of investigations on the intensity of the light of the sun, as
+compared with that of carbon in the electric arc, and of lime in the
+flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the interference of heat rays, and
+of light rays differing greatly in lengths of path; and on the chromatic
+polarization of light. In 1849 he contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_ a
+description of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp,
+and, in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision. By
+the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir Charles
+Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric currents, he was
+enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater velocity of light in air than
+in water, and to establish that the velocity of light in different media
+is inversely as the refractive indices of the media. For his
+demonstration in 1851 of the diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation
+of the plane of oscillation of a freely suspended, long and heavy
+pendulum exhibited by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the
+following year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the
+Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year he was
+made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at Paris. In
+September of that year he discovered that the force required for the
+rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when it is made to rotate
+with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disk at the same time
+becoming heated by the eddy or "Foucault currents" induced in its metal.
+Foucault invented in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the
+succeeding year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting
+telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution. With
+Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the absolute
+velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000 m.) a second,
+or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous experimenters. He
+was created in that year a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and an
+officer of the Legion of Honour, in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal
+Society of London, and next year a member of the mechanical section of
+the Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of Watt's
+governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting with a view
+to making its period of revolution constant, and on a new apparatus for
+regulating the electric light; and in the following year (_Compt. Rend._
+lxiii.) he showed how, by the deposition of a transparently thin film of
+silver on the outer side of the object glass of a telescope, the sun
+could be viewed without injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault
+died of paralysis on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year
+1845 he edited the scientific portion of the _Journal des Débats_. His
+chief scientific papers are to be found in the _Comptes Rendus_,
+1847-1869.
+
+  See _Revue cours scient._ vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; _Proc. Roy. Soc._
+  xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, _Notice historique sur
+  la vie et les travaux de Léon Foucault_ (Paris, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763-1820), French statesman, was born
+in a small village near Nantes on the 21st of May 1763. His father, a
+seafaring man, destined him for the sea; but the weakness of his frame
+and the precocity of his talents soon caused this idea to be given up.
+He was educated at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed
+marked aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to
+enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept by
+brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made rapid progress,
+and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the colleges of Niort, Saumur,
+Vendôme, Juilly and Arras. At Arras he had some dealings with
+Robespierre at the time of the beginning of the French Revolution
+(1789).
+
+In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at
+Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal for revolutionary
+principles; but at Nantes he showed even more democratic fervour. His
+abilities and the zeal with which he espoused the most subversive
+notions brought him into favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a
+leading member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the
+college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouché gave up all
+connexion with the church, whose major vows he had not taken. After the
+downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of August 1792, he was elected as
+deputy for the department of the Lower Loire to the National Convention
+which met at the autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The
+literary and pedagogic sympathies of Fouché at first brought him into
+touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists; but
+their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of Louis XVI.
+(December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to espouse the cause of the
+Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more thoroughgoing champions of
+revolutionary doctrine. On the question of the execution of the king,
+Fouché, after some preliminary hesitations, expressed himself with the
+utmost vigour in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who
+"wavered before the shadow of a king."
+
+The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the Convention
+against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and a little later against
+Spain, brought Fouché into notoriety as one of the fiercest of the
+Jacobinical fanatics who then held power at Paris. While the armies of
+the first coalition threatened the north-east of France, a revolt of the
+royalist peasants of Brittany and la Vendée menaced the Convention on
+the west. That body deputed Fouché with a colleague, Villers, to proceed
+to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial powers
+for the crushing of the revolt of "the whites." The vigour with which he
+carried out these duties earned him other work, and he soon held the
+post of commissioner of the republic in the department of the Nièvre.
+Together with Chaumette, he helped to initiate the atheistical movement,
+the founders of which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the
+extinction of Christianity in France. In the department of the Nièvre he
+ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and
+established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the cemeteries, he
+ordered these words to be inscribed: "Death is an eternal sleep." He
+also waged war against luxury and wealth, and desired to abolish the use
+of money. The new cult was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the
+strange orgy known as "The Festival of Reason" (November 10, 1793).
+
+Fouché then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance of the
+Convention on that city, which had revolted against the new Jacobin
+tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable for its obscene
+parody of religious rites, he then, along with his colleague, Collot
+d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to work with a rigour which
+made his name odious. Modern research, however, proves that at the close
+of those horrors Fouché exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his
+conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris
+early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: "The blood of
+criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes power on sure
+foundations." By that time Robespierre had struck down the other leaders
+of the atheistical party; but early in June 1794, at the time of the
+"Festival of the Supreme Being," Fouché ventured to mock at the theistic
+revival which Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took
+place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of Fouché from
+the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouché, however, was working with his
+customary skill and energy, and along with Tallien and others, managed
+to effect the overthrow of the theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July
+28), 1794. The ensuing reaction in favour of more merciful methods of
+government threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been
+mainly instrumental in carrying through the _coup d'état_ of Thermidor;
+but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouché in intrigue, they managed for
+a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords, however, crept in which
+left him for a time almost isolated, and it needed all his ability to
+withstand the attacks of the moderates. A vigorous attack on him by
+Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of August 1795, caused him to be arrested,
+but the troubles which ensued in Vendémiaire averted the doom that
+seemed to be pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was
+passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year 1795.
+
+In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799),
+Fouché remained at first in obscurity, but the relations which he had
+with the communists, once headed by Chaumette and now by François N.
+("Gracchus") Babeuf (q.v.), helped him to rise once more. He is said to
+have betrayed to the director Barras the secret of the strange plot
+which Babeuf and a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent
+research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from
+poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the supply of
+military _matériel_, which offered opportunities direct and indirect.
+After offering his services to the royalists, whose movement was then
+gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and the
+director Barras (q.v.). In the _coup d'état_ of Fructidor 1797 he made
+himself serviceable to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him to be French
+ambassador to the Cisalpine republic. At Milan he carried matters with
+so high a hand against the Gallophobes of that government that his
+actions were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused
+state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold his own
+and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early in 1799 he
+returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office as ambassador at
+The Hague, he became minister of police at Paris (July 20, 1799). The
+newly elected director, Sieyès (q.v.), was then in the ascendant and
+desired to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened
+their club. Fouché, casting consistency to the winds, closed the
+Jacobins club in a manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted
+down the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, who
+were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of the return of
+Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin was one of the most
+powerful men in France.
+
+Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouché lent himself to
+the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyès for their overthrow. His activity in
+furthering the _coup d'état_ of Brumaire 18-19 (November 9-10), 1799,
+procured him the favour of Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v.
+Napoleon I.). In the ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouché
+behaved with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and
+extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouché was
+careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of the new
+master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted himself with so
+much skill as to earn at times the gratitude even of the royalists.
+Thus, while countermining a foolish intrigue of theirs in which the
+duchesse de Guiche was the chief agent, Fouché took care that she should
+escape. Equally skilful was his action in the affair of the so-called
+Aréna-Ceracchi plot, in which the _agents provocateurs_ of the police
+were believed to have played a sinister part. The chief "conspirators"
+were easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivôse
+(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This far more
+serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded a bomb near the
+First Consul's carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was
+soon seen by Fouché to be the work of royalists; and when the First
+Consul, eager to entrap the still formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten
+the blame on them, Fouché firmly declared that he would not only assert
+but would prove that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his
+efforts, however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was
+resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters
+(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the spring of
+1802) Fouché was thought to have secured the Jacobins concerned from the
+vengeance of the First Consul. In any case the latter resolved to rid
+himself of a man who had too much power and too much skill in intrigue
+to be desirable as a subordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as
+First Consul for life (August 1, 1802) Fouché was deprived of his
+office; but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of
+police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended
+ministry of justice. Fouché also became a senator and received half of
+the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure
+of office. He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, whose
+information was so superior to that of the new minister of police as to
+render great services to Napoleon at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru
+conspiracy (February-March 1804).
+
+As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouché to the
+re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also later on
+entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no less important
+than at the time of the Consulate. His police agents were ubiquitous,
+and the terror which Napoleon and Fouché inspired, owing to their proven
+ability to benefit by plots, partly accounts for the absence of
+conspiracies after 1804. After Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouché uttered
+the _mot_ of the occasion: "Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old
+aristocracy; the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires."
+
+That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of fear, of
+Fouché was proved by his conduct in the early days of 1808. While
+engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouché
+and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, were having interviews at Paris in
+which Murat, king of Naples, was concerned. At once the sensitive
+autocrat hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouché. In
+that year Fouché received the title of duke of Otranto. During the
+absence of Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British
+Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of Antwerp.
+Fouché thereupon issued an order to the prefects of the northern
+departments of the empire for the mobilization of 60,000 National
+Guards. He added to the order a statement in which occurred the words:
+"Let us prove to Europe that although the genius of Napoleon can throw
+lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse
+the enemy." The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked
+than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months brought
+further causes of friction between emperor and minister. The latter,
+knowing the desire of his master for peace at the close of the year
+1809, undertook on his own account to make secret overtures to the
+British ministry. A little later Napoleon opened negotiations and found
+that Fouché had forestalled him. His rage against his minister was
+extreme, and on the 3rd of June 1810 he dismissed him from his office.
+However, as it was not the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man
+who might again be useful, Fouché received the governorship of Rome. He
+went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving the
+emperor's order to give up certain important documents of his former
+ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that the rest were
+destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst forth again, and Fouché on
+learning, after his arrival at Florence, that the storm was still raging
+at Paris, prepared to sail to the United States. Compelled, however, by
+stress of weather and sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in
+Elisa Bonaparte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed
+to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point Carré. In
+1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of
+Russia; and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smorgoni to Paris
+at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of
+complicity in the conspiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely
+near to success. From this suspicion Fouché cleared himself and gave the
+emperor useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic
+situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the
+arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian
+provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system in Germany in
+October 1813 Fouché was ordered to repair to Rome and thence to Naples,
+in order to watch the movements of Murat. Before Fouché arrived at
+Naples Murat threw off the mask and invaded the Roman territory,
+whereupon Fouché received orders to return to France. He arrived at
+Paris on the 10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being
+constrained by his marshals to abdicate.
+
+The conduct of Fouché at this crisis was characteristic. As senator he
+advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte d'Artois, brother
+of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy
+and the nation. A little later he addressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a
+letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw
+to the United States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an
+appeal in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures
+which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but Fouché
+remained unmolested.
+
+This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that there were no
+hopes of advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who
+sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. Lafayette and Davout were
+concerned in the affair, but their refusal to take the course desired by
+Fouché and other bold spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon
+escaped from Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before
+his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to Fouché an
+offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, saying, "It is too
+late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat." He then foiled an attempt
+of the royalists to arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he
+received for the third time the portfolio of police. That, however, did
+not prevent him from entering into secret relations with Metternich at
+Vienna, his aim being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities.
+Meanwhile he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his
+rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words "The
+sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of power" in the
+declaration of the council of state. But the autocratic tendencies of
+Napoleon could scarcely be held in check, and Fouché seeing the fall of
+the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his
+own interests. On the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second
+time, and Fouché was next day elected president of the commission which
+provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with Louis
+XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the overtures of his
+agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for the recognition of Napoleon
+II., he facilitated the success of the Bourbon cause, and thus procured
+for himself a place in the ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill,
+however, was unequal to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists
+who remembered his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He
+resigned office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at
+Dresden, he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he
+died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great wealth.
+
+Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least
+conscientious, Fouché's character deteriorated in and after the year
+1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition represented all
+that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution
+and Empire. In Fouché the enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a
+cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the
+period 1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest
+instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking to the
+level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain
+aloofness. He multiplied the means of resistance even to that
+irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never
+wholly disgraced. Despised by all for his tergiversations, he
+nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness. He repaid
+the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a
+mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected
+no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared
+to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors,
+present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party. In this
+versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica.
+Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of
+serving France. Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy;
+Fouché may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fouché wrote some political pamphlets and reports, the
+  chief of which are _Réflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet_ (1793);
+  _Réflexions sur l'éducation publique_ (1793); _Rapport et projet de
+  loi relatif aux collèges_ (1793); _Rapport sur la situation de
+  Commune-Affranchie_ [_Lyons_] (1794); _Lettre aux préfets concernant
+  les prêtres_, &c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a
+  _Lettre au duc de Wellington_ (1817). The best life of Fouché is that
+  by L. Madelin, _Fouché_ (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called _Fouché
+  Memoirs_ are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least
+  in part, from notes written by Fouché, and are often valuable, though
+  their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is not
+  seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle, _Napoléon
+  et l'Angleterre_ (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904). For the
+  plots with which Fouché had to deal see E. Daudet, _La Police et les
+  Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1895); P.M.C. Desmarest,
+  _Témoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police_ (Paris, 1833,
+  2nd ed., 1900); É. Picard, _Bonaparte et Moreau_ (Paris, 1905); G.A.
+  Thierry, _Conspirateurs et gens de police_; _le complot de libelles_
+  (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H. Welschinger, _Le Duc
+  d'Enghien_ (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, _Les Complots militaires sous le
+  Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1894).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was born at Dijon on the
+1st of March 1644. He was the son of a merchant, and appears to have
+taken orders at a very early age. For some years he held the position of
+honorary canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up his
+residence in Paris. He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the
+remainder of his life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the
+27th of April 1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a
+keen opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was one of
+scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived the old
+arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with much ingenuity against
+Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise his scepticism is subordinate to
+orthodox belief, the fundamental dogmas of the church seeming to him
+intuitively evident. His object was to reconcile his religious with his
+philosophical creed, and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an
+academician. His writings against Malebranche were collected under the
+title _Dissertations sur la recherche de la vérité_, 1693.
+
+  See F. Rabbe, _L'Abbé Simon Foucher_ (1867); C. Jourdain in
+  _Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_ (1875), pp. 557-559.
+
+
+
+
+FOUCQUET, JEAN, or JEHAN (c. 1415-1485), French painter, born at Tours,
+is the most representative and national French painter of the 15th
+century. Of his life little is known, but it is certain that he was in
+Italy about 1437, where he executed the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV.,
+and that upon his return to France, whilst retaining his purely French
+sentiment, he grafted the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had
+acquired during his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks,
+which was the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became
+the founder of an important new school. He was court painter to Louis
+XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator and miniaturist, of
+exquisite precision in the rendering of the finest detail, and his power
+of clear characterization in work on this minute scale, have long since
+procured him an eminent position in the art of his country, his
+importance as a painter was only realized when his portraits and
+altarpieces were for the first time brought together from various parts
+of Europe in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at
+the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet's most important
+paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame de Melun, of which one
+wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum
+and the other in the Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of
+Charles VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a
+portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from his brush
+is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous are his
+illuminated books and miniatures that have come down to us. The
+Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains forty miniatures from
+a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed
+by Foucquet on the Berlin wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's
+hand again are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a
+translation of Josephus at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The second volume
+of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen
+miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry Yates Thompson
+at a London sale, and restored by him to France.
+
+  See _Oeuvres de Jehan Foucquet_ (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867); A. de
+  Champeaux and P. Gauchery, _Oeuvres d'art exécutées pour le duc de
+  Berry_; "Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet" from vols. i.
+  and ii. of the _Anciennetés des Juifs_ (London, 1902); Charles Blanc,
+  _Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles_ (introduction); and
+  Georges Lafenestre, _Jehan Fouquet_ (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+FOUGÈRES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m. N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 21,847. Fougères is built on the summit and slopes of a hill on
+the left bank of the Nançon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was
+formerly one of the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy,
+and it still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,
+notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St Sulpice. The
+castle, which is situated in the lower part of the town, directly
+overlooking the Nançon, is now a picturesque ruin, but gives abundant
+evidence in its towers and outworks of its former strength and
+magnificence. The finest of the towers was erected in 1242 by Hugues of
+Lusignan, and named after Mélusine, the mythical foundress of the
+family. The churches of St Léonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in
+part, from the 15th century. An hôtel de ville and a belfry, both of the
+15th century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses many
+curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de Lari Coisière (d.
+1812), born in the town. Fougères is the seat of a subprefect, and has a
+tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce and a communal
+college. It is the chief industrial town of its department, being a
+centre for the manufacture of boots and shoes; tanning and
+leather-dressing and the manufacture of sail-cloth and other fabrics
+are also important industries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the
+granite of the neighbouring quarries. Fougères frequently figures in
+Breton history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the
+English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne, the captor
+on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the towers of the
+castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of Charles VIII. under la
+Trémoille. In the middle ages Fougères was a lordship of some
+importance, which in the 13th century passed into the possession of the
+family of Lusignan, and in 1307 was confiscated by the crown and
+afterwards changed hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the
+Vendée, it was occupied by the insurgents.
+
+
+
+
+FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE (1838-   ), French philosopher, was born at
+La Pouëze on the 18th of October 1838. He held several minor
+philosophical lectureships, and from 1864 was professor of philosophy at
+the lycées of Douai, Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and
+1868 he was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work on
+Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences at the
+École Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his
+two treatises, _Platonis Hippias Minor sive Socratica contra liberum
+arbitrium argumenta_ and _La Liberté et le déterminisme_. The strain of
+the next three years' continuous work undermined his health and his
+eyesight, and he was compelled to retire from his professorship. During
+these years he had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history
+of philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed his
+philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through which he
+endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with the naturalistic and
+mechanical standpoint of science. In _L'Évolutionnisme des idées-forces_
+(1890), _La Psychologie des idées-forces_ (1893), and _La Morale des
+idées-forces_ (1907), is elaborated his doctrine of _idées-forces_, or
+of mind as efficient cause through the tendency of ideas to realize
+themselves in appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological
+developments of this theory succeed its physical and psychological
+treatment, the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially
+important. Fouillée's wife, who by a previous marriage was the mother of
+the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888), is well known,
+under the pseudonym of "G. Bruno," as the author of educational books
+for children.
+
+  His other chief works are: _L'Idée moderne du droit en Allemagne, en
+  Angleterre et en France_ (Paris, 1878); _La Science sociale
+  contemporaine_ (1880); _La Propriété sociale et la démocratie_ (1884);
+  _Critique des systèmes de morale contemporains_ (1883); _La Morale,
+  l'art et la religion d'après Guyau_ (1889); _L'Avenir de la
+  métaphysique fondée sur l'expérience_ (1889); _L'Enseignement au point
+  de vue national_ (1891); _Descartes_ (1893); _Tempérament et
+  caractère_ (2nd ed., 1895); _Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception
+  sociologique du monde_ (1896); _Le Mouvement idéaliste et la réaction
+  contre la science positive_ (1896); _La Psychologie du peuple
+  français_ (2nd ed., 1898); _La France au point de vue moral_ (1900);
+  _L'Esquisse psychologique des peuples européens_ (1903); _Nietzsche et
+  l' "immoralisme"_ (1903); _Le Moralisme de Kant_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician, was born at
+Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of a rich Jewish banker, he
+was associated with and afterwards succeeded his father in the
+management of the business. As early as 1842 he entered political life,
+having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the
+Hautes Pyrénées. From that time to his death he actively busied himself
+with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution
+of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence in
+financial matters on the provisional government then formed. He shortly
+afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of paper money,
+entitled, _Pas d'Assignats!_ and _Observations sur la question
+financière_. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times
+minister of finance, and took a leading part in the economical reforms
+then made in France. His strong conservative tendencies led him to
+oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the _coup
+d'état_ and the new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence
+of the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, he
+resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the same day
+appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government as minister of
+state and of the imperial household. In this capacity he directed the
+Paris exhibition of 1855. The events of November 1860 led once more to
+his resignation, but he was recalled to the ministry of finance in
+November of the following year, and retained office until the
+publication of the imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when
+Émile Ollivier became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last
+tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican war
+had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 millions
+of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a
+taste for the fine arts, which he developed and refined during his youth
+by visiting Italy and the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857
+he was made a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes
+on the 5th of October 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776), Scottish printers and
+publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow maltman. Robert was apprenticed
+to a barber; but his ability attracted the attention of Dr Francis
+Hutcheson, who strongly recommended him to establish a printing press.
+After spending 1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his
+brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had received a
+better education, he started business in 1741 in Glasgow, and in 1743
+was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought
+out _Demetrius Phalereus de elocutione_, in Greek and Latin, the first
+Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the
+famous 12mo edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to
+be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in the
+university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six
+errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon
+afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for
+about thirty years to issue carefully corrected and beautifully printed
+editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French and
+Italian. They printed more than five hundred separate publications,
+among them the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos,
+Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful
+edition of the Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol.,
+1756-1758); Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon,
+Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems; Pope's Works;
+Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman's designs were executed, is
+perhaps the most famous production of the Foulis press. The brothers
+spared no pains, and Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the
+classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.
+Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for
+the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief
+patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to "print for posterity
+and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of
+sculpture and models, in paying for the education and travelling of
+youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their
+countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the "Academy" not only
+proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died on the
+18th of September 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to
+realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much
+less than he anticipated, and Robert returned broken-hearted to
+Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was
+the author of a _Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks_. The
+business was afterwards carried on under the same name by Robert's son
+Andrew.
+
+  See W.J. Duncan, _Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary
+  History of Glasgow_, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which
+  _inter alia_ contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis
+  press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of
+  Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow.
+
+
+
+
+FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS (1717-1789), French administrator, was born at
+Saumur. During the Seven Years' War he was intendant-general of the
+armies, and intendant of the army and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle.
+In 1771 he was appointed intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker
+was dismissed, Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household,
+and was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But he was
+unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested him on account of
+his severity, the Parisians on account of his wealth accumulated in
+utter indifference to the sufferings of the poor; he was reported,
+probably quite without foundation, to have said, "If the people cannot
+get bread, let them eat hay." After the taking of the Bastille on the
+14th of July, he withdrew to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread
+the news of his death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried
+off with a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hôtel de ville, and, in
+spite of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace
+and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.
+
+  See Eugène Bonnemère, _Histoire des paysans_ (4th ed., 1887), tome
+  iii.; C.L. Chassin, _Les Élections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_.
+  (Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATION (Lat. _fundatio_, from _fundare_, to found), the act of
+building, constituting or instituting on a permanent basis; especially
+the establishing of any institution by endowing or providing it with
+funds for its continual maintenance. The word is thus applied also to
+the institutions so established, such as a college, monastery or
+hospital; and the terms "on the foundation," or "foundationer," are used
+of members of such a college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars,
+&c., the benefits of the endowment. Formerly "foundation" also meant the
+charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and it is
+still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such institutions.
+
+The terms "old foundation" and "new foundation" used in connexion with
+the organizing of English cathedral chapters have no reference to the
+age of the cathedrals. At the time of the Reformation under Henry VIII.
+the old college chapters were left unchanged, and are referred to as the
+"old foundations," but the monastic chapters were all suppressed,
+consequently new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and
+these constitute the "new foundations."
+
+"Foundation" also means the base (natural or artificial) on which any
+erection is built up; generally made below the level of the ground (see
+FOUNDATIONS below). A foundation-stone is one of the stones at the base
+of a building, generally a corner-stone, frequently laid with a public
+ceremony to celebrate the commencement of the building. The term is also
+applied to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making,
+the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material used for
+stiffening purposes, as "foundation muslin or net." In knitting or
+crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest are worked are called
+the "foundation chain." In gem-cutting the "foundation-square" is the
+first of eight squares round the edges of a brilliant made in bevel
+planes and from which the angles are all removed to form three-corner
+facets.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations is to distribute the
+weight of a structure equally over the ground. In the construction of a
+building the weights are concentrated at given points on piers, columns,
+&c., and these foundations require to be spread so as to reduce the
+weight to an average. In the preparation of a foundation care must be
+taken to prevent the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed
+upon sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any
+damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with in ordinary
+practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand, vary as to their
+capabilities of bearing weight. There is no provision in any English
+building acts as to the load that may be placed on any of these soils,
+but under the New York Building Code it is provided that, where no test
+of the sustaining power of the soil is made, different soils, excluding
+mud, at the bottom of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the
+following loads to the superficial foot:
+
+                                                      per sq. ft.
+  Soft clay                                             1 ton.
+  Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers,
+    wet and springy                                     2 tons.
+  Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry                 3 tons.
+  Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay      4 tons.
+
+
+  Load on foundation.
+
+A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation by the
+walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided for by the London
+Building Act of 1894, and a comparison of a few of the principal
+authorities, will be found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision
+as to what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a wall of the
+warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base for a height of
+27 ft. is 2½ bricks thick (or 22½ in.), and for the same distance in
+height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the remainder to the top
+being 1½ bricks thick (or 14 in.). The weight of brickwork per foot run
+of such a wall is 4.05 tons on any area of 3.75 ft. super. of brickwork.
+According to the act the concrete is to project 4 in. on each side; we
+have then an additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus making the
+total foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft. super. to take a
+weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super. (viz. .9 ton.)
+
+Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration, viz. the
+weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the roof. In this case
+there would be at least six floors, and the entire weight could hardly
+be taken at less than 6 tons, which would give a total weight of 10.05
+tons on an area of 4.41 ft. super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot
+super. This is on the assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on
+the foundations by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case,
+in addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations should
+be increased in area. Piers always involve a great increase of weight on
+the foundations, and in very many instances this increased weight,
+instead of being provided for by increasing the area of the foundations
+and so reducing the weight per foot super., is only partly met by the
+improper method of merely increasing the depth of the concrete, while
+keeping the same projection of concrete round the footings as for the
+walls. As an example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80
+tons, standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by a
+brick pier 22½ in. square. In this case we should have, after allowing
+for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of 4 ft. 5 in.
+square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure of 4.1 tons
+per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much as in the previous
+example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead of increasing the depth of
+the concrete, it would be necessary to increase its width; if it were
+made 6 ft. square, we should have an area of 36 ft. super. to take the
+80 tons, and thus the pressure would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the
+cost of the foundation be much the same.
+
+If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class, as
+prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a wall 50
+ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22½ in. as for the warehouse
+wall to which we have referred, we have a wall weighing 3.75 tons per
+foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super., or .85 ton per foot without
+weight of floors and roof as against the .9 ton in the warehouse
+example. To this must be added the weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at
+a total of 3 tons per foot run of wall, and we then have an aggregate of
+6.75 tons per foot run and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28
+tons in the warehouse class.
+
+If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel Seddon in the
+_Aide Memoir_ gives the load which ordinary foundations will bear as a
+safe load per foot super. as follows:
+
+                                                         tons.
+  Rock, moderately hard                                   9
+  Rock of strength of good concrete                       3
+  Rock, very soft                                       1.8
+  Firm earth                                             1 to 1½
+  Hard clay                                              1 to 1½
+  Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from
+    spreading sideways                                   1 to 1½
+
+Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the latter heads,
+and according to this table we have, when we erect walls in accordance
+with the building act, to overload our foundations.
+
+As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an example the
+chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham, 312 ft. high, so arranged
+that its pressure on the foundations is only 1½ tons per foot super.;
+also the great St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, which has a pressure of 1¾
+tons; the weight of the Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4
+bases, each 130 ft. square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or
+2-1/3 cwt., per foot super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per
+foot on the granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by
+spreading to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The
+piers under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2¼ tons only, those of
+the Imperial Institute 2¼ tons, and those of the destructor cells and
+chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6¾ cwt. per foot super. From
+these various examples it would appear that on sound clay or gravel
+foundation a load of from 2¼ to 4 tons may be employed with safety.
+
+
+    Trial borings.
+
+  One of the first and most important requirements in preparing drawings
+  for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil and
+  strata at different levels over the proposed site, so as to be able to
+  arrange the footings accordingly at the various depths and to decide
+  as to the various forms and methods to be employed. For this purpose
+  trial holes or borings are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is
+  found, upon which the concrete foundation may safely be put. If no
+  such solid bottom is found, as often happens near the water side,
+  special foundations must be employed, such as dock, gridiron,
+  cantilever and pile foundations, &c., all of which will be described
+  hereafter. As examples of the varying subsoils we may mention the
+  following, in which will be noticed the great depths dug before
+  getting through the made ground: At the Bank of England there were 22
+  ft. of made ground resting on 4 ft. of gravel. Some of the made ground
+  was of ancient date, and preserved relics of Roman occupation. In some
+  parts the subsoils have been excavated for ballast or gravel, as at
+  Kensington, or for brick earth, as at Highbury, and the pits filled in
+  with rubbish. Rock, which forms an excellent and unchanging foundation
+  in one situation, may prove a dangerous foundation in another. Thus
+  chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain positions, but when
+  it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop of the gault or
+  underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for any building,
+  as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the Dorsetshire coast
+  bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the Thames
+  embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in. greensand,
+  wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5) 5½ ft.
+  peaty bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean ballast,
+  resting at a depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue clay. A
+  boring at Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18 ft.
+  loam, (3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand.
+  These examples show that while trial holes should always be made
+  before designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil,
+  care must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block
+  2 of the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial
+  holes upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay to
+  be about 29½ ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual
+  excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution
+  of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west
+  corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the
+  ground. The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are
+  placed in a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in
+  solid concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland
+  Avenue (London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38½ ft. made
+  ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3) 6 ft.
+  rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue
+  clay. At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north end
+  37 ft. The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft. wide.
+  The site was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about 6 ft.
+  wide, forming a species of boxes, and the whole was covered with a
+  depth of 6 ft. of concrete upon which the walls were raised. The
+  foundation for 53 Parliament Street, where running sand was
+  encountered, was constructed with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and 6
+  in. diam., pointed and placed as close together as possible over the
+  whole foundation, the tops were then sawn off level, and a concrete
+  raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over the whole area. At the
+  Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster, the
+  foundations to the two party walls upon each side of the building were
+  carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement level, that on the west
+  side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side 24 ft.
+
+
+    Construction.
+
+  The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the erection of
+  buildings on sites that have been used as "shoots" for faecal matter
+  or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the objectionable material must
+  be removed prior to the commencement of building operations, and the
+  holes from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other
+  rubbish well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or
+  navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level
+  pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow,
+  rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and
+  excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have
+  to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides of
+  the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts; this work
+  is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms of planking
+  and strutting for the different soils.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is used
+  for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket with a
+  cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the excavation,
+  and on being withdrawn cuts off a portion of soil which is hoisted and
+  deposited in carts for removal to any desired position within the
+  radius commanded by the crane. The work of trimming the excavation to
+  a regular shape must always be done by manual labour.
+
+  Concrete for filling into the foundations is usually mixed by navvies;
+  for large works it is sometimes mixed by machinery.
+
+  In order that the work of excavating and constructing the foundations
+  may proceed in a water-logged site, pumps have to be employed, and
+  where the inrush of water is great it is usual to sink a sump hole
+  lower than the depth required for the foundations, and to use a steam
+  pump kept going day and night.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance
+  with the London Building and Amendment Acts: "The projection of the
+  bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall shall be
+  at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base,
+  unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may
+  be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the footings
+  of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the height from
+  the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least
+  equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its base." (See
+  BRICKWORK.) The base of a wall is the thickness above the footing; the
+  footing is the brickwork built directly on the top of the concrete and
+  diminishing in width in every course. Thus: "The projection of the
+  bottom footing to be equal to one-half the thickness of wall on both
+  sides" means that a 13½-in. wall would require to have three courses
+  of footings, the bottom one being 27 in. wide. "The height from the
+  bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least equal
+  to two-thirds the thickness of wall at its base" means that in the
+  case of a 13½-in. wall the height of footings would have to be 9 in.,
+  or three courses of brickwork, each measuring 3 in.
+
+  The New York Building Code enters more fully into the requirements for
+  the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use in London.
+  Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except buildings
+  erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the water front,
+  shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete laid not less
+  then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid ground or
+  level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers when solid
+  earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a wall, pier or
+  post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than 20 in. on
+  centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable, and
+  their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure
+  proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than 5 in. at the
+  small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles 20 ft. or
+  less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding 40,000
+  lb. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining power
+  shall be determined by the following formula: twice the weight of the
+  hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall in feet divided by
+  the least penetration of pile under the last blow in inches plus one.
+  There are also further requirements as to piles, &c., and the
+  commissioner of buildings must be notified when the piles are to be
+  driven.
+
+  The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that foundation
+  walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers built below
+  the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to serve as
+  supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or beams.
+  Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland cement
+  concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland cement
+  concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall above
+  them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every
+  additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4
+  in. in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in.
+  thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the
+  curb level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper,
+  they shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course
+  shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up
+  brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight
+  to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete,
+  the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the
+  stones shall not be less than 2×3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness
+  for walls, and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers,
+  columns or posts. The footing or base course, whether formed of
+  concrete or stone, shall be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom
+  width of walls, and at least 12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom
+  width of said piers, columns or posts. If the superimposed load is
+  such as to cause undue transverse strain on a footing projecting 12
+  in., the thickness of such footing is to be increased so as to carry
+  the load with safety. For small structures and for small piers
+  sustaining light loads the commissioner of buildings having
+  jurisdiction may, in his discretion, allow a reduction in the
+  thickness and projection specified for footing or base courses. All
+  base stones shall be bedded and laid crosswise, edge to edge. If
+  stepped-up footing of brick is used in place of stone above the
+  concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall each not exceed
+  1½ in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall not exceed 3
+  in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half the
+  thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the load
+  to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that the
+  American acts are far more extensive than in London. The London
+  Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest upon the
+  solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure. The
+  building act amendment says: "The foundations of the walls of every
+  house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete not less
+  than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side of the
+  lowest course of footings."
+
+  _Various Types of Foundations._--The most natural foundations for
+  walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly upon
+  the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard or
+  consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply
+  levelled and the building commenced.
+
+  The next and most universally recognized method, which might safely be
+  said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the system of
+  placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches where the
+  walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and in these laying
+  the concrete. The London Building Act requires this concrete bed to be
+  at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of footings on each side
+  of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider on each side and in
+  general circumstances the depth of the concrete is varied according to
+  the weight placed upon it.
+
+  Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course,
+  &c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies low,
+  naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is soft. It
+  is here that special foundations are required.
+
+
+    Concrete piers, legs, or stilts.
+
+  In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These
+  are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building,
+  and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may require
+  according to the nature of the ground; and on the tops of these stilts
+  concrete arches or lintels are turned over (fig. 3). As an example of
+  the stilt principle, mention may be made of some premises at Stratford
+  and a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers were
+  sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4½ ft. square, in pot holes dug out
+  of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the intervening
+  untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of 18 in. or the piers
+  were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in which steel joists
+  were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment, London, the
+  foundations were formed with cement concrete stilts or piers 8 ft.
+  square, and going down to the London clay; from the tops of these
+  stilts brick arches were turned, spanning the spaces between the
+  piers, and upon these arches the walls were built.
+
+
+    Pile foundations.
+
+  Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works,
+  consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6
+  in. to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom
+  ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to be
+  easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have an
+  iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in the
+  band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of driving
+  these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary
+  structure, upon one side of which is a guide path faced with
+  sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up and down this guide path a
+  heavy iron weight, called a monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted
+  to the top of the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or
+  steam, and when released descends with a good force, and so drives the
+  piles into the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10
+  cwt. and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or
+  under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In
+  the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles,
+  each with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of 52½
+  ft. and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a period of
+  two weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile was adopted
+  as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads used in
+  practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles 50 ft. in
+  length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y., piles 20 ft.
+  in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2 tons; Schiller
+  building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case the building
+  settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of all piles
+  should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped with
+  concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks of
+  granite.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+
+    Concrete piles.
+
+  Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement concrete
+  blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land, &c. In
+  some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and the centres are
+  filled with blocks of concrete and grouted in. The Yarmouth destructor
+  cells and chimney shaft were built in this way; the cylinders were
+  constructed of 9 in. brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4
+  ft. being encased in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the
+  gravel and sand at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of
+  a grab, the bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a
+  diver. Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement
+  concrete having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron
+  shoes and head for driving (fig. 6).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist
+  of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the
+  lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary from 9
+  in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of the
+  projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the shaft.
+  For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3½ to 4½ ft. will be
+  found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. The lower
+  end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being bevelled and
+  occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting into and
+  penetrating the soil.
+
+  Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists in
+  driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, also
+  driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., which
+  form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In this way
+  the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing the building
+  to settle unevenly.
+
+
+    Plank foundations.
+
+  Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9),
+  consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the trench
+  and spiked together; on the top of these are laid similar planks but
+  at right angles to the last, and upon the platform thus formed the
+  wall is built. This method is used in soft ground.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+
+    Caissons.
+
+  Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction of the
+  foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in foundations
+  for buildings are to be found in the American Surety and the Manhattan
+  Life Insurance buildings, New York City. The latter building is 242
+  ft. high to the parapet, and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher.
+  The building is carried on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft.
+  below the street level to solid rock, and these piers support the 34
+  cast iron columns upon which the building is erected. The piers to
+  each building were constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see
+  CAISSON).
+
+
+    Well foundations.
+
+  A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy is to
+  build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully
+  practised in Madras. The wells are made circular, about 3 ft. in
+  diameter and one brick thick. The first course is laid and cemented
+  together on the surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is
+  excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another
+  is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. The
+  brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according to
+  building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with
+  rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon
+  foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under the
+  city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+
+    Coffer dams.
+
+  Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water whilst
+  putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed with two
+  rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced about 6 ft. apart, and
+  filled in between with a double row of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the
+  space between the rows being packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The
+  general rule for the thickness of a coffer dam is to make it equal to
+  the depth of water. An interesting example of a coffer dam is that at
+  the Keyham dock extension, where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to
+  85 ft. They were driven in a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000
+  were used.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+    Dock foundations.
+
+  Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large concrete
+  tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty arises as to
+  the ingress of water. They are considered the best method of
+  constructing a building on soft ground and of keeping a building dry
+  (fig. 11). This type of foundation was used at the new colonial
+  office, Whitehall, London, and the new admiralty buildings at St
+  James's Park, London. A few buildings treated after the style of a
+  dock, but in some instances without the enclosing walls, are the
+  following: At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete
+  retaining wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and
+  is joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered
+  with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside
+  clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new "Old
+  Bailey" buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed on a
+  concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy Auxiliary
+  Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet's Wharf, near Southwark Bridge, a
+  concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the site, with an
+  extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed similarly to dock
+  foundations, but in addition having steel joists and rods inserted in
+  the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole together, are
+  known as _gridiron_ foundations.
+
+  In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed with
+  small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed for
+  floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended
+  foundation on soft ground.
+
+
+    Cantilever foundations.
+
+  Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is not
+  sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of building
+  pier foundations at some distance from the proposed new wall. On the
+  top of these piers rest steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon
+  cast iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one end to a
+  column, while the other ends go through the full thickness of the new
+  wall. Upon these last ends is placed a steel girder upon which the
+  wall is built. This construction (fig. 12) has been used in America,
+  and in the Ritz Hotel, Piccadilly, London.
+
+  Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in the case of
+  some premises at Carr's Lane, Birmingham, partly built over the Great
+  Western railway tunnel (fig. 13). In this instance large piers were
+  built below the ground at the side of the tunnel. From the tops of
+  these piers large steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the
+  crown of the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the
+  building constructed upon them.
+
+
+    Foundations in Tunis.
+
+  In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy ground,
+  the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited by the sewage water
+  from the ancient or Arab quarter of the city, which is situated on an
+  adjacent hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about 33 ft. To
+  prepare the soil for supporting an ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to
+  10 ft. square are excavated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level
+  of the ground water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and
+  powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt stone from the
+  lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust when exposed to the air.
+  The mixture is thrown into pits in layers about 12 in. thick and
+  rammed down for a very long time by specially trained labourers. A
+  gang of 15 or 20 men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the
+  foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard bed is thus
+  obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface of the ground, and
+  on this artificial bed the foundations of the building are laid.
+  Although this method of construction is crude, it is stated that the
+  practical results are superior to those obtained by using piles,
+  concrete or other recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is
+  much less, for labour is cheap.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+    Building on sand.
+
+  A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a signal station
+  at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on top of the highest
+  sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so that the observer may have an
+  unobstructed view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the sea
+  and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is absolutely
+  required that it shall stand firmly planted in such a way that even a
+  hurricane shall not shake it or make it tremble, since that would
+  affect the sight of the telescope in the observatory. The usual mode
+  of securing such a building is by means of a foundation of screw piles
+  or of heavy timbers sunk into the sand; this method, however, has the
+  disadvantage that if the wind shifts the sand away from around the
+  foundation, it becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To
+  avoid such an accident, recourse was had to the following design,
+  which was considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an
+  effective anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a
+  cellar, above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole
+  is surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a
+  square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and
+  pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made
+  likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined
+  together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are
+  mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet
+  above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first
+  room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper room.
+  Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts. The
+  structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside with
+  rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and grooved
+  yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal in shape, is
+  securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a corrugated iron
+  roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with 3 in. wood, and
+  boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit was first dug in
+  the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on the bottom. The
+  cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure built upon it;
+  thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top of the hill or
+  the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up with sand and
+  packed solid all round, consequently the building is anchored in its
+  place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in weight.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.]
+
+  The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,
+  is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much
+  importance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact
+  and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site
+  answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best
+  form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if
+  that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, on
+  a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of
+  solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of
+  the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before
+  his work can even be started on its way to completion.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The principal books for reference on this subject are:
+  _A Practical Treatise on Foundations_, by W.M. Patron, C. E.;
+  _Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i., by F.E. Kidder;
+  _Notes on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. and iii.; _Aide
+  Memoir_, vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; _Advanced Building
+  Construction_, by C.F. Mitchell; _Modern House Construction_, by G.L.
+  Sutcliffe; _Building Construction_, by Professor Henry Adams;
+  _Practical Building Construction_, by J.P. Allen.     (J. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDING (from Lat. _fundere_, to pour), the process of casting in
+metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running molten
+metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from that object. To
+enable the founder to prepare a mould for the casting, he must receive a
+pattern similar to the casting required. Some few exceptions occur, to
+be noted presently, but the above statement is true of perhaps 98% of
+all castings produced. The construction of such patterns gives
+employment to a large number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire
+the necessary knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to
+seven years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the work
+of pattern construction--that of the craft itself and that of the
+moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed strongly. They are
+generally of wood, and they thus require skill in the use of woodworking
+tools and the making of timber joints, together with a knowledge of the
+behaviour of timber, &c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or
+white metal alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the
+founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without
+inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since cast
+work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including
+projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the
+withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and fracture of
+the sand must involve many difficult problems that have to be as fully
+understood by the pattern-maker as by the moulder. It is from this point
+of view that the work of the pattern-maker should be approached in the
+first place. No closed mould can possibly be made without one or more
+joints, for if a pattern is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it
+cannot be withdrawn except by making a parting in the sand, and it is
+not difficult to conceive that the parting in the pattern might
+advantageously be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately,
+with that of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal
+of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the lower
+than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle smaller or
+"tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions into the lower sand,
+unless these can be made to withdraw separately from the main portion of
+the pattern. Finally, there are many internal spaces which cannot be
+formed by a pattern directly in the sand, but provision for which must
+be made by some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  A single example must illustrate the main principles which have just
+  been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves questions
+  of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding. The
+  casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1
+  illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation
+  of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious
+  difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it were
+  made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with the
+  open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the pieces
+  A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will "deliver"
+  freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as shown in fig. 3,
+  or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as in fig. 4, or along
+  the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The timber shadings in
+  figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable arrangement of
+  material. The prints are "boxed up." Fig. 4 shows a certain stage of
+  the moulding, in which one half of the pattern has been "rammed" in
+  sand, and turned over in the "bottom box," and the upper half is ready
+  to be rammed in the "top box," with "runner pin" or "git stick" A, set
+  in place. The lower loose piece has had its skewer removed during the
+  ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates the mould completed and ready for pouring.
+  The boxes have been parted, the pattern has been withdrawn, cores
+  inserted in the impressions left by the prints, vents taken from the
+  central body of cinders, the pouring basin made and the boxes cottered
+  together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  Every single detail now briefly noted in connexion with this bracket
+  is applied and modified in an almost infinite number of ways to suit
+  the ever varying character of foundry work. Yet this process does not
+  touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting. There is
+  a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete patterns and
+  core boxes are never made, because of the great expense that would be
+  involved in the pattern construction. There are also some cases in
+  which the methods adopted would not permit of the use of patterns, as
+  in that group of work in which the sand or loam is "swept" to the form
+  required for the moulds and cores by means of striking boards, loam
+  boards, core boards or strickles. In these classes of moulding the
+  loose green sands and core sands are not much used; instead, loam--a
+  wet and plastic sand mixture--is employed, supported against bricks
+  (loam moulds) or against core bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam
+  cores). All heavy marine engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping,
+  and all massive cores for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides
+  much large circular and cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders,
+  soap pans, lead pans, mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In
+  these cases the edge of the striking board is a counterpart of the
+  profile of the work swept up. Joints also have to be made in such
+  moulds, not of course in order to provide for the removal of a
+  pattern, but for the exposure of the separate parts in course of
+  construction, and for closing them up, or putting them together in
+  their due relations. These joints also are swept by the boards,
+  generally cut to produce suitable "checks," or "registers" to ensure
+  that they accurately fit together. Fig. 6, showing a portion of a
+  swept-up mould, illustrates the general arrangement. A plate, A,
+  carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are embedded in loam, and break
+  joint. To a striking bar, C, supported in a step, a striking board or
+  sweeping board, D, is bolted, and is swept round against plastic loam,
+  which is afterwards dried. The check on the board at A corresponds
+  with a similar check on the board which strikes the interior of the
+  pan, and by which top and bottom portions of the mould are registered
+  together. This is indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept
+  on bricks, and turned over into place, and the metal is poured into
+  the space b, b, between the two moulds. There is also a large group of
+  swept-up work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation.
+  Then the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges
+  of "core plates," or of "core irons" (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the
+  volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of this
+  kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and B the
+  "strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves pasted
+  together completing the core.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often involving
+  as much detail as the construction and moulding of patterns. Two
+  perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in both of which
+  provision exists for removing the box parts from the core after the
+  latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and tapered, and often
+  have loose pieces within them, and also prints, into the impressions
+  of which other cores are inserted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Machine-moulding._--There is a development of modern methods of
+founding which is effecting radical changes in some departments of
+foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines. The advantages of this
+method are manifold, and its limitations are being lessened
+continually. There are two broad departments between which
+machine-moulding is divided. One, of less importance, is that of toothed
+wheels; the other is that of general work, except of a very massive
+character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special adaptation of the
+mechanism of the dividing engine, by means of which, instead of using a
+complete pattern of a toothed wheel, two or three pattern teeth are
+used, and the machine takes charge of the correct pitching or division
+of the teeth moulded therefrom, leaving to the moulder the work only of
+turning the handle of the division plate, and ramming the sand around
+the pattern teeth. The result is accurate pitching, and the use of two
+or three teeth instead of a full pattern, together with any core boxes
+and striking boards that are necessary for the arms.
+
+The other department of machine moulding includes nearly every
+conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions. There are some
+dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for no one type is suitable
+for all classes of moulds, while some are designed specially for one or
+two kinds only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The pattern
+  parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate or table A
+  (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they must
+  partake of certain movements which are imparted to it. Often patterns
+  mounted, as in fig. 10, are moulded by hand, without any aid from a
+  machine, by methods of "plate-moulding." The delivery of the pattern
+  from the sand is invariably accomplished by a perpendicular movement
+  of a portion of the machine (fig. 11), withdrawing either the pattern
+  from the mould or the mould from the pattern. The important point is
+  that the perpendicular movement, being under the coercion of the
+  vertical guides provided in the hand machines, or the hydraulic ram in
+  fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental to
+  withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine performed
+  nothing more than this it would justify its existence. Little or no
+  taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds are more nearly
+  uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds. But there are other
+  advantages. In machine-moulding the joint faces for parting moulds
+  are produced by the faces of the plates on which the pattern is
+  mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by the hands and trowel of the
+  moulder. When the joint face is of irregular outline, as it often is,
+  this item alone saves a good deal of time, which again is multiplied
+  by the number of moulds repeated, often amounting to thousands.
+  Further, provision is generally made on machine plates for the ingates
+  and runners (fig. 10) through which the metal enters the mould, the
+  preparation of which in hand work occupies a considerable amount of
+  time. Another great advantage applies especially to the case of deep
+  moulds. These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the
+  liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of the
+  pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled by a
+  plate, termed a "stripping plate," which is pierced to allow the
+  patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly on the
+  sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from becoming torn
+  up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but is a necessity in
+  numerous instances. The most familiar example is that of the teeth of
+  gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount of taper interferes
+  with accurate engagement, and this is representative of many other
+  portions of mechanism. These stripping plates are of metal, but in
+  order to save the cost of filing them in iron or steel, many are
+  cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy round the actual pattern
+  itself in the first place, the white metal being enclosed and retained
+  in a plain iron frame which forms the body of the plate. Lastly, many
+  machines, but not the majority, include provision for mechanically
+  ramming the sand around the pattern by power instead of by hand. This
+  is really the least valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it
+  is not applicable to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly
+  used for these, but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand
+  round a pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by
+  careful hand ramming.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when (1)
+  several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a single
+  plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould are produced
+  on different machines, carrying each its moiety of the pattern; (3)
+  when the machine and pattern details are simplified so much that the
+  labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of unskilled
+  attendants who are taught in a month or two the few simple operations
+  required. That is the direction in which repetitive casting is now
+  rapidly tending.
+
+  In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with
+  the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so
+  as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for
+  ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the final
+  squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of the
+  hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D. The
+  plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent of the
+  ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the stage seen
+  in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on the carriage
+  F, provided with wheels to run on rails.
+
+  Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is
+  carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing
+  principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green, i.e.
+  moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being used),
+  and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and machine
+  moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted. The
+  differences in working are those due to the various characteristics of
+  the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the sand
+  mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of the
+  temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the fluxing
+  and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical
+  character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department
+  must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably
+  fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings
+  would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither
+  brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned
+  suitably for iron.
+
+  A special kind of casting is that into "chill moulds," adopted in a
+  considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels in
+  the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and
+  steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill
+  ranges in depth from ¼ in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a
+  special mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron
+  surface, the parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled
+  being surrounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of
+  chill-casting is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.
+
+  The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account of by
+  the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are made larger
+  than the size of the casting required by the exact amount that the
+  metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold state. This
+  amount varies from 1/8 in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings, to 1/8
+  in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from 3/16 in. to 5/16 in. per
+  foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be
+  borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with or
+  without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a
+  fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings,
+  particularly of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this
+  respect than iron, and iron much less than steel.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the reception of
+"foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned or exposed, and left
+for the public to find and save. The early history of such institutions
+is connected with the practice of infanticide, and in western Europe
+where social disorder was rife and famine of frequent occurrence,
+exposure and extensive sales of children were the necessary
+consequences. Against these evils, which were noticed by several
+councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being
+deposited (_jactati_) in marble shells at the church doors, and tended
+first by the _matricularii_ or male nurses, and then by the _nutricarii_
+or foster-parents.[1] But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that
+definite institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as
+Trèves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop
+of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his
+fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de Paul, who in the
+reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the countess of Joigny, Mme le
+Gras and other religious ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from
+the horrors of a primitive institution named La Couche (rue St Landry),
+and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicêtre for their
+accommodation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital in
+1670. The Hôtel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. No provision,
+however, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the cities were
+overcrowded and administered with laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied
+that the state would yet be seriously embarrassed by this increasing
+evil.[2] From 1452 to 1789 the law had imposed on the _seigneurs de
+haute justice_ the duty of succouring children found deserted on their
+territories. The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a
+state debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were
+given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the "enfants de la
+patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. "Toute recherche de la
+paternité est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoléon, "la
+recherche de la matérnité est admise."
+
+  _France._--The laws of France relating to this part of what is called
+  L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction
+  of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of the
+  5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law of the
+  27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles of the
+  law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the system of
+  national poor relief established by the Revolution. The _enfants
+  assistés_ include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings proper, (3)
+  children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated, neglected or
+  morally abandoned children whose parents have been deprived of their
+  parental rights by the decision of a court of justice, (5) children,
+  under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for certain crimes,
+  whose parental rights have been delegated by a tribunal to the state.
+  Children classified under 1-5 are termed _pupilles de l'assistance_,
+  "wards of public charity," and are distinguished by the law of 1904
+  from children under the protection of the state, classified as: (1)
+  _enfants secourus_, i.e. children whose parents or relatives are
+  unable, through poverty, to support them; (2) _enfants en dépôt_, i.e.
+  children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence and children
+  temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital, and (3)
+  _enfants en garde_, i.e. children who have either committed or been
+  the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state care by
+  judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these children is a
+  departmental (_établissement dépositaire_), and not a communal
+  institution. The établissement dépositaire is usually the ward of an
+  hospice, in which--with the exception of children _en dépôt_--the stay
+  is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing the principle
+  laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of age under the
+  guardianship of the state, except the mentally or physically infirm,
+  must be boarded out in country districts. They are generally
+  apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural industry, and
+  until majority they remain under the guardianship of the
+  administrative commissioners of the department. The state pays the
+  whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The expenses of
+  administration, the "home" expenses, for the nurse (_nourrice
+  sédentaire_) or the wet nurse (_nourrice au sein_), the _prime de
+  survie_ (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the "outdoor"
+  expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers
+  in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the foster-parents
+  (_nourriciers_) in the country for board, school-money, &c.; (3)
+  clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children; (5) printing,
+  &c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials and apprentice
+  fees--are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by the state
+  two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by the communes.
+  The following figures show the number of children (exclusive of
+  _enfants secourus_) relieved at various periods:
+
+    Year.       Number relieved.
+    1890             95,701
+    1895            121,201
+    1900            138,308
+    1905            149,803
+
+  The _droit de recherche_ is conceded to the parent on payment of a
+  small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all
+  expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed a
+  _tour_ or revolving box (_Drehcylinder_ in Germany) to be kept at each
+  hospital. These have been discontinued. The "Assistance Publique" of
+  Paris is managed by a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the
+  interior, and associated with a representative _conseil de
+  surveillance_. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistés contains about
+  700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities for the
+  adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible here to give
+  even a sketch of the long and able controversies which have occurred
+  in France on the principles of management of foundling hospitals, the
+  advantages of _tours_ and the system of admission _à bureau ouvert_,
+  the transfer of orphans from one department to another, the hygiene
+  and service of hospitals and the inspection of nurses, the education
+  and reclamation of the children and the rights of the state in their
+  future. Reference may be made to the works noticed at the end of this
+  article.
+
+  _Belgium._--In this country the arrangements for the relief of
+  foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very
+  much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described
+  apart from the general questions of local government and poor law
+  administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are
+  purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance
+  from both the departments and the state. A decree of 1811 directed
+  that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in
+  every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in
+  1860. (See _Des Institutions de bienfaisance et de prévoyance en
+  Belgique_, 1850 à 1860, par M.P. Lentz.)
+
+  _Italy_ is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans
+  and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See
+  _Della carità preventiva in Italia_, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one
+  branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola
+  Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time of
+  Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual number
+  of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See _The Charitable
+  Institutions of Rome_, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa
+  degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving
+  450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The
+  splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the
+  support of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carità" acting
+  through 30 parish boards (_deputazione fraternate_).
+
+  _Austria._--In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent
+  place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of
+  April 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment
+  commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were
+  declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported by
+  the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October 1860
+  handed them over to the provincial committees. They are now local
+  institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate
+  from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is gratuitous
+  when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a
+  criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four
+  months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate
+  from the parish priest and "poor-father" (the parish inspector of the
+  poor-law administration) that she has no money. In other cases
+  payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child
+  is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighbourhood of
+  respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or
+  the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a
+  special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly
+  diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14
+  days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child
+  in their service or employment till the age of twenty-two, but the
+  true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the
+  asylum and compensating the foster-parents.
+
+  _Russia._--Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were
+  received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state.
+  But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been
+  in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity (prykaz
+  obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions
+  (Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch at
+  Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought the
+  baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child
+  may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child.
+  After the usual period of six years in the country very great care is
+  taken with the education, especially of the more promising children.
+  The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the public service.
+  Malthus (_The Principles of Population_, vol. i. p. 434) has made a
+  violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they
+  discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best
+  management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An
+  occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price
+  if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most
+  useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It
+  does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is
+  comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of
+  parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the
+  government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in
+  1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gourov.
+  See his _Recherches sur les enfants trouvés_, and _Essai sur
+  l'histoire des enfants trouvés_ (Paris, 1829).
+
+  In _America_, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private
+  charities, exist in most of the large cities.
+
+  _Great Britain._--The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated by
+  royal charter in 1739 "for the maintenance and education of exposed
+  and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram,
+  who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,[3] states as
+  its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable
+  children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of
+  exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no
+  questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing mark
+  was put on each child by the parent. These were often marked coins,
+  trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of
+  paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully recorded. One entry is,
+  "Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too
+  numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white and black balls
+  was adopted. In 1756 the House of Commons came to a resolution that
+  all children offered should be received, that local receiving places
+  should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be
+  publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the
+  hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two to twelve
+  months, and a flood of children poured in from the country workhouses.
+  In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile
+  trade grew up among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the
+  country to the hospital,--an undertaking which, like the French
+  _meneurs_, they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty.
+  Of these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total
+  expense was about £500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. After
+  throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by
+  fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the
+  conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued.
+  The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a
+  pernicious system of receiving children with considerable sums (e.g.
+  £100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the
+  parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it is now a fundamental
+  rule that no money is received. The committee of inquiry must now be
+  satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the
+  mother, and that the father of the child has deserted it and the
+  mother, and that the reception of the child will probably replace the
+  mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood.
+  All the children at the Foundling hospital are those of unmarried
+  women, and they are all first children of their mothers. The principle
+  is in fact that laid down by Fielding in _Tom Jones_--"Too true I am
+  afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to
+  the last degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip."
+  At present the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of
+  fifteen. The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of
+  admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named after the
+  patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a list. Children
+  are seldom taken after they are twelve months old. On reception they
+  are sent down to the country, where they stay until they are about
+  four or five years old. At sixteen the girls are generally apprenticed
+  as servants for four years, and the boys at the age of fourteen as
+  mechanics for seven years. There is a small benevolent fund for
+  adults. The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind
+  children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel, who
+  frequently had the "Messiah" performed there, and who bequeathed to
+  the hospital a MS. copy (full score) of his greatest oratorio. The
+  altar-piece is West's picture of Christ presenting a little Child. In
+  1774 Dr Burney and Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to
+  form in connexion with the hospital a public music school, in
+  imitation of the Conservatorium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a
+  successful "Juvenile Band" was started. The educational effects of
+  music have been found excellent, and the hospital supplies many
+  musicians to the best army and navy bands. The early connexion between
+  the hospital and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is
+  one of extreme interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling,
+  which were organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the
+  formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of
+  Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to
+  Finchley, and Roubillac's bust of Handel. (See _History and Objects of
+  the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder_, by J. Brownlow.)
+
+  In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No inquiry was
+  made about the parents, and no money received. From 1500 to 2000
+  children were received annually. A large income was derived from a
+  duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In 1822 an admission fee
+  of £5 was charged on the parish from which the child came. This
+  reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. In 1829 the select committee
+  on the Irish miscellaneous estimates recommended that no further
+  assistance should be given. The hospital had not preserved life or
+  educated the foundlings. The mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the
+  total cost £10,000 a year. Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then
+  Irish Secretary) closed the institution.
+
+  Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In 1759
+  John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious and
+  charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the establishment
+  of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and taking care of their
+  children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament in 1822, which
+  sets forth "doubts as to the propriety" of the original purpose, the
+  money was given to trustees to erect a hospital for the maintenance
+  and education of destitute children.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouvés_ by
+  MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent
+  medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the
+  foundling hospital); Remacle, _Des hospices d'enfants trouvés en
+  Europe_ (Paris, 1838); Hügel _Die Findelhäuser und das Findelwesen
+  Europas_ (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, "Das Armenwesen und die
+  Armengesetzgebung," in _Europäischen Staaten_ (Berlin, 1870);
+  Sennichon, _Histoire des enfants abandonnés_ (Paris, 1880); the annual
+  _Rapport sur le service des enfants assistés du département de la
+  Seine_; Epstein, _Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten_ (Prague,
+  1882); Florence D. Hill, _Children of the State_ (2nd ed., 1889). For
+  United States, see H. Folks, _Care of Neglected and Dependent
+  Children_ (1901); A.G. Warner, _American Charities_ (enlarged, 1908)
+  and _Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Charities_. Information
+  may also be got in the _Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries_,
+  communicated to the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary;
+  _Accounts and Papers_ (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; _Report of Committee
+  on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1890); _Report of Lords Committee
+  on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1896). (See also CHARITY AND
+  CHARITIES.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Capitularia regum Francorum_, ii. 474.
+
+  [2] _De l'administration des finances_, iii. 136; see also the
+    article "Enfant exposé" in Diderot's _Encyclopédie_, 1755, and
+    Chamousset's _Mémoire politique sur les enfants,_ 1757.
+
+  [3] Addison had suggested such a charity (_Guardian_, No. 3).
+
+
+
+
+FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. _fontana_, from _fons_, a spring), a term applied in
+a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether fed by natural
+or artificial means, have contrivances of human art at a point where the
+water emerges. A very early existing example is preserved in the carved
+Babylonian basin (about 3000 B.C.) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash,
+and Layard mentions an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the
+river Gomel, which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock
+and descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally led
+from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which was
+ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is applied equally
+to the simpler arrangements for letting water gush into an ornamental
+basin or to the more elaborate ones by which water is mechanically
+forced into high jets; and a "fountain" may be either the ornamental
+receptacle or the jet of water itself. In modern times the examples of
+ornamental or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to
+mention some of the more important facts of historical interest.
+
+Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities. Springs being
+very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill was required to
+convey the water from place to place. Receptacles of sufficient size
+were made for it at the springs; and to maintain its purity, structures
+were raised enclosing and covering the receptacle. In Greece they were
+dedicated to gods and goddesses, nymphs and heroes, and were frequently
+placed in or near temples. That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by
+Herodotus) was formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells
+from which the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects
+it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when bewailing
+her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was changed into a
+fountain. The city of Corinth possessed many fountains. In one near the
+statues of Diana and Bellerophon the water flowed through the hoofs of
+the horse Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was
+dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown herself into it
+believing that its waters could counteract the poisons of Medea. Another
+Corinthian fountain had a bronze statue of Poseidon standing on a
+dolphin from which the water flowed. The fountain constructed by
+Theagenes at Megara was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for
+the number of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and
+the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool summer
+retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo, and in it a
+fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite architectural detail when
+he says that a fountain at Patrae was reached from without by descending
+steps. Mystical, medicinal, surgical and other qualities, as well as
+supernatural origin, were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia
+was said to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into
+it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the legends of
+fountains and other waters with strange powers to heal are numerous in
+many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus at Athens was called Callirrhoe
+before the time the water was drawn from it by the nine pipes from which
+it took its later name. Two temples were above it, according to
+Pausanias, one dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to
+Triptolemus. The fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was
+supplied by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that
+in the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.
+
+The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were on a scale
+to be expected from a people of such great practical power. The remains
+of the aqueducts which stretched from the city across the Campagna are
+amongst the most striking monuments of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.)
+gives minute particulars concerning the methods to be employed for the
+discovery, testing and distribution of water, and describes the
+properties of different waters with great care, proving the importance
+which was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts
+supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last all the
+populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate pipe to
+their houses, obtained their water. These fountains were therefore of
+large size and numerous. They were formed at many of the _castella_ of
+the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius, each _castellum_ should have
+three pipes,--one for public fountains, one for baths and the third for
+private houses. Considerable revenue was drawn from the possessors of
+private water-pipes. The Roman fountains were generally decorated with
+figures and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman
+villas and country houses; in those so situated the water generally
+ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a second
+fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses in Pompeii had
+very remarkable fountains. One, says Gell, "is covered with a sort of
+mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae of different colours, but in
+which blue predominates. These are sometimes arranged in not inelegant
+patterns, and the grand divisions as well as the borders are entirely
+formed and ornamented with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat
+of the eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries"
+(_Pompeiana_, i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated
+with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured
+figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples. This
+fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is placed,
+and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure up to the
+eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column in the piscina
+was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth of which water
+issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a fountain which was
+decorated with marine shells.
+
+Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the crossways in
+Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes from the reservoirs, and had
+little ornament except a human or animal head, from the mouth of which
+it was arranged that the water should issue. Not only did simple running
+fountains exist, but the remains of _jets d'eau_ have been found; and a
+drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water, standing
+on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been the impluvium of a
+house. There was also a _jet d'eau_ at the eastern end of the peristyle
+of the Fullonica at Pompeii.
+
+As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of superstitious
+beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be traced in
+monumental and legendary remains. Near the village of Primaleon in
+Brittany was a very remarkable monument,--one possibly unique, as giving
+distinct proof of the existence of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is
+a dolmen composed of a horizontal table supported by two stones only,
+one at each end. All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long
+square basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of
+water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of fountains.
+Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon which it is built,
+is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an ancient chapel, which
+with its ivy-covered walls has a most romantic appearance. A Gothic
+vault protects this fountain. Miraculous virtues are still attributed to
+its water, and on certain days the country people still come with
+offerings to draw it (see La Poix de Freminville, _Antiquités de la
+Bretagne_, i. p. 101). In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous
+from its connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was
+said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water from it, and
+sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous storm of thunder
+and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.
+
+Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious feeling
+concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints were erected
+upon the rude structures that collected the water and preserved its
+purity. There is some uniformity in the architectural characteristics of
+these structures during the middle ages. A very common form in rural
+districts was that in which the fountain was reached by descending steps
+(_fontaine grotte_). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a
+spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered by a
+sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and sculptured
+figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain at Poitiers is a
+fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert, which though restored in
+1597 was originally a structure of the 14th century. This kind of
+fountain is frequently decorated with figures of the Virgin or of
+saints, or with the family arms of its founder; often, too, the water is
+the only ornament of the structure, which bears a simple inscription. A
+large number of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed
+throughout France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved by
+the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst the
+peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was that of a large
+open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in form, with a columnar
+structure at the centre, from the lower part of which it was arranged
+that spouts should issue, playing into an open basin, and supplying
+vessels brought for the purpose in the cleanest and quickest manner. The
+columns take very various forms, from that of a simple regular
+geometrical solid, with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of
+an elaborate and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins,
+saints and warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At
+Provins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which is in
+form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre, the capital of
+which is pierced by three mouths, which are furnished with heads of
+bronze projecting far enough to cast the water into the basin. In the
+public market-place at Brunswick is a fountain of the 15th century, of
+which the central structure is made of bronze. Many fountains are still
+existing in France and Germany which, though their actual present
+structure may date no earlier than the 15th or 16th century, have been
+found on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as
+restorations of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains
+are of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are at the
+abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another, of granite, is at
+Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains are simple, open reservoirs
+enclosed in structures which, however plain, still carry the charm that
+belongs to the stone-work of those times. There is one of this kind at
+Cully, Calvados, walled on three sides, and fed from the spring by two
+circular openings. Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with
+mouldings. At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front
+of the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular plan,
+which bears a statue of Neptune.
+
+The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown by the
+fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing Mount Parnassus,
+upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the horse Pegasus, Philosophy
+and the Nine Muses. At the top Apollo, in the 16th-century costume,
+plays a harp. Rocks, grass and sheep fill up the scene.
+
+Purely ornamental fountains and _jets d'eau_ are found in or near many
+large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The celebrated Fontana di
+Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the 18th century under Pope Clement
+XII., and has all the characteristics of decadence. La Fontana Paolina
+and those in the piazza of St Peter's are perhaps next in celebrity to
+that of Trevi, and are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine
+des Innocens (the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs
+Elysées and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The
+fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace are,
+with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The largest _jets
+d'eau_ are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham Crystal Palace and at
+San Ildefonso.
+
+About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England occurs in
+Moxon's _Tutor to Astronomie and Geographie_ (1659); it is "surmounted
+by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak, and set upon a composite
+column at Leadenhall corner, in the majoralty of Sir John Dethick,
+Knight." The water springs from the top and base of the column, which
+stands upon a square pedestal and bears four female figures, one at
+least of which represents the costume of the period.
+
+In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important
+institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These "sebeels" are
+not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful in the fields and
+villages.
+
+The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has done much to
+provide facilities in London for both man and beast to get water to
+drink in the streets. And in the United States liberal provision has
+also been made by private and public enterprise.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNTAINS ABBEY, one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical ruins in
+England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river Skell, 3 m. S.W.
+of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation is most beautiful. The
+little Skell descends from the uplands of Pateley Moor to the west a
+clear swift stream, traversing a valley clothed with woods, conspicuous
+among which are some ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the
+monks who first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale.
+Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise the
+picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately tower, and
+the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which enable the great abbey
+to be almost completely reconstructed in the mind. The arrangements are
+typical of a Cistercian house (see ABBEY). Building began in earnest
+about 1135, and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th
+century, after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby's tower
+(c. 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of Ripon) contains the
+ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal Dutch style, the work of
+John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the early part of the 18th century.
+Near the abbey is the picturesque Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.
+
+In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary's abbey, York, being
+dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the monastery and
+with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of York, founded a house in
+the valley of the Skell, where they adopted the Cistercian rule. While
+building their monastery the monks are said to have lived at first under
+an elm and then under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two
+years later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter's, York, who
+brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection of
+books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St Mary's abbey,
+York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others. Henry I. and succeeding
+sovereigns granted them many privileges. During the reign of Edward I.
+the monks appear to have again suffered from poverty, partly no doubt
+owing to the invasion of the Scots, but partly also through their own
+"misconduct and extravagance." On account of this Edward I. in 1291
+appointed John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay
+their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough for
+their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them exemption from
+taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold the manor and site of the
+monastery to Sir Richard Gresham, and from him after passing through
+several families it came to the marquess of Ripon.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; Dugdale, _Monasticon_;
+  Surtees Society, _Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains_,
+  collected and edited by J.R. Walbran (1863-78).
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ (1828-1904), French geologist and petrologist,
+was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on the 21st of June 1828. At
+the age of twenty-one he entered the _École Normale_ in Paris, and from
+1853 to 1858 he held the appointment of keeper of the scientific
+collections. In 1877 he became professor of natural history at the
+_Collège de France_, in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of
+the Academy of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much
+assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course of time
+he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic phenomena and
+earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was the first to introduce
+modern petrographical methods into France. His studies of the eruptive
+rocks of Corsica, Santorin and elsewhere; his researches on the
+artificial reproduction of eruptive rocks, and his treatise on the
+optical characters of felspars deserve special mention; but he was
+perhaps best known for the joint work which he carried on with his
+friend Michel Lévy. He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief
+publications were: _Santorin et ses éruptions_, 1879; (with A. Michel
+Lévy) _Minéralogie micrographique, Roches éruptives françaises_ (2
+vols., 1879); and _Synthèse des minéraux et des roches_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE, BARON (1777-1843), German
+writer of the romantic movement, was born on the 12th of February 1777
+at Brandenburg. His grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great's
+generals and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally
+intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué ultimately
+gave up his university studies at Halle to join the army, and he took
+part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest of his life was devoted
+mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many of the younger romanticists,
+Fouqué owed his introduction to literature to A.W. Schlegel, who
+published his first book, _Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin_ in 1804.
+His next work, _Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval_ (1805), showed more plainly
+his allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the _Historie vom edlen
+Ritter Galmy_ (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of medieval
+chivalry. _Sigurd der Schlangentöter, ein Heldenspiel_ (1808), the first
+modern German dramatization of the _Nibelungen_ saga, attracted
+attention to him, and influenced considerably subsequent versions of the
+story, such as Hebbel's _Nibelungen_ and Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_.
+These early writings indicate the lines which Fouqué's subsequent
+literary activity followed; his interests were divided between medieval
+chivalry on the one hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813,
+the year of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the
+Prussian army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people left
+its mark upon his writings.
+
+Between 1810 and 1815 Fouqué's popularity was at its height; the many
+romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned out with
+extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood of the hour. The
+earliest of these are the best--_Undine_, which appeared in 1811, being,
+indeed, one of the most charming of all German _Märchen_ and the only
+work by which Fouqué's memory still lives to-day. A more comprehensive
+idea of his powers may, however, be obtained from the two romances _Der
+Zauberring_ (1813) and _Die Fahrten Thiodulfs des Isländers_ (1815).
+From 1820 onwards the quality of Fouqué's work rapidly degenerated,
+partly owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his
+inability to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained the
+belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to new interests,
+clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia of romanticism; but in
+the cold, sober light of the post-romantic age, these appeared merely
+flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing imaginative power of his early
+years deserted him, and the sobriquet of a "Don Quixote of Romanticism"
+which his enemies applied to him was not unjustified.
+
+Fouqué's first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended in divorce. His
+second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831) enjoyed some reputation as
+a novelist in her day. After her death Fouqué married a third time. Some
+consolation for the ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by
+the munificence of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a
+pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort. He died
+in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.
+
+  Fouqué's _Ausgewählte Werke_, edited by himself, appeared in 12 vols.
+  (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found in
+  Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. 146, part ii.
+  (Stuttgart, 1893); _Undine_, _Sintram_, &c., in innumerable reprints.
+  Bibliography in Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouqué's
+  works have been translated, and the English versions of _Aslauga's
+  Knight_ (by Carlyle), _Sintram and his Companions_ and _Undine_, have
+  been frequently republished. For Fouqué's life cp. _Lebensgeschichte
+  des Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn
+  selbst_ (Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the
+  introduction to Koch's selections in the _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.
+       (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUET (or FOUCQUET), NICOLAS (1615-1680), viscount of Melun and of
+Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of finance in France under
+Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615. He belonged to an influential
+family of the _noblesse de la robe_, and after some preliminary
+schooling with the Jesuits, at the age of thirteen was admitted as
+_avocat_ at the parlement of Paris. While still in his teens he held
+several responsible posts, and in 1636, when just twenty, he was able to
+buy the post of _maître des requêtes_. From 1642 to 1650 he held various
+intendancies at first in the provinces and then with the army of
+Mazarin, and, coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650
+to buy the important position of _procureur général_ to the parlement of
+Paris. During Mazarin's exile Fouquet shrewdly remained loyal to him,
+protecting his property and keeping him informed of the situation at
+court.
+
+Upon the cardinal's return, Fouquet demanded and received as reward the
+office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a position which, in
+the unsettled condition of the government, threw into his hands not
+merely the decision as to which funds should be applied to meet the
+demands of the state's creditors, but also the negotiations with the
+great financiers who lent money to the king. The appointment was a
+popular one with the moneyed class, for Fouquet's great wealth had been
+largely augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille, who
+also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His own credit,
+and above all his unfailing confidence in himself, strengthened the
+credit of the government, while his high position at the parlement (he
+still remained _procureur général_) secured financial transactions from
+investigation. As minister of finance, he soon had Mazarin almost in the
+position of a suppliant. The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers,
+who followed the example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for
+Fouquet to meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit,
+but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own to
+good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless; fraudulent
+operations were entered into with impunity, and the financiers were kept
+in the position of clients by official favours and by generous aid
+whenever they needed it. Fouquet's fortune now surpassed even Mazarin's,
+but the latter was too deeply implicated in similar operations to
+interfere, and was obliged to leave the day of reckoning to his agent
+and successor Colbert. Upon Mazarin's death Fouquet expected to be made
+head of the government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his poorly
+dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he made the
+well-known statement, upon assuming the government, that he would be his
+own chief minister. Colbert fed the king's displeasure with adverse
+reports upon the deficit, and made the worst of the case against
+Fouquet. The extravagant expenditure and personal display of the
+superintendent served to intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had
+bought the port of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with
+a view to taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous
+sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent,
+magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of Versailles.
+Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest paintings, jewels
+and antiques in profusion, and above all surrounded himself with artists
+and authors. The table was open to all people of quality, and the
+kitchen was presided over by Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were
+among the multitude of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already
+set upon his destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a _fête_ rivalled
+in magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which Molière's
+_Les Fâcheux_ was produced for the first time. The splendour of the
+entertainment sealed Fouquet's fate. The king, however, was afraid to
+act openly against so powerful a minister. By crafty devices Fouquet was
+induced to sell his office of _procureur général_, thus losing the
+protection of its privileges, and he paid the price of it into the
+treasury.
+
+Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to Nantes, taking
+Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he was leaving the presence
+chamber, flattered with the assurance of his esteem. The trial lasted
+almost three years, and its violation of the forms of justice is still
+the subject of frequent monographs by members of the French bar. Public
+sympathy was strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sévigné
+and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was sentenced to
+banishment, the king, disappointed, "commuted" the sentence to
+imprisonment for life. He was sent at the beginning of 1665 to the
+fortress of Pignerol, where he undoubtedly died on the 23rd of March
+1680.[1] Louis acted throughout "as though he were conducting a
+campaign," evidently fearing that Fouquet would play the part of a
+Richelieu. Fouquet bore himself with manly fortitude, and composed
+several mediocre translations in prison. The devotional works bearing
+his name are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland,
+in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances which Colbert
+addressed to the States-General. A second edition under the title of
+_Oeuvres de M. Fouquet_ appeared in 1696.
+
+  See Chéruel, _Mémoires sur la vie publique et privée de Fouquet...
+  d'après ses lettres et des pièces inédites_ (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J.
+  Lair, _Nicolas Foucquet, procureur général, surintendant des finances,
+  ministre d'État de Louis XIV_ (2 vols., Paris, 1890); U.V. Châtelain,
+  _Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et
+  des sciences_ (Paris, 1905); R. Pfnor et A. France, _Le Château de
+  Vaux-le-Vicomte dessiné et gravé_ (Paris, 1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Fouquet has been identified with the "Man with the Iron Mask"
+    (see IRON MASK), but this theory is quite impossible.
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN (1746-1795), French revolutionist,
+was born at Hérouel, a village in the department of the Aisne.
+Originally a _procureur_ attached to the Châtelet at Paris, he sold his
+office in 1783, and became a clerk under the lieutenant-general of
+police. He seems to have early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little
+is known of the part he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When
+the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March
+1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which he
+filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this time earned
+him the reputation of one of the most terrible and sinister figures of
+the Revolution. His function as public prosecutor was not so much to
+convict the guilty as to see that the proscriptions ordered by the
+faction for the time being in power were carried out with a due regard
+to a show of legality. He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as
+Robespierre himself; he could be moved from his purpose neither by pity
+nor by bribes; nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which
+made the ordinary Jacobin _enragé_ by turns ferocious and sentimental.
+It was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him so
+effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic eloquence; but
+the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his charges was more convincing
+than any rhetoric, and he seldom failed to secure a conviction.
+
+His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the
+terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the 1st of August 1794 he was
+imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial. His defence
+was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Committee of Public
+Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one days, he was condemned
+to death, and guillotined on the 7th of May 1795.
+
+  See _Mémoire pour A.Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public près le tribunal
+  révolutionnaire_, &c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, _Fouquier-Tinville et
+  le tribunal révolutionnaire_ (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon, _Histoire du
+  tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris_ (1880-1882) (a work of general
+  interest, but not always exact); George Lecocq, _Notes et documents
+  sur Fouquier-Tinville_ (Paris, 1885). See also the documents relating
+  to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in _Bibliographie de l'histoire
+  de Paris pendant la Révolution Française_, vol. i. Nos. 4445-4454
+  (1890).
+
+
+
+
+FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of Nièvre, on
+the right bank of the Loire, 4½ m. N.W. of Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes its importance to its extensive
+iron-works, established in 1821, which give employment to 2000 workmen
+and produce engineering material for railway, military and other
+purposes. Among the more remarkable _chefs-d'oeuvre_ which have been
+produced at Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du
+Carrousel, the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and
+the vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small canal
+unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.
+
+
+
+
+FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS, COMTE DE (1755-1809), French chemist, the
+son of an apothecary in the household of the duke of Orleans, was born
+at Paris on the 15th of June 1755. He took up medical studies by the
+advice of the anatomist Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794), and after many
+difficulties caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his
+doctor's diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by
+J.B.M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the Medical
+School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed P.J. Macquer
+(1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college of the Jardin du
+Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity. He was one of the
+earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier, which he helped to
+promulgate by his voluminous writings, but though his name appears on a
+large number of chemical and also physiological and pathological
+memoirs, either alone or with others, he was rather a teacher and an
+organizer than an original investigator. A member of the committees for
+public instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon,
+director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the
+establishment of schools for both primary and secondary education,
+scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy died at Paris
+on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on which he had been created
+a count of the French empire. By his conduct as a member of the
+Convention he has been accused of contributing to the death of
+Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his _Éloge historique_ of Fourcroy repels the
+charge, but he can scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference,
+if indeed active, though secret, participation be not proved against
+him.
+
+  The Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 59
+  memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and others,
+  mostly L.N. Vauquelin.
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837), French socialist writer,
+was born at Besançon in Franche-Comté on the 7th of April 1772. His
+father was a draper in good circumstances, and Fourier received an
+excellent education at the college in his native town. After completing
+his studies there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and
+Holland. On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount
+of property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged by the
+troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his means of livelihood
+Fourier entered the army, but after two years' service as a chasseur was
+discharged on account of ill-health. In 1803 he published a remarkable
+article on European politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon,
+some of whose ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after
+the author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving the
+army Fourier entered a merchant's office in Lyons, and some years later
+undertook on his own account a small business as broker. He obtained in
+this way just sufficient to supply his wants, and devoted all his
+leisure time to the elaboration of his first work on the organization of
+society.
+
+During the early part of his life, and while engaged in commerce, he had
+become deeply impressed with the conviction that social arrangements
+resulting from the principles of individualism and competition were
+essentially imperfect and immoral. He proposed to substitute for these
+principles co-operation or united effort, by means of which full and
+harmonious development might be given to human nature. The scheme,
+worked out in detail in his first work, _Théorie des quatre mouvements_
+(2 vols., Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a
+particular psychological proposition and a special economical doctrine.
+Psychologically Fourier held what may with some laxity of language be
+called natural optimism,--the view that the full, free development of
+human nature or the unrestrained indulgence of human passion is the only
+possible way to happiness and virtue, and that misery and vice spring
+from the unnatural restraints imposed by society on the gratification of
+desire. This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his
+grandest discovery--a discovery which did more than set him on a level
+with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction or harmony
+among material bodies. Throughout his works, in uncouth, obscure and
+often unintelligible language, he endeavours to show that the same
+fundamental fact of harmony is to be found in the four great
+departments,--society, animal life, organic life and the material
+universe. In order to give effect to this principle and obtain the
+resulting social harmony, it was needful that society should be
+reconstructed; for, as the social organism is at present constituted,
+innumerable restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human
+desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier
+advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects what he says
+of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous waste of economic
+force which the actual arrangements of society entail, still deserves
+attention, and some of the most recent efforts towards extension of the
+co-operative method, e.g. to house-keeping, were in essentials
+anticipated by him. But the full realization of his scheme demanded much
+more than the mere admission that co-operation is economically more
+efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be organized on
+the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation and to the
+harmonious evolution of human nature. The details of this reorganization
+of the social structure cannot be given briefly, but the broad outlines
+may be thus sketched. Society, on his scheme, is to be divided into
+departments or _phalanges_, each _phalange_ numbering about 1600
+persons. Each _phalange_ inhabits a _phalanstère_ or common building,
+and has a certain portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The
+_phalanstères_ are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic
+arrangements are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the
+_phalanges_ is, of course, agriculture, but the various _series_ and
+_groupes_ into which the members are divided may devote themselves to
+such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need any occupation
+become irksome from constant devotion to it. Any member of a group may
+vary his employment at pleasure, may pass from one task to another. The
+tasks regarded as menial or degrading in ordinary society can be
+rendered attractive if advantage is taken of the proper principles of
+human nature: thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a
+fondness for "cleaning up," may easily be induced to accept with
+eagerness the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier's
+scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished, nor is the
+privacy of family life impossible within the _phalanstère_. Each family
+may have separate apartments, and there may be richer and poorer
+members. But the rich and poor are to be locally intermingled, in order
+that the broad distinction between them, which is so painful a feature
+in actual society, may become almost imperceptible. Out of the common
+gain of the _phalange_ a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each
+member the minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in
+shares to labour, capital and talent,--five-twelfths going to the first,
+four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third. Upon the
+changes requisite in the private life of the members Fourier was in his
+first work more explicit than in his later writings. The institution of
+marriage, which imposes unnatural bonds on human passion, is of
+necessity abolished; a new and ingeniously constructed system of licence
+is substituted for it. Considerable offence seems to have been given by
+Fourier's utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later
+advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in silence or
+to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical language.
+
+The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the _Théorie_ first
+appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in his obscure position at
+Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother put him in possession of a small
+sum of money, with which he retired to Bellay in order to perfect his
+second work. The _Traité de l'association agricole domestique_ was
+published in 2 vols. at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the
+following year. After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in
+the hope that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the
+realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this expectation he
+returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited Paris, and as a considerable
+portion of his means had been expended in the publication of his book,
+he accepted a clerkship in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared
+what is probably the most finished exposition of his views, _Le Nouveau
+Monde industriel_. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doctrines of
+Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work _Pièges et charlatanisme de deux
+sectes, St Simon et Owen_. His writings now began to attract some
+attention. A small body of adherents gathered round him, and the most
+ardent of them was Victor Considérant (q.v.). In 1832 a newspaper, _Le
+Phalanstère ou la réforme industrielle_ was started to propagate the
+views of the school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined
+from a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was
+revived in 1836 as _Le Phalange_, and in 1843 became a daily paper, _La
+Démocratie pacifique_. In 1850 it was suppressed.
+
+Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and the only
+practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a _phalanstère_ was a
+complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary, deputy for Seine-et-Oise,
+who had become a convert, purchased an estate at Condé-sur-Vesgre, near
+the forest of Rambouillet, and proceeded to establish a socialist
+community. The capital supplied was, however, inadequate, and the
+community broke up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this
+failure, and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, he lived in
+daily expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his
+scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization. It
+may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the _phalanstère_
+have been uniformly unsuccessful.[1]
+
+Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensitive
+disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed, as if he
+were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true nature of social
+arrangements, and of the manner in which they naturally grow and become
+organized, he must be pronounced extremely ignorant. The faults of
+existing institutions presented themselves to him in an altogether
+distorted manner, and he never appears to have recognized that the evils
+of actual society are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of
+his arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed
+harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically
+disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even more
+irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard to the
+economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course to be
+granted that co-operation is more effective than individual effort, but
+he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable consequences of
+organizing society on the abolition of those great institutions which
+have grown with its growth. His temperament was too ardent, his
+imagination too strong, and his acquaintance with the realities of life
+too slight to enable him justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic
+views. That this description of him is not expressed in over-strong
+language must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in
+his works,--and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar discovery
+of Fourier's,--but who takes into account the whole body of his
+speculations, the cosmological and historical as well as the economical
+and social. No words can adequately describe the fantastic nonsense
+which he pours forth, partly in the form of general speculation on the
+universe, partly in the form of prophetic utterances with regard to the
+future changes in humanity and its material environment. From these
+extraordinary writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much
+of insanity in Fourier's mental constitution.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ch. Pellarin, _Fourier, sa vie et sa théorie_ (5th ed.,
+  1872); Sargant, _Social Innovators_ (1859); Reybaud, _Réformateurs
+  modernes_ (7th ed., 1864); Stein, _Socialismus und Communismus des
+  heutigen Frankreichs_ (2nd ed., 1848); A.J. Booth, _Fortnightly
+  Review_, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynski, _Notice bibliographique sur C.
+  Fourier_ (1841); Ferraz, _Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le
+  positivisme_ (1877); Considérant, _Exposition abrégée du système de
+  Fourier_ (1845); Transon, _Théorie sociétaire de Charles Fourier_
+  (1832); Stein, _Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_
+  (1850); Marlo, _Untersuchungen über die Organisation der Arbeit_
+  (1853); J.H. Noyes, _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Bebel,
+  _Charles Fourier_ (1888); Varschauer, _Geschichte des Sozialismus und
+  Kommunismus im 19. Jahrhundert_ (1903); Sambuc, _Le Socialisme de
+  Fourier_ (1900); M. Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United
+  States_ (1903); H. Bourgin, _Fourier, contribution à l'étude de
+  socialisme français_ (1905).     (R. Ad.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Several experiments were made to this end in the United States
+    (see COMMUNISM) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines
+    were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in the
+    years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement waxed and
+    waned, no fewer than forty-one _phalanges_ were founded, of which
+    some definite record can be found. The most interesting of all the
+    experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from the fact
+    that it attracted the support of many of the most intellectual and
+    cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830), French mathematician, was
+born at Auxerre on the 21st of March 1768. He was the son of a tailor,
+and was left an orphan in his eighth year; but, through the kindness of
+a friend, admission was gained for him into the military school of his
+native town, which was then under the direction of the Benedictines of
+Saint-Maur. He soon distinguished himself as a student and made rapid
+progress, especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army on
+account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed professor
+of mathematics in the school in which he had been a pupil. In 1787 he
+became a novice at the abbey of St Benoît-sur-Loire; but he left the
+abbey in 1789 and returned to his college, where, in addition to his
+mathematical duties, he was frequently called to lecture on other
+subjects,--rhetoric, philosophy and history. On the institution of the
+École Normale at Paris in 1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was
+afterwards attached to the École Polytechnique, where he occupied the
+chair of analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied
+Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he was called to
+discharge important political duties in addition to his scientific ones.
+He was for a time virtually governor of half Egypt, and for three years
+was secretary of the Institut du Caire; he also delivered the funeral
+orations for Kléber and Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in
+the following year he was nominated prefect of Isère, and was created
+baron and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important part
+in the preparation of the famous _Description de l'Égypte_ and wrote the
+historical introduction. He held his prefecture for fourteen years; and
+it was during this period that he carried on his elaborate and fruitful
+investigations on the conduction of heat. On the return of Napoleon from
+Elba, in 1815, Fourier published a royalist proclamation, and left
+Grenoble as Napoleon entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture,
+and, although immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after
+again deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Académie des
+Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of Louis XVIII.
+was not admitted till the following year, when he succeeded the Abbé
+Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made perpetual secretary in conjunction
+with Cuvier, in succession to Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member
+of the French Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the
+council of the École Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a member of the
+government commission established for the encouragement of literature.
+He died at Paris on the 16th of May 1830.
+
+As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his fame chiefly
+rests on his strikingly original contributions to science and
+mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his attention quite early, and
+in 1812 he obtained a prize offered by the Académie des Sciences with a
+memoir in two parts, _Théorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les
+corps solides_. The first part was republished in 1822 as _La Théorie
+analytique de la chaleur_, which by its new methods and great results
+made an epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science (see
+below: FOURIER'S SERIES). An English translation has been published by
+A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884).
+His mathematical researches were also concerned with the theory of
+equations, but the question as to his priority on several points has
+been keenly discussed. After his death Navier completed and published
+Fourier's unfinished work, _Analyse des équations indéterminées_ (1831),
+which contains much original matter. In addition to the works above
+mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on scientific subjects, and
+_éloges_ of distinguished men of science. His works have been collected
+and edited by Gaston Darboux with the title _Oeuvres de Fourier_ (Paris,
+1889-1890).
+
+  For a list of Fourier's publications see the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society of London_. Reference may also be made to
+  Arago, "Joseph Fourier," in the _Smithsonian Report_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER'S SERIES, in mathematics, those series which proceed according
+to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable, the various multiples
+being in the ratio of the natural numbers; they are used for the
+representation of a function of the variable for values of the variable
+which lie between prescribed finite limits. Although the importance of
+such series, especially in the theory of vibrations, had been recognized
+by D. Bernoulli, Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some
+discussion of their properties, J.B.J. Fourier (see above) was the first
+clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions which the
+series can represent, and to make any serious attempt to prove the
+validity of such representation; the series are consequently usually
+associated with the name of Fourier. More general cases of
+trigonometrical series, in which the multiples are given as the roots of
+certain transcendental equations, were also considered by Fourier.
+
+  Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of series
+  to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision what is
+  to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary function by an
+  infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x to be arbitrarily
+  given for values of x between two fixed values a and b; this means
+  that, corresponding to every value of x such that a <= x <= b, a
+  definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned by means of
+  some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined may be denoted by
+  [f](x); the rules by which the values of the function are determined
+  may be embodied in a single explicit analytical formula, or in several
+  such formulae applicable to different portions of the interval, but it
+  would be an undue restriction of the nature of an arbitrarily given
+  function to assume _à priori_ that it is necessarily given in this
+  manner, the possibility of the representation of such a function by
+  means of a single analytical expression being the very point which we
+  have to discuss. The variable x may be represented by a point at the
+  extremity of an interval measured along a straight line from a fixed
+  origin; thus we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value
+  x = c of the variable, and of [f](c) as the value of the function
+  assigned to the point c. For any number of points between a and b the
+  function may be discontinuous, i.e. it may at such points undergo
+  abrupt changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of
+  such points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will
+  be those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity
+  exists at the point c if [f](c + [epsilon]), [f](c - [epsilon]) have
+  distinct but definite limiting values as [epsilon] is indefinitely
+  diminished; these limiting values are known as the limits on the right
+  and on the left respectively of the function at c, and may be denoted
+  by [f](c + 0), [f](c - 0). The discontinuity consists therefore of a
+  sudden change of value of the function from [f](c - 0) to [f](c + 0),
+  as x increases through the value c. If there is such a discontinuity
+  at the point x = 0, we may denote the limits on the right and on the
+  left respectively by [f](+0), [f](-0).
+
+  Suppose we have an infinite series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... + u_n(x) + ...
+  in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form; let
+  any value x = c(a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the series,
+  and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so obtained
+  approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased; this limit
+  is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of c such that a
+  <= c <= b the sum exists and agrees with the value of [f](c), the
+  series [Sigma] [1 to [oo]] u_n(x) is said to represent the function
+  ([f]x) between the values a, b of the variable. If this is the case
+  for all points within the given interval with the exception of a
+  finite number, at any one of which either the series has no sum, or
+  has a sum which does not agree with the value of the function, the
+  series is said to represent "in general" the function for the given
+  interval. If the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by S_n(c),
+  the condition that S_n(c) converges to the value [f](c) is that,
+  corresponding to any finite positive number [delta] as small as we
+  please, a value n1 of n can be found such that if n >= n_1, |[f](c) -
+  Sn(c)| < [delta].
+
+  Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number of
+  points within the given interval have no definite value, and series
+  have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in the
+  interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees with
+  the value of the function; the narrower conception above will however
+  be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article, reference
+  to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion with the
+  history of the theory of Fourier's Series.
+
+  _Uniform Convergence of Series._--If the series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... +
+  u2(x) + ... converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b,
+  and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite
+  positive number [delta], as small as we please, a finite number n1 can
+  be found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) - S_n(x), where n =>
+  n1 is less than [delta] for every value of x in the given interval,
+  the series is said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may
+  however happen that as x approaches a particular value the number of
+  terms of the series which must be taken so that |S(x) - S_n(x)| may be
+  < [delta], increases indefinitely; the convergence of the series is
+  then infinitely slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the
+  series is not uniformly convergent throughout the given interval,
+  although it converges at each point of the interval. If the number of
+  such points in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to
+  converge uniformly be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals
+  of finite magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and
+  considering the convergence of the series in the given interval with
+  such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now
+  uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is said
+  to be _in general_ uniformly convergent within the given interval a to
+  b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion of a finite
+  number of portions of the interval, each such portion being
+  arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite series of
+  continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in the
+  neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not uniform,
+  but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not necessarily
+  imply discontinuity in the sum.
+
+  _Form of Fourier's Series._--If it be assumed that a function [f](x)
+  arbitrarily given for values of x such that o[<=]x[<=]l is capable of
+  being represented in general by an infinite series of the form
+
+           [pi]x          2[pi]x                 n[pi]x
+    A1 sin ----- + A2 sin ------ + ... + A_n sin ------ + ...,
+             l              l                      l
+
+  and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly
+  convergent throughout the interval 0 to l, the form of the
+  coefficients A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series by
+  sin n[pi]x/l, and integrate the product between the limits 0 and l,
+  then in virtue of the property [int][l to 0] sin n[pi]x/l sin
+  n'[pi]x/l dx=0, or ½l, according as n' is not, or is, equal to n, we
+  have ½lA_n= [int][0 to l] [f](x) sin n[pi]x/l dx, and thus the series
+  is of the form
+                             _
+    2       [oo]    n[pi]x  / l        n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma]  sin ------  |   [f](x) ------ dx.        (1)
+    l        1         l   _/ 0           l
+
+  This method of determining the coefficients in the series would not be
+  valid without the assumption that the series is in general uniformly
+  convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem the sum of the
+  integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise not
+  necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption being
+  made, it is further assumed that [f](x) is such that [integral][0 to
+  l] [f](x)sin n[pi]x/l dx has a definite meaning for every value of n.
+
+  Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions
+  made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce
+  other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form
+
+                [pi]x          2[pi]x                 n[pi]x
+    B0 + B1 cos ----- + B2 cos ------ + ... + B_n cos ------ + ...
+                  l               l                      l
+
+  for the representation of [f](x) in the interval 0 to l, let us apply
+  the series (1) to represent the function [f](x) sin [pi]x/l; we thus
+  find
+                           _
+    2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l          [pi]x     n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x)sin ----- sin ------ dx,
+    l        1       l   _/ 0            l          l
+
+  or
+                           _         _                                   _
+    1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l       |     (n - 1)[pi]x       (n + 1)[pi]x |
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) | cos ------------ - cos ------------ | dx.
+    l        1        l  _/ 0       |_         l                   l     _|
+
+  On rearrangement of the terms this becomes
+                  _                                              _
+    1      [pi]x / l            2              [pi]x     n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- sin ----- |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] sin ----- cos ------ |  [f](x) cos ------ dx.
+    l        l  _/ 0            l                l         l   _/ 0              l
+
+  hence [f](x) is represented for the interval 0 to l by the series of cosines
+        _                                    _
+    1  / l            2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |  [f](x) cos ------ dx ... (2)
+    l _/ 0            l         1      l   _/ 0              l
+
+  We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary
+  function [f](x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by
+  a series of sines, as in (1), or by a series of cosines, as in (2).
+  Some important differences between the two series must, however, be
+  noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum
+  when x=o or x=l; it therefore does not represent the function at the
+  point x=o, unless [f](0) = 0, or at the point x=l, unless [f](l) = 0,
+  whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both
+  these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (1) and
+  (2) for values of x which do not lie between 0 and l. As [f](x) is
+  given only for values of x between 0 and l, the series at points
+  beyond these limits have no necessary connexion with [f](x) unless we
+  suppose that [f](x) is also given for such general values of x in such
+  a way that the series continue to represent that function. If in (1)
+  we change x into -x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series
+  changes sign, and if x be changed into x + 2l, the series is
+  unaltered; we infer that the series (1) represents an odd function of
+  x and is periodic of period 2l; thus (1) will represent [f](x) in
+  general for values of x between ±[oo], only if [f](x) is odd and has a
+  period 2l. If in (2) we change x into -x, the series is unaltered, and
+  it is also unaltered by changing x into x + 2l; from this we see that
+  the series (2) represents [f](x) for values of x between ±[oo], only
+  if [f](x) is an even function, and is periodic of period 2l. In
+  general a function [f](x) arbitrarily given for all values of x
+  between ±[oo] is neither periodic nor odd, nor even, and is therefore
+  not represented by either (1) or (2) except for the interval 0 to l.
+
+  From (1) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines and
+  cosines, which will represent a function [f](x) arbitrarily given in
+  the interval -l to l, for that interval. We can express by (1) the
+  function ½{[f](x) - [f](-x)} which is an odd function, and thus this
+  function is represented for the interval -l to +l by
+                           _
+    2              n[pi]x / l                         n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  ½ {[f](x) - [f](-x)} sin ------ dx;
+    l                 l  _/ 0                            l
+
+  we can also express ½ {[f](x) + [f](-x)}, which is an even function,
+  by means of (2), thus for the interval -l to +l this function is
+  represented by
+
+        _                                                   _
+    1  / l                           2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l                          n[pi]x
+    -- |   ½ {[f](x) + [f](-x)} dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |   ½ {[f](x) + [f](-x)} cos ------ dx.
+    l _/ 0                           l         1       l  _/ 0                             l
+
+  It must be observed that [f](-x) is absolutely independent of [f](x),
+  the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting
+  -x for x in a formula; both [f](x) and [f](-x) are functions given
+  arbitrarily and independently for the interval 0 to l. On adding the
+  expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which
+  represents [f](x) for the interval -l to l. The integrals
+      _                          _
+     / l            n[pi]x      / l            n[pi]x
+     |  [f](-x) cos ------ dx,  |  [f](-x) sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0               l       _/ 0               l
+
+  are equivalent to
+       _                          _
+      /-l          n[pi]x        /-l           n[pi]x
+    - | [f](x) cos ------ dx,  + |  [f](x) sin ------ dx,
+     _/0              l         _/ 0              l
+
+  thus the series is
+        _                                   _                                             _
+    1  / l           1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l         n[pi]x      1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- |  [f](x)dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |  f(x) cos ------ dx + -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) sin ------ dx,
+    2l_/-l           l         1       l  _/-l            l        l         1       l  _/-l              l
+
+  which may be written
+        _                            _
+    1  / l              1      [oo] / l            n[pi](x - x')
+    -- |  [f](x') dx' + -- [Sigma]  |  [f](x') cos ------------- dx'.  (3)
+    2l_/-l              l        1 _/-l                  l
+
+  The series (3), which represents a function [f](x) arbitrarily given
+  for the interval -l to l, is what is known as Fourier's Series; the
+  expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which
+  (3) takes in the two cases, in which [f](-x) = -[f](x), or [f](-x) =
+  f(x) respectively. The expression (3) does not represent f(x) at
+  points beyond the interval -l to l, unless [f](x) has a period 2l. For
+  a value of x within the interval, at which [f](x) is discontinuous,
+  the sum of the series may cease to represent [f](x), but, as will be
+  seen hereafter, has the value ½ {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the mean of
+  the limits at the points on the right and the left. The series
+  represents the function at x=o, unless the function is there
+  discontinuous, in which case the series is ½ {[f](+0) + [f](-0)}; the
+  series does not necessarily represent the function at the points l and
+  -l, unless [f](l) = [f](-l). Its sum at either of these points is ½
+  {[f](l) + [f](-l)}.
+
+  _Examples of Fourier's Series._--(a) Let [f](x) be given from 0 to l,
+  by [f](x)=c, when 0 <= x < ½l, and by f(x)= -c from ½l to l; it is
+  required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which shall
+  represent the function in the interval.
+
+  We have
+      _                           _                     _
+     / l           n[pi]x        /½l     n[pi]x        / l    n[pi]x
+     |  [f](x) sin ------ dx = c |   sin ------ dx - c |  sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0              l         _/ 0        l         _/½l       l
+
+          cl
+      = ----- (cos n[pi] - 2 cos ½n[pi] + 1).
+        n[pi]
+
+  This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4m, but if n = 4m + 2 it is
+  equal to 4cl/n[pi]; the series is therefore
+
+     4c   /l      2[pi]x   1      6[pi]x   1      10[pi]x      \
+    ---- ( -- sin ------ + -- sin ------ + -- sin ------- + ... ).
+    [pi]  \2         l     3         l     5         l         /
+
+  For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates of
+  the series of straight lines in fig. 1, except that it vanishes at the
+  points 0, ½l, l, (3/2)l ...
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  We find similarly that the same function is represented by the series
+
+     4c   /    [pi]x   1      3[pi]x   1      5[pi]x        \
+    ---- ( cos ----- - -- cos ------ + -- cos ------ - + ... )
+    [pi]  \      l     3         l     5         l          /
+
+  during the interval 0 to l; for general values of x the series
+  represents the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it
+  vanishes at the points ½l, (3/2)l....
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  (b) Let [f](x) = x from 0 to ½l, and f(x) = l - x, from ½l to l; then
+      _                       _                     _
+     / l          n[pi]x     / ½l      n[pi]x      / l           n[pi]x
+     |  [f](x)sin ------ dx= |   x sin ------ dx + |  (l - x)sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0             l      _/ 0          l       _/½l              l
+
+            l²       n[pi]      l²       n[pi]    l²n   /   n[pi]            \
+      = - ------ cos ----- + ------- sin ----- + ----- (cos ----- - cos n[pi] )
+          2n[pi]       2     n²[pi]²       2     n[pi]  \     2              /
+
+          l²                l²        n[pi]     l²        n[pi]     2l²       n[pi]
+      + ----- cos n[pi] - ------ cos ------ + ------- sin ----- = ------- sin -----
+        n[pi]             2n[pi]        2     n²[pi]²       2     n²[pi]²       2
+
+  hence the sine series is
+
+      4l   /   nx   1      3[pi]x   1      5[pi]x      \
+    ----- (sin -- - -- sin ------ + -- sin ------ - ... )
+    [pi]²  \   l    3²        l     5²        l        /
+
+  For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the
+  row of broken lines in fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The cosine series, which represents the same function for the interval
+  0 to l, may be found to be
+
+    1        2l   /   2[pi]x   1      6[pi]x   1      10[pi]x      \
+    -- l - ----- (cos ------ + -- cos ------ + -- cos ------- + ... )
+    4      [pi]²  \      l     3²        l     5²        l         /
+
+  This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the set
+  of broken lines in fig. 4.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  _Dirichlet's Integral._--The method indicated by Fourier, but first
+  carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain
+  restrictions as to the nature of the function [f](x), that function is
+  in general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum
+  of n+1 terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value
+  of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that the
+  series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum
+  converges is ½ {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, which is in general equal to
+  [f](x). It will be convenient throughout to take -[pi] to [pi] as the
+  given interval; any interval -l to l may be reduced to this by
+  changing x into lx/[pi], and thus there is no loss of generality.
+
+  We find by an elementary process that
+
+    ½ + cos (x - x') + cos 2(x - x') + ... + cos n(x - x')
+
+          2n + 1
+      sin ------ (x' - x)
+             2
+    = -------------------.
+        2 sin ½(x' - x)
+
+  Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n+1 terms of (3) is
+          _
+     1   / [pi]        sin (2n + 1)/2 (x' - x)
+    ---- |     [f](x') ----------------------- dx'.
+    [pi]_/-[pi]            2 sin ½ (x' - x)
+
+  If we suppose [f](x) to be continued beyond the interval -[pi] to
+  [pi], in such a way that [f](x) = [f](x + 2[pi]), we may replace the
+  limits in this integral by x + [pi], x-[pi] respectively; if we then
+  put x' - x = 2z, and let [f](x') = [F](z), the expression becomes
+  1/[pi] [int][-[pi]/2 to [pi]/2] F(z) (sin mz/sin z) dz, where m = 2n +
+  1; this expression may be written in the form
+          _                            _
+     1   /[pi]/2     sin mz        1  /[pi]/2      sin mz
+    ---- |      F(z) ------ dz + ---- |      F(-z) ------ dz.  (4)
+    [pi]_/ 0          sin z      [pi]_/ 0           sin z
+
+  We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is
+  indefinitely increased, of [int][0 to [pi]/2] F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz;
+  the form of the second integral being essentially the same. This
+  integral, or rather the slightly more general one [int][0 to h]
+  F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz, when 0 < h <= ½[pi], is known as Dirichlet's
+  integral. If we write X(z)= F(z)(z/sin z), the integral becomes
+  [int][0 to h] X(z)(sin mz/z) dz, which is the form in which the
+  integral is frequently considered.
+
+  _The Second Mean-Value Theorem._--The limiting value of Dirichlet's
+  integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a theorem in the
+  integral calculus known as the second mean-value theorem. Let a, b be
+  two fixed finite numbers such that a<b, and suppose [f](x), [phi](x)
+  are two functions which have finite and determinate values everywhere
+  in the interval except for a finite number of points; suppose further
+  that the functions [f](x), [phi](x) are integrable throughout the
+  interval, and that as x increases from a to b the function [f](x) is
+  monotone, i.e. either never diminishes or never increases; the theorem
+  is that
+      _                                  _                             _
+     / b                                /[xi]                         / b
+     |  [f](x) [phi](x) dx = [f](a + 0) |    [phi](x) dx + [f](b - 0) |   [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                               _/ a                          _/[xi]
+
+  when [xi] is some point between a and b, and [f](a), [f](b) may be
+  written for [f](a + 0), [f](b - 0) unless a or b is a point of
+  discontinuity of the function [f](x).
+
+  To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two
+  integrable functions is an integrable function, [int][a to b] [f](x)
+  [phi](x) dx exists, and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a
+  series [f](x0) [phi](x0) (x1 - x0) + [f](x1) [phi](x1) (x2 - x1) + ...
+  + [f]x(n-1) [phi]x_(n-1) (x_n - x_(n-1)) where x0 = a, x_n = b and x1,
+  x2 ... x_(n-1) are n - 1 intermediate points. We can express
+  [phi](x_r) (x_(r+1) - x_r) in the form Y_(r+1) - Y_r, by putting
+
+               K=r
+    Y_r = [Sigma] [phi](x_(K-1)) (x_K - x_(K-1)), Y0 = 0.
+               K=1
+
+  Writing X_r for [f](x_r), the series becomes
+
+    X0(Y1 - Y0) + X1(Y2 - Y1) + ... + X_(n-1)(Y_n - Y_(n-1))
+
+  or Y1(X0 - X1) + Y2(X1 - X2) + ... + Y_n(X_(n-1) - X_n) + Y_n X_n.
+
+  Now, by supposition, all the numbers Y1, Y2 ... Y_n are finite, and
+  all the numbers X_(r-1) - X_r are of the same sign, hence by a known
+  algebraical theorem the series is equal to M(X0 - X_n) + Y_n X_n,
+  where M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of
+  the numbers Y1, Y2, ... Y_n. This remains true however many partial
+  intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is increased
+  indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely according
+  to any law, we have
+      _                                                   _
+     / b                                      _          / b
+     |  [f](x)[phi](x)dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)}  M + [f](b) |  [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                                                _/ a
+
+  when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values which
+  [int][a to x] [phi](x) dx can have, when x is in the given integral.
+  Now this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and
+  therefore there is a value of x in the interval, for which it takes
+  any particular value between the greatest and least values that it
+  has. There is therefore a value [xi] between a and b, such that
+         _
+    _   /[xi]
+    M = |    [phi](x)dx,
+       _/ a
+
+  hence
+      _                                         _                        _
+     / b                                       /[xi]                    / b
+     |  [f](x) [phi](x) dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)} |   [phi](x) dx + [f](b) |  [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                                      _/ a                     _/ a
+                _                         _
+               /[xi]                     / b
+      = [f](a) |    [phi](x) dx + [f](b) |    [phi](x) dx.
+              _/ a                      _/[xi]
+
+  If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity
+  of [f](x) or [phi](x), the method of proof still holds good, provided
+  these points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if
+  either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of [f](x), we write
+  [f](a + 0) or [f](b - 0), for [f](a) or [f](b), it being assumed that
+  these limits exist.
+
+  _Functions, with Limited Variation._--The condition that [f](x), in
+  the mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as
+  x increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of
+  the theorem. We can, however, show that a function [f](x) which is
+  finite and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of
+  ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to
+  diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases
+  from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions
+  [f]1(x), [f]2(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a
+  to b, and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that
+  one or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given
+  function is discontinuous. Let [alpha], ß be two consecutive points at
+  which [f](x) is discontinuous, consider any point x1, such that
+  [alpha] <= x1 <= [beta], and suppose that at the points M1, M2 ... M_r
+  between [alpha] and x1, [f](x) is a maximum, and at m1, m2 ... m_r, it
+  is a minimum; we will suppose, for example, that the ascending order
+  of values is [alpha], M1, m1, M2, m2 ... M_r, m_r, x1; it will make no
+  essential difference in the argument if m1 comes before M1, or if M_r
+  immediately precedes x1, M_(r-1) being then the last minimum.
+
+  Let [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)]+ ...
+    +[[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1))] + [[f](x1) - [f](m_r)];
+
+  now let (x1) increase until it reaches the value (M_(r+1)) at which
+  [f](x) is again a maximum, then let
+
+    [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ...
+      + [[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](m_r)];
+
+  and suppose as x increases beyond the value M_(r+1), [psi](x1) remains
+  constant until the next minimum m_(r+1) is reached, when it again
+  becomes variable; we see that [psi](x1) is essentially positive and
+  never diminishes as x increases.
+
+  Let
+
+    [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - f(m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... + [[f](M_r)
+      - [f](m_r)],
+
+  then let x1 increase until it is beyond the next maximum M_(r+1), and
+  then let
+
+    [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f](m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... +
+      [[f](M_r) - [f](m_r)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](x1)]
+
+  thus [chi](x1) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and
+  variable. We see that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) is continuous as x1
+  increases from [alpha] to ß, and that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) = [f](x1)
+  - [f]([alpha] + 0), and when x1 reaches ß, we have [psi](ß) -
+  [chi](x1) = [f](ß - 0) - [f]([alpha] + 0). Hence it is seen that
+  between [alpha] and ß, [f](x) = [[psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0)] -
+  [chi](x), where [psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0), [chi](x) are continuous
+  and never diminish as x increases; the same reasoning applies to
+  every continuous portion of [f](x), for which the functions [psi](x),
+  [chi](x) are formed in the same manner; we now take [f]1(x)=[psi](x) +
+  [f]([alpha] + 0) + C, [f]2(x) = [chi](x) + C, where C is constant
+  between consecutive discontinuities, but may have different values in
+  the next interval between discontinuities; the C can be so chosen that
+  neither [f]1(x) nor [f]2(x) diminishes as x increases through a value
+  for which [f](x) is discontinuous. We thus see that [f](x) = [f]1(x) -
+  [f]2(x), where [f]1(x), [f]2(x) never diminish as x increases from a
+  to b, and are discontinuous only where [f](x) is so. The function
+  [f](x) is a particular case of a class of functions defined and
+  discussed by Jordan, under the name "functions with limited variation"
+  (_fonctions à variation bornée_); in general such functions have not
+  necessarily only a finite number of maxima and minima.
+
+  _Proof of the Convergence of Fourier's Series._--It will now be
+  assumed that a function [f](x) arbitrarily given between the values
+  -[pi] and +[pi], has the following properties:--
+
+  (a) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed
+  positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values
+  of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.
+
+  (b) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or vice
+  versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is usually
+  expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima is finite.
+
+  These limitations on the nature of the function are known as
+  Dirichlet's conditions; it follows from them that the function is
+  integrable throughout the interval.
+
+  On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of
+  Dirichlet's integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case
+  of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from 0 to
+  ½[pi], since it has been shown that in the general case the difference
+  of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas will be
+  required:
+
+  1. Since
+      _                   _
+     /[pi]/2 sin mz      /[pi]/2                                              [pi]
+     |       ------ dz = |      {1 + 2cos 2z + 2cos 4z + ... + 2cos 2nz} dz = ----;
+    _/ 0      sin z     _/ 0                                                    2
+
+  this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.
+
+                           [pi]
+  2. If 0 < [alpha] < ß <= ----,
+                             2
+      _                               _                          _
+     / ß     sin mz           1      /[gamma]              1    / ß
+     |       ------ dz = ----------- |       sin mz dz + -----  |       sin mz dz
+    _/[alpha] sin z      sin [alpha]_/[alpha]            sin ß _/[gamma]
+
+  where [alpha] < [gamma] < ß, hence
+        _
+    |  / ß     sin mz    |   2   /     1         1   \          4
+    |  |       ------ dz | < -- ( ---------- + -----  ) < -------------;
+    | _/[alpha] sin z    |   m   \sin[alpha]   sin ß /    m sin [alpha]
+                                           _
+                                       |  / ß      sin mz    |      4
+  a precisely similar proof shows that |  |        ------ dz | < --------,
+                                       | _/ [alpha]  z       |   m[alpha]
+                        _                  _
+                       / ß     sin mz     / ß     sin mz
+  hence the integrals  |       ------ dz, |       ------ dz, converge to
+                      _/[alpha] sin z    _/[alpha]   z
+
+  the limit zero, as m is indefinitely increased.
+                         _
+                     |  / [oo]  sin [theta]          |
+  3. If [alpha] > 0, |  |       ----------- d[theta] | cannot exceed
+                     | _/[alpha]  [theta]            |
+
+  ½[pi]. For by the mean-value theorem
+        _
+    |  / h     sin[theta]          |      2      2
+    |  |       ---------- d[theta] | < ------- + --,
+    | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |   [alpha]   h
+                     _
+        |           / h      sin[theta]          |       2
+  hence | Lh = [oo] |        ---------- d[theta] | <= -------;
+        |          _/[alpha]   [theta]           |    [alpha]
+                                       _
+                                   |  /[oo]   sin[theta]          |     2     [pi]
+  in particular if [alpha] >= [pi] |  |       ---------- d[theta] | <= ---- < ----.
+                                   | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |    [pi]     2
+                  _
+            d    /[oo]    sin[theta]              sin[alpha]
+  Again -------- |        ---------- d[theta] = - ----------, [alpha] > 0,
+        d[alpha]_/[alpha]   [theta]                 [alpha]
+             _
+            /[oo]  sin[theta]
+  therefore |      ---------- d[theta] increases as [alpha] diminishes,
+           _/[alpha] [theta]
+
+  when [theta] < [alpha] < [pi]; but lim
+             _                                           _
+            /[oo]  sin[theta]            [pi]        |  /[oo]  sin[theta]          |   [pi]
+            |      ---------- d[theta] = ----, hence |  |      ---------- d[theta] | < ----,
+  [alpha]=0_/[alpha] [theta]               2         | _/[alpha] [theta]           |    2
+
+  where [alpha] < [pi], and < [pi]/2 where [alpha] >= [pi]. It follows that
+        _
+    |  / ß     sin[theta]          |
+    |  |       ---------- d[theta] | <= [pi], provided 0 <= [alpha] < ß.
+    | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |
+                        _
+                       /[pi]/2     sin mz
+  To find the limit of |      F(z) ------ dz, we observe that it may be
+                      _/ 0          sin z
+
+  written in the form
+          _                   _
+         /[pi]/2 sin mz      / µ                sin mz
+    F(0) |       ------ dz + |    {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz
+        _/        sin z     _/ 0                 sin z
+         _
+        /[pi]/2             sin mz
+      + |     {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz
+       _/ µ                  sin z
+
+  where µ is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use
+  lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem,
+      _
+     /[pi]/2    sin mz      [pi]
+     |     F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0)
+    _/ 0         sin z        2
+         _
+        / µ                  z   sin mz
+      = |    {F(z) - F(0)} ----- ------ dz
+       _/ [0]              sin z    z
+                           _                                         _
+                          /[xi]¹ sin mz                             /[pi]/2 sin mz
+      + {F(µ + 0) - F(0)} |      ------ dz + {F (½[pi] - 0) - F(0)} |       ------ dz
+                         _/ µ     sin z                            _/[xi]¹   sin z
+
+  when [xi]¹ lies between µ and ½[pi]. When m is indefinitely increased,
+  the two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of lemma (2). To
+  evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let G/z = {F(z) -
+  F(0)} (sin z/z), and observe that G(z) increases as z increases from 0
+  to [mu], hence if we apply the mean value theorem
+        _                            _
+    |  / µ       sin mz   |   |     / µ   sin mz   |
+    |  |    G(µ) ------ dz| = |G(µ) |     ------ dz|
+    | _/ 0          z     |   |    _/[xi]    z     |
+               _
+        |     / mµ   sin[theta]         |
+      = |G(µ) |      ---------- d[theta]| < [pi] G(µ),
+        |    _/m[xi]   [theta]          |
+
+  where 0 < [xi] < µ, since G(z) has the limit zero when z = 0. If
+  [epsilon] be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of
+  µ may be so chosen that [pi]G([mu)] < ½[epsilon], and thus that
+        _
+    |  /µ        sin mz   |
+    |  |    G(z) ------ dz| < ½[epsilon].
+    | _/0           z     |
+
+  When µ has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that
+        _
+    |  /½[pi]     sin mz      [pi]     |
+    |  |     F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [epsilon].
+    | _/0          sin z       2       |
+
+  It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased
+      _
+     /[pi]/2     sin mz      [pi]
+     |      F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0) has the limit zero.
+    _/ 0          sin z        2
+
+  Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of
+          _                             _
+      1  /[pi]/2     sin mz         1  /[pi]/2      sin mz
+    ---- |      F(z) ------ dz  + ---- |      F(-z) ------ dz
+    [pi]_/ 0          sin z       [pi]_/ 0           sin z
+
+  ½{F(+0) + F(-0)}; hence the sum of n + 1 terms of the series
+         _                         _
+    1   / l            1          / l            n[pi](x - x¹)
+    --  |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] |  [f](x¹) cos ------------- dx
+    2l _/-l            l         _/-l                  l
+
+  converges to the value ½ {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, or to [f](x) at a
+  point where [f](x) is continuous, provided [f](x) satisfies
+  Dirichlet's conditions for the interval from -l to l.
+
+  _Proof that Fourier's Series is in General Uniformly Convergent._--To
+  prove that Fourier's Series converges uniformly to its sum for all
+  values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods of the points
+  of discontinuity of [f](x) are excluded, we have
+        _
+    |  /[pi]/2   sin mz      [pi]     |                  4
+    |  |     F(z)------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [pi]G (µ) + ------- {F(µ + 0) - F(0)}
+    | _/          sin z        2      |               m sin µ
+
+             4
+      + ----------- {F(½[pi] - 0) - F(0)}
+        m sin [xi]¹
+
+      [pi]µ                             4
+    < ----- {[f](x + 2µ) - [f](x)} + ------- {[f](x + 2µ) - [f](x)}
+      sin µ                          m sin µ
+
+             4
+      + ----------- {[f](x + [pi]) - [f](x)}
+        m sin [xi]¹
+
+  Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(-z), we have
+
+    |S_(2n+1)(x) - [f](x)| < µ cosec µ [|[f](x + 2µ) - [f](x)|
+      + |[f](x - 2µ) - [f](x)|] + A|m cosec µ,
+
+  where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any interval (a, b)
+  in which [f](x) is continuous, a value µ1 of µ can be chosen such
+  that, for every value of x in (a, b), |[f](x + 2µ) - [f](x)|, |[f](x -
+  2µ) - [f](x)| are less than an arbitrarily prescribed positive number
+  [epsilon], provided µ = µ1. Also a value µ2 of µ can be so chosen that
+  [epsilon]µ2 cosec µ2 < ½[eta], where [eta] is an arbitrarily assigned
+  positive number. Take for µ the lesser of the numbers µ1, µ2, then
+  |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| < [eta] + A|m cosec µ for every value of x in
+  (a, b). It follows that, since [eta] and m are independent of x,
+  |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| < 2[epsilon], provided n is greater than some
+  fixed value n1 dependent only on [epsilon]. Therefore S_(2n+1)
+  converges to [f](x) uniformly in the interval (a, b).
+
+  _Case of a Function with Infinities._--The limitation that [f](x) must
+  be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the
+  interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z) is
+  indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is
+
+   such that the limits of the two integrals [int][c to c±[epsilon]] F(z)
+  dz are both zero, as [epsilon] is indefinitely diminished, then
+      _
+     /[pi]/2     sin mz
+     |      F(z) ------ dz
+    _/ 0          sin z
+
+  denotes the limit when [epsilon] = 0, [epsilon]¹ = 0 of
+      _                          _
+     /c-[epsilon]   sin mz      /[pi]/2           sin mz
+     |         F(z) ------ dx + |            F(z) ------ dz,
+    _/ 0             sin z     _/c+[epsilon]¹      sin z
+
+  both these limits existing; the first of these integrals has
+  ½[pi]F(+0) for its limiting value when m is indefinitely increased,
+  and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem therefore holds if
+  F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely integrable; this
+  will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point C is of the form
+  x(z)(z - c)^-µ + [psi](z), where [chi](c), [psi](c) are finite, and
+  0 < µ < 1. It is thus seen that [f](x) may have a finite number of
+  infinities within the given interval, provided the function is
+  integrable through any one of these points; the function is in that
+  case still representable by Fourier's Series.
+
+  _The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier's Series._--If
+  [f](x) is everywhere finite within the given interval -[pi] to +[pi],
+  it can be shown that a_n, b_n, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in
+  the series which represent the function, are such that na_n, nb_n,
+  however great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For
+  writing [f](x) = [f]1(x) - [f]2(x), we have
+      _                                       _                             _
+     /[pi]                                   /[xi]                         /[pi]
+     |    [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) |   cos nxdx + [f]1([pi] - 0) |   cos nxdx
+    _/-[pi]                                 _/-[pi]                       _/[xi]
+
+  hence
+      _
+     /[pi]                                   sin n[xi]                  sin n[xi]
+     |    [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) --------- + [f]1([pi] - 0) ---------
+    _/-[pi]                                      n                          n
+
+  with a similar expression, with [f]2(x) for [f]1(x), [xi] being
+  between [pi] and -[pi]; the result then follows at once, and is
+  obtained similarly for the other coefficient.
+
+  If [f](x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form [phi](x)/(x - c)^K
+  near the point c, where 0 < K < 1, the integral
+      _
+     /[pi]
+     |    [f](x)cos nxdx contains portions of the form
+    _/-[pi]
+      _                                       _
+     /[epsilon]+[epsilon]  [phi](x)          / c           [phi](x)
+     |                    --------- cos nxdx |            --------- cos nxdx;
+    _/ [c]                (x - c)^K         _/c-[epsilon] (x - c)^K
+
+  consider the first of these, and put x = c + u, it thus becomes
+      _
+     /[epsilon] [phi](c + u)
+     |          ------------ cos n(c + u) du, which is of the form
+    _/  0            u^K
+                                 _
+                                /[epsilon] cos n(c + u)
+    [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) |          ------------ du;
+                               _/  0           u^K
+
+  now let nu = v, the integral becomes
+                                 _           _                                _                  _
+                                |  cos nc   /n[epsilon]  cos v      sin nc   /n[epsilon] sin v    |
+    [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) |  -------  |            ----- dv - -------  |           ----- dv |;
+                                |_ n^(1-K) _/ 0           v^K       n^(1-K) _/ 0          v^K    _|
+
+  hence n^(1-K) [int]([pi] to -[pi]) [f](x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is
+  definitely increased, of the form
+              _        _                       _            _
+             |        /[oo] cos v             /[oo] sin v    |
+    [phi](c) | cos nc |     ----- dv - sin nc |     ----- dv |
+             |_      _/ 0    v^K             _/ 0    v^K    _|
+
+  which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known
+  value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer that
+  n^(1-K) a_n, n^(1-K) b_n are less than fixed finite numbers.
+
+  _The Differentiation of Fourier's Series._--If we assume that the
+  differential coefficient of a function [f](x) represented by a
+  Fourier's Series exists, that function [f]'(x) is not necessarily
+  representable by the series obtained by differentiating the terms of
+  the Fourier's Series, such derived series being in fact not
+  necessarily convergent. Stokes has obtained general formulae for
+  finding the series which represent f'(x), [f]"(x)--the successive
+  differential coefficients of a limited function [f](x). As an example
+  of such formulae, consider the sine series (1); [f](x) is represented
+  by
+                           _
+    2              n[pi]x /l            n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) sin ------ dx;
+    l                 l  _/0               l
+                                   _
+                                  /l          n[pi]x
+  on integration by parts we have | [f](x)sin ------ dx
+                                 _/0             l
+             _                                                                               _
+        l   |                                    n[pi]a                                       |
+    = ----  | [f](+0) ± [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} |
+      n[pi] |_                                      l                                        _|
+                _
+          l    /l             n[pi]x
+      + -----  |  [f]'(x) cos ------ dx
+        n[pi] _/0                l
+
+  where [alpha] represent the points where [f](x) is discontinuous.
+  Hence if f(x) is represented by the series [Sigma]a_n sin (n[pi]x/l),
+  and [f]'(x) by the series [Sigma]b_n cos (n[pi]x/l), we have the
+  relation
+                                _                                                                                  _
+          n[pi]             2  |                                   n[pi][alpha]                                     |
+    b_n = ----- [alpha]_n - -- | [f](+0) ± [f](l - 0) + [Sigma]cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f](alpha - 0)} |
+            l               l  |_                                        l                                         _|
+
+  hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and [f](+0)
+  [f](l - 0) are both zero, is the series which represents [f]'(x)
+  obtained at once by differentiating that which represents [f](x). The
+  form of the coefficient [alpha]_n discloses the discontinuities of the
+  function and of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the
+  integration by parts we find
+                       _                                                                                     _
+                  2   |                                    n[pi][alpha]                                       |
+    [alpha]_n = ----- | [f](+0) ± [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} |
+                n[pi] |_                                        l                                            _|
+                  _                                                                       _
+           2l    |                                      n[pi]ß                             |
+      + -------  | [f]'(+0) ± [f]'(l - 0) + [Sigma] sin ------ {[f]'(ß + 0) - [f]'(ß - 0)} | + &c.
+        n²[pi]²  |_                                        l                              _|
+
+  where ß are the points at which [f]'(x) is discontinuous.
+
+
+  HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE THEORY
+
+  The history of the theory of the representation of functions by series
+  of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with the
+  progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function of a
+  real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function may
+  possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infinitesimal
+  calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in this
+  connexion (see FUNCTION). The representation of functions by these
+  series was first considered in the 18th century, in connexion with the
+  problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to the
+  possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747
+  (_Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin_, vol. iii.) D'Alembert showed that
+  the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a
+  differential equation of the form [delta]^y/[delta]t² = a²
+  [delta]^y/[delta]x², where x is measured along the undisturbed length
+  of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of length l fixed, the
+  appropriate solution is y = [f](at + x) - [f](at - x), where [f] is a
+  function such that [f](x) = [f](x + 2l); in another memoir in the same
+  volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition. In the
+  year 1748 (_Berlin Memoirs_, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing the
+  problem, gave [f](x) = [alpha] sin [pi]x/l + ß sin 2[pi]x/l + ...
+  as a particular solution, and maintained that every curve, whether
+  regular or irregular, must be representable in this form. This was
+  objected to by D'Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground
+  that irregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (_Berlin
+  Memoirs_, vol. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on
+  physical intuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753). The
+  question was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in
+  a memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (_Miscellanea
+  Taurensia_, 1759; [_OE]uvres_, vol. i.), who, while criticizing
+  Euler's method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and
+  then makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite
+  fully carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli's
+  Series. These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of
+  a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a
+  discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of several
+  different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion of a broken
+  function was not generally admitted. The first cases in which rational
+  functions are expressed in sines and cosines were given by Euler
+  (_Subsidium calculi sinuum_, Novi Comm. Petrop., vol. v., 1754-1755),
+  who obtained the formulae
+
+    ½ [phi] = sin [phi] - ½ sin 2[phi] + 1/3 sin 3[phi] ...
+
+    [pi]²   [phi]²
+    ----- - ------ = cos [phi] - ¼ cos 2[phi] + 1/9 cos 3[phi] ...
+     12       4
+
+  In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777, but not
+  published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards used by
+  Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions; he
+  remarked that if [Phi] is expansible in the form
+                                                         _                           _
+                                                   1    /[pi]                  2    /[pi]
+    A + B cos[phi] + C cos 2[phi] + ..., then A = ----  |    [Phi]d[phi], B = ----  |   cos [phi]d[phi], &c.
+                                                  [pi] _/ 0                   [pi] _/ 0
+
+  The second period in the development of the theory commenced in 1807,
+  when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory of Heat to
+  the French Academy. His exposition of the present theory is contained
+  in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of which his great treatise
+  the _Théorie analytique de la chaleur_, published in 1822, is, in the
+  main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself to consider the
+  representation of a function given graphically, and was the first
+  fully to grasp the idea that a single function may consist of detached
+  portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He had an accurate conception
+  of the convergence of a series, and although he did not give a
+  formally complete proof that a function with discontinuities is
+  representable by the series, he indicated in particular cases the
+  method of procedure afterwards carried out by Dirichlet. As an
+  exposition of principles, Fourier's work is still worthy of careful
+  perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson's treatment of the
+  subject, which has been adopted in English works (see the _Journal de
+  l'école polytechnique_, vol. xi., 1820, and vol. xii., 1823, and also
+  his treatise, _Théorie de la chaleur_, 1835), depends upon the equality
+      _
+     /[pi]                          1 - h²
+     |    [f]([alpha]) ----------------------------- d[alpha]
+    _/-[pi]            1 - 2h cos (x - [alpha]) + h²
+                _                                            _
+          1    /[pi]                          1             /[pi]
+      = -----  |    [f]([alpha]) d[alpha] + ---- [Sigma]h^n |     [f]([alpha]) cos n(x - [alpha]) d[alpha]
+        2[pi] _/-[pi]                       [pi]           _/-[pi]
+
+  where 0 < h < 1; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is
+  evaluated when h=1, and found to be ½ {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the
+  series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier's Series. The equality
+  of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed to be
+  convergent when h = 1, by a theorem of Abel's its sum is continuous
+  with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a proof of the
+  convergency for h = 1 is requisite for the validity of Poisson's
+  proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency, his proof of the
+  general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency cannot be removed
+  except by a process of the same nature as that afterwards applied by
+  Dirichlet. The definite integral has been carefully studied by Schwarz
+  (see two memoirs in his collected works on the integration of the
+  equation [delta]²u/[delta]x² + [delta]²u/[delta]y² = 0), who showed
+  that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner in
+  which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier's Series were
+  also given by Cauchy (see his "Mémoire sur les développements des
+  fonctions en séries périodiques," _Mém. de l'Inst_., vol. vi., also
+  _Oeuvres complètes_, vol. vii.); his method, which depends upon a use
+  of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification, as valid
+  by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer regarded as
+  satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory investigation is due
+  to Dirichlet; his first memoir appeared in _Crelle's Journal_ for
+  1829, and the second, which is a model of clearness, in Dove's
+  _Repertorium der Physik_. Dirichlet laid down certain definite
+  sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which is
+  expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value of the
+  sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet's determination of the sum of
+  the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized by Schläfli
+  (see _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond (_Mathem.
+  Annalen_, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really
+  indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a
+  misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if x1 be
+  the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach x1,
+  and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series takes
+  any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought to make x =
+  x1 first and afterwards n = [oo], and no other way of going to the
+  double limit is really admissible. Other papers by Dircksen (_Crelle_,
+  vol. iv.) and Bessel (_Astronomische Nachrichten_, vol. xvi.), on
+  similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance. Many
+  of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet's have the object of
+  freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed
+  upon it in Dirichlet's proof, but no complete set of necessary and
+  sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been
+  obtained. Lipschitz ("De explicatione per series trigonometricas,"
+  _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain
+  condition, a function which has an infinite number of maxima and
+  minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his
+  condition is that at the point of discontinuity ß, |[f](ß + [delta])
+  -f(ß)| < B[delta]^[alpha] as [delta] converges to zero, B being a
+  constant, and a a positive exponent. A somewhat wider condition is
+
+    {[f](ß + [delta]) - [f](ß)} log [delta]) = 0,
+                        [delta] = 0
+
+  for which Lipschitz's results would hold. This last condition is
+  adopted by Dini in his treatise (_Sopra la serie di Fourier_, &c.,
+  Pisa, 1880).
+
+  The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publication by
+  Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written in 1854, _Über
+  die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe_.
+  The first part of his memoir contains a historical account of the work
+  of previous investigators; in the second part there is a discussion of
+  the foundations of the Integral Calculus, and the third part is mainly
+  devoted to a discussion of what can be inferred as to the nature of a
+  function respecting the changes in its value for a continuous change
+  in the variable, if the function is capable of representation by a
+  trigonometrical series. Dirichlet and probably Riemann thought that
+  all continuous functions were everywhere representable by the series;
+  this view was refuted by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akad._ vol.
+  xii. 2). It was shown by Riemann that the convergence or
+  non-convergence of the series at a particular point x depends only
+  upon the nature of the function in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood
+  of the point x. The first to call attention to the importance of the
+  theory of uniform convergence of series in connexion with Fourier's
+  Series was Stokes, in his memoir "On the Critical Values of the Sums
+  of Periodic Series" (_Camb. Phil. Trans._, 1847; _Collected Papers_,
+  vol. i.). As the method of determining the coefficients in a
+  trigonometrical series is invalid unless the series converges in
+  general uniformly, the question arose whether series with coefficients
+  other than those of Fourier exist which represent arbitrary functions.
+  Heine showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxi., 1870, and in his
+  treatise _Kugelfunctionen_, vol. i.) that Fourier's Series is in
+  general uniformly convergent, and that if there is a uniformly
+  convergent series which represents a function, it is the only one of
+  the kind. G. Cantor then showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vols. lxxii.
+  lxxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be not demanded, there can
+  be but one convergent expansion for a function, and that it is that of
+  Fourier. In the _Math. Ann._ vol. v., Cantor extended his
+  investigation to functions having an infinite number of
+  discontinuities. Important contributions to the theory of the series
+  have been published by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akademie_,
+  vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in Crelle's Journal, vols. lxxiv.
+  lxxvi. lxxix.), by Kronecker (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by O. Hölder
+  (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by Jordan (_Comptes rendus_, 1881, vol.
+  xcii.), by Ascoli (_Math. Annal._, 1873, and _Annali di matematica_,
+  vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (_Atti della R. Acc. di Torino_, vol. x.,
+  1875). Hamilton's memoir on "Fluctuating Functions" (_Trans. R.I.A._,
+  vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied with profit in this connexion. A
+  memoir by Brodén (_Math. Annalen_, vol. lii.) contains a good
+  investigation of some of the most recent results on the subject. The
+  scope of Fourier's Series has been extended by Lebesgue, who
+  introduced a conception of integration wider than that due to Riemann.
+  Lebesgue's work on Fourier's Series will be found in his treatise,
+  _Leçons sur les séries trigonométriques_ (1906); also in a memoir,
+  "Sur les séries trigonométriques," _Annales sc. de l'école normale
+  supérieure_, series ii. vol. xx. (1903), and in a paper "Sur la
+  convergence des séries de Fourier," _Math. Annalen_, vol. lxiv.
+  (1905).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The foregoing historical account has been mainly drawn
+  from A. Sachse's work, "Versuch einer Geschichte der Darstellung
+  willkürlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigonometrische
+  Reihen," published in _Schlömilch's Zeitschrift für Mathematik_,
+  Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G.A. Gibson "On the History
+  of the Fourier Series" (_Proc. Ed. Math. Soc._ vol. xi.). Reiff's
+  _Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen_ may also be consulted, and also
+  the first part of Riemann's memoir referred to above. Besides Dini's
+  treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment of the
+  subject from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann's treatise,
+  _Über die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden
+  Entwickelungen_. Jordan's discussion of the subject in his _Cours
+  d'analyse_ is worthy of attention: an account of functions with
+  limited variation is given in vol. i.; see also a paper by Study in
+  the _Math. Annalen_, vol. xlvii. On the second mean-value theorem
+  papers by Bonnet (Brux. Mémoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, _Lionville's
+  Journal_, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (_Crelle's Journal_,
+  vol. lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (_Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik_,
+  vol. xiv., 1869), by Meyer (_Math. Ann._, vol. vi., 1872) and by
+  Hölder (_Göttinger Anzeigen_, 1894) may be consulted; the most general
+  form of the theorem has been given by Hobson (_Proc. London Math.
+  Soc._, Series II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform
+  convergence of series, a memoir by W.F. Osgood (_Amer. Journal of
+  Math._ xix.) may be with advantage consulted. On the theory of series
+  in general, in relation to the functions which they can represent, a
+  memoir by Baire (_Annali di matematica_, Series III. vol. iii.) is of
+  great importance. Bromwich's _Theory of Infinite Series_ (1908)
+  contains much information on the general theory of series. Bôcher's
+  "Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series," _Annals of Math._,
+  Series II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw's
+  _Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series and Integrals, and the
+  Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat_ (1906). A full account
+  of the theory will be found in Hobson's treatise _On the Theory of
+  Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier's Series_
+  (1907).     (E. W. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOURMIES, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on an
+affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906)
+13,308. It is one of the chief centres in France for wool combing and
+spinning, and produces a great variety of cloths. The glass-works of
+Fourmies date from 1599, and were the first established in the north of
+France. Iron is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges
+and foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour troubles
+brought about military intervention and consequent bloodshed. A board of
+trade arbitration and a school of commerce and industry are among the
+public institutions.
+
+
+
+
+FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE (1683-1745), French orientalist, was born at Herbelai,
+near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683. He studied at the Collège
+Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the Collège Montaigu, where his
+attention was attracted to Oriental languages. Shortly after leaving the
+college he published a _Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben
+Esra sur l'ecclésiast_e. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to assist
+a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar. Hoan-ji died
+in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont published _Meditationes
+Sinicae_ and in 1742 _Grammatica Sinica_. He also wrote _Réflexions
+critiques sur les histoires des anciens peuples_ (1735), and several
+dissertations printed in the _Mémoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions.
+He became professor of Arabic in the Collège de France in 1715. In 1713
+he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member
+of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that of Berlin.
+He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745.
+
+His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1746), was also a member of the
+Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac language in the
+Royal College, and was sent by the government to copy inscriptions in
+Greece.
+
+  An account of Étienne Fourmont's life and a catalogue of his works
+  will be found in the second edition (1747) of his _Réflexions
+  critiques_.
+
+
+
+
+FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER (1801-1869), French geologist and
+metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on the 15th of May 1801. He was
+educated at the École des Mines at Paris, and after considerable
+experience as a mining engineer he was in 1834 appointed professor of
+geology at Lyons. He was a man of wide knowledge and extensive research,
+and wrote memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive
+rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the Western
+Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolinization and on
+metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects also he was an
+acknowledged authority; and he published observations on the order of
+sulphurability of metals (_loi de Fournet_). He died at Lyons on the 8th
+of January 1869. His chief publications were: É_tudes sur les dépôts
+métallifères_ (Paris, 1834); _Histoire de la dolomie_ (Lyons, 1847); _De
+l'extension des terrains houillers_ (1855); _Géologie lyonnaise_ (Lyons,
+1861).
+
+
+
+
+FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768), French engraver and typefounder, was
+born at Paris on the 15th of September 1712. He was the son of a
+printer, and was brought up to his father's business. After studying
+drawing under the painter Colson, he practised for some time the art of
+wood-engraving, and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and
+casting of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry
+became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries. Not
+content with his practical achievements, he sought to stimulate public
+interest in his art by the production of various works on the subject.
+In 1737 he published his _Table des proportions qu'il faut observer
+entre les caractères_, which was followed by several other technical
+treatises. In 1758 he assailed the title of Gutenberg to the honour
+awarded him as inventor of printing, claiming it for Schöffer, in his
+_Dissertation sur l'origine et les progrès de l'art de graver en bois_.
+This gave rise to a controversy in which Schöpflin and Baer were his
+opponents. Fournier's contributions to this debate were collected and
+reprinted under the title of _Traités historiques et critiques sur
+l'origine de l'imprimerie_. His principal work, however, was the _Manuel
+typographique_, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764, the first volume
+treating of engraving and type-founding, the second of printing, with
+examples of different alphabets. It was the author's design to complete
+the work in four volumes, but he did not live to execute it. He died at
+Paris on the 8th of October 1768.
+
+
+
+
+FOURNIER L'HÉRITIER, CLAUDE (1745-1825), French revolutionist, called
+"l'Américain," was born at Auzon (Haute-Loire) on the 21st of December
+1745, the son of a poor weaver. He went to America to seek his fortune,
+and started at San Domingo an establishment for making _tafia_ (an
+inferior quality of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to
+France he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and
+specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the
+organization of the popular armed force by means of which the most
+famous of the revolutionary _coups_ were effected. His influence was
+principally manifested in the insurrections of the 5th and 6th of
+October 1789, the 17th of July 1791, and the 20th of June and the 10th
+of August 1792. He was on bad terms with the majority of the
+politicians, and particularly with Marat, and spent a great part of his
+time in prison, all the governments regarding him as an agitator and
+accusing him of inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time
+for trying to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from
+which he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from the
+12th of December 1793 to the 21st of September 1794, and again from the
+9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795. After the attempt on the
+First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise he was deported to Guiana, but
+was allowed to return to France in 1809. In 1811, while under
+surveillance at Auxerre, he was accused of having provoked an _émeute_
+against taxes known as the _droits réunis_ (afterwards called
+c_ontributions indirectes_), and was imprisoned in the Château d'If,
+where he remained till 1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons
+Fournier was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force.
+After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed his last
+years in importuning the Restoration government for compensation for his
+lost property in San Domingo. He died in obscurity.
+
+  For further details see preface to F.A. Aulard's edition of Fournier's
+  _Mémoires secrets_ (Paris, 1890), published by the Société de
+  l'histoire de la Révolution.
+
+
+
+
+FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE (1836-1897), French politician,
+was born at Ribérac (Dordogne) on the 3rd of January 1836, and
+represented his native department in the National Assembly after the
+Franco-German War. There he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made
+him minister of public works in December 1872. He was minister of
+religion in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the
+Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As minister of
+education, religion and the fine arts in the reconstructed cabinet of
+the duc de Broglie he had used his administrative powers to further
+clerical ends, and as minister of the interior in Broglie's cabinet in
+1877 he resumed the administrative methods of the Second Empire. With a
+well-known Bonapartist, Baron R.C.F. Reille, as his secretary, he
+replaced republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving a
+few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of that year he
+used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a majority for the Right,
+to support a clerical and reactionary programme. He accompanied Marshal
+MacMahon in his tour through southern France, and the presidential
+manifesto of September, stating that the president would rely solely on
+the Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally
+attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell, and a
+commission was appointed to inquire into their unconstitutional abuse of
+power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence of the revelations made in
+the report of the commission. In the Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave
+the lie direct to Fourtou's allegation that the republican party opposed
+every republican principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in
+consequence, but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to the
+chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year. Failing to secure
+re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered the popular chamber
+as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he took no further active part in
+politics. He died in Paris in 1897.
+
+  His works include _Histoire de Louis XVI_ (1840); _Histoire de Saint
+  Pie V_ (1845); _Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols., 1859);
+  _La Question italienne_ (1860); _De la contre-révolution_ (1876); and
+  _Mémoires d'un royaliste_ (2 vols., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+FOUSSA, or FOSSA, the native name of _Cryptoprocta ferox_, a somewhat
+cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar, where it is the
+largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice the size of a cat (5 ft.
+from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform pale
+brown. Little is known of its habits, except that it is nocturnal,
+frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially kids, and shows
+great ferocity when wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the
+natives. An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly
+fourteen years. See CARNIVORA.
+
+
+
+
+FOWEY (usually pronounced _Foy_), a seaport and market-town in the
+Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western
+railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth. Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the
+west shore of the picturesque estuary of the river Fowey, close to the
+water's edge, and sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St
+Nicholas is said to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of
+a still older edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine
+tower and late Norman doorway. Within are a priest's chamber over the
+porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some curious
+monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the church, is a highly
+ornate Tudor building. A few ancient houses remain in the town. Deep-sea
+fishing is carried on; but the staple trade consists in the export of
+china clay and minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is
+easy of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state
+of the tide. St Catherine's Fort, dating from the days of Henry VIII.
+and now ruined, stands at the harbour's mouth, and once formed the main
+defence of the town. Opposite the town, and connected with it by
+Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan. Its main features are St
+Saviour's Chapel, with an ancient rood-stone, and the remains of Hall
+House, which was garrisoned during the civil wars of the 17th century.
+
+Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst Cornish ports
+from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the Tudors. The numerous
+references to the privateering exploits of its ships in the Patent and
+Close Rolls and the extraordinary number of them at the siege of Calais
+in 1346 alike testify to its importance. During this period the king's
+mandates were addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs,
+and no charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the
+reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common council
+consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these with a recorder
+elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey and Looe was summoned to
+a council at Westminster in 1340, but from that date until 1571, when it
+was entrusted with the privilege of returning two members, it had no
+parliamentary representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its
+members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a few years
+previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as lord of the manor,
+obtained the right to hold a Monday market and two fairs on the feasts
+of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the charter of 1690 provision was made
+for a Saturday market and three fairs, on the 1st of May, 10th of
+September and Shrove Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.
+
+
+
+
+FOWL (Dan. _Fugl_, Ger. _Vogel_), a term originally used in the sense
+that bird[1] now is, but, except in composition,--as sea-fowl, wild-fowl
+and the like,--practically almost confined[2] at present to designate
+the otherwise nameless species which struts on our dunghills, gathers
+round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry yards--the type of the genus
+_Gallus_ of ornithologists, of which four well-marked species are known.
+The _first_ of these is the red jungle-fowl of the greater part of
+India, _G. ferrugineus_,--called by many writers _G. bankiva_,--which is
+undoubtedly the parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin,
+_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits
+northern India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay
+Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the
+Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of 4000 ft.,
+and its southern limits in the west of India proper are, according to
+Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south of the Nerbudda, and
+in the east near the left bank of the Godavery, or perhaps even farther,
+as he had heard of its being killed at Cummum. This species resembles in
+plumage what is commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the
+"Black-breasted game" breed, and this is said to be especially the case
+with examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples from
+India some differences are observable--the latter having the plumage
+less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white, and slate-coloured
+legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are crimson, like the comb and
+wattles, and the legs yellowish. If the Malayan birds be considered
+distinct, it is to them that the name _G. bankiva_ properly applies.
+This species is said to be found in lofty forests and in dense thickets,
+as well as in ordinary bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near
+its haunts, it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in
+straggling parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives
+utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam, never
+prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds from January to
+July, according to the locality; and lays from 8 to 12 creamy-white
+eggs, occasionally scraping together a few leaves or a little dry grass
+by way of a nest. The so-called _G. giganteus_, formerly taken by some
+ornithologists for a distinct species, is now regarded as a tame breed
+of _G. ferrugineus_ or _bankiva_. The _second_ good species is the grey
+jungle-fowl, _G. sonnerati_, whose range begins a little to the
+northward of the limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern
+part of the Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock
+has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a horny
+plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very peculiar,
+being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike that of _G.
+ferrugineus_ and more like a cackle. The two species where their
+respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed in a wild state, and
+the present readily crosses in confinement with domestic poultry, but
+the hybrids are nearly always sterile. The _third_ species is the
+Sinhalese jungle-fowl, _G. stanleyi_ (the _G. lafayettii_ of some
+authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also greatly resembles in plumage
+some domestic birds, but the cock is red beneath, and has a yellow comb
+with a red edge and purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a
+singularly different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird
+crosses readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be
+infertile. The _fourth_ species, _G. varius_ (the _G. furcatus_ of some
+authors), inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This
+differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and in
+having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a single chin
+wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage is another easy mark of
+distinction. Hybrids between this species and domestic birds are often
+produced, but they are most commonly sterile. Some of them have been
+mistaken for distinct species, as those which have received the names of
+_G. aeneus_ and _G. temmincki_.
+
+Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls were first
+domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent thereto, and it is the
+tradition of the Chinese that they received their poultry from the West
+about the year 1400 B.C. By the Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is
+forbidden, though the wild is allowed to be eaten--showing that its
+domestication was accomplished when they were written. The bird is not
+mentioned in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has [Greek:
+'Alektôr] (cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient
+Egyptian monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the
+Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece
+through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between the
+6th and 7th centuries B.C. It is sculptured on the Lycian marbles in the
+British Museum (c. 600 B.C.), and E. Blyth remarks (Ibis, 1867, p. 157)
+that it is there represented with the appearance of a true jungle-fowl,
+for none of the wild _Galli_ have the upright bearing of the tame breed,
+but carry their tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of
+these breeds see POULTRY.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Bird_ (cognate with _breed_ and _brood_) was originally the
+    young of any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament
+    speaks of "Wolf-birdis," i.e. Wolf-cubs.
+
+  [2] Like _Deer_ (Dan. _Dyr_, Ger. _Tier_). _Beast_, too, with some
+    men has almost attained as much specialization.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867), English architect, was born at Cullompton,
+Devon, on the 17th of May 1792. After serving an apprenticeship of five
+years at Exeter, he went to London in 1814, and entered the office of
+David Laing, where he remained till he commenced practice for himself.
+His first work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall
+Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the first
+premium for a design for the new London bridge, which, however, was
+ultimately built according to the design of another architect. Fowler's
+other designs for bridges include one constructed across the Dart at
+Totnes. He was also the architect for the markets of Covent Garden and
+Hungerford, the new market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and
+besides several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845), the
+London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax Chandlers'
+Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years he was honorary secretary
+of the institute of British architects, and he was afterwards created
+vice-president. He retired from his profession in 1853, and died at
+Great Marlow, Bucks, on the 26th of September 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714), English divine, was born in 1632 at
+Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity College, Cambridge. He
+was successively rector of Norhill, Bedfordshire (1656) and of All
+Hallows, Bread Street, London (1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of
+Gloucester, his friend Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in
+his favour. In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after
+four years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration of
+Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced the London
+clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated bishop of
+Gloucester and held the see until his death on the 26th of August 1714.
+Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies, and his earliest book was a
+_Free Discourse_ in defence of _The Practices of Certain Moderate
+Divines called Latitudinarians_ (1670). _The Design of Christianity_,
+published by him in the following year, in which he laid stress on the
+moral design of revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his _How far
+Holiness is the Design of Christianity_ (1671) and by Bunyan in his
+_Defence of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith_ (1672), the latter
+describing the _Design_ as "a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and
+Quakerism," a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous
+pamphlet entitled _Dirt Wip'd Off_. He also published, in 1693,
+_Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity is
+endeavoured to be explained_, challenging with some success the Socinian
+position.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864), English inventor, was born at Melksham, Wilts,
+on the 11th of July 1826. He learned practical engineering at
+Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about 1850 invented a mechanical system for
+the drainage of land. In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation,
+and in 1858 the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of £500
+which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an economic
+substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he founded at Hunslet,
+Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manufacturers of agricultural
+machinery, traction engines, &c. He died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the
+4th of December 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898), English civil engineer, was born on the
+15th of July 1817 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield, where his father was
+a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen he became a pupil of John
+Towlerton Leather, the engineer of the Sheffield water-works. The
+latter's uncle, George Leather, was engineer of the Great Aire and
+Calder Navigation Company, of the Goole Docks, and other similar works,
+and Fowler passed occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired
+a thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of railway
+construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers into its service,
+and one of his first employments was to oppose the route of the Midland
+railway, chosen by the Stephensons, which left Sheffield on a branch
+line, and was therefore strongly resented by the inhabitants. The
+prestige of the Stephensons carried all before it, but in later life Sir
+John Fowler had the satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients
+justified, and Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into
+the office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway engineers
+of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges for the line from
+London to Brighton, and also in surveying for railways in Lancashire. In
+1839 he went as representative of Mr Leather to take charge of the
+construction of the Stockton & Hartlepool railway and remained as
+manager of the line after it was finished. In 1844 he began his
+independent career as an engineer, and from the first was largely
+employed, more particularly in laying out the small railway systems
+which eventually were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester,
+Sheffield & Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a
+bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the Board of
+Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir) Lintorn Simmons.
+The engineering profession espoused Fowler's side in the controversy
+which followed, and as a result the verdict of the Board of Trade was
+modified. The episode was the beginning of a warm friendship between
+these distinguished representatives of civil and military engineering.
+Fowler was engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of
+underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly made not by
+tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and then covering in the
+permanent way; and he lived to be one of the engineers officially
+connected with the deep tunnelling "tube" system extensively adopted for
+electric railways in London. He was also engaged in the making of
+railways in Ireland, and in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on
+a commission to advise the government in respect of a proposal for a
+state-purchase of the Irish railway system. He also carried out
+considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and the
+reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.
+
+In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
+the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair. He was strongly
+opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to France, and in 1872 he
+endeavoured to obtain the consent of parliament to a Channel ferry
+scheme, whereby trains were to be transported across the strait in large
+ferry steamers. The proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at
+Dover and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing
+the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman of a
+committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled to render, in
+his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian government, which
+was much embarrassed by impracticable proposals pressed on it by
+Garibaldi for a rectification of the course of the Tiber and other
+engineering works. He had several interviews with the Italian patriot,
+and persuaded him of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby
+obtaining for the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme.
+For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser in
+Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the Sudan, and
+also the reparation of the barrage. These and many other plans came to
+an end owing to financial reasons. But the maps and surveys for the
+railway were given to the war office, and proved most useful to Lord
+Wolseley in his Nile expedition. For his service Fowler was made
+K.C.M.G. (1885). He was created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of
+the Forth bridge, of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was
+joint engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born about the year
+1560. He attended St Leonard's college, St Andrews, between 1574 and
+1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris studying civil law. In 1581 he issued
+a pamphlet against John Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said,
+driven him from his country. He subsequently (about ?1590) became
+private secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of
+James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen went to
+England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant of 2000 acres in
+Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married Sir John Drummond, and was
+mother of the poet William Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of
+_The Triumphs of Petrarke_, Fowler styles himself "P. of Hawick," which
+has been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is
+doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled _The
+Tarantula of Love_, and a translation (1587) from the Italian of the
+_Triumphs of Petrarke_ are preserved in the library of the university of
+Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his nephew, William Drummond.
+Two other volumes of his manuscript notes, scrolls of poems, &c., are
+preserved among the Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of
+Antiquaries of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler's verses were published in
+1803 by John Leyden in his _Scottish Descriptive Poems_. Fowler
+contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.'s _Furies_; and James, in
+return, commended, in verse, Fowler's _Triumphs_.
+
+
+
+
+FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806), British statesman and orator, was the
+third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and his wife. Lady Caroline
+Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was
+born at 9 Conduit Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The
+father, who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him to
+choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wandsworth by a
+French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short time he asked to be
+sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At Eton he did no more work than
+was acceptable to him, but he had an inborn love of literature, and he
+laid the foundation of that knowledge of the classic languages which in
+after years was the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was
+controlled by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he checked
+his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his father trusted
+him to cure his defects.
+
+That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and magnanimous
+man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no one ever owed less to
+education or to family example. The relations of Lord Holland to his
+sons would be difficult to parallel. He not only treated them, and in
+particular Charles, as friends and companions in pleasure from the
+first, but he did his best to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he
+took Charles for a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most
+immoral society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble. The
+boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good fortune that he
+did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome course of ridicule by
+the other boys, and was flogged by Dr Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764
+Charles proceeded to Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he
+read literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to
+mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathematics
+entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense of Sir G.
+Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was known to maintain that it
+was useless. His own account of his school and college training, given
+in a letter to the same correspondent (6th August 1767), is: "I employed
+almost my whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical
+knowledge, but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand
+Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every part of
+useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how little advantage
+there is in being what at school and the university is called a good
+scholar: one receives a good deal of amusement from it, but that is all.
+At present I read nothing but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of,
+particularly of the poetry.... As for French, I am far from being so
+thorough a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I
+could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble,
+especially if I pass three or four months in France." The passage is
+characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature and his
+thoroughness. Fox's youth was disorderly, but it was never indolent. He
+was incapable of half doing anything which he did at all. He did perfect
+himself in French, and he showed no less determination to master mere
+sports. At a later period when he had grown fat he accounted for his
+skill in taking "cut balls" at tennis by saying that he was a very
+"painstaking man." He was all his life a great and steady walker.
+
+The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a common
+subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford and joined his
+father on the continent during a tour in France and Italy. In 1768 Lord
+Holland bought the pocket borough of Midhurst for him, and he entered on
+his parliamentary career, and on London society, in 1769. Within the
+next few years Lord Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that
+was good, and whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son.
+The affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the
+passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy proved the
+ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses, and bet on them largely.
+On the racecourse he was successful, and it is another proof of his
+native thoroughness that he gained a reputation as a handicapper. It is
+said that he won more than he lost on the course. At the gambling table
+he was unfortunate, and there can be little question that he was fleeced
+both in London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social
+rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worthlessness he
+knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his losses and their
+consequences with an attractive gaiety. He called the room in which he
+did business with the Jew moneylenders his "Jerusalem chamber." When his
+elder brother had a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that
+the boy was a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of
+the Jews. "He had his jest, and they had his estate." In 1774 Lord
+Holland had to find £140,000 to pay the gambling debts of his sons. For
+years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment, and during his later
+years, when he had given up gambling, he was supported by the
+contributions of wealthy friends, who in 1793 formed a fund of £70,000
+for his benefit.
+
+His public career did not supply him with a check on habits of
+dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He began, as
+was to be expected in his father's son, by supporting the court; and in
+1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed a junior lord of the
+admiralty with Lord North. During the violent conflict over the
+Middlesex election (see WILKES, JOHN) he took the unpopular side, and
+vehemently asserted the right of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes.
+In 1772 during the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver--a part of the
+"Wilkes and liberty" agitation--he and Lord North were attacked by a mob
+and rolled in the mud. But Fox's character was incompatible with
+ministerial service under King George III. The king, himself a man of
+orderly life, detested him as a gambler and a rake. And Fox was too
+independent to please a master who expected obedience. In February 1772
+he threw up his place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on
+which the king's heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord of
+the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his sympathy with
+the American colonies, which were now beginning to resist the claims of
+the mother country to tax them, made him intolerable to the king and he
+was dismissed in February 1774. The death of his father on the 1st of
+July of that year removed an influence which tended to keep him
+subordinate to the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into
+close alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability had
+won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had prepared to
+distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate cultivation of his
+voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill. His argumentative force was
+recognized at once, but the full scope of his powers was first shown on
+the 2nd of February 1775, when he spoke on the disputes with the
+colonies. The speech is unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it,
+told his friend Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, "taking
+the vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for
+regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies dreaded."
+
+His great political career dates from that day. It is unique among the
+careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was passed almost
+wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in 1782 and 1783, and
+again for a few months before his death in 1806, he was out of office.
+If he was absolutely sincere in the statement he made to his friend
+Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the 3rd of February 1778, his life was all
+he could have wished. "I am," he wrote, "certainly ambitious by nature,
+but I really have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have
+still as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because
+great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation I never
+can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making sacrifices that I
+never will make." His words show that he judged himself and read the
+future accurately. Yet it was certainly a cause of bitter disappointment
+to him that he had to stand by while the country was in his opinion not
+only misgoverned, but led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a
+political critic, which was great from the first and grew as he lived,
+most assuredly did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of
+the causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the purpose
+of obtaining practical success the most important, perhaps the only one
+of real importance, was his personal character. Lord John Russell
+(afterwards Earl Russell), his friendly biographer, has to confess that
+Fox might have joined in the confession of Mirabeau: "The public cause
+suffers for the immoralities of my youth." His reputation as a rake and
+gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his career that
+when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was a general belief
+among the vulgar that he had been detected in actual theft. His perfect
+openness, the notoriety of his bankruptcies and of the seizure of his
+books and furniture in execution, kept him before the world as a model
+of dissipation. In 1776, when he was leading the resistance to Lord
+North's colonial policy, he "neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish
+life. He was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it
+before two at noon." At the most important crisis of his life in 1783,
+he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not only
+to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has drawn a picture
+of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox's beloved and admiring
+nephew, speaking from his early recollections of his uncle, confesses
+has "some justification." Coming from such an authority the certificate
+may be held to confirm the substantial accuracy of Walpole. "Fox lodged
+in St James's Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a
+levée of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks's--all his
+disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite open and
+rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul linen nightgown
+and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic weeds and with Epicurean
+good humour did he dictate his politics, and in this school did the heir
+of the empire attend his lessons and imbibe them." That this cynic
+manner, and Epicurean speech, were only the outside of a manly and
+generous nature was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is
+now universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries, who
+could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously displayed, Fox
+was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral and untrustworthy.
+Therefore when he came into collision with the will of the king he
+failed to secure the confidence of the nation which was his only
+support. Nor ought any critical admirer of Fox to deny that George III.
+was not wholly wrong when he said that the great orator "was totally
+destitute of discretion and sound judgment." Fox made many mistakes, due
+in some cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be
+ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes is a very
+insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical statesman. He
+could have profited by the reaction which followed popular excitement
+but for his bad reputation and his want of discretion.
+
+During the eight years between his expulsion from office in 1774 and the
+fall of Lord North's ministry in March 1782 he may indeed be said to
+have done one very great thing in politics. He planted the seed of the
+modern Liberal party as opposed to the pure Whigs. In political
+allegiance he became a member of the Rockingham party and worked in
+alliance with the marquis and with Burke, whose influence on him was
+great. In opposing the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in
+assailing the waste and corruption of Lord North's administration, as
+well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the
+Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption, and in favour
+of honest management of the public money, which was very strong between
+1779 and 1782, he and they worked heartily together. It had a
+considerable effect, and prepared the way for the reforms begun by Burke
+and continued by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with
+originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement as final,
+or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House of Commons
+could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction that, if the House
+was to be made an efficient instrument for restraining the interference
+of the king and for securing good government, it must cease to be filled
+to a very large extent by the nominees of boroughmongers and the
+treasury. He became a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all
+ways he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been known
+as "Liberal causes," the removal of all religious disabilities and
+tests, the suppression of private interests which hampered the public
+good, the abolition of the slave trade, and the emancipation of all
+classes and races of men from the strict control of authority.
+
+A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would entail the
+mention of every crisis of the American War of Independence and of every
+serious debate in parliament. Throughout the struggle Fox was uniformly
+opposed to the coercion of the colonies and was the untiring critic of
+Lord North. While the result must be held to prove that he was right, he
+prepared future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He
+was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim that an
+enemy should always be treated as if he may one day be a friend, and a
+friend as if he might become an enemy. On the 29th of November 1779 Fox
+was wounded in a duel with Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North's
+whom he had savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured
+invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal
+character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an amiable
+though pliable man, who remained in office against his own wish, in
+deference to the king who appealed to his loyalty. When the disasters of
+the American war had at last made a change of ministry necessary, and
+the king applied to the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord
+Shelburne, Fox made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of
+Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign. The
+result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox's own words,
+partly to the king and partly to the country--that is to say, partly of
+Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and partly of the king's friends,
+represented by Lord Shelburne, whose real function was to baffle the
+Whigs. Dissensions began from the first, and were peculiarly acute
+between Shelburne and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old
+division of duties by which the southern secretary had the
+correspondence with the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and
+the northern secretary with the others, had been abolished on the
+formation of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted
+to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the peace at
+Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some rather scandalous
+pensions, and Fox's acquiescence in this abuse after his recent
+agitation against Lord North's waste did him injury. When the marquess
+of Rockingham died on the 1st of July 1782, and the king offered the
+premiership to Shelburne, Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of
+the Rockingham Whigs.
+
+In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly consistent, but
+his next step was ruinous to himself and his party. On the 14th of
+February 1783 he formed a coalition with Lord North, based as they
+declared on "mutual goodwill and confidence." Plausible excuses were
+made for the alliance, but to the country at large this union, formed
+with a man whom he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an
+unscrupulous conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the House of
+Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive Shelburne from office
+on the 24th of February. The king made a prolonged resistance to the
+pressure put on him to accept Fox and North as his ministers (see PITT,
+WILLIAM). On the 2nd of April he was constrained to submit to the
+formation of a new ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime
+minister and Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new
+administration was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox
+increased its unpopularity both in the House and in the country by
+consenting against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the
+grant of a sum of £100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had
+the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on bad terms
+with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his acquiescence in the
+grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry, convinced the country that
+his zeal for economy was hypocritical. The introduction of the India
+Bill in November 1783 alarmed many vested interests, and offended the
+king by the provision which gave the patronage of India to a commission
+to be named by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The
+coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of most
+telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the growing unpopularity
+of his ministers, George III. gave it to be understood that he would not
+look upon any member of the House of Lords who voted for the India Bill
+as his friend. The bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of
+December, and next day the king dismissed his ministers.
+
+Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his life may be
+divided into four portions--his opposition to Pitt during the session of
+1784; his parliamentary activity till his secession in 1797; his
+retirement till 1800; his return to activity and his short tenure of
+office before his death in 1806. During the first of these periods he
+deepened his unpopularity by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the
+crown, by claiming for the House of Commons the right to override not
+only the king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by
+resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from a
+statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He lost ground
+daily before the steady good judgment and unblemished character of Pitt.
+When parliament was dissolved at the end of the session of 1784, the
+country showed its sentiments by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox
+and North. Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book
+called _The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke_, a compilation of their
+abuse of one another in recent years.
+
+Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes than Admiral
+Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial candidate, Sir Cecil
+Wray. The election was marked by an amazing outflow of caricatures and
+squibs, by weeks of rioting in which Lord Hood's sailors fought pitched
+battles in St James's Street with Fox's hackney coachmen, and by the
+intrepid canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire
+(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for Fox by
+kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what constituted a
+desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make a return, and the
+confirmation of Fox's election was delayed by the somewhat mean action
+of the ministry. He had, however, been chosen for Kirkwall, and could
+fight his cause in the House. In the end he recovered damages from the
+high bailiff. In his place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and
+sometimes opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers' bill
+for the government of India was sound in principle, though the evils he
+foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for his opposition to
+Pitt's commercial policy towards Ireland. But as Fox on this occasion
+aided the vested interests of some English manufacturers he secured a
+certain revival of popularity. His support of Pitt's Reform Bill was
+qualified by a just dislike of the ministers' proposal to treat the
+possession of the franchise by a constituency as a property and not as a
+trust. His unsuccessful opposition to the commercial treaty with France
+in 1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed himself
+to the proposition that France was the natural enemy of Great Britain, a
+saying often quoted against him in coming years. It has been excused on
+the ground that when he said France he meant the aggressive house of
+Bourbon. A statesman whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric
+meaning cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788 he
+travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the illness of
+the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of Wales to the regency
+as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt into declaring that he would
+"unwhig the gentleman for the rest of his life." The friendship between
+him and the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) was always injurious to
+Fox. In 1787 he was misled by the prince's ambiguous assurances into
+denying the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had
+been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a year, but
+their alliance was renewed. During these years he was always in favour
+of whatever measures could be described as favourable to emancipation
+and to humanity. He actively promoted the impeachment of Warren
+Hastings, which had the support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the
+abolition of the slave trade (which he actually effected during his
+short tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of
+concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and in
+Ireland.
+
+The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together with almost all
+his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the states-general in 1789 as
+the downfall of a despotism hostile to Great Britain. But when the
+development of the Revolution caused a general reaction, he adhered
+stoutly to his opinion that the Revolution was essentially just and
+ought not to be condemned for its errors or even for its crimes. As a
+natural consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt's foreign policy,
+which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in the
+interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his unpopularity reached
+its height. He was left almost alone in parliament, and was denounced as
+the enemy of his country. On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful
+scene in the House of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship.
+In 1792 there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt,
+which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with Burke took
+place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill, in which Fox
+displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the division of Upper from
+Lower Canada, and other provisions of the bill, which in the end proved
+so injurious as to be unworkable. In this year he carried the Libel
+Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke of Portland, and most of his party left
+him. In 1797 he withdrew from parliament, and only came forward in 1798
+to reaffirm the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great
+Whig dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy council.
+
+The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life. In 1783
+he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane, commonly known as Mrs
+Armstead or Armistead, an amiable and well-mannered woman to whom he
+was passionately attached. In company with her he established himself at
+St Anne's Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her
+privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters he
+spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends--Mr Coke
+of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he stayed every year,
+being one of them--would not invite her to their houses. It is hard to
+explain this solitary instance of shabby conduct in a thoroughly
+generous man towards a person to whom he was unalterably attached and
+who fully deserved his affection. Fox's time at St Anne's was largely
+spent in gardening, in the enjoyment of the country, and in
+correspondence on literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord
+Holland, and with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His
+letters show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened
+appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first
+favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in French,
+and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite authors were
+Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends against the stock
+criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with equal zeal and insight.
+
+Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of censure on
+ministers for declining Napoleon's overtures for a peace. The fall of
+Pitt's first ministry and the formation of the Addington cabinet, the
+peace of Amiens, and the establishment of Napoleon as first consul with
+all the powers of a military despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of
+resuming power in public life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over,
+and he could have no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful
+general who ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual
+aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his wife. An
+account of his journey was published in 1811 by his secretary, Mr
+Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence. It gives an
+attractive picture of Fox's good-humour, and of his enjoyment of the
+"species of minor comedy which is constantly exhibited in common life."
+His main purpose in visiting Paris was to superintend the transcription
+of the correspondence of Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life
+of James II. The book was never finished, but the fragment he completed
+was published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand Carrel
+in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon. He saw a good
+deal of French society, and was himself much admired for his hearty
+defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish charge of encouraging plots
+for Napoleon's assassination. On his return he resumed his regular
+attendance in the House of Commons. The history of the renewal of the
+war, of the fall of Addington's ministry, and of the formation of Pitt's
+second administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt
+(q.v.) that it need not be repeated here.
+
+The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in public life
+that the king could no longer hope to exclude him from office. The
+formation of a ministry was entrusted by the king to Lord Grenville, but
+when he named Fox as his proposed secretary of state for foreign affairs
+George III. accepted him without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a
+large extent to have died out. A long period of office might now have
+appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had he lived
+it may be considered as certain that the war with Napoleon would have
+been conducted with a vigour which was much wanting during the next few
+years. In domestic politics Fox had no time to do more than insist on
+the abolition of the slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to
+the king's invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the
+Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself Guillet de la
+Gevrillière, whom Fox at first "did the honour to take for a spy," came
+to him with a scheme for the murder of Napoleon, he sent a warning on
+the 20th of February to Talleyrand. The incident gave him an opportunity
+for reopening negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and
+British envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the
+French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved not to treat
+apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain, nor to consent to
+the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted upon, unless full
+compensation could be obtained for King Ferdinand. The later stages of
+the negotiation were not directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took
+over his work at the foreign office when his health began to fail in the
+summer of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only
+procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for the
+abolition of the slave trade on the 10th of June, he was forced to give
+up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of the duke of
+Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September 1806. His wife
+survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No children were born of the
+marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster Abbey by the side of Pitt.
+
+The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered very familiar
+by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The latter were no doubt
+deliberately exaggerated, and yet a comparison between the head of Fox
+in Sayer's plate "Carlo Khan's triumphal entry into Leadenhall," and in
+Abbot's portrait, shows that the caricaturist did not depart from the
+original. Fox was twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young
+in a group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways, and once
+at full length. A half-length portrait by the German painter, Karl Anton
+Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery, where there is also a
+terra-cotta bust by Nollekens.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The materials for a life of Fox were first collected by
+  his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged by Mr
+  Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as _Memoirs and
+  Correspondence of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1853-1857). On them Lord John
+  Russell based his _Life and Times of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1859-1866);
+  Sir G.O. Trevelyan's _Early History of C.J. Fox_ (London. 1880) brings
+  new evidence; _Charles James Fox, a Political Study_, by J.L. Le B.
+  Hammond (London, 1903), is a series of studies written by an extreme
+  admirer. His _Speeches_ were collected and published in 1815. The
+  newspaper articles (e.g. in _The Times_) published on the occasion of
+  the centenary of his death contain interesting appreciations. See also
+  Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_ (1908).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born about 1496 at
+Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very doubtful authority to
+have been related to Richard Fox (q.v.). From Eton he proceeded to
+King's College, Cambridge, and after graduating was made secretary to
+Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement
+VII. a decretal commission for the trial and decision of the case
+between Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was
+elected provost of King's College, and in August 1529 was the means of
+conveying to the king Cranmer's historic advice that he should apply to
+the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This introduction
+led eventually to Cranmer's promotion over Fox's head to the
+archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission to Paris in October
+1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended Latimer at Cambridge and took an
+active part in persuading that university and Oxford to decide in the
+king's favour. He was sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at
+the French universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in
+negotiating a closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he
+was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity of
+Henry's marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his treatise _De
+vera differentia regiae potestatis et ecclesiae_ (second ed. 1538,
+English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical preferments were now
+granted him, including the archdeaconry of Leicester (1531) and the
+bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-1536 he was sent to Germany to
+discuss the basis of a political and theological understanding with the
+Lutheran princes and divines, and had several interviews with Luther,
+who could not be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII.'s divorce. The
+principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of 1536,
+which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles of the same
+year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his _Commentaries on the Gospels_,
+and Fox's Protestantism was also illustrated by his patronage of
+Alexander Aless, whom he defended before Convocation. Fox is credited
+with the authorship of several proverbial sayings, such as "the surest
+way to peace is a constant preparedness for war" and "time and I will
+challenge any two in the world." The former at any rate is only a
+variation of the Latin _si vis pacem, para bellum_, and probably the
+latter is not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is
+usually ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the
+church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is perhaps
+that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.'s bishops, and was largely
+responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.
+
+  See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper's
+  _Athenae Cantabrigienses_; _Dict. Nat. Biogr._; R.W. Dixon's _Church
+  History_; G. Mentz, _Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536_ (1905).
+       (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35925-8.txt or 35925-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/2/35925/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35925-8.zip b/35925-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9994569
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-8.zip
diff --git a/35925-h.zip b/35925-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2260ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h.zip
diff --git a/35925-h/35925-h.htm b/35925-h/35925-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50f5f2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/35925-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,21540 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume X Slice VI - Foraminifera to Fox, Edward.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body    { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; }
+    p       { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.c     { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    h2,h3        { text-align: center; }
+    hr           { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; }
+    hr.art       { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899;
+                          margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em }
+    hr.foot      {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+    hr.full      {width: 100%}
+
+    table.ws      {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                   margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+    table.reg     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;}
+    table.reg td  { white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.flt     { border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.pic     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;}
+    table.math0 td  {text-align: center;}
+    table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;}
+
+    table.reg p     {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;}
+    table.reg td.tc5p  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; }
+    table.pic td    { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;}
+    table.nobctr p, table.flt p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    table.pic td p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+
+    td.tcc        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tccm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tccb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcr        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tcrb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcrm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tcl        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tclb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tclm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.vb         { vertical-align: bottom; }
+
+      .caption    { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
+      .caption1   { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+      .caption80  { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+
+    td.lb       {border-left: black 1px solid;}
+    td.ltb      {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb       {border-right: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb2      {border-right: black 2px solid;}
+    td.tb, span.tb  {border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb       {border-bottom: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb1      {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.rlb      {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;}
+    td.allb     {border: black 1px solid;}
+    td.cl       {background-color: #e8e8e8}
+
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link, a:visited, link  {text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
+    .center1  {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    .f80      {font-size: 80%}
+    .f90      {font-size: 90%}
+    .f150     {font-size: 150%}
+    .f200     {font-size: 200%}
+
+    .sp       {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp1      {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp2      {position: relative; bottom: 1em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su       {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su1      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;}
+    .su2      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -3ex;}
+    .spp      {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .suu      {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scs      {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .ov       {text-decoration: overline}
+    .cl       {background-color: #f5f5f5;}
+    .bk       {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;}
+    .bk1      {margin-left: -1em;}
+
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt;
+                  background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0;
+                  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; }
+    span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em;
+	           font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold;
+                   font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;
+                   background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .fn       { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5;
+                text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+
+    div.poemr        { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    div.poemr p      { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; }
+    div.poemr p.s     { margin-top: 1.5em; }
+    div.poemr p.i05   { margin-left: 0.4em; }
+    div.poemr p.i1    { margin-left: 1em; }
+    div.poemr p.i2    { margin-left: 2em; }
+    div.poemr p.i3    { margin-left: 2em; }
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figleft1  { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figcenter   {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    .figcenter1  {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;}
+    .figure      {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;}
+    .bold        {font-weight: bold; }
+
+     div.minind   {text-align: justify;}
+     div.condensed, div.condensed1  { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list1   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.prl      {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6
+       "Foraminifera" to "Fox, Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2011 [EBook #35925]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME X SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Foraminifera to Fox, Edward</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FORAMINIFERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FORT LEE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FORBACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FORT MADISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FORTROSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FORBES, ARCHIBALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FORT SCOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FORBES, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FORT SMITH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FORBES, DUNCAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FORTUNA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FORBES, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FORBES, JAMES DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FORTUNATUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FORBES, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FORBES</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FORTUNE, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FORBIN, CLAUDE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FORT WAYNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FORCELLINI, EGIDIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FORT WILLIAM</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FORT WILLIAM</a> (Scotland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FORT WORTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FORCHHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FORTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FORUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FORD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FORUM APPII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FORD, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FORUM CLODII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FORD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FORUM TRAIANI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FORDE, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FORDHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FOSCARI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FORDUN, JOHN OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FOSCOLO, UGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FORECLOSURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FOSS, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FOREIGN OFFICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FOSSANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FOSSANUOVA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FORESHORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FOSSE WAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FORESTALLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FOSSICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FOREST LAWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FOSSOMBRONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FORESTS AND FORESTRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FORFAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FORFARSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FOSTER, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FORFEITURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FORGERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FORGET-ME-NOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FORGING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FOSTORIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FORK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FOTHERGILL, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FOTHERINGHAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FORLÌ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FORLIMPOPOLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FORLORN HOPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FOUCHER, SIMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FORM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FOUCQUET, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FORMALIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FOUGÈRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FORMAN, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FORMAN, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FOULD, ACHILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FORMERET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FORMIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FOUNDATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FORMIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FOUNDATIONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FORMOSA</a> (territory of Argentine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FOUNDING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FORMOSA</a> (Taiwan)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FOUNDLING HOSPITALS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FORMOSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FOUNTAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FORMULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FOUNTAINS ABBEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FORRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FORREST, EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FOUQUET, NICOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FORREST, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FOURCHAMBAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FORSKÅL, PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FORST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FORSTER, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FOURIER'S SERIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FOURMIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FORSTER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FORSTER, JOHN COOPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FOURNIER L&rsquo;HÉRITIER, CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FORTALEZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FOUSSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FORT AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FOWEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FORT DODGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FOWL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FORT EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FOWLER, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN</a> (English lawyer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FOWLER, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN</a> (English statesman)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FOWLER, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FORTEVIOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FOWLER, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FORT GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FOWLER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">FOX, CHARLES JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">FOX, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FORTLAGE, KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FORAMINIFERA,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa,
+the name selected for this enormous class being that given by
+A. D&rsquo;Orbigny in 1826 to the shells characteristic of the majority
+of the species. He regarded them as minute Cephalopods,
+whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina). Later
+on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working
+on living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized
+by pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm)
+as organs of prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter
+in 1862 differentiated the group nearly in its present limits as
+&ldquo;Reticularia&rdquo;; and since then it has been rendered more natural
+by the removal of a number of simple forms (mostly freshwater)
+with branching but not reticulate pseudopods, to Filosa, a
+distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the restricted
+class of Rhizopoda.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:274px" src="images/img628.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1A.</span>&mdash;<i>Lieberkühnia</i>, with reticulate pseudopodia.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Anatomy.</i>&mdash;Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic
+bodies of <i>granular surface</i>, emitting processes which branch
+and <i>anastomose freely</i>, either from the whole surface or from
+one or more elongated processes (&ldquo;stylopods&rdquo;); nucleus one
+or more (not yet demonstrated in some little known simple
+forms), usually in genetic relation to granules or strands of
+matter of similar composition, the &ldquo;chromidia&rdquo; scattered through
+the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
+investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous
+(of compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely
+(in deep sea forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but
+<i>never latticed</i>; opening by one or more permanent apertures
+(&ldquo;pylomes&rdquo;) or crevices between compacted sand-granules,
+often very complex; reproduction by fission (only in simplest
+naked forms), or by brood formation; in the latter case one
+mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform embryos,
+the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span>
+gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the
+coupled cell (&ldquo;zygote&rdquo;) when mature in the shelled species gives
+rise to a very small primitive test-chamber or &ldquo;microsphere.&rdquo; The
+adult microspheric animal gives rise to the amoebiform brood
+which have a larger primitive test (&ldquo;megalosphere&rdquo;); and megalospheric
+forms appear to reproduce by the A type a series of
+similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally borne, to
+pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is consequently
+rare.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:283px" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1B.</span>&mdash;<i>Protomyxa aurantiaca</i>, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>1</i>, Adult, containing two diatom
+frustules, and three Tintinnid
+ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate
+just caught by the
+expanded reticulate pseudopodia.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>2</i>, Adult encysted and segmented.</p>
+
+<p><i>3</i>, Flagellate zoospore just freed
+from cyst.</p>
+
+<p><i>4</i>, Zoospore which has passed
+into the amoeboid state.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:468px; height:1053px" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;<i>Allogromiidea.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>1</i>, <i>Diplophrys archeri</i>, Barker.<br />
+
+&emsp;<i>a</i>, Nucleus.<br />
+&emsp;<i>b</i>, Contractile vacuoles.<br />
+&emsp;<i>c</i>, The yellow oil-like body.
+Moor pools, Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><i>2</i>, <i>Allogromia oviformis</i>, Duj.<br />
+
+&emsp;<i>a</i>, The numerous nuclei; near
+these the elongated bodies
+represent ingested diatoms.
+Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11,
+12 belong to Rhizopoda
+Filosa, and are included
+here to show the characteristic
+<i>filose</i> pseudopodia in
+contrast with the reticulate
+spread of the others.</p>
+
+<p><i>3</i>, <i>Shepheardella taeniiformis</i>,
+Siddall (<i>Quart. Jour. Micr.
+Sci.</i>, 1880).<br />
+
+&emsp;Marine. The protoplasm is
+retracted at both ends into
+the tubular case.<br />
+
+&emsp;<i>a</i>. Nucleus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>5</i>, <i>Shepheardella taeniiformis</i>;
+with pseudopodia fully
+expanded.</p>
+
+<p><i>6-10</i>, Varying appearance of the
+nucleus as it is carried along
+in the streaming protoplasm
+within the tube.</p>
+
+<p><i>11</i>, <i>Amphitrema wrightianum</i>,
+Archer, showing membranous
+shell encrusted with foreign
+particles. Moor pools, Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><i>12</i>, <i>Diaphorophodon mobile</i>,
+Archer.<br />
+
+&emsp;<i>a</i>. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they
+are membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always
+very simple, the only complication being the doubling of the
+pylome in <i>Diplophrys</i> (fig. 2, <i>1</i>), <i>Shepheardella</i> (fig. 2, <i>3-5</i>),
+<i>Amphitrema</i> (fig. 2, <i>11</i>), <i>Diaphorophodon</i> (fig. 2, <i>12</i>). The marine
+shells are, as we have seen, of cemented particles, or calcareous,
+glassy, and regularly perforated, or again calcareous, but porcellanous
+and rarely perforate. These characters have been used
+as a guide to classification; but some sandy forms have so large
+a proportion of calcareous cement that they might well be
+called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very constant
+in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
+genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the
+shell by silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean
+abysses, where calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making
+any difficulty. Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected
+process or neck of the embryonic chamber (&ldquo;camptopyle&rdquo;) at
+least in the megalospheric forms, whereas when such a neck
+exists in other groups it is straight. The opening of the shell
+is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole where the lateral
+walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic ingrowth
+so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
+opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, <i>1</i>);
+or replaced by a number of coarse pores (&ldquo;ethmopyle&rdquo;) (fig.
+3, <i>5a</i>). Again, it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube
+(&ldquo;stylopyle&rdquo;), which in <i>Lagena</i> (fig. 3, <i>9</i>) may project outwards
+(&ldquo;ectoselenial&rdquo;), or inwards (&ldquo;entoselenial&rdquo;). In most groups
+the stylopyle is straight; but in the majority of the porcellanous
+shells it is bent down on the side of the shell, and constitutes
+the &ldquo;flexopyle&rdquo; of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid term
+should be replaced by &ldquo;camptopyle.&rdquo; The animal usually forms
+a simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
+&ldquo;embryonic chamber&rdquo; cannot grow further. In <i>Spirillina</i>
+and <i>Ammodiscus</i> there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell
+continues to grow as a spiral tube; in <i>Cornuspira</i> (fig. 3, <i>1</i>)
+there is a slight constriction indicating the junction of a small
+embryonic chamber with a camptopyle, but the rest of the shell
+is a simple flat spiral of several turns. In the majority at least
+one chamber follows the first, with its own pylome at the distal
+end. This second chamber may rest on the first, so that the part
+on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the front of
+the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
+state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span>
+highest vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete
+&ldquo;proper wall&rdquo;; while a &ldquo;supplementary skeleton,&rdquo; a deposit
+of shelly matter, binds the chambers together into a compact
+whole. In all cases the protoplasm from the pylome may
+deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so as to
+produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:462px; height:759px" src="images/img630a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>1</i>, <i>Cornuspira</i>.</p>
+<p><i>2</i>, <i>Spiroloculina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>3</i>, <i>Triloculina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>4</i>, <i>Biloculina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>5</i>, <i>Peneroplis</i>.</p>
+<p><i>6</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (cyclical).</p>
+<p><i>7</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (young).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>8</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (spiral).</p>
+<p><i>9</i>, <i>Lagena</i>.</p>
+<p><i>10</i>, <i>Nodosaria</i>.</p>
+<p><i>11</i>, <i>Cristellaria</i>.</p>
+<p><i>12</i>, <i>Globigerina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>13</i>, <i>Polymorphina</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>14</i>, <i>Textularia</i>.</p>
+<p><i>15</i>, <i>Discorbina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>16</i>, <i>Polystomella</i>.</p>
+<p><i>17</i>, <i>Planorbulina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>18</i>, <i>Rotalia</i>.</p>
+<p><i>19</i>, <i>Nonionina</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:373px" src="images/img630b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Modifications of <i>Peneroplis</i>.
+<i>1</i>, <i>Dendritina</i>; <i>2</i>, <i>Eu-Peneroplis</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Compound or &ldquo;polythalamic&rdquo; shells derive their general
+form largely from the relations of successive chambers in size,
+shape and direction. This is well shown in the porcellanous
+<i>Miliolidae</i>. If we call the straight line uniting the two ends of a
+chamber the &ldquo;polar axis,&rdquo; we find that successive chambers
+have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie on different
+meridians. In <i>Spiroloculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>2</i>) the divergence between
+the meridians is 180°, and the chambers are strongly incurved,
+so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly circular
+outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic
+in section, their transverse prolongations being termed &ldquo;alary&rdquo;
+outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under
+this condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180°
+we have the form <i>Biloculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>4</i>), or with the alary extensions
+completely enveloping, <i>Uniloculina</i>; when the angle is 120°
+we have <i>Triloculina</i>, or 144°, <i>Quinqueloculina</i>. Again in <i>Peneroplis</i>
+(figs. 3, <i>5</i>, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which
+tends to straighten out with further growth and additional
+chambers. In some forms (<i>Spirolina</i>, fig. 22, <i>3</i>) the chambers
+have a nearly circular transverse section, and the adult shell is
+thus crozier-shaped. In others (which may have the same sculpture,
+and are scarcely distinguishable as species) the chambers
+are short and wide,
+drawn out at right
+angles to the axis, but
+in the plane of the
+spiral, and the growing
+shell becomes fan-shaped
+or &ldquo;flabelliform&rdquo;
+(figs. 3, <i>5</i>, 4, <i>2</i>).
+This widening may go
+on till the outer chambers
+form the greater
+part of a circle, as in
+<i>Orbiculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>6-8</i>)
+where, moreover, each
+large chamber is subdivided
+by incomplete
+vertical bulkheads into
+a tier of chamberlets;
+each chamberlet has a
+distinct pylomic pore
+opening to the outside
+or to those of the next
+outer zone. In <i>Orbitolites</i> (figs. 5, 6) we have a centre on a
+somewhat Milioline type; and after a few chambers in spiral
+succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. In the
+larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal
+bulkheads divide
+the chamberlets
+into vertical tiers,
+each with its own
+pylomic pore.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:278px" src="images/img630c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Shell of simple type of <i>Orbitolites</i>, showing primordial
+chamber <i>a</i>, and circumambient chamber <i>b</i>, surrounded by successive
+rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which open at
+the margin by pores.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:352px; height:349px" src="images/img630d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Animal of simple type of <i>Orbitolites</i>,
+showing primordial segment <i>a</i>, and
+circumambient segment <i>b</i>, surrounded by
+annuli of sub-segments connected by radial
+and circular stolon-processes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Cheilostomellidae
+(fig. 3, <i>13</i>) reproduce
+among
+perforate vitreous
+genera what we
+have already seen
+in the <i>Miliolida</i>:
+<i>Orbitoides</i> (fig. 10, <i>2</i>)
+and <i>Cycloclypeus</i>,
+among the Nummulite
+group, with
+a very finely perforate
+wall, recall
+the porcellanous
+<i>Orbiculina</i> and
+<i>Orbitolites</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In flat spiral
+forms (figs. 22, <i>1, 7</i>;
+3, <i>2, 16, 19</i>, &amp;c.) all the chambers may be freely exposed; or the
+successive chambers be wider transversely than their predecessors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span>
+and overlap by &ldquo;alary extensions,&rdquo; becoming &ldquo;nautiloid&rdquo;; in
+extreme cases only the
+last turn or whorl is
+seen (fig. 11). When
+the spiral axis is conical
+the shell may be &ldquo;rotaloid,&rdquo;
+the larger lower
+chambers partially concealing
+the upper
+smaller ones (fig. 3, <i>12,
+15, 17, 18</i>); or they
+may leave, as in <i>Patellina</i>,
+a wide central
+conical cavity&mdash;which,
+in this genus, is finally
+occupied by later
+formed &ldquo;supplementary&rdquo;
+chambers. When
+the successive chambers
+are disposed around a
+longitudinal central
+axis they may be said
+to &ldquo;alternate&rdquo; like the leaves of a plant. If the arrangement
+is distichous we get such forms as <i>Polymorphina</i>, <i>Textularia</i>
+and <i>Frondicularia</i> (fig. 3, <i>13, 14</i>), if tristichous, <i>Tritaxia</i>. Such
+an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the axis for
+at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped <i>Spiroplecta</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:326px; height:344px" src="images/img631a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Section of <i>Rotalia beccarii</i>,
+showing the canal system, <i>a, b, c</i>, in the
+substance of the intermediate skeleton;
+<i>d</i>, tubulated chamber-wall.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:425px; height:268px" src="images/img631b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Internal cast of <i>Polystomella craticulata</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Retral processes, proceeding
+            from the posterior margin
+            of one of the segments.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, <i>b</i>¹, Smooth anterior margin of
+            the same segment.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>¹, Stolons connecting successive
+            segments and uniting
+            themselves with the diverging
+            branches of the
+            meridional canals.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, <i>d</i>¹, <i>d</i>², Three turns of one of
+            the spiral canals.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, <i>e</i>¹, <i>e</i>², Three of the meridional
+            canals.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, <i>f</i>¹, <i>f</i>², Their diverging
+            branches.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:276px" src="images/img631c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>Operculina</i> laid open, to show its internal structure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Marginal cord seen in cross
+         section at a&rsquo;.</p>
+<p><i>b, b</i>,   External walls of the chambers.</p>
+<p><i>c, c</i>,   Cavities of the chambers.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>&prime;, <i>c</i>&prime;, Their alar prolongations.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d, d</i>, Septa divided at d&rsquo;, d&rsquo;, and
+        at d&rdquo;, so as to lay open the
+        interseptal canals, the
+        general distribution of
+        which is seen in the septa
+        <i>e, e</i>; the lines radiating
+        from <i>e, e</i> point to the
+        secondary pores.</p>
+<p><i>g, g</i>, Non-tubular columns.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the
+characters of form for classificatory ends&mdash;dimorphism and
+multiformity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dimorphism.</i>&mdash;The majority of foraminiferal shells show two
+types, the rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that
+of the more frequent. The chambers are called microsphere
+and megalosphere, the forms in which they occur microsphaeric
+and megalosphaeric forms, respectively. We shall study below
+their relation to the reproductive cycle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:178px" src="images/img631d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>1</i>, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the Pyrenees,
+showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median
+plane; <i>2</i>, vertical section of <i>Nummulite</i>; <i>3</i>, <i>Orbitoides</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:397px; height:210px" src="images/img631e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Vertical section of portion of <i>Nummulites</i>, showing the
+investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations of the
+later.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>,     Marginal cord.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>,     Chamber of outer whorl.</p>
+<p><i>c, c</i>,  Whorl invested by <i>a</i>.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>,     One of the chambers of the
+       fourth whorl from the
+       margin.</p>
+<p><i>e, e</i>&prime;, Marginal portions of the enclosed
+       whorls.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>,     Investing portion of the
+       outer whorl.</p>
+<p><i>g, g</i>,  Spaces left between the investing
+       portions of successive
+       whorls.</p>
+<p><i>h, h</i>,  Sections of the partitions
+       dividing these.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:197px" src="images/img631f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Internal surface of wall
+of two chambers, <i>a, a</i>, of <i>Nummulites</i>,
+showing the orifices of its minute
+tubuli.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b, b</i>, The septa containing canals.</p>
+<p><i>c, c</i>, Extensions of these canals in the
+      intermediate skeleton.</p>
+<p><i>d, d</i>, Larger pores.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Multiformity.</i>&mdash;Many of the Polythalamia show different
+types of chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted
+this phenomenon in such crozier forms as <i>Peneroplis</i>, as well as
+in discoid forms; it is very frequent. Thus the microspheric
+<i>Biloculina</i> form the first few chambers in quinqueloculine
+succession. The microspheric forms attain to a greater size
+when adult than the megalospheric; and in <i>Orbitolites</i> the
+microsphere has a straight
+outlet, orthostyle, instead
+of the deflected camptostyle
+one, so general in
+porcellanous types; and
+the spiral succession is continued
+for more turns before
+reaching the fan-shaped
+and finally cyclic stage.
+<i>Globigerina</i>, whose chambers
+are nearly spherical,
+is sometimes seen to be
+enclosed in a spherical test,
+perforate, but without a
+pylome, and known as
+<i>Orbulina</i>; the chambered
+Globigerina-shell is
+attached at first inside the
+wall of the <i>Orbulina</i>, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate
+fate of the <i>Orbulina</i> shell is unknown; but it obviously marks
+a turning-point in the life-cycle.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:254px; height:268px" src="images/img632a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Internal cast of two
+chambers, <i>a, a</i>, of <i>Nummulites</i>, the
+radial canals between them passing
+into <i>b</i>, marginal plexus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction.</i>&mdash;The protoplasm is not
+differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial
+ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms)
+from which it is given off. In pelagic forms like <i>Globigerina</i> the
+external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
+extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>), being differentiated
+into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
+(alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of the
+pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R.
+Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central
+capsule of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be
+pushed too far. The cytoplasm
+contains granules of
+various kinds, and the internal
+protoplasm is sometimes
+pigmented. The Chrysomonad
+Flagellate, <i>Zooxanthella</i>,
+so abundant in its
+resting state&mdash;the so-called
+&ldquo;yellow cells&rdquo;&mdash;in the extracapsular
+protoplasm of
+Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>) also occurs
+in the outer protoplasm of
+many Foraminifera, not only
+pelagic but also bottom-dwellers,
+such as <i>Orbitolites</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The nucleus is single in the
+Nuda and Allogromidia and
+in the megalospheric forms
+of higher Foraminifera; but
+microspheric forms when
+adult contain many simple
+similar nuclei. The nucleus
+in every case gives off
+granules and irregular masses (&ldquo;chromidia&rdquo;) of similar reactions,
+which play an important part in reproduction. During
+the maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the
+cytoplasm breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each
+of which is soon provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely
+derived from the parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia,
+or from both these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are
+amoeboid; they soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as
+megalospheres, the original state of the megalospheric forms. In
+the adult megalosphere the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced
+by hosts of minute vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration
+of chromidia. Each nucleus aggregates around it a proper
+zone of dense protoplasm; by two successive mitotic divisions each
+mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and splits up into four biflagellate,
+uninucleate zoospores. These are pairing-cells or gametes, though
+they will not pair with members of the same brood. In the zygote
+resulting from pairing two nuclei soon fuse into one; but this again
+divides into two; an embryonic shell is secreted, and this is the
+microspheric type, which is multinuclear from the first. F.
+Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult Foraminifera with the
+(vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (<i>q.v.</i>) and the chromidial mass
+with the micronucleus, whose chief function is reproductive.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:188px" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls, <i>a, a</i>, of
+<i>Nummulites</i>. <i>b, b</i>, Marginal cord; <i>c</i>, cavity of chamber; <i>d, d</i>, non-tubulated
+columns.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
+probable that under most conditions they also give rise to megalospheric
+young like themselves; and that the production of zoospores,
+pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only occasional, and
+possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the researches of
+Schaudinn and J.J. Lister.</p>
+
+<p>In several species (notably <i>Patellina</i>) plastogamy, the union of
+the cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as
+a prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate
+amoebulae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calcituba</i>, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
+chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems,
+may fall apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and
+break up into small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest
+forms we know little. In <i>Mikrogromia</i> the cell undergoes fission
+within the test, and on its completion the daughter-cells may
+emerge as biflagellate zoospores.</p>
+
+<p>The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In <i>Astrorhiza</i> the
+sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement;
+they leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there
+are no true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a
+calcareous or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of
+distinct pylomes. Many of the species reproduce the varieties of
+form found in calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others
+not. Many of the larger ones have their walls thickened internally
+and traversed by complex passages; this structure is called <i>labyrinthic</i>
+(fig. 19, <i>g, h</i>). The shell of <i>Endothyra</i>, a form only known to
+us by its abundance in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely
+composed of calcite and is sometimes perforated.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:201px" src="images/img632c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycloclypeus</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects
+its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of
+sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often
+so laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes
+the outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a
+deflected stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous
+Arenacea, it is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with
+the Porcellanea.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Classification.</i></p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>I. <span class="sc">Nuda.</span>&mdash;Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save
+in the resting encysted condition, sometimes forming
+colonial aggregates by coalescence of pseudopods (<i>Myxodictyum</i>),
+or even plasmodia (<i>Protomyxa</i>). Brood cells at
+first uniflagellate or amoeboid from birth. Fresh-water
+and marine genera <i>Protogenes</i> (Haeckel), <i>Biomyxa</i> (Leidy),
+<i>Myxodictyum</i> (Haeckel), <i>Protomyxa</i> (Haeckel) (fig. 1B).<br /><br />
+
+&emsp;This group of very simple forms includes many of
+Haeckel&rsquo;s Monera, defined as &ldquo;cytodes,&rdquo; masses of protoplasm
+without a nucleus. A nucleus (or nuclei) has,
+however, been demonstrated by improved methods of
+staining in so many that it is probable that this distinction
+will fall to the ground.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:295px" src="images/img632d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;<i>Heterostegina</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Allogromidiaceae</span> (figs. 1A, <i>2</i>).&mdash;Protoplasmic body protected
+in adult state by an imperforate test with one or two
+openings (pylomes) for the exit of the stylopod; test
+simple, gelatinous, membranous, sometimes incrusted with
+foreign bodies,
+never calcareous
+nor arenaceous;
+reproduction by
+fission alone
+known. Fresh-water
+or marine
+genera <i>Allogromia</i>
+(Rhumbl.), <i>Myxotheca</i>
+(Schaud.),
+<i>Lieberkühnia</i> (Cl.
+&amp; L.) (fig. 1A),
+<i>Shepheardella</i>
+(Siddall) (fig. 2,
+<i>3-10</i>), <i>Diplophrys</i>
+(Barker), <i>Amphitrema</i>
+(Arch.) (fig.
+2, <i>11</i>), Diaphorophodon
+(Arch.) (fig.
+2, <i>12</i>), are possibly
+Filosa. This
+group differs from the preceding in its simple test, but,
+like it, includes many fresh-water species, which possess
+contractile vacuoles.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">Astrorhizidiaceae.</span>&mdash;Simple forms, rarely polythalamous
+(some <i>Rhabdamminidae</i>), but often branching or radiate;
+test arenaceous, loosely compacted and traversed by chinks
+for pseudopodia (<i>Astrorhizidae</i>), or dense, and opening by
+one or more terminal pylomes at ends of branches. Marine,
+4 Fam. The test of some <i>Astrorhizidae</i> is so loose that it
+falls to pieces when taken out of water. <i>Haliphysema</i> is
+remarkable for its history in relation to the &ldquo;gastraea
+theory.&rdquo; <i>Pilulina</i> has a neat globular shell of sponge-spicules
+and fine sand. Genera, <i>Astrorhiza</i> (Sandahl)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span>
+(fig. 22), <i>Pilulina</i> (Carptr.) (fig. 19), <i>Saccammina</i> (Sars)
+(fig. 19), <i>Rhabdammina</i> (Sars), <i>Botellina</i> (Carptr.), <i>Haliphysema</i>
+(Bowerbank) (fig. 22).</p>
+
+<p>IV. <span class="sc">Lituolidaceae</span>.&mdash;Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained,
+definite and often polythalamic, recalling in structure
+calcareous forms. <i>Lituola</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 19), <i>Endothyra</i>
+(Phil.), <i>Ammodiscus</i> (Reuss), <i>Loftusia</i> (Brady), <i>Haplophragmium</i>
+(Reuss) (fig. 22), <i>Thurammina</i> (Brady) (fig. 22).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:652px; height:863px" src="images/img633a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang&rsquo;s Zoologie.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 17.&mdash;Life Cycle of <i>Polystomella crispa</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>A</i>, Young megalospheric individual.</p>
+<p><i>B</i>, Adult decalcified.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>, Later stage, resolving itself into two
+    flagellate gametes.</p>
+<p><i>D</i>, Conjugation.</p>
+<p><i>E</i>, Microspheric individual produced from zygote.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>F</i>, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores
+    which are growing into
+    new megalospheric individuals.</p>
+<p><i>1</i>, Principal nucleus, and <i>2</i>, subsidiary
+    nuclei of megalospheric form.</p>
+<p><i>3</i>, Nuclei.</p>
+<p><i>4</i>, Nuclei in multiple division.</p>
+<p><i>5</i>, Chromidia derived from <i>4</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">V. <span class="sc">Miliolidaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost
+invariably with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic
+chamber; <i>Cornuspira</i> (Schultze) (fig. 3); <i>Miliola</i> (Lamk.),
+including as subgenera <i>Spiroloculina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.) (figs. 3 and
+22); <i>Triloculina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 3); <i>Biloculina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.)
+(fig. 3); <i>Uniloculina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.); <i>Quinqueloculina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.);
+<i>Peneroplis</i> (Montfort) (figs. 22, <i>3</i>; 3), with form <i>Dendritina</i>
+(fig. 4, <i>1</i>); <i>Orbiculina</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 3, 6-8); <i>Orbitolites</i>
+(Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); <i>Vertebralina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 22);
+<i>Squamulina</i> (Sch.) (fig. 22); <i>Calcituba</i> (Schaudinn).</p>
+
+<p>VI. <span class="sc">Textulariadaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the
+larger forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks
+(distichous or tristichous). <i>Textularia</i> (Defrance) (fig.
+21).</p>
+
+<p>VII. <span class="sc">Cheilostomellaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers
+doubling forwards and backwards as in <i>Miliolidae</i>. <i>Cheilostomella</i>
+(Reuss).</p>
+
+<p>VIII. <span class="sc">Lagenidaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-
+or polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped,
+with a protruding or an inturned stylopyle; <i>Lagena</i>
+(Walker &amp; Boys) (fig. 4, <i>9</i>); <i>Nodosaria</i> (Lamk.) (figs.
+23, <i>4</i>; 4, <i>10</i>); <i>Polymorphina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>13</i>);
+<i>Cristellaria</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 4, <i>11</i>); <i>Frondicularia</i> (Def.)
+(fig. 23, <i>3</i>).</p>
+
+<p>IX. <span class="sc">Globigerinidaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated;
+chambers few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size;
+arranged in a trochoid or nautiloid spiral. <i>Globigerina</i>
+(Lamk.) (23, <i>6</i>; 4, <i>12</i>); <i>Hastigerina</i>
+(Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, <i>5</i>); <i>Orbulina</i>
+(d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 23, <i>8</i>).</p>
+
+<p>X. <span class="sc">Rotalidaceae</span>.&mdash;Shells vitreous, finely
+perforate; walls thick, often double,
+but without an intermediate party-layer
+traversed by canals; form usually
+spiral or trochoid. <i>Discorbina</i> (Parker
+&amp; Jones) (fig. 4, <i>15</i>); <i>Planorbulina</i>
+(d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>17</i>); <i>Rotalia</i> (Lamk.)
+(figs. 23, <i>1, 2</i>; 7, <i>21</i>); <i>Calcarina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.)
+(fig. 23, <i>10</i>); <i>Polytrema</i> (Risso) (fig.
+23, <i>9</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:397px" src="images/img633b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;<i>Biloculina depressa</i> d&rsquo;Orb., transverse
+sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Megalospheric shell × 50, showing uniform
+    growth, biloculine throughout.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Microspheric shell × 90, showing multiform
+    growth, quinqueloculine at first, and then
+    multiform.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">XI. <span class="sc">Nummulinidaceae</span>.&mdash;As in Rotalidaceae,
+but with a thicker finely perforated
+shell, often well developed, and a supplementary
+skeleton traversed by branching
+canals as an additional party-wall
+between the proper chamber-walls.
+<i>Nonionina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>19</i>); <i>Fusulina</i>
+(Fischer) (fig. 20); <i>Polystomella</i>
+(Lamk.) (figs. 4, <i>16</i>; 8); <i>Operculina</i>
+(d&rsquo;Orb.) (fig. 9); <i>Heterostegina</i> (d&rsquo;Orb.)
+(fig. 16); <i>Cycloclypeus</i> (Carptr.) (fig.
+15); <i>Nummulites</i> (Lamk.) (figs. 10, 11,
+12, 13, 14).</p></div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Eozoon canadense</i>,&rdquo; described as a species of this
+order by J.W. Dawson and Carpenter, has been
+pronounced by a series of enquirers, most of whom
+started with a belief in its organic structure, to be merely a complex
+mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of an
+admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
+calcite.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distribution in Vertical Space</i>.&mdash;Owing to their lack of
+organs for active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or
+attached, with the exception of a few genera (very rich in species,
+however) which float near the surface of the ocean, constituting
+part of the pelagic plankton (<i>q.v.</i>). Thus the majority are
+littoral or deep-sea, sometimes attached to other bodies or even
+burrowing in the tests of other Foraminifera; most of the
+fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting the layer of organic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+débris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of pools, ponds
+and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth cannot
+possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
+is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:752px" src="images/img634a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Arenaceous Foraminifera.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Exterior of <i>Saccammina</i>.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, The same laid open.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Portion of test more highly
+    magnified.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, <i>Pilulina</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>e</i>, Portion of test more highly magnified.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Nautiloid <i>Lituola</i>, exterior.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Chambered interior.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Portion of labyrinthic chamber
+    wall, showing component
+    sand-grains.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:293px" src="images/img634b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Section of <i>Fusulina</i> Limestone.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:414px" src="images/img634c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend.
+<i>a, b, c, d</i>, <i>Textularia globulosa</i>; <i>e, e, e, e</i>, <i>Rotalia aspera</i>; <i>f</i>, <i>Textularia
+aculeata</i>; <i>g</i>, <i>Planularia hexas</i>; <i>h</i>, <i>Navicula</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their
+shell is either thin or extended many times by long slender
+tapering spines, and the protoplasm outside has the same
+character as that of the Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>), being differentiated
+into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and traversed by
+reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
+into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods,
+here rather radiate than reticulate. Most genera and
+most species are cosmopolitan; but local differences are often
+marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore sands and the
+crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms decay
+without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
+Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand,
+both below and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring
+on Funafuti, enter largely into the constituents of coral rock.
+They may accumulate in the mud of the bottom to constitute
+Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these shells in the latter
+case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers accumulate on the
+spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a continuous
+shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during which
+process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is
+formed an ooze known as &ldquo;Globigerina-ooze,&rdquo; being formed
+largely of that genus and its ally <i>Hastigerina</i>; below 3000 fathoms
+even the tests themselves are dissolved. Casts of their bodies
+in glauconite (a green ferrous silicate, whose composition has
+not yet been accurately determined) are, however, frequently left.
+Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably <i>Globigerina</i>, have
+been found in Lower Cambrian (<i>e.g.</i> Hollybush Sandstone),
+and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that age.
+It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone
+that sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon
+Foraminifera are more abundant as constituents, partial or
+principal of calcareous rocks, the genus <i>Endothyra</i> being indeed
+almost confined to Carboniferous beds. The genus <i>Fusulina</i>
+(fig. 20) and <i>Saccammina</i> (fig. 19) give their names (from their
+respective abundance) to two limestones of the Carboniferous
+series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the
+Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations
+are chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to
+consist largely of foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like
+the north Atlantic globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk
+more littoral conditions prevailed, and we find such large-sized
+species as <i>Orbitoides</i> (vitreous) and <i>Orbitolites</i> (porcellanous;
+figs. 5, 6), &amp;c. In the Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of
+the Paris basin is mainly composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites
+occur in English beds and in the Paris basin; but the
+great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of limestone, occur
+farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the southern
+and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The
+peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone,
+as well as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous
+genus, &ldquo;<i>Eozoon</i>,&rdquo; by Carpenter and Dawson, and
+abundantly illustrated in the 9th edition of his encyclopaedia,
+is now universally regarded as of inorganic origin. &ldquo;Looking
+at the almost universal diffusion of existing Foraminifera and
+the continuous accumulation of their shells over vast areas of
+the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than any other
+group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its solution
+in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth what
+is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the
+calcareous materials of the land above sea-level.&rdquo; (E.R. Lankester,
+&ldquo;Protozoa,&rdquo; <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:480px; height:1049px" src="images/img635a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Imperforata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><i>1</i>, <i>Spiroloculina planulata</i>, Lamarck, showing five &ldquo;coils&rdquo;; porcellanous.</p>
+
+<p><i>2</i>, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to show the seven
+nuclei n.</p>
+
+<p><i>3</i>, <i>Spirolina</i> (<i>Peneroplis</i>); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell; porcellanous.</p>
+
+<p><i>4</i>, <i>Vertebralina</i>, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding one another in a
+straight line; porcellanous.</p>
+
+<p><i>5, 6</i>, <i>Thurammina papillata</i>, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so as to show
+an inner chamber; recent. × 25.</p>
+
+<p><i>7</i>, <i>Haplophragmium canariensis</i>, a sandy form; recent.</p>
+
+<p><i>8</i>, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of <i>Haliphysema</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>9</i>, <i>Squamulina laevis</i>, M. Schultze; × 40; a simple porcellanous Miliolide.</p>
+
+<p><i>10</i>, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid from the shell
+of <i>Haliphysema tumanovitzii</i>, Bow. n, Vesicular nuclei, stained with haematoxylin.
+(After Lankester.)</p>
+
+<p><i>11</i>, <i>Haliphysema tumanovitzii</i>; × 25 diam.; living specimen, showing the wine-glass-shaped
+shell built up of sand-grains and sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm
+p, issuing from the mouth of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting
+constituents.</p>
+
+<p><i>12</i>, Shell of <i>Astrorhiza limicola</i>, Sand.; × <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span>; showing the branching of the test on
+some of the rays usually broken away in preserved specimens (original).</p>
+
+<p><i>13</i>, Section of the shell of <i>Marsipella</i>, showing thick walls built of sand-grains.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:1050px" src="images/img635b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Perforata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>1</i>, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as in small <i>Rotalia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>2</i>, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance (shaded), as in
+large <i>Rotalia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>3</i>, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may completely
+embrace their predecessors, as in <i>Frondicularia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>4</i>, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as in <i>Nodosaria</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>5</i>, <i>Hastigerina murrayi</i>, Wyv. Thomson, <i>a</i>, Bubbly (vacuolated) protoplasm, enclosing
+<i>b</i>, the perforated <i>Globigerina</i>-like shell (conf. central capsule of Radiolaria).
+From the peripheral protoplasm project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of
+calcareous matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active protoplasm.
+Pelagic; drawn in the living state.</p>
+
+<p><i>6</i>, <i>Globigerina bulloides</i>, d&rsquo;Orb., showing the punctiform perforations of the shell and
+the main aperture.</p>
+
+<p><i>7</i>, Fragment of the shell of <i>Globigerina</i>, seen from within, and highly magnified, <i>a</i>,
+Fine perforations in the inner shell substances; <i>b</i>, outer (secondary) shell substance.
+Two coarser perforations are seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.</p>
+
+<p><i>8</i>, <i>Orbulina universa</i>, d&rsquo;Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent radiating calcareous
+spines (hollow), and internally a small <i>Globigerina</i> shell. It is probably a developmental
+phase of <i>Globigerina</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>Orbulina</i> shell; <i>b</i>, <i>Globigerina</i> shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>9</i>, <i>Polytrema miniaceum</i>, Lin.; × 12. Mediterranean. Example of a branched
+adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.</p>
+
+<p><i>10</i>, <i>Calcarina spengleri</i>, Gmel.; × 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell dissected so as to
+show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and the copious secondary shell substance.
+<i>a</i>², <i>a</i>³, <i>a</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Chambers of three successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall
+(finely tubulate) of each; <i>b, b, b, b</i>, perforate surfaces of the primary wall of four tiers
+of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance has been cleared away; <i>c</i>&prime;, <i>c</i>&prime;,
+secondary or intermediate shell substance in section, showing coarse canals; <i>d</i>, section
+of secondary shell substance at right angles to <i>c</i>&prime;; <i>e</i>, tubercles of secondary shell substance
+on the surface; <i>f, f</i>, club-like processes of secondary shell substance.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Historical.</i>&mdash;The Foraminifera were discovered as we have
+seen by A. d&rsquo;Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number
+of species, but it was to F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the
+recognition of their true zoological position and the characters
+of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and W.C. Williamson
+in England contributed largely to the study of the shell, the
+latter being the first to call attention to its multiform character
+in the development of a single species, and to utilize the method
+of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K.
+Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration,
+described an enormous number of forms in a series of papers,
+as well as in the monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera
+of the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger
+brought out the fact of dimorphism in the group, which
+was later elucidated and incorporated in the full cytological
+study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J. Lister and F.
+Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, <i>The
+Foraminifera</i> (1902), and J.J. Lister, &ldquo;The Foraminifera,&rdquo; in E.R.
+Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i> (1903), in which full bibliographies
+will be found. For a final résumé of the long controversy on Eozoon,
+see George P. Merrill in <i>Report of the U.S. National Museum</i> (1906),
+p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
+G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in <i>Zeitschr. für wissenschaftliche
+Zoologie</i>, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>,
+iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is based on
+the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited work,
+and of F. Schaudinn, in <i>Arbeiten des kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamts</i>,
+xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K. Parker and
+T. Rymer Jones, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera</i> (Ray
+Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, &ldquo;Foraminifera,&rdquo; in <i>Ency. Brit.</i>,
+9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, <i>On the Recent Foraminifera of Great
+Britain</i> (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, &ldquo;The Foraminifera,&rdquo;
+in <i>Challenger Reports</i>, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in <i>Ann. de la soc.
+royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique</i>, xxxvii. (1902), p. 60;
+xxxix. (1904), p. 7.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appendix.</i>&mdash;The <span class="sc">Xenophyophoridae</span> are a small group of bottom-dwelling
+Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous
+Foraminifera, though observations in the living state show that the
+character of the pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm
+is contained in branching tubes, aggregated into masses of
+definite form, bounded by a common wall of foreign bodies (sponge
+spicules, &amp;c.) cemented into a membrane. The cytoplasm contains
+granules of BaSO<span class="su">4</span> and pellets of faecal matter. All that is known
+of reproduction is the resolution of the pellets into uninucleate cells.
+(F.E. Schultze, <i>Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition</i>,
+vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBACH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a town of Germany in the imperial province of
+Alsace-Lorraine, on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway
+from Metz to Saarbrücken, 5½ m. S.W. of the latter. Pop.
+(1905) 8193. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic)
+church, a synagogue and a Progymnasium. Its industries
+include the manufacture of tiles, pasteboard wares and gardening
+implements, while there are coal mines in the vicinity. After
+the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren (6th of August
+1870), in which the French under General Frossard were defeated
+by the Germans under General von Glümer, the town was occupied
+by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed
+to Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins
+of the castle of the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of
+Saarbrücken.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Besler, <i>Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt
+Forbach</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1817-1875), Scottish
+divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He
+was the second son of John Henry Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a
+judge of the court of session, and grandson of Sir William
+Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh Academy,
+then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
+Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and,
+having chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed
+his studies with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836
+he went to Madras and secured early promotion, but in consequence
+of ill-health he was obliged to return to England. He
+then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where in 1841 he obtained
+the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in 1844. He
+was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known
+as Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with
+Newman, Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian
+appointment. In 1844 he was ordained deacon and priest in
+the English Church, and held curacies at Aston, Rowant and
+St Thomas&rsquo;s, Oxford; but being naturally attracted to the
+Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering from long
+depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town
+of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed
+to the vicarage of St Saviour&rsquo;s, Leeds, a church founded to preach
+and illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called
+to succeed Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed
+the episcopal residence to Dundee, where he resided till his death,
+combining the pastoral charge of the congregation with the duties
+of the see. When he came to Dundee the churchmen were
+accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in a room
+over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built,
+and among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul&rsquo;s. He was prosecuted
+in the church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded
+on his primary charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which
+he set forth his views on the Eucharist. He made a powerful
+defence of the charge, and was acquitted with &ldquo;a censure and
+an admonition.&rdquo; Keble wrote in his defence, and was present
+at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good scholar, a scientific
+theologian and a devoted worker, and was much beloved. He
+died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Principal works: <i>A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed</i> (1852);
+<i>An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles</i> (2 vols., 1867 and 1868);
+<i>Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms</i> (1847); <i>Commentary
+on the Canticles</i> (1853). See Mackey&rsquo;s <i>Bishop Forbes, a Memoir</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, ARCHIBALD<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1838-1900), British war correspondent,
+the son of a Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on
+the 17th of April 1838, and was educated at Aberdeen University.
+Entering the Royal Dragoons as a private, he gained, while in
+the service, considerable practical experience of military life
+and affairs. Being invalided from his regiment, he settled in
+London, and became a journalist. When the Franco-German
+War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
+correspondent to the <i>Morning Advertiser</i>, and in this capacity
+he gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians
+for withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the <i>Daily
+News</i>, his brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew
+world-wide attention to his despatches. He was with the
+German army from the beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards
+witnessed the rise and fall of the Commune. Forbes
+afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he chronicled the outbreak
+of the second Carlist War; but his work here was interrupted
+by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a mission
+of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he returned
+to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the Republican
+and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the <i>Daily News</i>,
+he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India
+in 1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of
+1876, and was present at all the important engagements. In
+the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic
+successes at great personal risk. Attached to the Russian
+army, he witnessed most of the principal operations, and remained
+continuously in the field until attacked by fever. His
+letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
+Millet, were republished by the <i>Daily News</i>. On recovering
+from his fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness
+the British occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India,
+and in the winter accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad.
+He was present at the taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with
+several expeditions against the hill tribes. Burma was Forbes&rsquo;s
+next field of adventure, and at Mandalay, the capital, he had
+several interesting interviews with King Thibaw. He left Burma
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span>
+hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence of the disaster
+of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the invasion
+of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and
+his famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled
+to convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one
+of the finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes
+subsequently delivered many lectures on his war experiences
+to large audiences. His closing years were spent in literary
+work. He had some years before published a military novel
+entitled <i>Drawn from Life</i>, and a volume on his experiences of
+the war between France and Germany. These were now followed
+by numerous publications, including <i>Glimpses through the
+Cannon Smoke</i> (1880); <i>Souvenirs of some Continents</i> (1885);
+<i>William I. of Germany: a Biography</i> (1888); <i>Havelock</i>, in the
+&ldquo;English Men of Action&rdquo; Series (1890); <i>Barracks, Bivouacs,
+and Battles</i> (1891); <i>The Afghan Wars</i>, 1839-80 (1892); <i>Czar
+and Sultan</i> (1895); <i>Memories and Studies of War and Peace</i>
+(1895), in many respects autobiographic; and <i>Colin Campbell,
+Lord Clyde</i> (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, DAVID<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist
+and chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (<i>q.v.</i>), was born
+on the 6th of September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and
+received his early education there and at Brentwood in Essex.
+When a boy of fourteen he had already acquired a remarkable
+knowledge of chemistry. This subject he studied at the university
+of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he was appointed
+superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at Espedal
+in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of
+Evans &amp; Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that
+capacity during the years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia
+and Peru. Besides reports for the Iron and Steel Institute, of
+which, during the last years of his life, he was foreign secretary,
+he wrote upwards of 50 papers on scientific subjects, among
+which are the following: &ldquo;The Action of Sulphurets on
+Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures,&rdquo; <i>Rep. Brit. Assoc.</i>,
+1855, pt. ii. p. 62; &ldquo;The Relations of the Silurian and Metamorphic
+Rocks of the south of Norway,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> p. 82; &ldquo;The Causes
+producing Foliation in Rocks,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xi., 1855;
+&ldquo;The Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian
+Limestones,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Mag.</i> xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; &ldquo;The Geology
+of Bolivia and Southern Peru,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xvii. pp.
+7-62, 1861; &ldquo;The Mineralogy of Chile,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1865;
+&ldquo;Researches in British Mineralogy,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1867-1868.
+His observations on the geology of South America were given
+in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
+much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on
+the resulting changes in rock-formations. He also contributed
+important articles on chemical geology to the <i>Chemical News</i>
+and <i>Geological Magazine</i> (1867 and 1868). In England he was
+a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was elected F.R.S. in
+1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol.
+xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1877, p. 45.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, DUNCAN<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, <span class="sc">of Culloden</span> (1685-1747), Scottish
+statesman, was born at Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness
+on the 10th of November 1685. After he had completed his
+studies at the universities of Edinburgh and Leiden, he was
+admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own talents
+and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid advancement,
+which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
+Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In
+1722 Forbes was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725
+he succeeded Dundas of Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited
+the patrimonial estates on the death of his brother in 1734, and
+in 1737 he attained to the highest legal honours in Scotland,
+being made lord president of the court of session. As lord
+advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation and revenue
+of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
+and no less to render the government popular and respected in
+Scotland. In the proceedings which followed the memorable
+Porteous mob, for example, when the government brought
+in a bill for disgracing the lord provost of Edinburgh, for fining
+the corporation, and for abolishing the town-guard and city-gate,
+Forbes both spoke and voted against the measure as an unwarranted
+outrage on the national feeling. As lord president
+also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
+office was characterized by quick and impartial administration
+of the law.</p>
+
+<p>The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all
+his patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly
+and earnestly urged upon the government the expediency of
+embodying Highland regiments, putting them under the command
+of colonels whose loyalty could be relied upon, but officering
+them with the native chieftains and cadets of old families in the
+north. &ldquo;If government,&rdquo; said he, &ldquo;pre-engages the Highlanders
+in the manner I propose, they will not only serve well against
+the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good behaviour
+of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
+absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands.&rdquo; In
+1739, with Sir Robert Walpole&rsquo;s approval, the original (1730)
+six companies (locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed
+into the famous &ldquo;Forty-second&rdquo; regiment of the line. The
+credit given to the earl of Chatham in some histories for this
+movement is an error; it rests really with Forbes and his friend
+Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll (see the <i>Autobiography</i>
+of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq., 1906).</p>
+
+<p>On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened
+to Inverness, and through his personal influence with the chiefs
+of Macdonald and Macleod, those two powerful western clans
+were prevented from taking the field for Charles Edward; the
+town itself also he kept loyal and well protected at the commencement
+of the struggle, and many of the neighbouring proprietors
+were won over by his persuasions. His correspondence with
+Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers, affords a fine
+illustration of his character, in which the firmness of loyal
+principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness
+and consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the
+apathy of the government interfered considerably with the
+success of his negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived
+too late, and though Forbes employed all his own means and
+what money he could borrow on his personal security, his resources
+were quite inadequate to the emergency. It is doubtful
+whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was doled
+out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be
+maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into
+disgrace in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate
+the impolitic severities inflicted upon his countrymen after
+their disastrous defeat at Culloden. The ingratitude of the
+government, and the many distressing circumstances connected
+with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind of Forbes. He
+never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and after a
+period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747.</p>
+
+<p>Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true
+Scotsman with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even
+erudite scholar without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without
+asceticism or intolerance. His country long felt his influence
+through her reviving arts and institutions; and the example
+of such a character in that coarse and venal age, and among a
+people distracted by faction, political strife, and national antipathies,
+while it was invaluable to his contemporaries in a man
+of high position, is entitled to the lasting gratitude and veneration
+of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure he cultivated with
+some success the study of philosophy, theology and biblical
+criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
+Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance,
+include&mdash;<i>A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important
+Discoveries in Philosophy and Theology</i> (1732); <i>Some Thoughts
+concerning Religion, natural and revealed, and the Manner of
+Understanding Revelation</i> (1735); and <i>Reflections on Incredulity</i>
+(2nd ed., 1750).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a
+memoir of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill
+Burton, and published along with a <i>Life of Lord Lovat</i>, in 1847.
+His statue by Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, EDWARD<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1815-1854), British naturalist, was
+born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February
+1815. While still a child, when not engaged in reading, or in
+the writing of verses and drawing of caricatures, he occupied
+himself with the collecting of insects, shells, minerals, fossils,
+plants and other natural history objects. From his fifth to his
+eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance at
+any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole
+House Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of
+Man for London, where he studied drawing. In October, however,
+having given up all idea of making painting his profession,
+he returned home; and in the following month he matriculated
+as a student of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. His
+vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work on the natural history
+of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in Norway, the
+botanical results of which were published in Loudon&rsquo;s <i>Magazine
+of Natural History</i> for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he
+devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the
+succeeding year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical
+duties of a surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the
+idea of taking a medical degree, resolving to devote himself
+to science and literature. The winter of 1836-1837 found him
+at Paris, where he attended the lectures at the Jardin des Plantes
+on natural history, comparative anatomy, geology and mineralogy.
+Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to Algiers, and there
+obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater Mollusca,
+published in the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, vol. ii. p. 250. In
+the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a
+student of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume,
+<i>Malacologia Monensis</i>, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca.
+During the summer of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and
+made extensive botanical collections. In the following autumn
+he read before the British Association at Newcastle a paper on
+the distribution of terrestrial Pulmonifera in Europe, and was
+commissioned to prepare a similar report with reference to the
+British Isles. In 1841 was published his <i>History of British
+Star-fishes</i>, embodying extensive observations and containing
+120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed
+by the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes,
+accompanied by his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta
+H.M. surveying ship &ldquo;Beacon,&rdquo; to which he had been appointed
+naturalist by her commander Captain Graves. From that date
+until October 1842 he was employed in investigating the botany,
+zoology and geology of the Mediterranean region. The results
+of these researches were made known in his &ldquo;Report on the
+Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the
+British Association in 1843,&rdquo; and in <i>Travels in Lycia</i>, published
+in conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt
+in 1847. In the former treatise he discussed the influence of
+climate and of the nature and depth of the sea bottom upon
+marine life, and divided the Aegean into eight biological zones;
+his conclusions with respect to bathymetrical distribution,
+however, have naturally been modified to a considerable extent
+by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family
+misfortunes had now thrown upon his own resources, sought
+and obtained the curatorship of the museum of the Geological
+Society of London. To the duties of that post he added in 1843
+those of the professorship of botany at King&rsquo;s College. In
+November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological
+Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey
+of Great Britain. Two years later he published in the <i>Memoirs
+of the Geological Survey</i>, i. 336, his important essay &ldquo;On the
+Connexion between the distribution of the existing Fauna and
+Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which
+have affected their Area, especially during the epoch of the
+Northern Drift.&rdquo; It is therein pointed out that, in accordance
+with the theory of their origin from various specific centres, the
+plants of Great Britain may be divided into five well-marked
+groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of Spain,
+the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the Channel
+Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English,
+characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast;
+a group peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type;
+and, lastly, a general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arguments
+the conclusion is drawn that the greater part of the
+terrestrial animals and flowering plants of the British Islands
+migrated thitherward, over continuous land, at three distinct
+periods, before, during and after the glacial epoch. On this
+subject Forbes&rsquo;s brilliant generalizations are now regarded as
+only partially true (see C. Reid&rsquo;s <i>Origin of the British Flora</i>, 1899).
+In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of General
+Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his
+<i>Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae</i> (Ray Society).
+The year 1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the
+Geological Survey from Craig&rsquo;s Court to the museum in Jermyn
+Street, and the appointment of Forbes as professor of natural
+history to the Royal School of Mines just established in conjunction
+therewith. In 1852 was published the fourth and
+concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley&rsquo;s <i>History of British
+Mollusca</i>; also his <i>Monograph of the Echinodermata of the
+British Tertiaries</i> (Palaeontographical Soc.).</p>
+
+<p>In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society
+of London, and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment
+of a long-cherished wish in his appointment to the professorship
+of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, vacant by
+the death of R. Jameson, his former teacher. Since his return
+from the East in 1842, the determination and arrangement of
+fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work, including
+the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded
+Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits
+of his earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that
+at length he was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of
+biological information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the
+summer session of 1854, and in September of that year he occupied
+the post of president of the geological section at the Liverpool
+meeting of the British Association. But he was taken ill just
+after he had commenced his winter&rsquo;s course of lectures in
+Edinburgh, and after not many days&rsquo; illness he died at Wardie,
+near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Literary Gazette</i> (November 25, 1854); <i>Edinburgh New Philosophical
+Journal</i> (New Ser.), (1855); <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (May
+1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, <i>Memoir of Edward Forbes</i> (1861),
+in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes&rsquo;s writings. See also
+<i>Literary Papers</i>, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following
+works were issued posthumously: &ldquo;On the Tertiary Fluviomarine
+Formation of the Isle of Wight&rdquo; (<i>Geol. Survey</i>), edited by R.A.C.
+Godwin-Austen (1856); &ldquo;The Natural History of the European
+Seas,&rdquo; edited and continued by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen (1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, JAMES DAVID<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1809-1868), Scottish physicist,
+was the fourth son of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo,
+and was born at Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1809. He entered
+the university of Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began
+to contribute papers to the <i>Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i>
+anonymously under the signature &ldquo;&Delta;.&rdquo; At the age of nineteen
+he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in
+1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of London. A year later
+he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh
+University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in competition
+with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that office,
+which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself
+an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve
+the internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed
+successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United
+College of St Andrews, a position which he held until his death
+at Clifton on the 31st of December 1868.</p>
+
+<p>As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches
+on heat and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published
+in the <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i> four series of &ldquo;Researches on Heat,&rdquo;
+in the course of which he described the polarization of heat by
+tourmaline, by transmission through a bundle of thin mica
+plates inclined to the transmitted ray, and by reflection from the
+multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates placed at the polarizing
+angle, and also its circular polarization by two internal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the Rumford
+medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its
+Royal medal for a paper on the &ldquo;Transparency of the Atmosphere
+and the Laws of Extinction of the Sun&rsquo;s Rays passing through it.&rdquo;
+In 1846 he began experiments on the temperature of the earth
+at different depths and in different soils near Edinburgh, which
+yielded determinations of the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa,
+sandstone and pure loose sand. Towards the end of his life
+he was occupied with experimental inquiries into the laws of
+the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of work was
+to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with
+increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the
+question of the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis
+Agassiz at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association, and
+in subsequent years he made several visits to Switzerland and
+also to Norway for the purpose of obtaining accurate data. His
+observations led him to the view that a glacier is an imperfect
+fluid or a viscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain
+inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and involved
+him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to
+priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested
+in geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of
+the Pyrenees, on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardêche),
+on the geology of the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &amp;c. In addition
+to about 150 scientific papers, he wrote <i>Travels through the Alps
+of Savoy and Other Parts of the Pennine Chain, with Observations
+on the Phenomena of Glaciers</i> (1843); <i>Norway and its Glaciers</i>
+(1853); <i>Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers</i> (1859); <i>A Tour
+of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa</i> (1855). He was also the author
+(1852) of the &ldquo;Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical
+and Physical Science,&rdquo; published in the 8th edition of the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Forbes&rsquo;s Life and Letters</i>, by Principal Shairp, Professor P.G.
+Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); <i>Professor Forbes and his Biographers</i>,
+by J. Tyndall (1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES, SIR JOHN<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1787-1861), British physician, was born
+at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar
+school at Aberdeen, and afterwards entered Marischal College.
+After serving for nine years as a surgeon in the navy, he graduated
+M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then began to practise in
+Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822. He took
+up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year
+was appointed physician to the royal household. He was
+knighted in 1853, and died on the 13th of November 1861 at
+Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir John Forbes was better known
+as an author and editor than as a practical physician. His
+works include the following:&mdash;<i>Original Cases ... illustrating
+the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis of
+Diseases of the Chest</i> (1824); <i>Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism</i>
+(1845); <i>A Physician&rsquo;s Holiday</i> (1st ed., 1849); <i>Memorandums
+made in Ireland in the Autumn of 1852</i> (2 vols., 1853); <i>Sightseeing
+in Germany and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855</i> (1856).
+He was joint editor with A. Tweedie and J. Conolly of <i>The
+Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine</i> (4 vols., 1833-1835); and in
+1836 he founded the <i>British and Foreign Medical Review</i>, which,
+after a period of prosperity, involved its editor in pecuniary
+loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in consequence of
+the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious to
+the profession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New
+South Wales, Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the
+Lachlan river, and with a station on the Great Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance as a commercial centre is due
+to its advantageous position between the northern and southern
+markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills, breweries and
+wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding country
+produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+actor, was the son of John Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an
+art critic. He was educated at Charterhouse, and studied at
+the Royal Academy schools with a view to becoming a painter.
+But though he kept up his interest in that art, in 1874 he turned
+to the theatre, making his first appearance in London as Chastelard,
+in <i>Mary, Queen of Scots</i>. He studied under Samuel Phelps, from
+whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played
+with the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary
+Anderson in both England and America, and also acted at
+different times with Sir Henry Irving. His refined and artistic
+style, and beautiful voice and elocution made him a marked
+man on the English stage, and in Pinero&rsquo;s <i>The Profligate</i> at the
+Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare&rsquo;s management, he established
+his position as one of the most individual of London actors.
+In 1895 he started under his own management at the Lyceum
+with Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>,
+<i>Macbeth</i> and also some modern plays; his impersonation as
+Hamlet was especially fine, and his capacity as a romantic
+actor was shown to great advantage also in John Davidson&rsquo;s
+<i>For the Crown</i> and in Maeterlinck&rsquo;s <i>Pelléas and Mélisande</i>. In
+1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with whom, as his
+leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in
+subsequent years <i>The Light that Failed</i>, Madeleine Lucette
+Riley&rsquo;s <i>Mice and Men</i>, and G. Bernard Shaw&rsquo;s <i>Caesar and
+Cleopatra</i>, Jerome K. Jerome&rsquo;s <i>Passing of the Third Floor Back</i>,
+&amp;c. His brothers, Ian Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes
+(b. 1859), had also been well-known actors from about 1878
+onwards.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORBIN, CLAUDE DE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1656-1733), French naval commander,
+was born in Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656.
+High-spirited and ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away
+from his home, and through the influence of an uncle entered
+the navy, serving his first campaign in 1675. For a short time
+he quitted the navy and entered the army, but soon returned to
+his first choice. He made under D&rsquo;Estrées the American campaign,
+and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions
+distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most
+remarkable episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During
+the administration of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that
+country, the project was formed of introducing the Christian
+religion and European civilization, and the king sent an embassy
+to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent out,
+Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the
+rank of major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin
+was induced to remain in the service of the Siamese king, and
+accepted, though with much reluctance, the posts of grand
+admiral, general of all the king&rsquo;s armies and governor of Bangkok.
+His position, however, was soon made untenable by the jealousy
+and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end of two
+years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards
+fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war
+with England, when they were both captured and taken to
+Plymouth. They succeeded in making their escape and were
+soon serving their country again. Forbin was wounded at the
+battle of La Hogue, and greatly distinguished himself at the
+battle of Lagos. He served under D&rsquo;Estrées at the taking of
+Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702 took a
+brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish
+Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk,
+and captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the
+English. In 1708 he was entrusted with the command of the
+squadron which was to convey the Pretender to Scotland; but
+so effectually were the coasts guarded by Byng that the expedition
+failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now beginning
+to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils of
+service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles.
+There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published
+in 1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic
+and attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORCELLINI, EGIDIO<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was
+born at Fener in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very
+poor family. He went to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied
+under Facciolati, and in due course attained to the priesthood.
+From 1724 to 1731 he held the office of rector of the seminary
+at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of father confessor in
+the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his life were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768
+before the completion of the great work on which he had long
+co-operated with Facciolati. This was the vast <i>Latin Lexicon</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Facciolati</a></span>), which has formed the basis of all similar
+works that have since been published. He was engaged with his
+Herculean task for nearly 35 years, and the transcription of the
+manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight years more.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1794-1865), Danish
+mineralogist and geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on
+the 24th of July 1794, and died at Copenhagen on the 14th of
+December 1865. After studying at Kiel and Copenhagen from
+1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch in their
+mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable
+share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained
+his doctor&rsquo;s degree by a chemical treatise <i>De mangano</i>, and
+immediately after set out on a journey through England, Scotland
+and the Faeroe Islands. In 1823 he was appointed lecturer
+at Copenhagen University on chemistry and mineralogy; in
+1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established polytechnic
+school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of
+mineralogy in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the
+geological museum. From 1835 to 1837 he made many contributions
+to the geological survey of Denmark. On the death of
+H.C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as director of the
+polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of Sciences.
+In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various
+anthropological publications which gained a high reputation.
+As a public instructor Forchhammer held a high place and contributed
+potently to the progress of his favourite studies in his
+native country. He interested himself in such practical questions
+as the introduction of gas into Copenhagen, the establishment
+of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the boring of artesian wells.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his more important works are&mdash;<i>Loerebog i de enkelte
+Radicalers Chemi</i> (1842); <i>Danmarks geognostiske Forhold</i> (1835);
+<i>Om de Bornholmske Kulformationer</i> (1836); <i>Dit myere Kridt i Danmark</i>
+(1847); <i>Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske
+Forhold</i> (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals,
+Danish, English and German, will be found in the <i>Catalogue of
+Scientific Papers</i> published by the Royal Society of London. One
+of the most interesting and most recent is &ldquo;On the Constitution of
+Sea Water at Different Depths and in Different Latitudes,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Proceedings of the Roy. Soc.</i> xii. (1862-1863).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1801-1894), German
+classical archaeologist, was born at Husum in Schleswig on the
+23rd of October 1801. He was educated at the Lübeck gymnasium
+and the university of Kiel, with which he was connected for
+nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he travelled in
+Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was appointed
+professor of philology at Kiel and director of the archaeological
+museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn.
+He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a
+democrat in the best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873
+represented the progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the
+German Reichstag. His published works deal chiefly with
+topography and ancient mythology. His travels had convinced
+him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of classical
+antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance
+with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a
+detailed examination of the topographical and climatic conditions
+of the chief localities of the ancient world. These principles
+are illustrated in his <i>Hellenika. Griechenland. Im Neuen das
+Alte</i> (1837), which contains his theory of the origin and explanation
+of the Greek myths, which he never abandoned, in spite of
+the attacks to which it was subjected. According to him, the
+myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and
+aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring
+processes of nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in
+<i>Achill</i> (1853), the Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements
+in that district. Other similar short treatises are: <i>Die Gründung
+Roms</i> (1868); <i>Daduchos</i> (1875), on the language of the myths
+and mythical buildings; <i>Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter
+Io</i> (1880); <i>Prolegomena zur Mythologie als Wissenschaft und
+Lexikon der Mythensprache</i> (1891). Amongst his topographical
+works mention may be made of: <i>Topographie von Athen</i> (1841);
+<i>Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja</i> (1850), a commentary on a
+map of the locality executed by T.A. Spratt (see <i>Journal of
+the Royal Geographical Society</i>, xii., 1842); <i>Topographia Thebarum
+Heptapylarum</i> (1854); <i>Erklärung der Ilias</i> (1884), on
+the basis of the topographical and physical peculiarities of the
+plain of Troy. His <i>Demokratenbüchlein</i> (1849), in the main a
+discussion of the Aristotelian theory of the state, and <i>Die
+Athener und Sokrates</i> (1837), in which, contrary to the almost
+universal opinion, he upheld the procedure of the Athenians
+as perfectly legal and their verdict as a perfectly just one, also
+deserve notice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in
+C. Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i>, xx. (1897);
+also J. Sass in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, and A. Hoeck and
+L.C. Pertsch, <i>P.W. Forchhammer</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORCHHEIM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
+near the confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E.
+of Bamberg. Pop. (1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic
+churches, including the Gothic Collegiate church and a Protestant
+church. Among the other public buildings are the
+progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the town
+include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and
+glue works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious château
+occupies the site of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed
+in 1246.</p>
+
+<p>Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence
+of the Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the
+9th century. Consequently many diets were held here, and
+here also Conrad I. and Louis the Child were chosen German
+kings. The town was given by the emperor Henry II. in 1007
+to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a short period
+during the 11th century, it remained in the possession of the
+bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August
+1796 a battle took place near Forchheim between the French
+and the Austrians. The fortifications of the town were dismantled
+in 1838.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hübsch, <i>Chronik der Stadt Forchheim</i> (Nüremberg, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1852-1901), English sculptor,
+was born in London. He received some education as a painter
+in Antwerp and as a sculptor in Munich under Professor Wagmüller,
+but was mainly self-taught. His first contribution to
+the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and in
+portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success.
+His busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at
+their best. Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker
+(1894), Briton Riviere and Sir W.Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir
+L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir Hubert von Herkomer and Sir
+John Millais (1897), and of A.J. Balfour are all striking likenesses,
+and are equalled by that in marble of Sir Frederick Bramwell
+(for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He gained
+the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected
+in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883
+with &ldquo;Henry Irving as Hamlet,&rdquo; now in the Guildhall art
+gallery. This seated statue, good as it is, was soon surpassed
+by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city museum, Birmingham)
+and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal memorial statue
+of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less successful.
+The standing statue of W.E. Gladstone (1894, for the City Liberal
+Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford&rsquo;s better portrait
+works. The colossal &ldquo;General Charles Gordon,&rdquo; camel-mounted,
+for Chatham, &ldquo;Lord Strathnairn,&rdquo; an equestrian group for
+Knightsbridge, and the &ldquo;Maharajah of Mysore&rdquo; (1900) comprise
+his larger works of the kind. A beautiful nude recumbent
+statue of Shelley (1892) upon a cleverly-designed base, which is
+not quite impeccable from the point of view of artistic taste,
+is at University College, Oxford, and a simplified version was
+presented by him to be set up on the shore of Viareggio, where
+the poet&rsquo;s body was washed up. Ford&rsquo;s ideal work has great
+charm and daintiness; his statue &ldquo;Folly&rdquo; (1886) was bought
+by the trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other
+statues or statuettes of a similar order: &ldquo;Peace&rdquo; (1890), which
+secured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy,
+&ldquo;Echo&rdquo; (1895), on which he was elected full member, &ldquo;The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span>
+Egyptian Singer&rdquo; (1889), &ldquo;Applause&rdquo; (1893), &ldquo;Glory to the
+Dead&rdquo; (1901) and &ldquo;Snowdrift&rdquo; (1902). Ford&rsquo;s influence on
+the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of
+good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely
+popular, and when he died a monument was erected to his
+memory (C. Lucchesi, sculptor, J.W. Simpson, architect) in
+St John&rsquo;s Wood, near to where he dwelt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sculpture</a></span>; also M.H. Spielmann, <i>British Sculpture and
+Sculptors of To-day</i> (London, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORD, JOHN<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1586-<i>c.</i> 1640), English dramatist, was baptized
+on the 17th of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came
+of a good family; his father was in the commission of the peace
+and his mother was a sister of Sir John Popham, successively
+attorney-general and lord chief justice. The name of John
+Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as matriculating
+at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to whom,
+with other members of the society of Gray&rsquo;s Inn, he dedicated
+his play of <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Melancholy</i>), the future dramatist entered
+the profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple
+in 1602; but he seems never to have been called to the bar.
+Four years afterwards he made his first appearance as an author
+with an elegy called <i>Fame&rsquo;s Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire
+deceased</i>, and dedicated to the widow of the earl (Charles Blount,
+Lord Mountjoy, &ldquo;coronized,&rdquo; to use Ford&rsquo;s expression, by King
+James in 1603 for his services in Ireland)&mdash;a lady who would
+have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own tragedies of
+lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich.
+This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs
+and is composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as
+the author declares, written &ldquo;unfee&rsquo;d&rdquo;; it shows that Ford
+sympathized, as Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done,
+with the &ldquo;awkward fate&rdquo; of the countess&rsquo;s brother, the earl of
+Essex. Who the &ldquo;flint-hearted Lycia&rdquo; may be, to whom the
+poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress, is unknown;
+indeed, the record of Ford&rsquo;s private life is little better than a
+blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and
+epilogues of his various plays, he seems to have enjoyed the patronage
+of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, &ldquo;himself a muse&rdquo;
+after a fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the
+ex-queen of Bohemia. Ford&rsquo;s tract of <i>Honor Triumphant, or the
+Peeres Challenge</i> (printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare
+Society with the <i>Line of Life</i>, in 1843), and the simultaneously published
+verses <i>The Monarches Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes
+Welcome into England</i>, exhibit him as occasionally meeting the
+festive demands of court and nobility; and a kind of moral
+essay by him, entitled <i>A Line of Life</i> (printed 1620), which
+contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome
+praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford&rsquo;s
+plays (<i>The Broken Heart</i>, iii. 4) contains an implied protest
+against the absolute system of government generally accepted
+by the dramatists of the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations
+with his brother-authors little is known; it was natural that he
+should exchange complimentary verses with James Shirley,
+and that he should join in the chorus of laments over the death
+of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice an epigram in
+honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in
+one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Thou cheat&rsquo;st us, Ford; mak&rsquo;st one seem two by art:</p>
+<p class="i05">What is Love&rsquo;s Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he
+gratified the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed
+in <i>The Time Poets</i> (<i>Choice Drollery</i>, 1656) by withdrawing from
+business and from literary life in London, to his native place;
+but nothing is known as to the date of his death. His career
+as a dramatist very probably began by collaboration with other
+authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote <i>The Fairy Knight</i>
+and <i>The Bristowe Merchant</i> (licensed in 1624, but both unpublished),
+with John Webster <i>A late Murther of the Sonne upon
+the Mother</i> (licensed in 1624). A play entitled <i>An ill Beginning
+has a good End</i>, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attributed
+to Ford, was (if his) his earliest acted play; whether
+<i>Sir Thomas Overbury&rsquo;s Life and untimely Death</i> (1615) was a
+play is extremely doubtful; some lines of indignant regret by
+Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He is also said
+to have written, at dates unknown, <i>The London Merchant</i>
+(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s
+<i>Knight of the Burning Pestle</i>) and <i>The Royal Combat</i>; a tragedy
+by him, <i>Beauty in a Trance</i>, was entered in the Stationers&rsquo;
+Register in 1653, but never printed. These three (or four)
+plays were among those destroyed by Warburton&rsquo;s cook. <i>The
+Queen, or the Excellency of the Sea</i>, a play of inverted passion,
+containing some fine sensuous lines, printed in 1653 by Alexander
+Singhe for private performance, has been recently edited by W.
+Bang (<i>Materialien zur Kunde d. älteren engl. Dramas</i>, 13, Louvain,
+1906), and is by him on internal evidence confidently claimed
+as Ford&rsquo;s. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the dates span
+little more than a decade&mdash;the earliest, <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Melancholy</i>,
+having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest, <i>The
+Lady&rsquo;s Trial</i>, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639.</p>
+
+<p>When writing <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Melancholy</i>, it would seem that
+Ford had not yet become fully aware of the bent of his own
+dramatic genius, although he was already master of his powers
+of poetic expression. He was attracted towards domestic tragedy
+by an irresistible desire to sound the depths of abnormal conflicts
+between passion and circumstances, to romantic comedy by a
+strong though not widely varied imaginative faculty, and by
+a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic humour.
+In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristically
+expressive of his peculiar strength, <i>&rsquo;Tis Pity she&rsquo;s a Whore</i>
+(acted <i>c.</i> 1626) and <i>The Broken Heart</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1629), both
+printed in 1633 with the anagram of his name <i>Fide Honor</i>, he
+had found horrible situations which required dramatic explanation
+by intensely powerful motives. Ford by no means stood
+alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal subjects;
+but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and
+yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression
+which renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable,
+or converts the horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford&rsquo;s
+genius there was real refinement, except when the &ldquo;supra-sensually
+sensual&rdquo; impulse or the humbler self-delusion referred
+to came into play. In a third tragedy, <i>Love&rsquo;s Sacrifice</i> (acted
+<i>c.</i> 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on similar materials;
+but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the interest of
+his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility&mdash;doing
+homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult.
+In <i>Perkin Warbeck</i> (printed 1634; probably acted a year later)
+he chose an historical subject of great dramatic promise and
+psychological interest, and sought to emulate the glory of the
+great series of Shakespeare&rsquo;s national histories. The effort is
+one of the most laudable, as it was by no means one of the least
+successful, in the dramatic literature of this period. <i>The Fancies
+Chaste and Noble</i> (acted before 1636, printed 1638), though it
+includes scenes of real force and feeling, is dramatically a failure,
+of which the main idea is almost provokingly slight and feeble;
+and <i>The Lady&rsquo;s Trial</i> (acted 1638, printed 1639) is only redeemed
+from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness
+of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very
+different kinds, in which Ford co-operated with other writers,
+the mask of <i>The Sun&rsquo;s Darling</i> (acted 1624, printed 1657),
+hardly to be placed in the first rank of early compositions, and
+<i>The Witch of Edmonton</i> (printed 1658, but probably acted about
+1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer with Dekker and
+Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of the
+English or any other stage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the
+plays enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a
+stinging epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that <i>The Lover&rsquo;s
+Melancholy</i> was stolen by Ford from Shakespeare&rsquo;s papers. Undoubtedly,
+the madness of the hero of this play of Ford&rsquo;s occasionally
+recalls Hamlet, while the heroine is one of the many, and at the same
+time one of the most pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of
+them is a copy, as Friar Bonaventura in Ford&rsquo;s second play may be
+said to be a copy of Friar Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he
+disagreeably exaggerates, or as D&rsquo;Avolos in <i>Love&rsquo;s Sacrifice</i> is clearly
+modelled on Iago. The plot of <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Melancholy</i>, which is
+ineffective because it leaves no room for suspense in the mind of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span>
+the reader, seems original; in the dialogue, on the other hand, a
+justly famous passage in Act i. (the beautiful version of the story
+of the nightingale&rsquo;s death) is translated from Strada; while the
+scheme of the tedious interlude exhibiting the various forms of
+madness is avowedly taken, together with sundry comments, from
+Burton&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>. Already in this play Ford
+exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the despondent misery
+of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last scene, in which
+his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart. A situation&mdash;hazardous
+in spite of its comic substratum&mdash;between Thaumasta
+and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford points out,
+with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy, notwithstanding,
+or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the
+author.</p>
+
+<p><i>&rsquo;Tis Pity she&rsquo;s a Whore</i> has been justly recognized as a tragedy
+of extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on
+Ford, has rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and
+has at the same time indicated wherein consists its poison. He
+dwells with great force upon the different treatment applied by Ford
+to the characters of the two miserable lovers&mdash;brother and sister.
+&ldquo;The sin once committed, there is no more wavering or flinching
+possible to him, who has fought so hard against the demoniac possession;
+while she who resigned body and soul to the tempter, almost
+at a word, remains liable to the influences of religion and remorse.&rdquo;
+This different treatment shows the feeling of the poet&mdash;the feeling
+for which he seeks to evoke our inmost sympathy&mdash;to oscillate
+between the belief that an awful crime brings with it its awful
+punishment (and it is sickening to observe how the argument by
+which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her evil courses
+mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution), and the
+notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible, and
+therefore in a sense self-justified, in so dominant a passion. The
+key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of
+the first scene&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;All this I&rsquo;ll do, to free me from the rod</p>
+<p class="i05">Of vengeance; <i>else I&rsquo;ll swear my fate&rsquo;s my god</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one
+side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs,
+in the dying words of &ldquo;the student struck blind and mad by
+passion&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p class="i3">&ldquo;O, I bleed fast!</p>
+<p>Death, thou&rsquo;rt a guest long look&rsquo;d for; I embrace</p>
+<p>Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes!</p>
+<p>Where&rsquo;er I go, let me enjoy this grace</p>
+<p>Freely to view my Annabella&rsquo;s face.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It has been observed by J.A. Symonds that &ldquo;English poets have
+given us the right key to the Italian temperament.... The love
+of Giovanni and Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative
+than sensual.&rdquo; It is difficult to allow the appositeness of this
+special illustration; on the other hand, Ford has even in this case
+shown his art of depicting sensual passion without grossness of
+expression; for the exception in Annabella&rsquo;s language to Soranzo
+seems to have a special intention, and is true to the pressure of
+the situation and the revulsion produced by it in a naturally weak
+and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to speak, of the play
+is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the underplot with Hippolita.</p>
+
+<p><i>&rsquo;Tis Pity she&rsquo;s a Whore</i> was translated into French by Maurice
+Maeterlinck under the title of <i>Annabella</i>, and represented at the
+Théâtre de l&rsquo;&OElig;uvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version
+an eloquent appreciation of Ford&rsquo;s genius, especially in his portraits
+of women, whose fate it is to live &ldquo;dans les ténèbres, les craintes et
+les larmes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Like this tragedy, <i>The Broken Heart</i> was probably founded upon
+some Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter
+instance there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject,
+the play commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of
+many excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford&rsquo;s dramatic
+genius. The complicated plot is constructed with greater skill
+than is usual with this dramatist, and the pathos of particular
+situations, and of the entire character of Penthea&mdash;a woman doomed
+to hopeless misery, but capable of seeking to obtain for her brother
+a happiness which his cruelty has condemned her to forego&mdash;has an
+intensity and a depth which are all Ford&rsquo;s own. Even the lesser
+characters are more pleasing than usual, and some beautiful lyrics
+are interspersed in the play.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only <i>The Chronicle Historie
+of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth</i>, appears to call for special
+attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment
+that it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken
+into consideration in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James
+Gairdner&rsquo;s essay appended to his <i>Life and Reign of Richard III.</i>,
+there are still credulous persons left to think and assert that Perkin
+was not an impostor, they will derive little satisfaction from Ford&rsquo;s
+play, which with really surprising skill avoids the slightest indication
+as to the poet&rsquo;s own belief on the subject. That this tragedy should
+have been reprinted in 1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the
+public, as is often the case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather
+than to the development of the action. The dramatic capabilities
+of the subject are, however, great, and it afterwards attracted
+Schiller, who, however, seems to have abandoned it in favour of
+the similar theme of the Russian Demetrius. Had Shakespeare
+treated it, he would hardly have contented himself with investing
+the hero with the nobility given by Ford to this personage of his
+play,&mdash;for it is hardly possible to speak of a personage as a <i>character</i>
+when the clue to his conduct is intentionally withheld. Nor could
+Shakespeare have failed to bring out with greater variety and
+distinctness the dramatic features in Henry VII., whom Ford depicts
+with sufficient distinctness to give some degree of individuality to
+the figure, but still with a tenderness of touch which would have been
+much to the credit of the dramatist&rsquo;s skill had he been writing in the
+Tudor age. The play is, however, founded on Bacon&rsquo;s Life, of
+which the text is used by Ford with admirable discretion, and on
+Thomas Gainsford&rsquo;s <i>True and Wonderful History of Perkin Warbeck</i>
+(1618). The minor characters of the honest old Huntley, whom the
+Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter&rsquo;s hand upon Warbeck,
+and of her lover the faithful &ldquo;Dalyell,&rdquo; are most effectively drawn;
+even &ldquo;the men of judgment,&rdquo; the adventurers who surround the
+chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman among
+them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is, as
+befits a &ldquo;Chronicle History,&rdquo; so clear and straightforward as to
+make it easy as well as interesting to read.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Witch of Edmonton</i> was attributed by its publisher to William
+Rowley, Dekker, Ford, &ldquo;&amp;c.,&rdquo; but the body of the play has been
+generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The
+subject of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported
+witch, Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne
+agrees with Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the
+first act; and he is most assuredly right in considering that &ldquo;there
+is no more admirable exposition of a play on the English stage.&rdquo;
+Supposing Dekker to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing
+with the unfortunate old woman whom persecution as a witch
+actually drives to become one, and Ford for the domestic tragedy
+of the bigamist murderer, it cannot be denied that both divisions
+of the subject are effectively treated, while the more important part
+of the task fell to the share of Ford. Yet it may be doubted whether
+any such division can be safely assumed; and it may suffice to
+repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught with more effective
+simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely double lesson of the
+folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of crime.</p>
+
+<p>With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of <i>The Sun&rsquo;s Darling</i>;
+or, as seems most probable, they founded this production upon
+<i>Phaeton</i>, an earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author.
+Gifford holds that Dekker&rsquo;s hand is perpetually traceable in the
+first three acts of <i>The Sun&rsquo;s Darling</i>, and through the whole of its
+comic part, but that the last two acts are mainly Ford&rsquo;s. If so, he
+is the author of the rather forced occasional tribute on the accession
+of King Charles I., of which the last act largely consists. This
+mask, which furnished abundant opportunities for the decorators,
+musicians and dancers, in showing forth how the seasons and their
+delights are successively exhausted by a &ldquo;wanton darling,&rdquo; Raybright
+the grandchild of the Sun, is said to have been very popular.
+It is at the same time commonplace enough in conception; but
+there is much that is charming in the descriptions, Jonson and
+Lyly being respectively laid under contribution in the course of the
+dialogue, and in one of the incidental lyrics.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the
+intensity of his passion, in particular scenes and passages where
+the character, the author and the reader are alike lost in the
+situation and in the sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is
+a supreme dramatic gift. But his plays&mdash;with the exception of
+<i>The Witch of Edmonton</i>, in which he doubtless had a prominent
+share&mdash;too often disturb the mind like a bad dream which ends
+as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme dramatic
+defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most reason
+to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford&rsquo;s;
+nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in <i>The Broken
+Heart</i>, &ldquo;is formed of books and school-traditions,&rdquo; which has
+a right to protest against the final effect of the most powerful
+creations of his genius. There is a morality which both</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+      <p class="i2">&ldquo;Keeps the soul in tune,</p>
+<p>At whose sweet music all our actions dance,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and is able to physic</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+    <p class="i2">&ldquo;The sickness of a mind</p>
+<p>Broken with griefs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Of that morality&mdash;or of that deference to the binding power
+within man and the ruling power above him&mdash;tragedy is the
+truest expounder, even when it illustrates by contrasts; but
+the tragic poet who merely places the problem before us, and
+bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty, is not to be reckoned
+among the great masters of a divine art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with
+notes and introduction, revised with additions to both text and
+notes by Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the <i>Dramatic Works
+of Massinger and Ford</i> appeared in 1840, with an introduction by
+Hartley Coleridge. <i>The Best Plays of Ford</i> were edited for the
+&ldquo;Mermaid Series&rdquo; in 1888, with an introduction by W.H. Havelock
+Ellis, and reissued in 1903. A.C. Swinburne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Essay on Ford&rdquo;
+is reprinted among his <i>Essays and Studies</i> (1875). <i>Perkin Warbeck</i>
+and <i>&rsquo;Tis Pity</i> were translated into German by F. Bodenstedt in
+1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in 1904. The probable sources
+of the various plays are discussed in Emil Koeppel&rsquo;s <i>Quellenstudien
+zu den Dramen George Chapman&rsquo;s, Philip Massinger&rsquo;s und John
+Ford&rsquo;s</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORD, RICHARD<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1796-1858), English author of one of the
+earliest and best of travellers&rsquo; <i>Handbooks</i>, was the eldest son of
+Sir Richard Ford, who in 1789 was member of parliament for
+East Grinstead, and for many years afterwards chief police
+magistrate of London. His mother was the daughter and
+heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in art.
+He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833
+he travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra
+and at Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions
+to the <i>Quarterly Review</i>) was a pamphlet, <i>An Historical Inquiry
+into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain</i> (Murray,
+1837), in reply to one called the <i>Policy of England towards Spain</i>,
+issued under the patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the
+winter of 1839-1840 in Italy, where he added largely to his
+collection of majolica; and soon after his return he began, at
+John Murray&rsquo;s invitation, to write his <i>Handbook for Travellers
+in Spain</i>, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died on
+the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of
+pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir
+A. Molesworth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORD, THOMAS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (b. <i>c.</i> 1580), English musician, of whose
+life little more is known than that he was attached to the court
+of Prince Henry, son of James I. His works also are few, but
+they are sufficient to show the high stage of efficiency and musical
+knowledge which the English school had attained at the beginning
+of the 17th century. They consist of canons and other concerted
+pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute accompaniment. The
+chief collection of his works is entitled <i>Musike of Sundrie Kinds
+set forth in Two Books</i>, &amp;c. (1607), and the histories of music by
+Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with
+Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare&rsquo;s sonnets, Ford
+is the chief representative of the school which preceded Henry
+Lawes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORDE, FRANCIS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in
+the army list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1746. This regiment
+was the first of the king&rsquo;s service to serve in India (hence its
+motto <i>Primus in Indis</i>), and Forde was on duty there when in
+1755 he became major, at the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to
+become his rival, was promoted captain. At the express invitation
+of Clive, Forde resigned his king&rsquo;s commission to take the
+post of second in command of the E.I. Company&rsquo;s troops in
+Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French
+of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley
+rabble of an army which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into
+the field, Forde pushed ahead through difficult country and
+came upon the enemy entrenched at Condore. For four days
+the two armies faced one another; on the fifth both commanders
+resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In spite
+of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in
+the end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first
+to last a brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself
+with this; on the same evening he stormed the French camp,
+and his pursuit was checked only by the guns of Masulipatam
+itself. The place was quickly invested on the land side, but
+difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of men. For
+fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last
+avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at
+midnight on the 25th of January 1759. The Company&rsquo;s troops
+lost one-third of their number, but the storm was a brilliant
+and astounding success. Forde received less than no reward.
+The Company refused to confirm his lieut.-colonel&rsquo;s commission,
+and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote, his old subaltern
+in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist Clive,
+and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable
+to Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A
+year later he at last received his commission, but was still
+opposed by a faction of the directors which supported Coote.
+Clive himself warmly supported Forde in these quarrels. In
+1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was sent out
+with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian administration.
+Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of
+Good Hope on the 27th of December.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be
+found in Malleson&rsquo;s <i>Decisive Battles of India</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORDHAM<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, formerly a village of Westchester county, New
+York, U.S.A., and now a part of New York City. It lies on the
+mainland, along the eastern bank of the Harlem river, E. of the
+northern end of Manhattan Island. It is the seat of Fordham
+University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as St John&rsquo;s
+College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus.
+In 1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University,
+and now includes St John&rsquo;s College high school and grammar
+school, St John&rsquo;s College, the Fordham University medical school
+(all in Fordham), and the Fordham University law school (42
+Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908 the university had
+96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the high school)
+236 students, of whom 105 were in St John&rsquo;s College, 31 in the
+medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still
+stands the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to
+1849 and in which he wrote &ldquo;Annabel Lee,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ulalume,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer
+(a Dutchman, who called himself &ldquo;John Archer&rdquo; after coming
+to America), who in that year received permission from Francis
+Lovelace, colonial governor of New York, to settle sixteen
+families on the mainland close by a fording-place of the Spuyten
+Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters the Harlem river.
+Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians the
+tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the
+Harlem river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and
+extending from the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High
+Bridge. In 1671 Governor Lovelace erected this tract into the
+manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was included with Morrisania
+in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with part of the
+township of Yonkers was erected into the township of Kingsbridge,
+which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and
+in 1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York
+City.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORDUN, JOHN OF<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1384), Scottish chronicler. The
+statement generally made that the chronicler was born at
+Fordoun (Kincardineshire) has not been supported by any
+direct evidence. It is certain that he was a secular priest, and
+that he composed his history in the latter part of the 14th
+century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the
+cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest
+attempt to write a continuous history of Scotland. We are
+informed that Fordun&rsquo;s patriotic zeal was roused by the removal
+or destruction of many national records by Edward III. and that
+he travelled in England and Ireland, collecting material for his
+history. This work is divided into five books. The first three
+are almost entirely fabulous, and form the groundwork on which
+Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical fictions,
+which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his <i>Critical Essay</i>
+(i. pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed
+with fable, contain much valuable information, and become
+more authentic the more nearly they approach the author&rsquo;s own
+time. The 5th book concludes with the death of King David I.
+in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun wrote part of another
+book, and collected materials for bringing down the history to
+a later period. These materials were used by a continuator who
+wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who is identified
+with Walter Bower (<i>q.v.</i>), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm.
+The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down
+the narrative to the death of King James I. in 1437. According
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span>
+to the custom of the time, the continuator did not hesitate to
+interpolate Fordun&rsquo;s portion of the work with additions of his
+own, and the whole history thus compiled is known as the
+<i>Scotichronicon</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first printed edition of Fordun&rsquo;s work was that of Thomas
+Gale in his <i>Scriptores quindecim</i> (vol. iii.), which was published in
+1691. This was followed by Thomas Hearne&rsquo;s (5 vols.) edition in
+1722. The whole work, including Bower&rsquo;s continuation, was published
+by Walter Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872
+Fordun&rsquo;s chronicle, in the original Latin and in an English translation,
+was edited by William F. Skene in <i>The Historians of Scotland</i>.
+The preface to this edition collects all the biographical details and
+gives full bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORECLOSURE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment
+by order of the court of a mortgagor&rsquo;s equity of redemption.
+In the law of equity the object of every mortgage transaction
+is eventually the repayment of a debt, the mortgaged property
+being incidental by way of security. Therefore, although the
+day named for repayment of the loan has passed and the mortgagor&rsquo;s
+estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to
+mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a
+reconveyance of the mortgaged property on payment of the
+principal, interest and costs. This right of the mortgagor to
+relief is termed his &ldquo;equity of redemption.&rdquo; But the right
+must be exercised within a reasonable time, otherwise he will
+be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the mortgagee&rsquo;s
+possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such foreclosure
+is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action
+is brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the
+chancery division of the High Court in England, claiming that
+an account may be taken of the principal and interest due to
+the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor may be directed to pay
+the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by the court
+and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of
+redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in foreclosure
+actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed
+£500, or where the mortgage is for more than £500, but less than
+that sum has been actually advanced. In a Welsh mortgage
+there is no right to foreclosure. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mortgage</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOREIGN OFFICE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> that department of the executive of the
+United Kingdom which is concerned with foreign affairs. The
+head of the Foreign Office is termed principal secretary of state
+for foreign affairs and his office dates from 1782. Between
+that date and the Revolution there had been only two secretaries
+of state, whose duties were divided by a geographical division
+of the globe into northern and southern departments. The
+duties of the secretary of the northern department of Europe
+comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while
+the secretary of the southern department of Europe communicated
+with France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey,
+and also looked after Irish and colonial business, and carried
+out the work of the Home Office. In 1782 the duties of these
+two secretaries were revised, the northern department becoming
+the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign affairs is the official
+agent of the crown in all communications between Great Britain
+and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either through
+the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or through
+representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all
+treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects
+residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they
+may sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two
+under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other
+a permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries
+(civil servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department
+and a staff of clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office
+are the African, American, commercial and sanitary, consular,
+eastern (Europe), far eastern, western (Europe), parliamentary,
+financial, librarian and keeper of the papers, treaties and registry.
+In the case of important despatches and correspondence, these,
+with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the permanent
+under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the sovereign
+and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet.
+The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is £5000 per annum,
+that of the permanent under-secretary £2000, the parliamentary
+under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, £1500,
+and the other assistant under-secretaries £1200.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, part ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORELAND, NORTH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> and <b>SOUTH,</b> two chalk headlands on
+the Kent coast of England, overlooking the Strait of Dover,
+the North Foreland forming the eastern projection of the Isle
+of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m. N.E. of Dover. Both
+present bold cliffs to the sea, and command beautiful views over
+the strait. On the North Foreland (51° 22½&prime; N., 1° 27&prime; E.) there
+is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51° 8½&prime; N., 1° 23&prime; E.)
+there are two. There is also a Foreland on the north coast of
+Devonshire, 2½ m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine projection of the
+highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol Channel,
+and forming the most northerly point of the county.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORESHORE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> that part of the seashore which lies between
+high- and low-water mark at ordinary tides. In the United
+Kingdom it is ordinarily and prima facie vested in the crown,
+except where it may be vested in a subject by ancient grant or
+charter from the crown, or by prescription. Although numerous
+decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima facie
+title of the crown, S.A. Moore in his <i>History of the Foreshore</i>
+contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather
+than of the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving
+an express grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence
+of user from which a grant may be presumed. The chief acts
+showing title to foreshore are, taking wreck or royal fish, right
+of fishing, mining, digging and taking sand, seaweed, &amp;c., embanking
+and enclosing. There is a public right of user in that
+part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the purpose
+of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over lands
+adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that,
+in order to make the right available, there must be a highway
+or other public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it
+has been held that the public have no legal right to trespass on
+land above high-water mark for the purpose of bathing in the
+sea, though if they can get to it they may bathe there (<i>Blundell</i>
+v. <i>Catteral</i>, 1821, 5 B. &amp; Ad. 268). There is no right in the public
+to take sand, shells or seaweed from the shore, nor, except in
+certain places by local custom, have fishermen the right to use
+the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their boats, or
+for drying their nets or similar purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S.A. Moore, <i>History of the Foreshore and the Law relating
+thereto</i> (1888); Coulson and Forbes, <i>Law of Waters</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORESTALLING,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> in English criminal law, the offence of buying
+merchandise, victual, &amp;c., coming to market, or making any
+bargain for buying the same, before they shall be in the market
+ready to be sold, or making any motion for enhancing the price,
+or dissuading any person from coming to market or forbearing
+to bring any of the things to market, &amp;c. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engrossing</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOREST LAWS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the general term for the old English restriction
+laws, dealing with forests. One of the most cherished
+prerogatives of the king of England, at the time when his
+power was at the highest, was that of converting any portion
+of the country into a forest in which he might enjoy the
+pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the
+king and the people testify to the extent to which this prerogative
+became a public grievance, and the charter by which
+its exercise was bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance
+part of the greatest constitutional code imposed by his barons
+upon King John. At common law it appears to have been the
+right of the king to make a forest where he pleased, provided
+that certain legal formalities were observed. The king having a
+continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the peace
+and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many privileges
+this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation
+wheresoever he would appoint.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Land once afforested became
+subject to a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the formalities
+required to constitute a valid afforestment, have been
+carefully ascertained by the Anglo-Norman lawyers. &ldquo;A forest,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span>
+says Manwood, &ldquo;is a certain territory of woody grounds and
+fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of forest,
+chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe protection
+of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of
+ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable
+marks, meres and boundaries, either known by matter of record
+or by prescription; and also replenished with wild beasts of
+venery or chase, and with great coverts of vert, for the succour
+of the said beasts there to abide: for the preservation and
+continuance of which said place, together with the vert and
+venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges belonging
+to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a
+forest and to no other place.&rdquo;<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> And the same author distinguishes
+a forest, as &ldquo;the highest franchise of princely pleasure,&rdquo;
+from the inferior franchises of chase, park and warren&mdash;named
+in the order of their importance. The forest embraces all these,
+and it is distinguished by having laws and courts of its own,
+according to which offenders are justiceable. An offender in
+a chase is to be punished by the common law; an offender in a
+forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a park,
+only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished
+according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege
+extended. Thus beasts of forest (the &ldquo;five wild beasts of
+venery&rdquo;) were the hart, the hind, the hare, the boar and the
+wolf. The beasts of chase were also five, viz. the buck, the doe,
+the fox, the marten and the roe. The beasts and fowls of warren
+were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and the partridge.</p>
+
+<p>The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court
+of attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of
+attachments (called also the wood-mote) is held every forty
+days for the foresters to bring in their attachments concerning
+any hurt done to vert or venison (<i>in viridi et venatione</i>) in the
+forest, and for the verderers to receive and mark the same, but
+no conviction takes place. The swainmote, held three times in
+the year, is the court to which all the freeholders within the forest
+owe suit and service, and of which the verderers are the judges.
+In this court all offences against the forest laws may be tried,
+but no judgment or punishment follows. This is reserved for
+the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls of
+offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the
+swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the
+court of the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, &ldquo;is commonly
+a man of greater dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests;
+and therefore where justice-seats are to be held some other
+persons whom the king shall appoint are associated with him,
+who together are to determine <i>omnia placita forestae</i>.&rdquo; There
+were two chief justices for the forests <i>intra</i> and <i>ultra Trentam</i>
+respectively. The necessary officers of a forest are a steward,
+verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and woodwards. The
+verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by the freeholders
+in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to
+view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark
+them on his rolls. A forester was &ldquo;an officer sworn to preserve
+the vert and venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild
+beasts within his bailiwick.&rdquo; The regarders were of the nature
+of visitors: their duty was to make a regard (<i>visitatio nemorum</i>)
+every third year, to inquire of all offences, and of the concealment
+of such offences by any officer of the forest. The business of the
+agister was to look after the pasturage of the forest, and to receive
+the payments for the same by persons entitled to pasture their
+cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and the payment were
+called &ldquo;agistment.&rdquo; The woodward was the officer who had
+the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the
+court of attachment.</p>
+
+<p>The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite
+territory within which the code of the forest law prevailed to
+the exclusion of the common law. The ownership of the soil
+might be in any one, but the rights of the proprietor were limited
+by the laws made for the protection of the king&rsquo;s wild beasts.
+These laws, enforced by fines often arbitrary and excessive, were
+a great grievance to the unfortunate owners of land within or
+in the neighbourhood of the forest. The offence of &ldquo;purpresture&rdquo;
+may be cited as an example. This was an encroachment on the
+forest rights, by building a house within the forest, and it made
+no difference whether the land belonged to the builder or not.
+In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at discretion.
+And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into arable
+land, he was guilty of the offence known as &ldquo;assarting,&rdquo; whether
+the covert belonged to himself or not.</p>
+
+<p>The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings,
+and their extension to private estates by the process of afforestment,
+were among the grievances which united the barons and
+people against the king in the reign of John. The Great Charter
+of King John contains clauses relating to the forest laws, but
+no separate charter of the forest. The first charter of the forest
+is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. &ldquo;As an important piece
+of legislation,&rdquo; said Stubbs,<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> &ldquo;it must be compared with the forest
+assize of 1184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of the charter
+of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are
+remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the
+accession of Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations
+have been made under Richard and John. These latter are at
+once disafforested; but those of Henry II. only so far as they
+had been carried out to the injury of the landowners and outside
+of the royal demesne.&rdquo; Land which had thus been once forest
+land and was afterwards disafforested was known as <i>purlieu</i>&mdash;derived
+by Manwood from the French <i>pur</i> and <i>lieu</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;a place
+exempt from the forest.&rdquo; The forest laws still applied in a
+modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforestment
+existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other
+persons the land was forest still, and the king&rsquo;s wild beasts were
+to &ldquo;have free recourse therein and safe return to the forest,
+without any hurt or destruction other than by the owners of
+the lands in the purlieu where they shall be found, and that only
+to hunt and chase them back again towards the forest without
+any forestalling&rdquo; (Manwood, <i>On the Forest Laws</i>&mdash;article
+&ldquo;Purlieu&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted
+to by Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament,
+and the royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were
+hyperbolically said to include the whole county. The 4th earl
+of Southampton was nearly ruined by a decision that stripped
+him of his estate near the New Forest. The boundaries of
+Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to 60, and
+enormous fines imposed on the trespassers,&mdash;Lord Salisbury
+being assessed in £20,000, Lord Westmoreland in £19,000, Sir
+Christopher Hatton in £12,000 (Hallam&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History
+of England</i>, c. viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640)
+the royal forests were determined for ever according to their
+boundaries in the twentieth year of James, all subsequent
+enlargements being annulled.</p>
+
+<p>The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete
+disuse.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Coke, 4 <i>Inst.</i>, 300.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Manwood&rsquo;s <i>Treatise of the Forest Laws</i> (4th edition, 1717).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Documents Illustrative of English History</i>, p. 338.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORESTS AND FORESTRY.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> Although most people know
+what a forest (Lat. <i>foris</i>, &ldquo;out of doors&rdquo;) is, a definition of it
+which suits all cases is by no means easy to give. Manwood, in
+his treatise of the <i>Lawes of the Forest</i> (1598), defines a forest as
+&ldquo;a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged
+for wild beasts and fowls of forest, chase and warren, to
+rest and abide in, in the safe protection of the king, for his princely
+delight and pleasure.&rdquo; This primitive definition has, in modern
+times, when the economic aspect of forests came more into the
+foreground, given place to others, so that forest may, in a general
+way, now be described as &ldquo;an area which is for the most part set
+aside for the production of timber and other forest produce,
+or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or to
+protect the locality against injurious influences.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that
+the greater part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time,
+covered with forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and
+shrubs grouped according to climate, soil and configuration of
+the several localities. When the old trees reached their limit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+of life, they disappeared, and younger trees took their place.
+The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of the forest
+were favourable, and the result was vigorous production by the
+creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man, and by
+degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
+under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
+interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic
+animals; men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks.
+Subsequently similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were
+employed to prepare the land for agricultural purposes. More
+recently enormous areas of forests were destroyed by reckless
+cutting and subsequent firing in the extraction of timber for
+economic purposes.</p>
+
+<p>It will readily be understood that the distribution and character
+of the now remaining forests must differ enormously (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>:
+<i>Distribution</i>). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
+dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
+land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of
+a number of different species intermixed; but in some cases
+certain species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining
+the upper hand, thus forming more or less pure forests of one
+species only. The number of species differs very much. In
+many tropical forests hundreds of species may be found on a
+comparatively small area, in other cases the number is limited.
+Burma has several thousand species of trees and shrubs, Sind
+has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about forty
+species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
+Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
+Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
+effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it
+may be said that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth,
+wherever the climate is not modified by considerable elevation,
+contain broad-leaved species, palms, bamboos, &amp;c. Here most
+of the best and hardest timbers are found, such as teak, mahogany
+and ebony. The northern countries are rich in conifers. Taking
+a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will be found
+that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of dense
+hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
+Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak,
+olive, chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech,
+birch and certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany
+silver fir and spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central
+Germany, and the countries around the Baltic contain forests
+consisting chiefly of Scotch pine, spruce and birch, to which,
+in Siberia, larch must be added, while the lower parts of the
+ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder and poplar.
+In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
+vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it
+changes into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen
+broad-leaved species with pines on sandy soils. On going north
+in the Atlantic region, the forest becomes temperate, containing
+deciduous broad-leaved trees and pines, until Canada is reached,
+where larches, spruces and firs occupy the ground. Around
+the great lakes on sandy soils the broad-leaved forest gives
+way to pines. On proceeding west from the Atlantic region
+the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this into the
+prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
+forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation
+above the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In
+Japan a tropical vegetation is found in the south, comprising
+palms, figs, ebony, mangrove and others. This is followed on
+proceeding north by subtropical forests containing evergreen
+oaks, <i>Podocarpus</i>, tree-ferns, and, at higher elevations, <i>Cryptomeria</i>
+and <i>Chamaecyparis</i>. Then follow deciduous broad-leaved
+forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches. In India the character
+of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall and elevation.
+Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of Guttiferae,
+Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
+bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious
+rainfall deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal
+(<i>Shorea robusta</i>) and a great variety of other valuable trees.
+Under a still smaller rainfall the vegetation becomes sparse,
+containing acacias, <i>Dalbergia sissoo</i> and Tamarix. Where the
+rainfall is very light or <i>nil</i>, desert appears. In the Himalayas,
+subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the forests containing,
+according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, chestnuts,
+magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia,
+again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some
+two hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles.
+Some of the eucalypts attain an enormous height.</p>
+
+<p><i>Utility of Forests</i>.&mdash;In the economy of man and of nature
+forests are of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through
+the produce which they yield, and the latter through the influence
+which they exercise upon climate, the regulation of
+moisture, the stability of the soil, the healthiness and beauty
+of a country and allied subjects. The <i>indirect</i> utility will be
+dealt with first. A piece of land bare of vegetation is, throughout
+the year, exposed to the full effect of sun and air currents, and
+the climatic conditions which are produced by these agencies.
+If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a growth
+of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
+it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the
+effect of sun and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of
+air. These modifying agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns
+of the trees intercept the rays of the sun and the falling rain;
+they obstruct the movement of air currents, and reduce radiation
+at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and fruits, augmented by
+certain plants which grow in the shade of the trees, form a layer
+of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against rapid changes
+of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of water
+in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all
+directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies
+have been observed from ancient times, and widely differing
+views have been taken of them. Of late years, however, more
+careful observations have been made at so-called parallel stations,
+that is to say, one station in the middle of a forest, and another
+outside at some distance from its edge, but otherwise exposed
+to the same general conditions. In this way, the following
+results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the temperature
+of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the climate
+more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the
+air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the
+precipitation of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their
+effect in low lands is <i>nil</i> or very small; in hilly countries it is
+probably greater, but definite results have not yet been obtained
+owing to the difficulty of separating the effect of forests from
+that of other factors. (4) They help to regulate the water supply,
+produce a more sustained feeding of springs, tend to reduce
+violent floods, and render the flow of water in rivers more
+continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation, erosion,
+landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands
+and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity
+of air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds,
+and afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They
+may, under certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a
+country, and help in its defence. (8) They increase the beauty
+of a country, and produce a healthy aesthetic influence upon
+the people.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>direct</i> utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce,
+the capital which they represent, and the work which they provide.
+The principal produce of forests consists of timber and
+firewood. Both are necessaries for the daily life of the people.
+Apart from a limited number of broad-leaved species, the conifers
+have become the most important timber trees in the economy
+of man. They are found in greatest quantities in the countries
+around the Baltic and in North America. In modern times
+iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replaced
+timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood;
+nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain
+so. This is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized
+nations. Whereas the population of Great Britain and Ireland,
+during the period 1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports
+of timber, during the same period, increased by 45%; in other
+words, every head of population in 1900 used more timber than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span>
+twenty years earlier. Germany produced in 1880 about as much
+timber as she required; in 1899 she imported 4,600,000 tons,
+valued at £14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly increasing,
+although the yield capacity of her own forests is much higher
+now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes
+which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the
+wood pulp annually imported into Britain consumes at least
+2,000,000 tons of timber. A fabric closely resembling silk
+is now made of spruce wood. The variety of other, or minor,
+produce yielded by forests is very great, and much of it is
+essential for the well-being of the people and for various industries.
+The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in countries
+subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
+not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood
+taken from the forests. As regards industries, attention need
+only be drawn to such articles as commercial fibre, tanning
+materials, dye-stuffs, lac, turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha,
+&amp;c. Great Britain and Ireland alone import every year
+such materials to the value of £12,000,000, half of this being
+represented by rubber.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>capital</i> employed in forests consists chiefly of the value
+of the soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily,
+of much greater value than the former wherever a sustained
+annual yield of timber is expected from a forest. In the case of
+a Scotch pine forest, for instance, the value of the growing stock
+is, under the above-mentioned condition, from three to five times
+that of the soil. The rate of interest yielded by capital invested
+in forests differs, of course, considerably according to circumstances,
+but on the whole it may, under proper management,
+be placed equal to that yielded by agricultural land; it is lower
+than the agricultural rate on the better classes of land, but
+higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter are specially
+indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the production
+of agricultural crops. Forests require <i>labour</i> in a great
+variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation,
+tending and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3)
+industries which depend on forests for their prime material.
+The labour indicated under the first head differs considerably
+according to circumstances, but its amount is smaller than that
+required if the land is used for agriculture. Hence forests provide
+additional labour only if they are established on surplus lands.
+Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce its transport forms
+a business of considerable magnitude, the amount of labour
+being perhaps equal to half that employed under the first head.
+The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
+working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this
+respect attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and
+around High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, where more than
+20,000 workmen are employed in converting the beech, grown
+on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs and tools of many
+patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are not available
+under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany the
+people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total
+population; those employed on transport of forest produce
+1.1%; labourers employed on the various wood industries,
+8.6%; or a total of 12%. An important feature of the work
+connected with forests and their produce is that a great part of
+it can be made to fit in with the requirements of agriculture;
+that is to say, it can be done at seasons when field crops do not
+require attention. Thus the rural labourers or small farmers
+can earn some money at times when they have nothing else to
+do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
+obtainable.</p>
+
+<p>Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
+particular country depends on its special conditions, such as
+(1) the position of a country, its communications, and the control
+which it exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2)
+the quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce
+available in the country; (3) the value of land and labour, and
+the returns which land yields if used for other purposes; (4)
+the density of population; (5) the amount of capital available
+for investment; (6) the climate and configuration, especially
+the geographical position, whether inland or on the border of
+the sea, &amp;c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
+forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
+question must be answered according to the special circumstances
+of each case.</p>
+
+<p>The subjoined table shows the forests of various European
+states:&mdash;</p>
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area of<br />Forests, in<br />Acres.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Total<br />Area of<br />Country<br />under<br />Forest.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Forest<br />Area<br />belonging<br />to the<br />State.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Forest<br />Area per<br />Head of<br />Population,<br />in Acres.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcl rb">9.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">21</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">7.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia, including Finland</td> <td class="tcr rb">518,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bosnia and Herzegovina</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Servia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,900,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">84</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,500,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greece</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">80</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">770,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">560,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;?</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;3</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;.07</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These data exhibit considerable differences, since the percentage
+of the forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area
+per head of population from .07 to 9.5 acres. Russia, Sweden
+and Norway may as yet have more forest than they require
+for their own population. On the other hand, Great Britain
+and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even
+Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area
+to meet their own requirements; at the same time, they are
+all sea-bound countries, and importation is easy, while most
+of them are under the influence of moist sea winds, which reduces
+to a subordinate position the importance of forests for climatic
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country
+is the state of ownership&mdash;whether they belong to the state,
+corporations or to private persons. Where, apart from the
+financial aspect and the supply of work, forests are not required
+for the sake of their indirect effects, and where importation
+from other countries is easy and assured, the government of
+the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or
+acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and especially
+where the cost of transport over long distances becomes
+prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure
+the maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under
+forest. This can be done either by maintaining or constituting
+a suitable area of state forests, or by exercising a certain
+amount of control over corporation and even private forests.
+Such measures are more called for in continental countries
+than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved by the above
+statistics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supply of Timber</i>&mdash;<i>Imports and Exports</i>.&mdash;The following
+table shows the net imports and exports of European countries
+(average data, calculated from the returns of recent years).</p>
+
+<p>The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia,
+Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others
+either have only enough for their own consumption, or import
+timber. Great Britain and Ireland import now upwards of
+10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about 4,600,000 tons, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span>
+Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France, Portugal,
+Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia
+Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports
+hardwoods, and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal
+import considerable quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia
+exports hardwoods and some Kauri pine from New Zealand,
+but imports larger quantities of light pine and fir timber. British
+India and Siam export teak and small quantities of fancy woods.
+The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and
+import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will
+not much longer be a genuine exporting country, since they
+import already almost as much timber from Canada as they
+export. Canada exports considerable quantities of timber.
+The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 sq. m., equal
+to 38% of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest for every
+inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area
+can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous
+forest wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly
+all other countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies
+in the several provinces would only determine to stop the present
+fearful waste caused by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular
+system of management. As matters stand, the supplies of the
+most valuable timber of Canada, the white or Weymouth pine
+(<i>Pinus strobus</i>), are nearly exhausted, the great stores of spruce
+in the eastern provinces are being rapidly destroyed, and the
+forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have been attacked
+for export to the United States and to other countries.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Net Imports and Exports of European Countries.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">Countries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Quantities in Tons.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Value in £ Sterling.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,004,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,540,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,820,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,040,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,230,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,950,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">620,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">470,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">470,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,250,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">204,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">480,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">180,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">720,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Servia</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greece</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">840,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary with</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Bosnia and Herzegovina</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,996,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,400,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,460,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,930,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia with Finland</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,890,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,440,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">19,283,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">17,046,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">56,890,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">32,810,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">Net Imports</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,237,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">24,080,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="5">These net imports are received from non-European countries.<br />
+They consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany,<br />
+eucalypts and others.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it
+may be said that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available,
+but the only countries which are able to supply coniferous timber
+for export on a considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway,
+Austria and Canada. As these countries have practically to
+supply the rest of the world, and as the management of their
+forests is far from satisfactory, the question of supplying light
+pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of life of the wood
+industries, must become a very serious matter before many years
+have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are everywhere
+visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to over-state
+the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for instance,
+that 87% of all the timber imported into Great Britain consists
+of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing
+countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries
+little or no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this
+statement does not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which
+contain upwards of 12,000,000 acres of waste land, and 12,500,000
+acres of mountain and heath land used for light grazing. One-fourth
+of that area, if put under forest, would produce all the
+timber now imported which can be grown in Britain, that is to
+say, about 95% of the total.</p>
+
+<p>The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within
+the greater part of the British empire:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Annual Average<br />during the Years<br />1884-1888.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Annual Average<br />during the Years<br />1900-1903.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Exports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Exports.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,540,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,284,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">568,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">737,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Indies, Honduras and  Guiana</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">207,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India, Ceylon and Mauritius</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">528,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">580,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dominion of Canada</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,025,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,789,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">16,356,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,760,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">27,845,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,440,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Net Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,596,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,405,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total increase in 16 years</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,809,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Average annual increase of net</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; imports</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">675,562</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Forest Management.</i>&mdash;In early times there was practically
+no forest management. As long as the forests occupied considerable
+areas, their produce was looked upon as the free gift
+of nature, like air and water; men took it, used it, and even
+destroyed it without let or hindrance. With the gradual increase
+of population and the consequent reduction of the forest area,
+proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the ownership of
+certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against outsiders.
+Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in
+protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws.
+By degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient,
+and that steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment,
+as well as to limit the removal of timber to what the forests
+were capable of producing permanently. The teaching of natural
+science and of political economy was brought to bear upon the
+subject, so that now forestry has become a special science. This
+is recognized in many countries, amongst which Germany stands
+first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark and Belgium.
+Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British India,
+and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good
+Hope and Japan. The United States of America have also
+turned their attention to the subject. Most of the British
+colonies are, in this respect, as yet in a backward state, and the
+matter has still to be fought out in Great Britain and Ireland,
+though many writers have urged the importance of the question
+upon the public and the government. There can be no doubt
+that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a rational
+and systematic treatment of their forests.</p>
+
+<p>For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under
+the country headings; in this article only some of the more
+important countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of
+their forestry is important. A few notes on Germany and France
+will be given, because in these countries forest management
+has been brought to highest perfection; Italy is mentioned,
+because she has allowed her forests to be destroyed; and a
+short description of forestry in the United Kingdom and in India
+follows. A separate section is devoted to the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany</i> is in general well-wooded. The winters being long
+and severe, an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential
+as a sufficient supply of food. This necessity has led, along
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+with a passion for the chase, to the preservation of forests, and
+to the establishment of an admirable system of forest cultivation,
+almost as carefully conducted as field tillage. The Black Forest
+stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy of Baden and part
+of the kingdom of Württemberg, from the Neckar to Basel and
+the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the
+Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled
+with birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with.
+Until comparatively recent times large quantities of timber
+derived from these forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland
+and also shipped to England. Now the greater part of it is used
+locally for construction, or it is converted into paper pulp. In
+the grand-duchy of Hesse the Odenwald range of mountains,
+stretching between the Main and the Neckar, contains the chief
+supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are the large
+wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald.</p>
+
+<p>In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel,
+on the borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging
+the Upper Moselle, but they do not furnish such stately trees
+as the Black Forest and the Odenwald. The Spessart, near
+Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the most extensive forests
+of middle Germany, containing large masses of fine oak and beech,
+with plantations of coniferous trees, such as spruce, Scotch pine
+and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest tracts, such
+as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the Kranzberg
+near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom.
+North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thüringian
+Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are
+covered with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.</p>
+
+<p>Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia
+the department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister
+at Berlin, while each province, or part of a province, has an
+Oberforstmeister, under whom a number of Oberförsters administrate
+the state and communal forests. These, again, are assisted
+by a lower class of officials called Försters. The Oberförsters
+throughout Germany are educated at special schools of forestry,
+of which in 1909 the following nine existed:</p>
+
+<p>In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Münden.</p>
+
+<p>In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.</p>
+
+<p>In Saxony: at Tharand.</p>
+
+<p>In Württemberg: at Tübingen.</p>
+
+<p>In Baden: at Carlsruhe.</p>
+
+<p>In Hesse: at Giessen.</p>
+
+<p>In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.</p>
+
+<p>The schools at Munich, Tübingen and Giessen form part of
+the universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached
+to the technical high school; the others are academies for the
+study of forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them
+all to the universities. The subordinate staff are trained for
+their work in so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large
+number exist. In this way the German forests have been brought
+to a high degree of productiveness, but the material derived from
+them falls far short of the requirements, although the forests
+occupy 26% of the total area of the country; hence the net
+imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000 tons a year, and
+they are steadily rising.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The
+cork oak is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The
+beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all
+important trees, while the silver fir and spruce form magnificent
+forests in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and
+maritime pines are cultivated in the south and south-west. About
+one-seventh of the entire territory is still covered with wood.</p>
+
+<p>Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of
+the 16th century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforcement
+of restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of
+state forests was enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous
+work on forest trees. Reckless destruction of the forests, however,
+was in progress, and the Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus
+to the work of devastation. The usual results have followed in
+the frequency and destructiveness of floods, which have washed
+away the soil from the hillsides and valleys of many districts,
+especially in the south, and the frequent inundations of the last
+fifty years are no doubt caused by the deforesting of the sources
+of the Rhone and Saône. Laws were passed in 1860 and 1864,
+providing for the reforesting, &ldquo;<i>reboisement</i>,&rdquo; of the slopes of
+mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as
+state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the
+departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer
+of 1875, when much injury was done by floods in the south of
+France, the Durance, formerly the most dangerous in this respect
+of French rivers, gave little cause for anxiety, as it is round the
+head waters of this river that the chief plantations have been
+formed. While tracts formerly covered with wood have been
+replanted, plantations have been formed on the shifting sands
+or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of <i>Pinus pinaster</i>,
+150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the mouth of
+the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since
+1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has
+transformed low marshy grounds into productive soil extending
+over an area of about two million acres. The forests thus created
+provide annually some 600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh
+coal mines.</p>
+
+<p>The state forest department is administered by the director-general,
+who has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board
+of administration, charged with the working of the forests,
+questions of rights and law, finance and plantation works.</p>
+
+<p>The department is supplied with officers from the forest
+school at Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when
+M. Lorentz, who had studied forestry in Germany, was appointed
+its first director.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates
+that within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern
+Europe, and the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern
+latitudes. By the republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa
+forestal legislation was attempted at various periods from the
+15th century downwards. These efforts were not successful,
+as the governments were lax in enforcing the laws. In 1789
+Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling without licence,
+and later orders were published by his successors in the pontifical
+states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached nearly
+down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como
+contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same
+may also be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna
+there is still a large forest of stone pine, <i>Pinus pinea</i>, though it
+has been much reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned
+with planted trees, the olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia
+is rich in woods, which cover one-fifth of the area, and contain
+a large amount of oak, <i>Quercus suber, robur</i> and <i>cerris</i>. In Sicily
+the forests have long been felled, save the zone at the base of
+Mount Etna.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent;
+at the end of the 17th century the effects of denudation were
+first felt in the destructive force given to mountain torrents
+by the deforesting of the Apennines. The work of devastation
+continued until a comparatively recent time.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany,
+30 m. from Florence, was purchased by government for the
+purposes of a forest academy, which was opened in 1869. As
+only 4% of the total forest area belongs to the state, it is doubtful
+whether much good can now be done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Great Britain and Ireland.</i>&mdash;The British Isles were formerly
+much more extensively wooded than at present. The rapid
+increase of population led to the disforesting of woodland; the
+climate required the maintenance of household fires during a
+great part of the year, and the increasing demand for arable
+land and the extension of manufacturing industries combined
+to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest
+is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual
+supply of timber which is imported with facility from America,
+northern Europe and the numerous British colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands,
+with its abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from
+such extremes of heat and cold as are prevalent in continental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span>
+Europe, a great variety of trees are successfully cultivated.
+In England and Ireland oak and beech are on the whole the most
+plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts; in the south of
+Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common, while
+the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous
+vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests
+now exist, woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees,
+coppice and hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country,
+constituting a mass of wood of considerable importance, giving
+a clothed appearance in many parts, and affording illustrations
+of skilled arboriculture not to be found in any other country.</p>
+
+<p>The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park,
+14,000 acres; the New Forest, &amp;c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres;
+and the Dean Forest in Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total
+extent of crown forests is about 125,000 acres. A large proportion
+of the crown forests, having been formed with the
+object of supplying timber for the navy, consists of oak. The
+largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire, Inverness-shire
+and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the earl of
+Mansfield&rsquo;s near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl&rsquo;s larch
+plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a
+large extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, belonging
+to the earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Invercauld,
+the native pine attains a great size, and there are also
+large tracts of indigenous birch in various districts. Ireland
+was at one time richly clothed with wood; this is proved by
+the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs which occupy
+a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes above
+alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled state
+of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.</p>
+
+<p>The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large
+imports of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to
+the present time because (1) the rate at which foreign timber
+has been laid down in Britain is very low, thus keeping down the
+price of home-grown timber; (2) foreign timber is preferred
+to home-grown material, because it is in many cases of superior
+quality, while the latter comes into the market in an irregular
+and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the waste
+lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown
+that the lowest point was reached about the year 1888, in consequence
+of the remarkable development of means of communication,
+that prices then remained fairly stationary for some years,
+and that about 1894 a slow but steady rise set in, showing during
+the years 1894-1904 an increase of about 20% all round. This
+was due to the gradual approach of the coming crisis in the
+supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be shown
+that even with present prices the growing of timber can be
+made to pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic
+manner. Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so
+as to produce a better class of timber, and the forests must be
+managed according to well-arranged working plans, which provide
+for a regular and sustained out-turn of timber year by year,
+so as to develop a healthy and steady market for locally-grown
+material. Unfortunately the private proprietors of the waste
+lands are in many cases not in a financial position to plant.
+Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the proprietor
+must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived
+from the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In
+these circumstances the state may well be expected to help in
+one or all of the following ways: (1) The equipment of forest
+schools, where economic forestry, as elaborated by research,
+is taught; (2) the management of the crown forests on economic
+principles, so as to serve as patterns to private proprietors;
+(3) advances should be made to landed proprietors who desire
+to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the case
+of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state
+might acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country,
+such as congested districts, and convert them into forests.
+Action in these directions would soon lead to substantial benefits.
+The income of landed proprietors would rise, a considerable
+sum of money now sent abroad would remain in the country,
+and forest industries would spring up, thus helping to counteract
+the ever-increasing flow of people from the country into the large
+towns, where only too many must join the army of the unemployed.
+Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres
+of land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns.
+In Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized,
+and it is well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Commissioners
+whether the lands remaining on their hands, when
+buying and breaking up large estates, should not be converted
+into state forests. Such a measure might become a useful
+auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish land question.
+No doubt success depends upon the probable financial results.
+There are at present no British statistics to prove such success;
+hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the results
+have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial
+point of view, is comparable with England. That country
+has 432,085 acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth
+are stocked with broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with
+conifers. Some of the forests are situated on low lands, but the
+bulk of the area is found in the hilly parts of the country up to
+an elevation of 3000 ft. above the sea. The average price realized
+of late years per cubic foot of wood amounts to 5d., and yet to such
+perfection has the management been brought by a well-trained
+staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after meeting all
+expenses, comes to 21s. an acre all round. There can be no doubt
+that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even
+better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered
+that foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at
+any rate, the price per cubic foot rise considerably.</p>
+
+<p>These things have been recognized to some extent, and a
+movement has been set on foot to improve matters. The
+Commissioners of Woods and a number of private proprietors
+had rational working plans prepared for their forests, and
+instruction in forestry has been developed. There is now a well-equipped
+school of forestry connected with the university of
+Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction
+in forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham
+College of Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places.
+The Commissioners of Woods have purchased an estate of
+12,500 acres in Scotland, which will be converted into a crown
+forest, so as to serve as an example. The experience thus gained
+will prove valuable should action ever be taken on the lines
+suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, Reclamation
+of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last
+subject in 1909.</p>
+
+<p><i>India.</i>&mdash;The history of forest administration in India is exceedingly
+instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of
+the British Empire, because it places before the reader an account
+of the gradual destruction of the greater part of the natural
+forests, a process through which most other British colonies
+are now passing, and then it shows how India emerged triumphantly
+from the self-inflicted calamity. As far as information
+goes, India was, in the early times, for the most part covered
+with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country
+along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving
+from pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process
+went on for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest
+destruction became more rapid than ever, owing to the increase
+of population, extension of cultivation, the multiplication of
+herds of cattle, and the universal firing of the forests to produce
+fresh crops of grass. Then railways came, and with their extension
+the forests suffered anew, partly on account of the
+increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on
+account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their
+routes. Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of
+public works was brought to notice, it was recognized that a
+grievous mistake had been made in allowing the forests to be
+recklessly destroyed. Already in the early part of the 19th
+century sporadic efforts were made to protect the forests in
+various parts of the country, and these continued intermittently;
+but the first organized steps were taken about the year 1855,
+when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time
+conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span>
+Soon afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an
+organized state department, presided over by the inspector-general
+of forests, was established. Since then the Indian Forest
+Department has steadily grown, so that it has now become of
+considerable importance for the welfare of the people, as well
+as for the Indian exchequer.</p>
+
+<p>The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position
+and extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly
+of that portion which still belonged to the state. Then a special
+forest law was passed, which was superseded in 1878 by an improved
+act, providing for the legal formation of permanent state
+forests; the determination, regulation, and, if necessary, commutation
+of forest rights; the protection of the forests against
+unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the protection
+of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of
+forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers,
+and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers
+who administered the department in its infancy were mostly
+botanists and military officers. Some of these became excellent
+foresters. In order to provide a technically trained staff arrangements
+were made in 1866 by Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first
+inspector-general of forests, for the training of young Englishmen
+at the French Forest School at Nancy and at similar institutions
+in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated at Nancy,
+and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized
+in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at
+Cooper&rsquo;s Hill. In 1905 the school was transferred to the university
+of Oxford. The imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909
+of&mdash;officers not specially trained before entering the department,
+17; officers trained in France and Germany, 23; officers trained
+at Cooper&rsquo;s Hill, 143&mdash;total 184.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United
+Provinces, for the training of natives of India as executive
+officers on the provincial staff. Since then a similar school,
+though on a smaller scale, has been established at Tharrawaddy
+in Burma. About 500 officers of this class have been appointed.
+In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates, foresters and
+forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school at
+Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest
+College.</p>
+
+<p>The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According
+to the latest available returns, the areas taken under the management
+of the department are&mdash;reserved state forests, or permanent
+forest estates, 91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.;
+or a total of 232,941 sq. m., equal to 24% of the area over which
+they are scattered. At present, therefore, the average charge
+of each member of the controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.;
+that of each executive officer, 446 sq. m.; and that of each
+protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the intention to increase the
+executive and protective staff considerably, in the same degree
+as the management of the forests becomes more detailed. Of
+the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch, established
+in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq. m.
+From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic
+management into the forests, based upon working plans, but,
+as the management had been provincialized, there was no central
+or continuous control. This was remedied in 1884, when a
+central Working Plans Office, under the inspector-general of
+forests, was established. This officer has since then controlled
+the preparation and execution of the plans, a procedure which
+has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to about
+38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable
+lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance
+which is not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle
+of a sustained yield. While the danger of overworking the forests
+is thus being gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is increased
+by suitable silvicultural treatment and by fire protection.
+Formerly most of the important forests were annually or periodically
+devastated by jungle fires, sometimes lighted accidentally,
+in other cases purposely. Now 38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually
+protected against fire by the efforts of the department, and it is
+the intention gradually to extend protection to all permanent
+state forests. Grazing of cattle is of great importance in India;
+at the same time it is liable to interfere seriously with the reproduction
+of the forests. To meet both requirements careful and
+minute arrangements have been made, according to which at
+present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m. are
+closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while
+176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle.
+The areas closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in
+years of drought and scarcity. During famine years they are
+either opened to grazing, or grass is cut in them and transported
+to districts where the cattle are in danger of starvation. The
+service rendered in this way by a wise forest administration
+should not be underrated, since one of the most serious calamities
+of a famine&mdash;the want of cattle to cultivate the land&mdash;is thus,
+if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During 1907
+the government of India established a Research Institute, with
+six members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture,
+forest botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans,
+and chemistry in connexion with forest produce and production.
+The institute is likely to lead to further substantial progress in
+the management of the forests.</p>
+
+<p>The financial results of forest administration in India for the
+years 1865 to 1905 show the progress made:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean Annual<br />Net Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Percentage of<br />Annual Increase<br />during Period.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Rupees.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865-1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,372,733</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870-1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,783,248</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1875-1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,224,687</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880-1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,385,745</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885-1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,066,671</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,370,572</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,923,484</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900-1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9,004,367</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period
+1880-1885. The revenue since 1886 has been considerably
+increased by the annexation of Upper Burma.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are
+given free of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the
+country. Thus, in 1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to
+Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce given free or at reduced rates
+was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a total net benefit derived
+from the state forests during that year of Rs. 14,562,755, or in
+round figures one million pounds sterling. The out-turn during
+the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber and
+fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of
+other forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total
+gross revenue of 24 million rupees.</p>
+
+<p>These results are highly creditable to the government of India,
+which has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest
+management into the British empire, thus setting an example
+which has been followed more or less by various colonies. Even
+the movement in the United Kingdom during late years is due
+to it. Apart from India, substantial progress has been made in
+Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and the Federated
+Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward in this
+respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in
+Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is
+threatened by destruction.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The following works of special interest may be
+mentioned: W. Schlich, <i>A Manual of Forestry</i> (London) (vols. i.,
+ii. and iii. by W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W.R. Fisher; 3rd ed.
+of vol. i., 1906, of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv.,
+1907; 2nd ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, <i>Forest Law</i> (London,
+1893); Brown, <i>The Forester</i> (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London,
+1905); Broilliard, <i>Le Traitement des bois</i> (Paris, 1894); Huffel,
+<i>Économie forestière</i> (Paris, 1904-1907); Lorey, <i>Handbuch der
+Forstwissenschaft</i> (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tübingen, 1903); Rossmässler,
+<i>Der Wald</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Sch.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p>
+
+<p><i>The Forest Regions.</i>&mdash;The great treeless region east of the
+Rocky Mountains separates the wooded area of the United
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+States into two grand divisions, which may be called the Eastern
+and the Western forests. The Eastern forest is characterized
+by the predominance, on the whole, of broad-leafed trees, the
+comparative uniformity of its general types over wide areas,
+and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western forest
+conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species
+often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the
+forest is frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the transitions
+from one type to another are often exceedingly abrupt.
+Both divisions are botanically and commercially rich in species.</p>
+
+<p>The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three
+members:</p>
+
+<p>1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large
+volume of standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its
+virgin condition, from fire. The characteristic trees are maples,
+birches and beech (<i>Fagus atropunicea</i>), among the hardwoods
+and white pine (<i>Pinus strobus</i>), spruce (<i>Picea rubens</i> and <i>Picea
+mariana</i>) and hemlock (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>) among conifers.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the
+Northern, and more frequently burned over. Among its characteristic
+trees are the longleaf (<i>Pinus palustris</i>) and other pines,
+oaks, gums, bald cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) and white cedar
+(<i>Chamaecyparis thyoides</i>).</p>
+
+<p>3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively
+little from adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern
+forests except in the absence of conifers. Among its trees are
+the chestnut (<i>Castanea dentata</i>), hickories, ashes and other
+hardwoods already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Western division has two members:</p>
+
+<p>1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its
+trees and the vast accumulations of merchantable timber.
+Among its characteristic species are the redwood (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>)
+and the big tree (<i>S. Washingtoniana</i>), the Douglas fir
+(<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>), sugar pine (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>), western
+hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>), giant arborvitae (<i>Thuja plicata</i>)
+and Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species
+are the western yellow pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>), Engelmann spruce
+(<i>Picea engelmanni</i>) and lodgepole pine (<i>Pinus murrayana</i>). This
+forest is frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less
+extent, especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from
+fire. Subarid in character, except to the north and at high
+elevations, the vast mining interests of the region and its treeless
+surroundings give this forest an economic value out of proportion
+to the quantities of timber it contains.</p>
+
+<p>This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first
+of the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the
+situation of the national forests hereafter mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the commercial
+though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast,
+which occur along the streams and on the lower slopes of the
+mountains and consist chiefly of western hemlock (<i>Tsuga
+heterophylla</i>), Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>), yellow cedar
+(<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) and giant arborvitae (<i>Thuja
+plicata</i>), usually of large size and uninjured by fire; and the vast
+interior forests, swept by severe fires, and consisting chiefly of
+white and black spruces (<i>Picea canadensis</i> and <i>nigra</i>), paper birch
+(<i>Betula papyrifera</i>) and aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), all of small
+size but of great importance in connexion with mining. Northern
+Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are entirely barren.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:855px; height:538px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img652.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>The National Forest Policy.</i>&mdash;The forest policy of the United
+States may be said to have had its origin in 1799 in the enactment
+of a law which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for
+the use of the navy, or of land upon which such timber was
+growing. It is true that laws were in force under the early
+governments of Massachusetts, New Jersey and other colonies,
+providing for the care and protection of forest interests in
+various ways, but these laws were distinctly survivals of tendencies
+acquired in Europe, and for the most part of little use.
+It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous shortage
+in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest policy
+was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from
+1817 to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment,
+but without permanent influence towards the preservation of the
+live oak (<i>Quercus virginiana</i> Mill.), which was the object in view.
+A long period of inaction followed these early measures. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+1831 the solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility
+for the care and protection of the public timber lands, and in
+1855 this duty was transferred to the commissioner of the general
+land office in the Department of the Interior. The effect of
+these changes upon forest protection was unimportant. When,
+however, at the close of the Civil War railway building in the
+United States took on an unparalleled activity, the destruction
+of forests by fire and the axe increased in a corresponding ratio,
+and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by several
+of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government,
+but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial
+from the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
+authorized the appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough)
+under the commissioner of agriculture, to collect and distribute
+information upon forest matters. His office became in 1880 the
+division of forestry in what is now the United States Department
+of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public
+interest in tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed
+and later amended and repealed the timber culture acts, which
+granted homesteads on the treeless public lands to settlers who
+planted one-fourth of their entries with trees. Though these
+measures were not successful in themselves they directed attention
+towards forestry. The act which repealed them in 1891
+contained a clause which lies at the foundation of the present
+forest policy of the United States. By it the president was
+authorized to set aside &ldquo;any part of the public lands wholly or
+in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial
+value or not, as public reservations, and the President
+shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such
+reservations and the limits thereof.&rdquo; Some eighteen million
+acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the time when, in
+1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the
+secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report
+upon &ldquo;the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest
+lands of the United States.&rdquo; Upon the recommendation of a
+commission named by the Academy, President Cleveland established
+more than twenty-one million acres of new reserves on
+the 22nd of February 1897. His action was widely misunderstood
+and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in forest
+questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the
+United States since that time could never have been made.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland
+reserves the present national forest policy took definite shape.
+Under this policy the national government holds and manages,
+in the common interest of all users of the forests or its products,
+such portions of the public lands as have been set aside by
+presidential proclamation in accordance with the act of 1891.
+These lands are held against private acquisition under the Homestead
+Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter mentioned),
+the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the
+United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain,
+but not against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws.
+They are selected from lands believed to be more valuable for
+forest purposes than for agriculture, and are managed with the
+purpose of securing from them the best and largest possible
+returns, present and future, whether in the form of water for
+irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for stock, or of any other
+beneficial product. The aggregate area of the reserves, or
+national forests, has been steadily increased until they now
+include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.</p>
+
+<p>The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by
+the commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to
+the secretary of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of
+June 4, 1897, which was largely shaped by the work of the
+commission. Until this act was passed the national forests had
+been in theory closed against any form of use; nor had the
+possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use received
+much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such
+a state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion
+would have forced the opening to use of the resources thus
+arbitrarily locked up, and in the absence of any administrative
+system providing for conservative use, the national forests would
+inevitably have been abolished, and the whole policy of government
+forest holdings would have ceased. The act of June 4,
+1897 was therefore of the first importance. This act conferred
+upon the secretary of the interior general powers for the
+proper management of the national forests through the general
+land office of his department. It provided for the designation
+and sale of dead, mature and large timber; authorized the
+secretary to permit free use of timber in small quantities by
+settlers, miners and residents; empowered him to &ldquo;make such
+rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the
+objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate their occupancy
+and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction&rdquo;;
+and made violation of the act or of such rules and regulations a
+misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish forest
+reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the forest,
+securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a
+continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens
+of the United States. Lands found, upon due examination,
+to be more valuable for other purposes than for forest uses
+might be eliminated from any reservation, and all mineral lands
+within the reservations were left open to private appropriation
+under the mineral laws. The rights of settlers and claimants
+were safeguarded, and civil and criminal jurisdiction, except so
+far as the punishment of offences against the United States in
+the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the States.</p>
+
+<p>While the administration of the national forests was entrusted
+to the general land office, the same act assigned the surveying
+and mapping of them to the United States Geological Survey,
+which has published descriptions and maps of some of the more
+important.</p>
+
+<p>No attempt was made in the general land office to develop
+a technical forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of
+passage of the act, less than ten trained foresters in the United
+States, no means of training more, and very little conception
+of what forestry actually meant. The purpose of the administration
+was therefore mainly protection against trespass and fire,
+particularly the latter. Regulations were made giving effect
+to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth above, but
+in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely
+be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the
+use of the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly developing
+in another branch of the government service an organization
+qualified for actual forest management.</p>
+
+<p>One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the
+division of forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased
+to be merely a bureau of information, and became an active
+agency for introducing the actual practice of forestry among
+private owners and for conducting the investigations upon
+which a sound American forest practice could be based. The
+work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted
+a powerful educational influence upon the country at large.
+The division extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the
+Bureau of Forestry. It drew into its employment for a time
+nearly all the men who were preparing themselves in increasing
+numbers (at first abroad, then in the newly-founded schools in
+the United States) for the profession of forestry, and was soon
+recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively on technical
+questions connected with the administration of the national
+forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior
+for the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans
+were accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The
+general land office, however, was not ready to attempt active
+forest management. Though some timber was sold and the
+grazing of stock regulated to some extent, the main object of
+the land office administration continued to be protection against
+fire. Many of the regulations which it made could not be enforced.</p>
+
+<p>The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government
+forest work among three separate agencies grew more and more
+apparent, until, on the 1st of February 1905, control of the
+63,000,000 acres of forest reserves which up to that time had
+been set aside was transferred from the general land office to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its new duties the
+designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:849px; height:842px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were
+that forest supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far
+as possible, from qualified citizens of the state or territory in
+which each forest was situated, and that all money received
+from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources
+of the national forests should be covered into the treasury and
+constitute a special fund for their protection, administration,
+improvement and extension. Five days later a statute gave
+forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the 3rd
+of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had
+opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worthless
+land by private owners within the forests for an equal area
+of valuable timber lands outside.</p>
+
+<p>The law has been modified since by the change of the old
+name &ldquo;Forest Reserves&rdquo; to &ldquo;National Forests.&rdquo; The act
+of June 11, 1906, opened to homestead entry lands within
+national forests found by examination to be chiefly valuable for
+agriculture. The administration and improvement of the national
+forests are now provided for directly by congressional appropriation.
+The power to create national forests conferred on the
+president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the
+states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and
+Colorado, but for no others.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all
+the resources of the national forests. Mature timber was sold
+wherever there was a demand for it and the permanent welfare
+of the forests and protection of the streams permitted, but
+always so as to prevent waste, guard against fire, protect young
+growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were adopted
+which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay,
+secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and
+eliminated unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard
+the interests of the government and provide for the maintenance
+of good technical standards. The conduct of local business
+was entrusted to local officers. Large transactions with general
+policies were controlled from Washington, but with careful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with the work
+in the field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the public
+were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created
+capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the complex
+business of making useful a forest property of vast extent,
+scattered through sixteen different states of an aggregate area
+of over 1,500,000 sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The growth since the 1st of July 1897 of the area of the
+national forests, of the expenditures of the government for
+forestry, and of the receipts from the national forests, is shown
+by the statement which follows. Though the act of June 4,
+1897, became effective immediately upon its passage, the fiscal
+year 1899 was the first of actual administration, because the
+first for which Congress made the appropriation necessary to
+carry out the law.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration,
+and Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fiscal<br />Year.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Area of<br />National Forests<br />at Close of Year<br />(June 30).</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Division of Forestry<br />(Bureau of Forestry,<br />Forest Service).</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />Land Office.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />National Forests.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />National Forests,<br />per Acre.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Expenditures upon<br />National Forests,<br />per Acre.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Acres.</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,866,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,168,439</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">175,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,534.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.00016</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0038</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,515,039</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,754.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00078</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0045</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,324,479</td> <td class="tcr rb">88,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">325,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,250.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00063</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0070</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,896,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">185,440.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,431.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00049</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0060</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,211,240</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,860.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">304,135.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,838.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00074</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0054</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,611,449</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">375,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,436.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00093</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0072</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,693,422</td> <td class="tcr rb">632,232.36<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">217,907.64<a href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">73,276.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00085</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0059</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,994,018</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,191,400.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">767,219.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.00717</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0089</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,832,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,800,595.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,571,059.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.01041</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;.0097</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">167,677,749</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,948,153.08</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,807,276.66</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;.00931</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;.0151</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber.
+In the fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less
+than half the receipts. The following statement concerning
+the timber sales of the fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring
+out the change that followed the transfer of control to the forest
+service in the midst of the fiscal year 1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fiscal<br />Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Timber Sold.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Timber Cut.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />Timber Sales.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bd.-ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bd.-ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,773,710</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,435,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,436.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,661,508</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,475,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,270.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,230,326</td> <td class="tcr rb">138,665,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">245,013.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,044,855,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194,872,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">686,813.12</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures show (1) a large excess each year in the amount
+of timber sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much
+timber sold at the end of the four-year period as at the beginning
+and three times as much cut; and (3) a much higher price
+obtained per thousand board-feet at the end of the period than
+at the beginning. Each of these matters calls for comment.
+The sales are of stumpage only; the government does no logging
+on its own account.</p>
+
+<p>1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for,
+because many of the sales extend over several years. With
+increasing sales the amount sold each year for future removal
+has exceeded the amount to be removed during that year under
+sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a term of years are
+made because the national forests contain much overmature
+timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too inaccessible
+to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent speculation
+the time allowed for cutting is never more than five years,
+and cutting must begin at once and be continued steadily.</p>
+
+<p>2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much
+forest is ripe for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by
+trained men makes it safe to cut more freely. The increase is
+marked both in small and in large sales, but a score of sales for
+less than $5000 are made against one for more. The total cut
+is still far below the annual increment of the forests. As the
+demand grows restrictions must increase in order to husband
+the present supply until the next crop matures.</p>
+
+<p>3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures
+to have risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars
+per thousand board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one
+year are not exclusively for the timber cut in that year, since
+payments are made in advance. In the year 1907 the average
+price obtained was something less than $2.50 per thousand.
+It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen greatly,
+although conditions new to the American lumbermen are imposed.
+Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of
+young growth in felling and logging, and the piling of brush,
+to be subsequently burned by the forest officers if burning is
+necessary, are among these conditions. Timber to be cut must
+first be marked by the forest officers. Sales of more than $100
+in value are made only after public advertisement.</p>
+
+<p>Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been
+introduced. The vast area of the national forests, the comparatively
+sparse population of the West, the rough and broken
+character of the forests themselves, and the newness of the
+problems which their management presents, make the general
+application of intensive methods for the present impracticable.
+Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is most
+used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate
+diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed.
+The tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and
+effective application of the selection principle, as a better trained
+field force is developed and as market conditions improve.</p>
+
+<p>One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by
+fires on the national forests. During the unusually dry season
+of 1905 there were only eight fires of any importance, and the
+area burned over amounted only to about .16 of 1% of the
+total area. In 1900 about .12 of 1% was burned. This was
+accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the public, and
+by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush
+on cut-over areas.</p>
+
+<p>Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from
+the national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is
+one of the most important industries of the West. Formerly
+cattle and sheep grazed freely on all parts of the public domain.
+In the early days of the national forests the wisdom of permitting
+any grazing at all upon them was sharply questioned. Unrestricted
+grazing had led to friction between individuals, the
+deterioration of much of the range through overstocking, and
+serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The forests of
+the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain
+many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high
+mountain meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+other forage plants which they produce in great quantity can
+be used without detriment to the forests themselves, and with
+great benefit to the stock industry, which often can find summer
+pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern California grazing
+is now permitted on all national forests unless the watersheds
+furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and
+leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and
+the part of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed.
+Planted areas and cut-over areas are closed to stock until the
+young growth is safe from harm, and goats are allowed only in
+the brushland of the foothills.</p>
+
+<p>The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of
+forest growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes,
+improved range, better stock, stable conditions in the stock
+industry, and the best use of the range in the interest of progress
+and development. The first right to graze stock on the forests
+is given to residents, small owners and those who have used the
+range before. Thus the crowding out of the weaker by the
+stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has been
+stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate
+charge for the use of the national forest range. The following
+statement shows the amount of stock grazed on the national
+forests 1904-09, and the receipts for the grazing charge:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Cattle and Horses.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Sheep and Goats.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">610,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,806,722</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">692,124</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,709,987</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,148</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,763,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">514,692.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200,158</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,657,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">863,920.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,581,404</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,819,594</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,032,185.70</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting
+on the national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices
+and incomplete utilization of forest products, clear cutting
+with subsequent planting is not practicable. There are, however,
+many million acres of denuded land within the national forests
+which require planting. Such planting is still confined chiefly
+to watersheds which supply cities and towns with water. The
+first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since then
+similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado,
+Utah, Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the
+Black Hills national forest, where large areas of cut-over and
+burned-over land are entirely without seed trees, and in the
+sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908 about 2,000,000 seedlings
+had been planted, on over 2000 acres&mdash;a small beginning, but
+the work was entirely new and presented many hard problems.</p>
+
+<p>The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated
+at seven stations, located in southern California, Nebraska,
+Colorado, New Mexico (2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is
+raised for local planting and for shipment elsewhere. These
+nurseries are small. Their annual productive capacity is between
+8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is practically
+an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large variety
+of species are grown and various methods are tried.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of the administrative work of the national
+forests is by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total
+number of forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres
+(on April 7, 1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the
+U.S. with 167,672,467 acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626
+and one in Porto Rico with 65,950 acres). In charge of each
+forest is a forest supervisor. Under the supervisors are forest
+rangers and forest guards, whose duties include patrol, marking
+timber and scaling logs, enforcing the regulations and conducting
+some of the minor business arising from the use of the forests.
+Guards are temporary employés; rangers are employed by the
+year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions
+from the central office at Washington. In this office there are
+four branches&mdash;operation, grazing, silviculture and products&mdash;each
+of which directs that part of the work which belongs to it,
+dealing directly with the supervisor. For inspection purposes,
+however, the forests are separated into six districts, in each of
+which is located a chief inspector with a corps of assistants.
+The inspectors are without administrative authority, but assist
+by their counsel the supervisors, and through inspection reports
+keep the Washington office informed of the condition of all lines
+of administrative work in progress. Administrative officers
+alternate frequently between field and office duties.</p>
+
+<p>The number of forest officers in the several grades on the 1st
+of January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106
+forest supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest
+rangers and 283 forest guards. The total number of employés
+of the forest service on the same date, including the clerical
+force, was 2034.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest
+service conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive
+educational work, and co-operates with private owners who
+contemplate forest management upon their own tracts. This
+last work is undertaken because of the need of bringing forestry
+into practice, the lack of trained foresters outside of the employ
+of the government, and the lack of information as to how to
+apply forestry and what returns may be obtained. Co-operation
+takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on occasion, of
+the making of working plans. The educational work of the service
+is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which
+is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry
+to the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests.
+The investigations which the service conducts extend from studies
+of the natural distribution and classification of American forests
+and of their varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber
+production and laboratory researches which bear upon the
+economical utilization of forest products. As examples of these
+researches may be mentioned tests of the strength of timber,
+studies of the preservative treatment of wood for various uses,
+wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood chemistry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest Instruction.</i>&mdash;Most of the men now in the forest service
+received their training in the United States. There are several
+professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which
+was opened as a department of Yale University in September
+1900, offers a two-years&rsquo; graduate course with abundant field
+work, and also conducts a summer school of forestry, especially
+adapted to the training of forest rangers and special students,
+at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university of Michigan and
+Harvard University also offer a two-years&rsquo; graduate course in
+forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently established
+a four-years&rsquo; undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore
+Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools,
+offers a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number
+of the agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among
+these are Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington
+and Mississippi agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and
+Iowa State College. Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special
+mention as a college which has done valuable work in teaching
+forestry without attempting to turn out professional foresters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forestry among the States.</i>&mdash;Among the states forestry has
+hardly reached the stage of practical application on the ground.
+New York holds 1,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commission
+to care for its forest preserve, and to protect the forest land
+throughout the state from fire. The constitution of the state,
+however, prohibits the cutting of timber on state land, and thus
+confines the work entirely to protection of the forest and to the
+planting of waste areas. Pennsylvania is at present showing
+the most efficient activity in working out a forest policy. It has
+state forests of 820,000 acres, a good fire law more and more
+satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries for growing planting
+material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings were set out.
+It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on the
+state forests, and it has just established a state professional
+school of forestry.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers,
+six have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation
+with the forest service, and there is scarcely one which is not
+actively interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent
+damage from forest fires, have been enacted by practically all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+the states, but their enforcement has unfortunately been lax.
+Public sentiment, however, is making rapid progress. Among
+the best laws are those of Maine, New Hampshire, Minnesota,
+New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York law,
+for example, provides for the appointment of one or more fire-wardens
+in each town of the counties in which damage by fire
+is especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns
+are <i>ex-officio</i> fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general
+supervision of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose
+services is paid by the state, receive compensation only for the
+time actually employed in fighting fires. They may command
+the service of any citizen to assist them. Setting fire to woods
+or waste lands belonging to the state or to another, if such fire
+results in loss, is punishable by a fine not exceeding $250 or
+imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and damages
+are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond question
+the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the
+measures taken against it are of vital importance.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the amount of forest land held by
+the different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Area of State Forest Reservations, 1907.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Connecticut</td> <td class="tcr">1,360</td> <td class="tcc">acres</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hawaii</td> <td class="tcr">117,532</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Indiana</td> <td class="tcr">2,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maryland</td> <td class="tcr">3,540</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Michigan</td> <td class="tcr">39,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Minnesota</td> <td class="tcr">42,800</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New Jersey</td> <td class="tcr">2,474</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New York</td> <td class="tcr">1,439,998</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pennsylvania</td> <td class="tcr">820,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wisconsin</td> <td class="tcr">254,072</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Forestry on Private Lands.</i>&mdash;The practice of forestry among
+private owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances
+was that of Jared Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic
+cutting of timber land to supply charcoal for an iron furnace
+at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The successful planting of waste
+lands with timber trees in Massachusetts dates from about ten
+years later. But such examples were comparatively rare until
+recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber
+with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more
+common than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially
+frequent. It was begun among lumbermen by the late E.S.
+Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who made a practice of restricting the
+cut of spruce from his forests to trees 10, 12 or sometimes even
+14 in. in diameter, with the result that much of his land yielded,
+during his life, a second crop as plentiful as the first. Many
+owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but until
+very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry
+on a large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks
+during the summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W.S. Webb and
+Hon. W.C. Whitney, of a combined area of over 100,000 acres,
+under the superintendence of the then Division of Forestry.
+In these forests spruce, maple, beech and birch predominate,
+but the spruce alone is at present of the first commercial importance.
+The treatment is a form of the selection system. Under
+it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in thirty-five
+years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work
+had been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great
+satisfaction to the owners and the lumbering contractors, as
+well as to the decided benefit of the forest. The lumbering is
+regulated by the following rules, and competent inspectors are
+employed to see that they are rightly carried out: (1) No
+trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2) All trees marked
+shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the woods, and
+none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All
+merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the
+small end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more
+than 6 in. higher than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall
+be used for bridges, corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose
+except building camps, dams or booms, unless it is absolutely
+necessary on account of lack of other timber. (7) All merchantable
+spruce used for skidways must be cut into logs and hauled
+out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage
+to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must
+discharge the men who did it.</p>
+
+<p>These two instances of forestry have been most useful and
+effective among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in
+the north-east. Among those which have followed their example
+are the Berlin Mills Paper Company in northern New Hampshire,
+the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in northern Michigan, and
+the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New York, all
+of which have employed professional foresters.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the
+estate of George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N.C. This was the
+first case of systematic forestry under regular working plans in
+the United States. It was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres,
+and has since been extended until it now covers about 100,000
+acres. A professional forester with a corps of trained rangers
+under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania Railroad
+has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants
+and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private
+owners is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908
+670 wood lots and timber tracts had been examined by agents
+of the forest service, of which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in
+extent, and planting plans had been made for 436 owners
+covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert advice is also
+given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the state
+foresters.</p>
+
+<p><i>American Practice.</i>&mdash;The conditions under which forestry
+is practised in Europe and in America differ so widely that
+rules which are received as axiomatic in the one must often
+be rejected in the other. Among these conditions in America
+are the highly developed and specialized methods and machinery
+of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation and consequent
+greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number
+of small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of
+low-grade wood in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest
+properties, cut-over as well as virgin, notably in the north-western
+pineries, and the firmly established habits of lumbermen, are
+factors of great importance. From these and other considerations
+it follows that such generally accepted essentials of European
+methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield, a permanent
+force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the like,
+are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at
+the present day in private forestry. Methods of forest management,
+to find acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible
+to existing methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity,
+the observance of which will yet secure the safety of the forest,
+must open the way for more refined methods in the future. For
+the present a periodic or irregular yield, temporary means of
+transport, constantly changing crews, and an almost total
+ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of the most important
+trees&mdash;all combine to enforce the simplest silvicultural treatment
+and the utmost concentration of purpose on the two main objects
+of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue and the
+perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed
+in practice by complete success.</p>
+
+<p>The forests with which the American forester deals are rich
+in species, usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction,
+and, over a large part of their range, greatly dependent for their
+composition and general character upon the action of forest
+fires. Of the commercially valuable trees there may be said to be,
+in round numbers, a hundred out of a total forest flora of about
+500 species, but many trees not yet of importance in the lumber
+trade will become so hereafter, as has already happened in many
+cases. The attention of the forester must usually be concentrated
+upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and
+never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems
+which must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are
+fortunately less complicated than the presence of so many kinds
+of trees in forests of such diverse types would naturally seem
+to indicate.</p>
+
+<p>The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which
+the American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+fires have had more to do with the character and distribution of
+forests in America than any other factor except rainfall. With
+an annual range over thousands of square miles, in many portions
+of the United States they occur regularly year after year on the
+same ground. Trees whose thick bark or abundant seeding
+gives them peculiar powers of resistance, frequently owe their
+exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the action of fire.
+On the economic side fire is equally influential. The probability,
+or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first cut, commonly
+determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree standing.
+Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the introduction
+of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another
+of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut,
+and afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot
+afford to hold. This evil, which only the progress of public
+sentiment can control, is especially prevalent in certain portions
+of the white pine belt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest Associations.</i>&mdash;Public sentiment in favour of the protection
+of forests is now widespread and increasingly effective
+throughout the United States. As the general understanding
+of the objects and methods of forestry becomes clearer, the
+tendency, formerly very marked, to confound ornamental tree
+planting and botanical matters with forestry proper is rapidly
+growing less. At the same time, the number and activity of
+associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with notable
+rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the
+United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters,
+is composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American
+Forestry Association is the oldest and largest. It has been
+influential in preparing the ground work of popular interest in
+forestry, and especially in advocating and securing the adoption
+of the federal forest reservation policy, the most important step
+yet taken by the national government. It publishes as its
+organ a monthly magazine called <i>Forestry and Irrigation</i>. The
+Pennsylvania Forestry Association has been instrumental in
+placing that state in the forefront of forest progress. Its organ
+is a bi-monthly publication called <i>Forest Leaves</i>. Other states
+which have associations or societies of special influence in forest
+matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado,
+New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted
+in Nebraska in 1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers
+who had settled on the treeless prairies, has been taken up as a
+means of interesting school children in the planting of trees,
+and has spread until it is now observed in every state and
+territory. It continues to serve an admirable purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lumbering.</i>&mdash;According to the census report for 1905 the
+capital invested in logging operations in the United States was
+$90,454,596, the number of employés engaged 146,596, and
+their wages $66,990,000; sawmills represented an invested
+capital of $381,621,000, and employed 223,674 persons, whose
+wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills represented a
+capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons whose
+wages were $66,434,000.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Product.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Output 1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent<br />Wood<br />Volume.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />Woods<br />Waste.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />Mill<br />Waste.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Wood<br />Volume<br />Consumed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lumber&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Conifers</td> <td class="tcr">30,200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2517</td> <td class="tcr rb">1173</td> <td class="tcr rb">2170</td> <td class="tcr rb">5860</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Hardwoods</td> <td class="tcr">7,300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">612</td> <td class="tcr rb">577</td> <td class="tcr rb">461</td> <td class="tcr rb">1650</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shingles</td> <td class="tcr">11,900,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">270</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pulpwood</td> <td class="tcr">2,900,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cords</td> <td class="tcr rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">340</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wood distillation</td> <td class="tcr">1,200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cords</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heading</td> <td class="tcr">146,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">sets</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Staves&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Tight cooperage</td> <td class="tcr">267,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Slack cooperage</td> <td class="tcr">1,097,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poles</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Veneer</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Round mine timbers</td> <td class="tcr">165,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hewn cross ties</td> <td class="tcr">77,500,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">207</td> <td class="tcr rb">503</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">710</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">4143</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">2569</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">2838</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">9550</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are
+controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar
+unit of measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-foot,
+is generally defined as a board one foot long, one foot wide
+and one inch thick, but in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in.
+of manufactured lumber in any form. To purchase logs by this
+measure one must first know about what each log will yield
+in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or table is used,
+which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and lengths
+in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for
+nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable
+waste in slabs and sawdust costing him nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for
+certain purposes in the United States in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is
+used each year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and
+the total annual consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft.</p>
+
+<p>The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the
+rank of the important timber trees with reference to the amount
+of timber cut, and a shifting of the important centres of production.
+Among coniferous trees, white pine has yielded successively
+to yellow pine and Douglas fir, while the scene of greatest
+activity has shifted from the Northern forest to the Southern,
+and from there is rapidly shifting to the Pacific Coast. The total
+cut of coniferous lumber has increased steadily, but that of the
+hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was 15% less than in
+1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming more
+and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed
+from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conifers.</i>&mdash;The coniferous supply of the country is derived
+from four forest regions: (1) The Northern forest; (2) the
+Southern forest; (3) the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky
+Mountain forest.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coniferous
+lumber production in the United States. The principal
+timber tree of this region is the white pine, usually known in
+Europe as the Weymouth pine. It has an average height when
+mature of 110 ft., with a diameter a little less than 3 ft., but the
+virgin timber is approaching exhaustion. White pine was one
+of the first trees to be cut extensively in the United States, and
+Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre of production.
+In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was 144
+million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock 11 million.
+Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce
+had risen to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a
+million feet. Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed
+from the north woods to the Lake States, and for many years
+this region was the scene of the most vigorous lumbering activity
+in the world. The following figures show the cut for the Lake
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+States from 1873 to 1906. It is certain that the remarkable
+decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show will
+continue still farther.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,993,780,000</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc">8,597,659,352</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,751,306,000</td> <td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc">7,879,948,349</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,968,553,000</td> <td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc">8,594,222,802</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,879,046,000</td> <td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc">7,326,263,782</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,595,333,496</td> <td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc">6,821,516,412</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,629,472,759</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">7,050,669,235</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,806,943,000</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">5,725,763,035</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,651,295,000</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">6,233,454,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,768,856,749</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">6,155,300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,552,150,744</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">6,056,508,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,624,789,786</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcc">5,485,261,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,935,033,054</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">5,336,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,053,094,555</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">5,294,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,425,368,443</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">4,792,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,757,916,784</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">4,220,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,388,716,460</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">3,777,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,183,050,755</td> <td class="tcc">1906</td> <td class="tcc">3,032,000,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees
+of the Northern forest is the hemlock (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>). It is
+used chiefly for construction purposes and furnishes a comparatively
+low grade of lumber.</p>
+
+<p>The spruce (<i>Picea rubens</i>) is used chiefly for lumber, but it
+is in large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper
+pulp. For the latter purpose hemlock, poplar (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>
+and <i>P. grandidentata</i>) and several other woods are also
+employed, but on a smaller scale. The total consumption of
+wood for paper in the United States for 1906 was 3,660,000
+cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of this, however, 720,000
+cords were imported from Canada.</p>
+
+<p>2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow
+pine. This is the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf,
+loblolly and Cuban pines. Of these the longleaf pine (<i>Pinus
+palustris</i> Mill.), called pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important.
+Its timber is probably superior in strength and durability to
+that of any other member of the genus <i>Pinus</i>, and in addition
+to its value as a timber tree it is the source of naval stores in the
+United States. The average size of the mature longleaf pine is
+90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter. Shortleaf (<i>Pinus echinata</i>)
+and loblolly (<i>P. taeda</i>) are other important members of this
+group. Their wood very closely resembles that of the longleaf
+pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The trees are
+also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however,
+of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was
+11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its
+maximum, but is certainly near it.</p>
+
+<p>Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest
+is the bald cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>), which grows in the
+swamps. The cut in 1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of
+69% over 1899.</p>
+
+<p>3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the
+Pacific Coast. The Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>), also
+known as Douglas spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost
+tree in Oregon and Washington, and the redwood in California.
+When mature the Douglas fir averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft.
+in diameter, and the redwood 225 ft. in height and 8 ft. in
+diameter. Other important trees of the Pacific Coast are sugar
+pine (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>), western red cedar (<i>Thuja plicata</i>),
+western larch (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>), Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>),
+western hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>) and western yellow
+pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>). These trees <span class="correction" title="amended from wil">will</span> all be of increasing
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of
+powerful machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous
+weights. This is especially true in California, where the logs
+of redwood and of the big tree (<i>Sequoia Washingtoniana</i>) are
+often more than 10 ft. in diameter. Logging is usually done by
+wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The journey to the
+mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great size, built on
+piles over tide water and so arranged that their product is
+delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored
+alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their
+way over land to the markets of the central and eastern states
+and into foreign markets. Among the lumber-producing states,
+Washington has in seven years jumped from fifth place to first,
+and its output has increased from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in
+1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906. Oregon and California have
+increased their output from 734,000,000 each in 1899 to
+1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of
+the total output of these three states (7,259,000,000 ft.)
+4,880,000,000 ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.</p>
+
+<p>4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest
+are the western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas
+fir and the Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely
+variable in size and value, reaches in this region average dimensions
+of perhaps 80 ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western
+yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by
+2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses chiefly absorb the
+annual timber product, which is considerable in quantity, and
+of vast importance to the local population. The lumber output
+of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very
+rapidly both in the north and in the south-west. One of the
+largest mills in the United States is in Idaho.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous
+species during the years 1899-1906:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent Increase<br />(+) or Decrease<br />(&minus;) since 1899.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yellow Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,659</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,533</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;20.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Douglas Fir</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,737</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,928</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,970</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 186.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,584</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;40.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hemlock</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,421</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,269</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,537</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &emsp;3.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spruce</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,448</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,304</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,645</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;13.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Western Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">944</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,387</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;46.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cypress</td> <td class="tcr rb">496</td> <td class="tcr rb">750</td> <td class="tcr rb">839</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;69.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Redwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">360</td> <td class="tcr rb">519</td> <td class="tcr rb">683</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;83.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cedar</td> <td class="tcr rb">233</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">358</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;53.7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">26,040</td> <td class="tcr allb">27,138</td> <td class="tcr allb">29,664</td> <td class="tcc allb">+ &ensp;14</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hardwoods</i>.&mdash;The hardwood supply of the country is derived
+almost entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and
+comes from each of the three great Eastern forest regions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table shows the cut of the important species of
+hardwoods for 1899 and 1906:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent<br />Increase (+)<br />or Decrease (&minus;).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Thousand<br />Feet.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Thousand<br />Feet.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oak</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,438,027</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,820,393</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;36.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maple</td> <td class="tcr rb">633,466</td> <td class="tcr rb">882,878</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;39.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poplar</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,115,242</td> <td class="tcr rb">693,076</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;37.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red gum</td> <td class="tcr rb">285,417</td> <td class="tcr rb">453,678</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;59.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chestnut</td> <td class="tcr rb">206,688</td> <td class="tcr rb">407,379</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;97.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Basswood</td> <td class="tcr rb">308,069</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,838</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;22.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birch</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">370,432</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 179.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottonwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">415,124</td> <td class="tcr rb">263,996</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;36.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beech</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">275,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elm</td> <td class="tcr rb">456,731</td> <td class="tcr rb">224,795</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;50.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ash</td> <td class="tcr rb">269,120</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,460</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;20.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hickory</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,636</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,212</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;53.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tupelo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,882</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Walnut</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,681</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,174</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ &ensp;24.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sycamore</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">All other</td> <td class="tcr rb">208,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,637</td> <td class="tcc rb">&minus; &ensp;58.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">8,634,021</td> <td class="tcr allb">7,315,491</td> <td class="tcc allb">&minus; &ensp;15.3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4"><i>a</i> Not separately reported.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output,
+has fallen off 36.5%. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second
+among the hardwoods, has fallen off 38% and now occupies
+third place; and elm, the great stand-by in slack cooperage,
+has fallen 50.8%. On the other hand less valuable species
+like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59% respectively.</p>
+
+<p>The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods
+grow naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+United States where the population has always been the densest,
+and as a consequence of this, a large proportion of the original
+hardwood land has been cleared up and put under cultivation.
+The hardwood supply of the future must be obtained chiefly
+from the Appalachian region, where the conditions are less
+favourable to agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hardwoods
+are used each year for railroad ties, telephone and other
+poles, piles, fence posts and fuel, and there is a great amount
+of waste in the course of lumbering and manufacture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Sargent, <i>Silva of North America</i> (Boston, 1891-1897),
+<i>Manual of Trees of North America</i> (Boston, 1903); Lemmon,
+<i>Handbook of West American Cone-Bearers</i> (San Francisco, 1895);
+Bruncken, <i>North American Forests and Forestry</i> (New York, 1900);
+Fernow, <i>Economics of Forestry</i> (New York, 1902); Pinchot, <i>The
+Adirondack Spruce</i> (New York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, <i>The
+White Pine</i> (New York, 1896). See also the various publications
+of the U.S. forest service, including especially the following general
+works: <i>Forest Influences</i>; <i>Primer of Forestry</i>; the <i>Timber Supply
+of the United States</i>; the <i>Waning Hardwood Supply</i>; <i>Forest Products
+of the United States in 1906</i>; <i>Exports and Imports of Forest Products
+in 1906</i>; <i>Federal and State Forest Laws</i>; <i>Regulations and Instructions
+for the Use of the National Forests</i>; <i>The Use of the National Forests</i>;
+also part v. of the <i>Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports
+of the United States Geological Survey</i>, and vol. ix. of the <i>10th Census
+Report on the Forests of North America</i>; and <i>Reports</i> of the State
+Forestry Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine,
+Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, &amp;c., and of the State Geological
+Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland and North Carolina.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its
+designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus,
+the fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1, 1897-June 30, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1,
+1905.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does not include
+defective trees left or trees used for road purposes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1804-1872), marshal of France,
+was born at Paris on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the
+army from St Cyr in 1824. He took part in the earlier Algerian
+campaigns, and became captain in 1835. Four years later he
+was given command of a battalion of <i>chasseurs à pied</i> and in
+1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac
+made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III.
+made him a general of division shortly afterwards. He held a
+superior command in the Crimean War, and in the Italian
+campaign of 1859 distinguished himself very greatly in the action
+of Montebello (20th May). In 1862 Forey was placed in command
+of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico, with the fullest
+civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful campaign
+by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his
+reward the marshal&rsquo;s bâton. From December 1863 to 1867 he
+held high commands in France, but in the latter year he was
+struck with paralysis and had to retire. Marshal Forey died
+at Paris on the 20th of June 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORFAR<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span>, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital
+of the county of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117.
+It lies at the east end of the Loch of Forfar in the valley of
+Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of Dundee by road and 21¼ m.
+by the Caledonian railway. It is also situated on the same
+company&rsquo;s main line to Aberdeen and sends off a branch to
+Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house,
+the county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and
+others), the town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free
+library), the infirmary, poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded
+by Peter Reid, a merchant in the burgh who also gave the public
+park. The burgh unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin and
+Inverbervie (the Montrose group of burghs) in returning one
+member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1¼ m. long by ¼ m.
+wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and perch.
+On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood
+a castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret,
+queen of Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen
+and jute manufactures, but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-making
+and iron-founding are also carried on.</p>
+
+<p>Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for
+the first parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old
+castle, which stood on a mound on the northern side of the
+town. The parliaments of William the Lion, Alexander II.
+and Robert II. also assembled within its walls. The town,
+which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt down
+about the middle of the 13th century. Edward I. captured the
+castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized
+it, put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site
+being now marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of
+James VI. the weekly market was held on Sunday, but after
+the union of the crowns parliament enacted that it should be
+held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I. during the
+Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of regard
+for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played
+a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a
+crown commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable
+creatures, some of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the
+same year one John Ford for his services as a witch-finder was
+admitted a burgess along with Lord Kinghorne. The witches&rsquo;
+bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to
+execution, is still preserved in the county hall. One mile to the
+E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of Robert
+Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation
+it was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episcopalians,
+until they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORFARSHIRE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Angus</span>, an eastern county of Scotland,
+bounded N. by the shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by
+Perthshire, S. by the Firth of Tay and E. by the North Sea.
+It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873.7 sq. m. The island of
+Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.</p>
+
+<p>Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and
+may be divided physically into four well-marked sections. In
+the most northerly of these many of the rugged masses of the
+Grampians are found; this belt is succeeded by Strathmore,
+or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from 6 to 8 m. broad,
+which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and runs
+south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of
+Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated
+heights, which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the
+Firth. The mountains are all in the northern division and belong
+to the Binchinnin group (sometimes rather inexactly called the
+Braes of Angus) of the Grampian ranges. Among the highest
+masses, most of which lie on or near the confines of the bordering
+counties, are Glas Maol(3502 ft.), on the summit of which the
+shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet, Cairn-na-Glasha
+(3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag Leacach
+(3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105),
+Mount Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of
+2000 ft. are numerous. The Sidlaw Hills&mdash;the greater part of
+which, however, belongs to Perthshire&mdash;are much less lofty
+and of less striking appearance. They have a breadth of from
+3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county being Craigowl
+Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill (1242).
+None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any importance.
+The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards,
+then turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a
+course of 45 m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth,
+Ericht and Lunan, and on the left the Newton, Melgam and
+Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.),
+so named from the fact that when the stream is in flood the spray
+rises in a dense cloud like smoke (<i>reek</i>). Near old Airlie Castle
+are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie. The North Esk,
+formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at Invermark,
+after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea
+3 m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West
+Water and Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives
+the title of earl of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family.
+The South Esk rises in the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and
+not far from its source forms the Falls of Bachnagairn; after
+flowing towards the south-east, it bends eastwards near Tannadice
+and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the length of its course
+being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen on the right
+and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of Southesk
+to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the
+two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt
+Loch Lee (1 m. long by ¼ m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape
+and about ¾ m. across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies
+Dundee with drinking water. The glens of the Forfarshire
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+Grampians are remarkable for their beauty, and several of them
+for the wealth of their botanical specimens. The largest and
+finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of Forter
+Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie&rsquo;s
+shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance
+to which stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie;
+Glen Esk and Glen Prosen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;A great earth fracture traverses this county from near
+Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between
+Cortachy and the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old
+Red Sandstone, but north-east of that place it forms the junction
+line of Silurian and Old Red; and in a general way we may say
+that on the N.W. side of the fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks
+are found, while the remainder of the county is occupied by the Old
+Red Sandstone. On the margin of the disturbance the Silurian
+rocks are little-altered grey and green clay slates with bands of
+pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we find the same rocks
+metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with pebbly quartzites.
+Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock and Mount
+Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone extends
+from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire; here some
+20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being formed
+of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in the
+sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower
+beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably
+the remains of an old vent through which some of the contemporaneous
+lavas, &amp;c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been
+subjected to a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast.
+The principal direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal
+fold occupies Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose
+the northern extension of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold.
+Two fish-bearing beds occur in the county; from the lower one many
+large <i>Eurypterids</i> have been obtained. The well-known paving
+flags of Arbroath belong to the lower part of the formation. The
+Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in one spot about a mile
+north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the ice travelled
+south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw Hills;
+abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in the
+form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great
+transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a mile
+in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are
+found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and
+25 ft. above the present sea-level.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture</i>.&mdash;On the whole the climate is healthy
+and favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature
+for the year is 47.3° F., for January 38° and for July 59°. The
+average annual rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably
+drier than the uplands. In the low-lying districts of the south
+the harvest is nearly as early as it is in the rest of Scotland, but
+in the north it is often late. The principal wheat districts are
+Strathmore and the neighbourhood of Dundee and Arbroath;
+and the yield is well up to the best Scottish average. Barley,
+an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats, however,
+though still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes
+are mostly grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips
+also are largely raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste
+land, has been turned into sheep walks and deer forests. The
+black-faced sheep are the most common in the mountainous
+country; cross-bred sheep in the lowlands. Though it is their
+native county (where they date from 1808), polled Angus
+are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of
+Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle
+are imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of
+the towns there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised successfully,
+Clydesdales being the commonest breed, but the small
+native garrons are now little used. Pigs also are reared. Save
+perhaps in the case of the crofts, or very small holdings of
+less than 10 acres, farm management is fully abreast of the
+times.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries</i>.&mdash;The staple industries are the jute and
+flax manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but
+they flourish also at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at
+Dundee, Arbroath and Montrose. The manufactures of jams,
+confectionery, leather, machinery, soap and chemicals, are all
+of great and growing value. Sandstone quarries employ many
+hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose is the centre,
+are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at the
+mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>Two railway companies serve the county. The North British,
+entering from the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast
+north-eastwards, sending off at Montrose a branch to Bervie.
+The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to Forfar, whence it diverges
+due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes its north-easterly
+course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from Perth
+by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from
+Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth
+Junction via Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it
+touch with Montrose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Government</i>.&mdash;The population was 277,735 in
+1891, and 284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English,
+and 13 Gaelic only. The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901,
+22,398), Brechin (8941), Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie
+(5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar (11,397), Kirriemuir (4096),
+Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427). Forfarshire returns
+one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and there is a
+resident sheriff-substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar,
+the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In
+addition to numerous board schools there are secondary schools
+at Dundee, Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir,
+and technical schools at Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the
+elementary schools earn grants for higher education. The county
+council and the Dundee and Arbroath town councils expend the
+&ldquo;residue&rdquo; grant in subsidizing science and art and technical
+schools and classes, including University College, the textile
+school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the
+workshop schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath,
+besides cookery, dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and
+veterinary science classes at different places.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;In the time of the Romans the country now known
+as Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation
+there are evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses.
+Traces of Roman camps and stone forts are common, and there
+are vitrified forts at Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of
+Laws near Monifieth and at other points. Spearheads, battle-axes,
+sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian bronze pins, and other
+antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm and stress before
+the land settled down into order, towards which the Church
+was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was
+frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is
+supposed to have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+84); the Northumbrian King Egfrith and the Pictish king
+Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685, the former being slain;
+conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno and other
+spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the
+parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and
+Scots had a bitter encounter. In later times the principal
+historical events, whether of peace or war, were more immediately
+connected with burghs than with the county as a whole. There
+is some doubt whether the county was named Angus, its title
+for several centuries, after a legendary Scottish prince or from
+the hill of Angus to the east of the church of Aberlemno. It
+was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a hereditary
+sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter of
+1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the 1st earl
+of Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in
+her own right. On the death of the 1st and only duke of Douglas,
+who was also 13th earl of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged
+in the dukedom of Hamilton. Precisely when the shire became
+known by the name of the county town has not been ascertained,
+but probably the usage dates from the 16th century. Among
+old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle at the
+mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck;
+the stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of
+Finhaven; the two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of
+Melgund Castle, which are fairly complete; the small castle of
+Newtyle, and the old square tower and gateway of the castle
+of Craig.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Jervise, <i>Memorials of Angus and Mearns</i> (Edinburgh,
+1895); <i>Land of the Lindsays</i> (Edinburgh, 1882); <i>Epitaphs and
+Inscriptions</i> (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, <i>Lives of the</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+<i>Lindsays</i> (London, 1835); Sir W. Fraser, <i>History of the Carnegies</i>
+(Edinburgh, 1867); A.H. Millar, <i>Historical Castles and Mansions</i>
+(Paisley, 1890); G. Hay, <i>History of Arbroath</i> (Arbroath, 1876);
+D.D. Black, <i>History of Brechin</i> (Edinburgh, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORFEITURE<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from &ldquo;forfeit,&rdquo; originally an offence, and
+hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the
+O. Fr. <i>forfait</i>, from the late Lat. <i>foris factum</i>, a trespass, that
+which is done <i>foris</i>, outside), in English law, the term applied
+(1) to loss or liability to the loss of property in consequence of
+an offence or breach of contract; (2) to the property of which
+the party is deprived.</p>
+
+<p>Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indictment
+for treason or felony was followed not only by forfeiture
+of the life of the offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and
+goods. In the case of treason all the traitor&rsquo;s lands of whomsoever
+holden were forfeited to the king; in the case of felony
+(including <i>felo-de-se</i>, or suicide), the felon&rsquo;s lands escheated
+(<i>exceciderunt</i>) to his immediate lord, subject to the king&rsquo;s right
+to waste them for a year and a day. This rule did not apply
+to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The goods
+of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of
+the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures
+was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the
+king&rsquo;s justices throughout England; and from time to time
+conflicts arose from attempts by these justices to extend the
+law of treason&mdash;under which the king levied all the forfeitures&mdash;at
+the expense of felony, in which the lord of the felon benefited
+by the escheats. As regards theft, the king&rsquo;s rights overrode
+those of the owner of the stolen property, until, in the reign of
+Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the goods
+to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys&rsquo;s
+<i>Diary</i>, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration
+of the working of the old law. We find that on the suicide
+of his brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally
+and obtained a grant of the brother-in-law&rsquo;s estate in favour
+of his widow and children should the inquest find a verdict of
+<i>felo-de-se</i>. It was common practice for persons anticipating
+conviction for treason or felony to assign all their property to
+others to avoid the forfeiture; and in some instances the accused
+refused to plead to the indictment and endured the <i>peine forte
+et dure</i>, until death supervened, to avoid these consequences
+of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures arising within
+particular areas were frequently granted by charter to corporations
+or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such
+charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448.
+All forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and
+attainder for treason and felony were abolished as from the
+4th of July 1870, except forfeitures consequent upon the now
+disused process of outlawry, and the forfeitures included in the
+penalties of praemunire.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;forfeit&rdquo; is also applied to penalties imposed by
+statute for acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor
+felonious. In such statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of
+the crown unless the statute indicates another destination;
+and unless a particular method of enforcing the forfeiture is
+indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the crown and has priority
+as such. The words &ldquo;forfeit and pay&rdquo; are often used in imposing
+a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where they
+are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict
+the offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.</p>
+
+<p>Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels,
+<i>e.g.</i> of a British merchant-ship when her character as such
+is fraudulently dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76),
+or of goods smuggled in contravention of the customs acts or
+books introduced in violation of the copyright acts. Recognisances
+are said to be forfeited when the conditions are broken
+and an order of court is made for their enforcement as a crown
+debt against the persons bound by them.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;forfeiture&rdquo; is now most commonly used with
+reference to real property, <i>i.e.</i> with reference to the rights of
+lords of the manor or lessors to determine the estate or interest
+of a copyholder or lessee for breach of the customary or contractual
+terms of tenure. It is also applied to express the
+deprivation of a limited owner of settled property, real or personal,
+for breach of the conditions by which his rights are limited;
+<i>e.g.</i> by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or alienate
+his interest. As a general rule, the courts &ldquo;lean against forfeitures&rdquo;
+of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the
+superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them.
+By legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant
+relief upon terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of
+certain classes of covenant, <i>e.g.</i> to pay rent or to insure.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORGERY<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (derived through the French from Latin <i>fabricare</i>,
+to construct), in English law, &ldquo;the fraudulent making or alteration
+of a writing to the prejudice of another man&rsquo;s right,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;the false making, or making <i>malo animo</i>, of any written
+instrument for the purpose of fraud or deceit.&rdquo; This definition,
+it will be seen, comprehends all fraudulent tampering with
+documents. &ldquo;Not only the fabrication and false making of the
+whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion, alteration
+or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true
+instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount
+to forgery,&mdash;and this though it be afterwards executed by
+another person ignorant of the deceit&rdquo; (Russell on <i>Crimes and
+Misdemeanours</i>, vol. ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale
+in a lease, so that it appears to be a lease of the manor of Sale
+instead of the manor of Dale, is a forgery. And when a country
+banker&rsquo;s note was made payable at the house of a banker in
+London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the name
+of such London banker to that of another London banker with
+whom the country banker had subsequently made his notes
+payable. As to the fraud, &ldquo;an intent to defraud is presumed
+to exist if it appears that at the time when the false document
+was made there was in existence a specific person, ascertained
+or unascertained, capable of being defrauded thereby; and this
+presumption is not rebutted by proof that the offender took or
+intended to take measures to prevent such person from being
+defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he had
+a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document&rdquo;
+(Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Digest of the Criminal Law</i>). Thus when a man
+makes a false acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it,
+intending to take it up and actually taking it up before it is
+presented for payment, he is guilty of forgery. Even if it be
+proved as a matter of fact that no person could be defrauded
+(as when A forges a cheque in B&rsquo;s name on a bank from which
+B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will be
+presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had
+withdrawn his account, the absence of fraudulent intention
+would be inferred. A general intention to cheat the public is
+not the kind of fraud necessary to constitute forgery. Thus if
+a quack forges a diploma of the college of surgeons, in order
+to make people believe that he is a member of that body, he is
+not guilty of forgery.</p>
+
+<p>The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to
+time dealt with in an enormous number of statutes. It was
+first made a statutory offence in 1562, and was punishable by
+fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the
+nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land and perpetual
+imprisonment. It was made capital, without benefit of clergy
+in 1634. The most notable cases of those who have suffered
+the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W.
+Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield&rsquo;s name on a bond,
+and Henry Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of
+Marsh, Sibbald &amp; Co., for the appropriation by means of
+forged instruments of money entrusted to the bank, in 1824.
+&ldquo;Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his <i>Criminal Code</i>,
+has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain provisions
+against the offence&rdquo; (Sir J.T. Coleridge&rsquo;s notes to Blackstone).
+Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the legislature
+against forgery, and says that &ldquo;through the number of these
+general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible
+to be conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether
+in the name of a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital
+crime.&rdquo; These acts were consolidated in 1830. The later
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+statutes, fixing penalties from penal servitude for life downwards,
+were consolidated by the Forgery Act 1861. It would take too
+much space to enumerate all the varieties of the offence with
+their appropriate punishments. The following condensed
+summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Digest
+of the Criminal Law</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum
+are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills,
+bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Forgeries of registers of birth, &amp;c., or of copies thereof and
+others.</p>
+
+<p>2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years&rsquo; penal servitude are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Forgeries of debentures.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Forgeries of instruments purporting to be made by the accountant
+general and other officers of the court of chancery, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Drawing bill of exchange, &amp;c., on account of another, per
+procuration or otherwise, without authority.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing
+it to be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. Forgeries punishable with seven years&rsquo; penal servitude:&mdash;Forgeries
+of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates,
+and of documents to be used in evidence, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of
+trade marks is an offence punishable on conviction by indictment
+with imprisonment not exceeding two years or to fine, or both,
+and on conviction by summary proceedings with imprisonment
+not exceeding four months or with a fine.</p>
+
+<p>The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the
+Forged Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local
+authorities to make compensation by a cash payment out of
+their funds for any loss arising from a transfer of their stocks,
+shares or securities through a forged transfer.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Forgery is made a crime by statute in most
+if not all the states, in addition to being a common law cheat.
+These statutes have much enlarged the common definition of
+this crime. It is also made a crime by a Federal statute (U.S.
+Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes forgery of national banknotes,
+letters patent, public bid, record, signature of a judge, land
+warrants, powers of attorney, ships&rsquo; papers or custom-house
+documents, certificates of naturalization, &amp;c.; the punishment
+is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with or
+without hard labour.</p>
+
+<p>In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts
+of several banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to produce
+one additional note or instrument with intent to pass all
+as genuine, is a forgery of each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch.
+38, § 108). The alleged instrument must be apparently capable
+of defrauding (<i>Goodman</i> v. <i>People</i> [1907], 228, Ill. 154).</p>
+
+<p>In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of
+credit issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by
+any other officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank
+bill of any bank, is punishable by imprisonment for life or any
+term of years (Rev. Laws 1902, ch. 209, §§ 4 and 5).</p>
+
+<p>In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting,
+alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument
+(Penal Code, § 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who
+with intent to defraud sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip,
+share certificate, is guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely
+making any instrument which purports to be issued by a corporation
+bearing a pretended signature of a person falsely indicated
+as an officer of the company, is forgery just as if such person
+were in truth such officer (<i>id.</i> § 519). Counterfeiting railroad
+tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that
+the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id.
+§ 511). So also is the forging a fictitious name (<i>People</i> v. <i>Browne</i>
+[1907], 103 N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the
+first degree may be twenty years, in the second degree ten years,
+in the third degree five years.</p>
+
+<p>In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, uttering
+or publishing any written instrument other than bank bills,
+cheques or drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonment
+&ldquo;by separate or solitary confinement at labour for a term not
+exceeding ten years&rdquo; (L. 1860, March 31); forging bank bills,
+&amp;c., for a term not exceeding five years. Defacing, removing,
+or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating in any river is
+punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years
+or a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered
+mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment
+by solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.).</p>
+
+<p>In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the
+body of and signature to an instrument which may be the subject
+of forgery (1906; <i>State</i> v. <i>Bradley</i>, 116 Tenn. 711).</p>
+
+<p>In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, § 24, authorizes
+licensees to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written prescription
+of a legally qualified physician stating that it &ldquo;is given
+and necessary for medicinal use.&rdquo; It was held that a prescription
+containing no such statement was invalid and the alteration
+thereof was not forgery (1906; <i>State</i> v. <i>McManus</i>, 78 St. 433).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>;
+Stephen, <i>Digest of Criminal Law</i>; <i>History of Criminal Law</i>; L.O.
+Pike, <i>History of Crime in England</i>, 1873-1876; Russell, <i>On Crimes</i>;
+Archbold, <i>Criminal Pleadings</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORGET-ME-NOT,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Scorpion-Grass</span> (Ger. <i>Vergissmeinnicht</i>,
+Fr. <i>grémillet</i>, <i>scorpionne</i>), the name popularly applied to
+the small annual or perennial herbs forming the genus <i>Myosotis</i>
+of the natural order <i>Boraginaceae</i>, so called from the Greek
+<span class="grk" title="mys">&#956;&#8166;&#962;</span>, a mouse, and <span class="grk" title="ous">&#959;&#8022;&#962;</span>, an ear, on account of the shape of the
+leaves. The genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North
+America and Australia, and is characterized by oblong or linear
+stem-leaves, flowers in terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue,
+pink or white flowers, a five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver- or
+funnel-shaped corolla, having its mouth closed by five short
+scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets. The common or true
+forget-me-not, <i>M. palustris</i>, is a perennial plant growing to a
+height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem clothed
+with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat
+shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla
+rotate, broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow
+centre. The divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third
+the length of the corolla, whereas in the other British species
+of <i>Myosotis</i> it is deeply cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite
+with poets, and the symbol of constancy, is a frequent ornament
+of brooks, rivers and ditches, and, according to an old German
+tradition, received its name from the last words of a knight who
+was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower for his lady.
+It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and, as it
+flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for
+garden borders; a variety, <i>M. strigulosa</i>, is more hairy and erect,
+and its flowers are smaller. In <i>M. versicolor</i> the flowers are
+yellow when first open and change generally to a dull blue;
+sometimes they are permanently yellowish-white. Of the species
+in cultivation, <i>M. dissitiflora</i>, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome
+abundant sky-blue flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering
+from February onwards; it does well in light cool soils, preferring
+peaty ones, and should be renewed annually from seeds or
+cuttings. <i>M. rupicola</i>, or <i>M. alpestris</i>, 2 to 3 in., intense blue,
+is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and gritty
+soil; <i>M. azorica</i> (a native of the Azores) with purple, ultimately
+blue flowers about half an inch across, has a similar habit but
+larger flowers; <i>M. sylvatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for
+spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORGING,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> the craft of the smith, or &ldquo;blacksmith,&rdquo; exercised
+on malleable iron and steel, in the production of works of constructive
+utility and of ornament. It differs from founding
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in the fact that the metal is never melted. It is essentially
+a moulding process, the iron or steel being worked at a full red,
+or white, heat when it is in a plastic and more or less pasty
+condition. Consequently the tools used are in the main counterparts
+of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All the
+operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones:
+(1) Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section
+(&ldquo;fullering&rdquo; and &ldquo;swaging&rdquo;); (2) enlargement of a smaller
+to a larger portion (&ldquo;upsetting&rdquo;); (3) bending, or turning round
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+to any angle of curvature; (4) uniting one piece of metal to
+another (&ldquo;welding&rdquo;); (5) the formation of holes by punching;
+and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include all the operations
+that are done at the anvil. In none of these processes, the last
+excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool involved, and therefore
+there is no violence done to the fibre of the malleable metal. Nor
+have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except the cutting-off
+tools or &ldquo;setts.&rdquo; The essential fact of the flow of the metal,
+which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost sight
+of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must
+be exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best
+calculated to secure maximum strength.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:163px" src="images/img664a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material
+between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or
+finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape,
+nearly hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be reduced
+<span class="sidenote">Fullering and swaging.</span>
+from larger to smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a
+fuller or round-faced stake, set in the anvil, or, in some
+cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows are dealt upon that portion
+of the face which lies exactly
+opposite with a fullering
+tool A, grasped by a rather
+loosely-fitting handle and
+struck on its head by a
+sledge. The position of the
+piece of work is quickly
+changed at brief intervals
+in order to bring successive
+portions under the action
+of the swages until the reduction
+is completed; the
+upper face, and if a bottom
+fuller is used the under face also, is thus left corrugated slightly.
+These corrugations are then removed either by a flatter, if the surfaces
+are plane (fig. 2), or by hollow swages, if the cross section is
+circular (fig. 3). Spring swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead
+of separate &ldquo;top and bottom tools.&rdquo; Frequently swaging is practised
+at once, without the preliminary detail of fullering. It is
+adopted when the amount of reduction is slight, and also when a
+steam hammer or other type of power hammer is available. This
+process of drawing down or fullering is, when practicable, adopted in
+preference to either upsetting or welding, because it is open to no
+objection, and involves no risk of damage to the material, while it
+improves the metal
+by consolidating its
+fibres. But its
+limitations in anvil
+work lie in the
+tediousness of the
+operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in
+diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar.
+Then there are other alternatives.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:426px; height:174px" src="images/img664b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:64px" src="images/img664c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of
+its length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of
+great length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part
+to be enlarged is heated, the parts adjacent remaining
+<span class="sidenote">Upsetting.</span>
+cold, and an end is hammered, or else lifted and dropped heavily
+on the anvil or on an iron plate, with the result that the heated portion
+becomes both shortened and enlarged (figs. 5 and 6). This
+process is only suitable for relatively short lengths, and has the disadvantage
+that the fibres of wrought iron are liable to open, and so
+cause weakening of the upset portion. But steel, which has no
+direction of fibre, can be upset without injury; this method is
+therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power presses to an
+equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to upsetting is
+generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section, or to encircle
+the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then to impart
+any shape desired to the ring in swages.</p>
+
+<p>Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise
+of leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is
+always, when practicable, preferable to cutting out a curved or
+angular shape with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of
+<span class="sidenote">Bending.</span>
+the fibre in iron is preserved by bending, and the risk of an imperfect
+weld is avoided. Hence it is a simple and safe
+process which is constantly being performed at the anvil.
+An objection to sharp bends, or those having a small radius, is that
+the fibres become extended on the outer radius, the cross section being
+at the same time reduced below that of the bar itself. This is met by
+imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to the part to be bent,
+sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction due to extension
+of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the corners of dip
+cranks.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:405px; height:262px" src="images/img664d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting autogeneously
+while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable.
+When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to
+be united, welding is the only method practicable at the
+<span class="sidenote">Welding.</span>
+anvil. It is also generally the best to adopt when union has to be
+made between pieces at right angles, or when a piece on which
+much work has to be done is required at the end of a long plain bar,
+as in the tension rods of cranes and other structures with eyes.
+The art of welding depends chiefly on having perfectly clean joint
+faces, free from scale, so that metal can unite to metal; union
+would be prevented by the presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is
+essential to have a temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to
+overheat the metal. A dazzling white, at which small particles of
+metal begin to drop off, is suitable for iron, but steel must not be
+made so hot. A very few hammer blows suffice to effect the actual
+union; if the joint be faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering
+will weld it. The forms of weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and
+9), the butt (fig. 10), the V (fig. 11) and the glut, one form of which
+is shown in fig. 12; the illustrations are of bars prepared for welding.
+These forms give the smith a suitable choice for different conditions.
+A convexity is imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the
+expulsion of slag and dirt during the closing of the joint; these
+undesirable matters become entangled between concave faces.
+The ends are upset or enlarged in order to leave enough metal to be
+dressed down flush, by swaging or by flattering. The proportional
+lengths of the joint faces shown are those which conform to good
+practice. The fluxes used for welding are numerous. Sand alone
+is generally dusted on wrought iron, but
+steel requires borax applied on the joint
+while in the fire, and also dusted on the
+joint at the anvil and on the face of the
+latter itself. Electric welding is largely
+taking the place of the hand process,
+but machines are required to maintain
+the parts in contact during the passage
+of the current. Butt joints are employed,
+and a large quantity of power is absorbed, but the output is immensely
+greater than that of hand-made welds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:460px; height:71px" src="images/img664e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:63px" src="images/img664f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:207px; height:99px" src="images/img664g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When holes are not very large they are formed by punching,
+but large holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round
+and welding it, so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes
+are often punched simply as a preliminary stage in the
+<span class="sidenote">Punching.</span>
+formation of a larger hole by a process of drifting. A piece of work
+to be punched is supported either on the anvil or on a ring of metal
+termed a bolster, laid on the anvil, through which the burr, when
+severed, falls. But in making small holes through a thick mass,
+no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways and forming an
+enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron stanchions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has to be
+punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under
+power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time.</p>
+
+<p>The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or
+cold metal. In the first case the chisels used, &ldquo;hot setts,&rdquo; have
+<span class="sidenote">Cutting-off.</span>
+keener cutting angles than those employed for the second,
+termed &ldquo;cold setts.&rdquo; One sett is held in a hole in the
+anvil face, the &ldquo;anvil chisel,&rdquo; the other is handled and
+struck with a sledge.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: +50px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:119px; height:203px" src="images/img665a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 13.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron
+possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many
+forgings therefore must be made differently according as they are
+in iron or in steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed
+to run transversely to the axis of greatest tensile or bending
+stress, but must be in line therewith. For this reason many
+forgings, of which a common eye or loop (fig. 13)
+is a typical example, that would be stamped
+from a solid piece if made in steel, must be
+bent round from bar and welded if in wrought
+iron. Further, welding which is practically
+uniformly trustworthy in wrought iron, is distrusted
+in steel. The difference is due to the
+very fibrous character of iron, the welding of
+which gives much less anxiety to the smith
+than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently
+made without any flux, those in steel never.
+Though mention has only been made of iron and
+steel, other alloys are forged, as those of
+aluminium, delta metal, &amp;c. But the essential operations are
+alike, the differences being in temperature at which the forging
+is done and nature of the fluxes used for welding. For
+hardening and tempering, an important section of smith&rsquo;s work,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annealing</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Die Forging.</i>&mdash;The smith operating by hand uses the above
+methods only. There is, however, a large and increasing volume
+of forgings produced in other ways, and comprehended under
+the general terms, &ldquo;die forging&rdquo; or &ldquo;drop forging.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Little proof is needed to show that the various operations
+done at the anvil might be performed in a more expeditious
+way by the aid of power-operated appliances; for the elementary
+processes of reducing, and enlarging, bending, punching, &amp;c., are
+extremely simple, and the most elaborate forged work involves
+only a repetition of these. The fact that the material used is
+entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is most favourable
+to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white hot mass
+of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a
+few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be
+stamped in steel dies under a coining press. But much detail
+is involved in the translation of the principle into practice. The
+parallel between coining dies and forging dies does not go far.
+The blank for the coin is prepared to such exact dimensions that
+no surplus material is left over by the striking of the coin, which
+is struck while cold. But the blank used in die forging is generally
+a shapeless piece, taken without any preliminary preparation,
+a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may be square or round
+irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be square, or
+round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the
+welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of
+the impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die,
+the metal yields like lead, and flows and fills the dies.</p>
+
+<p>Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding
+a forging. A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the
+concavity of the forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow
+over between the joints, prevent the dies from being closed on
+the forging. There are two methods adopted for removing this
+&ldquo;fin,&rdquo; or &ldquo;flash&rdquo; as it is termed, one being that of suppression,
+applicable to circular work, the other that of stripping, applied
+to almost all other cases.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:343px" src="images/img665b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the
+dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few
+blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when
+formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section
+is being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.</p>
+
+<p>Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has
+been formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced
+right through with an opening of the same shape and area as the
+forging, and then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer.
+The forging is thus knocked through the die, leaving the severed
+or stripped fin behind. The
+forging is then returned to
+the dies and again treated,
+and the stripping may be
+repeated twice, or even
+oftener, before the forging
+can be completed.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate
+the bottom dies of a set for
+forging in a particular form
+of eye, the top dies being of
+exactly the same shape. The
+first operation takes place in
+fig. 15, in which a bar of
+metal is reduced to a globular
+and cylindrical form, being
+constantly rotated meanwhile.
+The shank portion is
+then drawn down in the
+parallel recess to the left.
+The shape of the eye is completed
+in fig. 16, and the
+shank in the recess to the left
+of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is stamped between top and
+bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is formed by punching,
+the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the centre for the hole
+to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is located by a conical
+projection in the top die.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:284px" src="images/img665c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained
+here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive application.</p>
+
+<p>An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a
+quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in
+dies within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the
+cost of the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the
+question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of
+dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required.
+From this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings,
+ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over
+the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:422px; height:308px" src="images/img665d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which
+are produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimensions
+than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage
+when forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer&rsquo;s
+machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at
+all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in
+consequence of their slight inaccuracies.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:201px" src="images/img666.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies
+much of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when
+thousands of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a
+hundred, or even to a dozen, similar forgings.
+In such cases economy is secured by using dies
+of a very cheap character; or, by employing
+such dies as supplementary to anvil work for
+effecting neat finish to more precise dimensions
+than can be ensured at the anvil. In
+the first case use is made of dies of cast iron
+moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of
+having their matrices laboriously cut in steel
+with drills, chisels and milling tools. In the
+second, preliminary drawing down is done
+under the steam hammer, and bending and
+welding at the anvil, or under the steam
+hammer, until the forgings are brought approximately
+to their final shape and dimensions.
+Then they are reheated and inserted in the dies, when a few blows
+under the steam or drop hammer suffice to impart a neat and accurate
+finish.</p>
+
+<p>The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large dimensions.
+The system is most successful for the smallest forgings and
+dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of
+cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers
+as are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles
+manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings,
+in which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is
+utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped
+from steel plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute
+by far the largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are
+massive, and a single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press
+employed bends the steel plate between the dies to shape at once.
+Fairly massive forgings are also produced in these presses.</p>
+
+<p>Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the
+skilled smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only
+craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the
+shops. The men who attend to the machines are not smiths,
+but unskilled helpers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORK<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Lat. <i>furca</i>), an implement formed of two or more
+prongs at the end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type
+of which is the table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and
+horticulture the fork is used for pitching hay, and other green
+crops, manure, &amp;c.; commonly this has two prongs, &ldquo;tines&rdquo;;
+for digging, breaking up surface soil, preparing for hand weeding
+and for planting the three-pronged fork is used. The word is
+also applied to many objects which are characterized by branching
+ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs,
+which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to
+give a standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams
+of a river, or the junction where a tributary runs into the main
+river; and in the human body, to that part where the legs
+branch off from the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>furca</i>, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form
+of the letter &Lambda;, was used by the Romans as an instrument of
+punishment. It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal,
+and his hands were fastened to it, condemned slaves were compelled
+to carry it about with them, and those sentenced to be
+flogged would be tied to it; crucifixions were sometimes carried
+out on a similar shaped instrument. From the great defeat of
+the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks
+(<i>Furculae Caudinae</i>), a narrow gorge, where the vanquished
+were compelled to pass under the yoke (<i>jugum</i>), as a sign of
+submission, the expression &ldquo;to pass through or under the forks&rdquo;
+has been loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The
+&ldquo;forks&rdquo; in any allusion to this defeat should refer to the topographical
+name and not to the <i>jugum</i>, which consisted of two
+upright spears with a third placed transversely as a cross-bar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1749-1818), German
+musician, was born on the 22nd of February 1749 at Meeder
+in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, and as a practical
+musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved some
+eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly
+upon his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical
+science and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J.S.
+Bach, whose music he did much to popularize. His library,
+which was accumulated with care and discrimination at a time
+when rare books were cheap, forms a valuable portion of the
+royal library in Berlin and also of the library of the Königlicher
+Institut für Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the university
+church of Göttingen, obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy,
+and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He died
+at Göttingen on the 20th of March 1818. The following is a list
+of his principal works: <i>Über die Theorie der Musik</i> (Göttingen,
+1777); <i>Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek</i> (Gotha, 1778); <i>Allgemeine
+Geschichte der Musik</i> (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most important
+work. He also wrote a <i>Dictionary of Musical Literature</i>,
+which is full of valuable material. To his musical compositions,
+which are numerous, little interest is to-day to be attached.
+But it is worth noting that he wrote variations on the English
+national anthem &ldquo;God save the king&rdquo; for the clavichord, and
+that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which appeared
+at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he
+conceived they ought to be written.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORLÌ<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Livii</i>), a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
+Italy, the capital of the province of Forlì, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna
+by rail, 108 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town);
+43,321 (commune). Forlì is situated on the railway between
+Bologna and Rimini. It is connected by steam tramways with
+Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the Apennines
+with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the
+principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good
+carved and inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The
+façade has been considerably altered, but the campanile, erected
+in 1178-1180, still exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built
+of brickwork, and is one of the finest of Lombard campanili.
+The pictures in this church are the work of Marco Palmezzano
+(1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the municipal picture
+gallery also contain works by him. The latter has other interesting
+pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with
+pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Forlì
+of Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style
+was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and
+who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza
+chapel in SS. Biagio e Girolamo are from the former&rsquo;s designs,
+though executed by the latter. The church also contains the
+fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The cathedral (Santa
+Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The Palazzo
+del Podestà, now a private house, is a brick building of the 15th
+century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about
+1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio
+Biondo, the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient
+Rome (1388-1463), was a native of Forlì.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia,
+hardly anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forlì
+in league with Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of
+the province of Romagna resided there. In 1275 Forlì defeated
+Bologna with great loss. Martin IV. sent an army to besiege
+it in 1282, which was driven out after severe fighting in the streets;
+but the town soon afterwards surrendered. In the 14th and
+15th centuries it was under the government of the Ordelaffi;
+and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a determined
+resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario. Forlì
+finally became a part of the papal state in 1504.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORLIMPOPOLI<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Popillii</i>), a village of Emilia,
+Italy, in the province of Forlì, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail,
+105 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (commune).
+The ancient Forum Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia,
+was destroyed by Grimuald in 672. Whether its site is occupied
+by the present town is not certain; the former should perhaps
+be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E., where were found most
+of the inscriptions of which the place of discovery is certain.
+Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal Albornoz in 1360,
+and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed the well-preserved
+medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four circular
+towers at the corners.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORLORN HOPE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (through Dutch <i>verloren hoop</i>, from Ger.
+<i>verlorene Haufe</i> = &ldquo;lost troop&rdquo;; <i>Haufe</i>, &ldquo;heap,&rdquo; being equivalent
+in the 17th century to &ldquo;body of troops&rdquo;; the French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+equivalent is <i>enfants perdus</i>), a military term (sometimes shortened
+to &ldquo;forlorn&rdquo;), used in the 16th and 17th centuries for a body
+of troops thrown out in front of the line of battle to engage the
+hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of skirmishers, though
+they were always solid closed bodies. These troops ran great
+risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines of
+battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or
+ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to
+facilitate the attacks of their own main body by striking the
+first blow against or meeting the first shock of the fresh and
+unshaken enemy. In the following century (18th), when lines
+of masses were no longer employed, a thin line of skirmishers
+alone preceded the three-deep line of battle, but the term
+&ldquo;forlorn hope&rdquo; continued to be used for picked bodies of men
+entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming
+party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense &ldquo;forlorn
+hope&rdquo; is often used at the present time. The misunderstanding
+of the word &ldquo;hope&rdquo; has led to various applications of &ldquo;forlorn
+hope,&rdquo; such as to an enterprise offering little chance of success,
+or, further still from the original meaning, to the faint or desperate
+hope of such success.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORM<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (Lat. <i>forma</i>), in general, the external shape, appearance,
+configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of
+which it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent
+arguments,&mdash;the <i>matter</i> may be good, while the style, grammar,
+arrangement,&mdash;the <i>form</i>&mdash;is bad. The term, with its adjective
+&ldquo;formal&rdquo; and the derived nouns &ldquo;formality&rdquo; and &ldquo;formalism,&rdquo;
+is hence contemptuously used for that which is superficial,
+unessential, hypocritical: chap. xxiii. of Matthew&rsquo;s gospel is
+a classical instance of the distinction between the formalism
+of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be
+compared the popular phrases &ldquo;good form&rdquo; and &ldquo;bad form&rdquo;
+applied to behaviour in society: so &ldquo;format&rdquo; (from the French)
+is technically used of the shape and size, <i>e.g.</i> of a book (octavo,
+quarto, &amp;c.) or of a cigarette. The word &ldquo;form&rdquo; is also applied
+to certain definite objects: in printing a body of type secured
+in a chase for printing at one impression (&ldquo;form&rdquo; or &ldquo;forme&rdquo;);
+a bench without a back, such as is used in schools (perhaps to
+be compared with O. Fr. <i>s&rsquo;asseoir en forme</i>, to sit in a row); a
+mould or shape on or in which an object is manufactured; the
+lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of regulated order
+comes the application of the term to a class in a school (&ldquo;sixth
+form,&rdquo; &ldquo;fifth form,&rdquo; &amp;c.); this sense has been explained without
+sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same
+class sitting on a single form (bench).</p>
+
+<p>The word has been used technically in philosophy with various
+shades of meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic
+<span class="grk" title="idea">&#7984;&#948;&#941;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, the permanent reality which makes a thing what
+it is, in contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject
+to change. Whether Plato understood these forms as actually
+existent apart from all the particular examples, or as being of the
+nature of immutable physical laws, is matter of discussion. For
+practical purposes Aristotle was the first to distinguish between
+matter (<span class="grk" title="hylê">&#8021;&#955;&#951;</span>) and form (<span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>). To Aristotle matter is the
+undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which
+things develop (<span class="grk" title="hypokeimenon">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#949;&#943;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="dynamis">&#948;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>) than a thing in itself
+(<span class="grk" title="energeia">&#7952;&#957;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>). The development of particular things from this
+germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of
+particular <i>forms</i> of which the knowable universe consists (cf.
+<span class="sc">Causation</span> for the Aristotelian &ldquo;formal cause&rdquo;). The perfection
+of the form of a thing is its entelechy (<span class="grk" title="entelecheia">&#7952;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#941;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>) in virtue of
+which it attains its fullest realization of function (<i>De anima</i>,
+ii. 2, <span class="grk" title="hê men hylê dynamis to de eidos entelecheia">&#7969; &#956;&#8050;&#957; &#8021;&#955;&#951; &#948;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8056; &#948;&#8050; &#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#941;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span>). Thus the
+entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of the differentiation
+process is to be sought in a &ldquo;prime mover&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="prôton kinoun">&#960;&#961;&#8182;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#8166;&#957;</span>),
+<i>i.e.</i> pure form entirely separate (<span class="grk" title="chôriston">&#967;&#969;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#957;</span>) from all matter,
+eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by
+the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter
+(<span class="grk" title="hôs erômenon">&#8033;&#962; &#7952;&#961;&#974;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="ou kinoumenon">&#959;&#8016; &#954;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#973;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>). The Aristotelian conception of
+form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases unintelligently,
+adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the
+observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign
+idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of
+Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its &ldquo;subsistent
+forms&rdquo; (<i>formae separatae</i>) from the material with its
+&ldquo;inherent forms&rdquo; which exist only in combination with matter.
+Bacon, returning to the physical standpoint, maintained that all
+true research must be devoted to the discovery of the real nature
+or essence of things. His induction searches for the true &ldquo;form&rdquo;
+of light, heat and so forth, analysing the external &ldquo;form&rdquo; given
+in perception into simpler &ldquo;forms&rdquo; and their &ldquo;differences.&rdquo;
+Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot things, and
+discover that which is present in all, excluding all those qualities
+which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples
+investigated: the &ldquo;form&rdquo; of heat is the residuum common to
+all. Kant transferred the term from the objective to the subjective
+sphere. All perception is necessarily conditioned by
+pure &ldquo;forms of sensibility,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> space and time: whatever is
+perceived is perceived as having <span class="correction" title="amended from special">spacial</span> and temporal relations
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Space and Time</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kant</a></span>). These forms are not obtained
+by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they strictly speaking
+innate: they are obtained &ldquo;by the very action of the mind from
+the co-ordination of its sensation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMALIN<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Formaldehyde</span>, CH<span class="su">2</span>O or H·CHO, the first
+member of the series of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is
+most readily prepared by passing the vapour of methyl alcohol,
+mixed with air, over heated copper or platinum. In order to
+collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed and absorbed,
+either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, although
+only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium formate.
+At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing
+a pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant,
+a 40% solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol,
+sold as <i>formalin</i>, being employed as a deodorant, fungicide
+and preservative. It is not possible to obtain the aldehyde
+in a pure condition, since it readily polymerizes. It is
+a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to form
+<i>hexamethylene tetramine</i>, (CH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">6</span>N<span class="su">4</span>, and easily &ldquo;condenses&rdquo;
+in the presence of many bases to produce compounds which
+apparently belong to the sugars (<i>q.v.</i>). It renders glue or gelatin
+insoluble in water, and is used in the coal-tar colour industry
+in the manufacture of para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines.
+Several polymers have been described. <i>Para-formaldehyde</i>, or
+trioxymethylene, obtained by concentrating solutions of formaldehyde
+<i>in vacuo</i>, is a white crystalline solid, which sublimes at
+about 100° C. and melts at a somewhat higher temperature,
+changing back into the original form. It is insoluble in cold
+water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed to
+separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform
+(Körber, <i>Pharm. Zeit.</i>, 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach
+and H. Barschall (<i>Chem. Zentr.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three
+polymers by acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions
+of formaldehyde, and a fourth by heating one of the forms so
+obtained. The strength of solutions of formaldehyde may be
+ascertained by the addition of excess of standard ammonia to the
+aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine being formed),
+the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration with
+standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the
+oxidation of methane at high temperatures, see W.A. Bone
+(<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde
+also appears to be a reduction product of carbon
+dioxide (see <i>Annual Reports of the Chemical Society</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMAN, ANDREW<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was
+educated at the university of St Andrews and entered the service
+of King James IV. about 1489. He soon earned the favour of
+this king, who treated him with great generosity and who on
+several occasions sent him on important embassies to the English,
+the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he became bishop of
+Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his appointment
+as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised
+to make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his
+own land Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant
+archbishopric of St Andrews and was made papal legate in
+Scotland, but it was some time before he secured possession of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+the see owing to the attempts of Henry VIII. to subject Scotland
+to England and to the efforts of his rivals, Gavin Douglas, the
+poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and their supporters.
+Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many
+benefices, the holding of which had made him unpopular, and
+through the good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of
+Albany, obtained the coveted archbishopric and the primacy
+of Scotland. Afterwards he was one of the vice-regents of the
+kingdom and he died on the 11th of March 1521. As archbishop
+he issued a series of constitutions which are printed in J. Robertson&rsquo;s
+<i>Concilia Scotiae</i> (1866). Mr Andrew Lang (<i>History of
+Scotland</i>, vol. i.) describes Forman as &ldquo;the Wolsey of Scotland,
+and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of <i>The
+Archbishops of St Andrews</i>, by J. Herkless and R.K. Hannay (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMAN, SIMON<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1552-1611), English physician and astrologer,
+was born in 1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton,
+Wiltshire. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to a
+druggist at Salisbury, but at the end of four years he exchanged
+this profession for that of a schoolmaster. Shortly afterwards
+he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chiefly
+medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in
+Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane,
+London, but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account
+underwent more than one term of imprisonment. Ultimately,
+however, he obtained a diploma from Cambridge university,
+and established himself as a physician and astrologer at Lambeth,
+where he was consulted, especially as a physician, by many
+persons of rank, among others by the notorious countess of
+Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a
+boat on the 12th of September 1611.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A list of Forman&rsquo;s works on astrology is given in Bliss&rsquo;s edition
+of the <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>; many of his MS. works are contained
+in the Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth
+Library. <i>A Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public
+Library, Plymouth</i>, was published in 1853.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMERET<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a French architectural term for the wall-rib
+carrying the web or filling-in of a vault (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1711-1797),
+Franco-German author, was born of French parentage at Berlin
+on the 31st of May 1711. He was educated for the ministry, and
+at the age of twenty became pastor of the French church at
+Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of a
+congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor
+of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739
+professor of philosophy. On the organization of the academy
+of Berlin in 1744 he was named a member, and in 1748 became
+its perpetual secretary. He died at Berlin on the 7th of March
+1797. His principal works are <i>La Belle Wolfienne</i> (1741-1750,
+6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view of enforcing the
+precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; <i>Bibliothèque critique, ou
+mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire littéraire ancienne et moderne</i>
+(1746); <i>Le Philosophe chrétien</i> (1750); <i>L&rsquo;Émile chrétien</i> (1764),
+intended as an answer to the <i>Émile</i> of Rousseau; and <i>Souvenirs
+d&rsquo;un citoyen</i> (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense
+number of contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the
+Berlin Academy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMIA<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (anc. <i>Formiae</i>, called Mola di Gaeta until recent
+times), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta,
+from which it is 48 m. W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514
+(town); 8452 (commune). It is situated at the N.W. extremity
+of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. It lay on
+the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by
+wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property
+here and along the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are
+numerous remains of ancient villas along the coast and on the
+slopes above it. The so-called villa of Cicero contains two well-preserved
+<i>nymphaea</i> with Doric architecture. Its site is now
+occupied by the villa Caposele, once a summer residence of the
+kings of Naples. There are many other modern villas, and the
+sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly behind the
+town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens.
+The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is
+also covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned
+by a large tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is
+a large villa with substructions in &ldquo;Cyclopean&rdquo; work. The
+ancient Formiae was, according to the legend, the home of the
+Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony (<span class="grk" title="Hormiaidia to euormon">&#8009;&#961;&#956;&#943;&#945;&#953;&#948;&#953;&#8048; &#964;&#8056; &#949;&#8020;&#959;&#961;&#956;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a Volscian town, and, like Fundi,
+received the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i> from Rome in 338 (or 332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+because the passage through its territory had always been secure.
+This was strategically important for the Romans, as the military
+road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, still
+easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the
+high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked,
+between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, with Fundi, it received
+the full citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under
+the control of a <i>praefectus</i> sent from Rome, though it retained
+its three aediles. Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero
+possessed a favourite villa here, and was murdered in its vicinity
+in 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but neither the villa nor the tomb can be identified
+with any certainty. It was devastated by Sextus Pompeius,
+and became a colony, with <i>duoviri</i> as chief magistrates, under
+Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was dependent
+upon it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Ashby, &ldquo;Dessins inédits de Carlo Labruzzi,&rdquo; in <i>Mélanges
+de l&rsquo;école française de Rome</i> (1903), 410 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMIC ACID,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span> or H·COOH, the first member of the
+series of aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula
+C<span class="su">n</span>H<span class="su">2n</span>O<span class="su">2</span>. It is distinguished from the other members of the
+series by certain characteristic properties; for example, it
+shows an aldehydic character in reducing silver salts to metallic
+silver, and it does not form an acid chloride or an acid anhydride.
+Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an acid character, a property not
+possessed by the nitriles of the other members of the series;
+and, by the abstraction of the elements of water from the acid,
+carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no parallel
+in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is, as
+shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much
+stronger acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs
+naturally in red ants (Lat. <i>formica</i>), in stinging nettles, in some
+mineral waters, in animal secretions and in muscle. It may be
+prepared artificially by the oxidation of methyl alcohol and of
+formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of oxalic acid (J. Gay-Lussac,
+<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1831 [2] 46, p. 218), but best by heating
+oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of 100-110° C. (M.
+Berthelot, <i>Ann.</i>, 1856, 98, p. 139). In this reaction a glycerol
+ester is formed as an intermediate product, and undergoes
+decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same
+time.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> = C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·OCHO+CO<span class="su">2</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O<br />
+C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>O·CHO + H<span class="su">2</span>O = C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid
+or its salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means
+of hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with
+alcoholic potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, <i>Berzelius
+Jahresberichte</i>, vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition
+being shown by chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, <i>Ann.</i>,
+1832, 1, p. 198). Formates are also produced by the action of
+moist carbon monoxide on soda lime at 190-220° C. (V. Merz and
+J. Tibiçira, <i>Ber.</i>, 1880, 13, p. 23; A. Geuther, <i>Ann.</i>, 1880, 202,
+p. 317), or by the action of moist carbon dioxide on potassium
+(H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, <i>Ann.</i>, 1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissan
+(<i>Comptes rend.</i>, 1902, 134, p. 261) prepared potassium formate by
+passing a current of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide over heated
+potassium hydride,</p>
+
+<p class="center">KH + CO<span class="su">2</span> = KHCO<span class="su">2</span> and KH + 2CO = KHCO<span class="su">2</span> + C.</p>
+
+<p>A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either
+by neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being
+then dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous
+oxalic acid (Lorin, <i>Bull. soc. chim.</i>, 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper
+salt may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130° C.
+L. Maquenne (<i>Bull. soc. chim.</i>, 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial
+acid, <i>in vacuo</i>, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75° C.</p>
+
+<p>Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystallizes
+at 0° C., melts at 8.6° C. and boils at 100.8° C. Its specific
+gravity is 1.22 (20°/4°). It is miscible in all proportions with water,
+alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, the acid decomposes
+into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and potassium
+salts, when heated to 400° C., give oxalates and carbonates of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+alkali metals, but the magnesium, calcium and barium salts yield
+carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with concentrated
+sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon monoxide;
+when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic acid and
+finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as <i>formates</i>,
+and are mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead being
+the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily decomposed.
+Concentrated sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, with
+simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt,
+when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives
+aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the
+metal, with liberation of carbon dioxide and formation of free
+formic acid; and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some
+formamide, HCONH<span class="su">2</span>. The esters of the acid may be obtained
+by distilling a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts and the
+corresponding alcohol with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Formamide</i>, HCONH<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with
+ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140° C.,</p>
+
+<p class="center">2HCO·ONH<span class="su">4</span> + CO(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2HCONH<span class="su">2</span> + (NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>;</p>
+
+<p>by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at
+230° C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of
+potassium cyanate (H. Basarow, <i>Ber.</i>, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid
+which boils <i>in vacuo</i> at 150°, but at 192-195° C. under ordinary
+atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon
+monoxide and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the
+formation of mercuric formamide, (HCONH)<span class="su">2</span>Hg.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMOSA,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a northern territory of the Argentine republic,
+bounded N. by Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by
+the Chaco Territory, and W. by Salta, with the Pilcomayo
+and Bermejo forming its northern and southern boundaries.
+Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping gently
+to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very
+little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and
+Paraguay rivers, where attempts have been made to form
+settlements. The unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes
+of wild Indians. The climate is hot, the summer temperature
+rising to a maximum of 104° F. Timber-cutting is the
+principal occupation of the settlers, though stock-raising and
+agriculture engage some attention in the settlements on the
+Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small
+settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in
+1900. The settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895,
+which it was estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The
+nomadic Indians are estimated at 8000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMOSA<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (called <i>Taiwan</i> by the Chinese, and following
+them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their
+war with China in 1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean,
+between the Southern and the Eastern China Sea, separated
+from the Chinese mainland by the Formosa Strait, which has
+a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part. The island is
+225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line measuring
+731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.&mdash;being thus nearly the same
+size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands
+forming the Japanese empire proper&mdash;and extends from 20° 56&prime;
+to 25° 15&prime; N. and from 120° to 122° E. It forms part of the long
+line of islands which are interposed as a protective barrier
+between the Asiatic coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause
+of the immunity from typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China
+from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. Along the western coast is a low
+plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme width; on the east coast
+there is a rich plain called Giran, and there are also some fertile
+valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, extending
+up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan,
+between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes;
+but the rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin
+forest. In the plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial
+clay, covered in the valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The
+scenery of Formosa is frequently of majestic beauty, and to
+this it is indebted for its European name, happily bestowed by
+the early Spanish navigators.</p>
+
+<p>On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased
+to be Japan&rsquo;s highest mountain, and took the third place on the
+list. Mount Morrison (14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed
+Niitaka-yama (New High Mountain), stands first, and Mount
+Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they give the name of Setzu-zan
+(Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount Morrison stands
+nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic, but consists
+of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr
+Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to
+a height of 6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval
+forests of palms, banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns,
+interlacing creepers and dense thickets of rattan or stretches
+of grass higher than a man&rsquo;s stature. The next interval of 1000
+ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and chamoecyparis; then follow
+pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad plateau, and then
+alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top, which
+consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount
+Morrison, being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous
+object. Mount Sylvia lies in 24° 30´ N. lat. There are many
+other mountains of considerable elevation. In the north is
+Getsurôbi-zan (4101 ft.); and on either side of Setzu-zan, with
+which they form a range running due east and west across the
+island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan (7027 ft.).
+Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan
+(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins
+a chain of three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928),
+and Niitaka-yama. These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan,
+Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and Niitaka-yama, stand almost
+exactly under 121° E. long., in the very centre of the island. But
+the backbone of the island lies east of them, extending S. from
+Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other peaks
+and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and
+still lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan
+(3752 ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and
+Kado-zan (9055 ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan
+(4985 ft.). These, it will be observed, are all Japanese names,
+and the heights have been determined by Japanese observers.
+In addition to these remarkable inland mountains, Formosa&rsquo;s
+eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the bases of the
+hills on the seaside taking the form of almost perpendicular
+walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks of
+steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous
+character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to
+the sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has
+many streams, but the only two of any considerable length
+are the Kotansui, which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth
+at Toko after a course of some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which
+rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters the sea at a point 57 m.
+farther north after a course of 90 m.</p>
+
+<p>The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the
+driest and best months are October, November and December;
+in the south, December, January, February and March. The
+sea immediately south of Formosa is the birthplace of innumerable
+typhoons, but the high mountains of the island protect it
+partially against the extreme violence of the wind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;The vegetation of the island is characterized
+by tropical luxuriance,&mdash;the <span class="correction" title="amended from moutainous">mountainous</span> regions being
+clad with dense forest, in which various species of palms, the
+camphor-tree (<i>Laurus Camphora</i>), and the aloe are conspicuous.
+Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no fewer than 65 different kinds of
+timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu; and his specimens are
+now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree which supplies
+the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not uncommon,
+and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are
+especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers,
+more especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European
+greenhouses have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and
+other ornamental plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance.
+In the lowlands of the western portion, the Chinese have introduced
+a large number of cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice
+is grown in such quantities as to procure for Formosa, in former
+days, the title of the &ldquo;granary of China&rdquo;; and the sweet potato,
+taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are also cultivated.
+Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute, hemp, oil
+and rattans are all articles of export.</p>
+
+<p>The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but
+at least three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys
+(probably <i>Macacus speciosus</i>), squirrels, and flying squirrels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span>
+are fairly common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent.
+A poisonous but beautiful green snake is often mentioned by
+travellers. Pheasants, ducks, geese and snipe are abundant,
+and Dr C. Collingwood in his <i>Naturalist&rsquo;s Rambles in the China
+Seas</i> mentions <i>Ardea prasinosceles</i> and other species of herons,
+several species of fly-catchers, kingfishers, shrikes and larks,
+the black drongo, the <i>Cotyle sinensis</i> and the <i>Prinia sonitans</i>.
+Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The horse is hardly
+known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is regularly bridled
+and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers and neighbouring
+seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial
+mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant
+coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the <i>Kurosiwo</i>
+current, the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an
+important article of diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines
+along the coast&mdash;a species of <i>Cyrena</i>, a species of <i>Tapes</i>, <i>Cytheraea
+petechiana</i> and <i>Modiola teres</i> being most abundant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Formosa, according to a
+census in 1904, is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows:
+aborigines 104,334, Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770.
+The inhabitants of Formosa may be divided into four classes:
+the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as there has not been
+much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of whom
+immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the
+dialect of that district, while others were Hakkas from the
+vicinity of Swatow; the subjugated aborigines, who largely
+intermingled with the Chinese; and the uncivilized aborigines
+of the eastern region who refuse to recognize authority and
+carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized
+aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs,
+were called Pe-pa-hwan (<i>Anglice</i> Pepo-hoans), while their
+wilder brethren bear the name of Chin-hwan or &ldquo;green savages,&rdquo;
+otherwise Sheng-fan or &ldquo;wild savages.&rdquo; They appear to belong
+to the Malay stock, and their language bears out the supposition.
+They are broken up into almost countless tribes and clans,
+many of which number only a few hundred individuals, and
+their language consequently presents a variety of dialects, of
+which no classification has yet been effected: in the district
+of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission distinguished
+eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The
+people themselves are described as of &ldquo;middle height, broad-chested
+and muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet,
+the eyes large, the forehead round, and not narrow or receding
+in many instances, the nose broad, the mouth large and disfigured
+with betel.&rdquo; The custom of tattooing is universal. In the north
+of the island at least, the dead are buried in a sitting posture
+under the bed on which they have expired. Petty wars are
+extremely common, not only along the Chinese frontiers, but
+between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the slain are
+carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young
+men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they
+may be inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had
+least intercourse with the Chinese show a considerable amount
+of skill in the arts of civilization. The use of Manchester prints
+and other European goods is fairly general; and the women,
+who make a fine native cloth from hemp, introduce coloured
+threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce ornamental
+devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.</p>
+
+<p>The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku),
+which is on the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about
+118,000, including 5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have
+two ports; one, Tamsui, at the mouth of the river Tamsui-yei,
+10 m. distant on the north-west coast, the other Kelung (called
+by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east shore, with which
+it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The foreign settlement
+at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is called
+Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient
+Pekiang) is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful.
+There are coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui
+(called Tansui by the Japanese) is usually termed Hobe by
+foreigners. It is the site of the first foreign settlement, has a
+population of about 7000, but cannot be made a good harbour
+without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there is
+no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23° N. lat.),
+a port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the
+sugar trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats,
+and a hotbed of malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese
+and 200 Japanese. At a distance of some 2½ m. inland is the
+former capital of Formosa, the walled city of Tainan, which has
+a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300 Japanese, and a few
+British merchants and missionaries. Connected with Anping
+by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port. It
+has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides
+of a large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous
+Chinese town called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages
+on the east coast are Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do
+not call for special notice. Forty-seven m. east of the extreme
+south coast there is a little island called Botel-tobago (Japanese,
+Koto-sho), which rises to a height of 1914 ft. and is inhabited
+by a tribe whose customs differ essentially from those of the
+natives on the main island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration and Commerce.</i>&mdash;The island is treated as an
+outlying territory; it has not been brought within the full
+purview of the Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered
+by a governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the
+forces, by a bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural
+governors, below whom are the heads of twenty territorial
+divisions called <i>cho</i>; its finances are not included in the general
+budget of the Japanese empire; it is garrisoned by a mixed
+brigade taken from the home divisions; and its currency is on
+a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which the Japanese
+had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese
+settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether,
+as is done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public
+opinion. But, influenced by medical views and by the almost
+insuperable difficulty of enforcing any drastic import veto in
+the face of Formosa&rsquo;s large communications by junk with China,
+the Japanese finally adopted the middle course of licensing the
+preparation and sale of the drug, and limiting its use to persons
+in receipt of medical sanction. Under the administration of the
+Japanese the island has been largely developed. Among other
+industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400
+oz. of gold representing a value of £168,626 were obtained from
+the mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large
+quantities near Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north
+of the island.</p>
+
+<p>An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned,
+the four main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan;
+(2) from Tainan to Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from
+Shoka to Kelung; these four forming, in effect, a main trunk
+road running from the south-west to the north-east, its course
+being along the foot of the mountains that border the western
+coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to
+traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line
+of 259 m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also
+are projected, but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of
+capital constitutes a fatal obstacle to rapid development.</p>
+
+<p>There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the
+total business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the
+staple exports. The greater part of the former goes to Amoy
+for re-shipment to the west, but it is believed that if harbour
+improvements were effected at Tamsui so as to render it accessible
+for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be made thence direct
+to New York. The camphor trade being a government monopoly,
+the quantity exported is under strict control.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The island of Formosa must have been known from
+a very early date to the Chinese who were established in the
+Pescadores. The inhabitants are mentioned in the official works
+of the Yuan dynasty as <i>Tung-fan</i> or eastern barbarians; and
+under the Ming dynasty the island begins to appear as Kilung.
+In the beginning of the 16th century it began to be known to
+the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the latter at least
+made some attempts at establishing settlements or missions.
+The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the island;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where
+subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was
+maintained for <span class="correction" title="amended from thrity">thrity</span>-seven years. On the expulsion of the
+Ming dynasty in China, a number of their defeated adherents
+came over to Formosa, and under a leader called in European
+accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the Dutch and taking
+possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the Chinese
+of Formosa recognized the emperor K&rsquo;ang-hi, and the island
+then began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close
+of the 17th century a long era of conflict ensued between the
+Chinese and the aborigines. A more debased population than
+the peoples thus struggling for supremacy could scarcely be
+conceived. The aborigines, <i>Sheng-fan</i>, or &ldquo;wild savages,&rdquo;
+deserved the appellation in some respects, for they lived by the
+chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the
+Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no
+right except that of might. The former were not implacably
+cruel or vindictive. They merely clung to their homesteads, and
+harboured a natural resentment against the raiders who had
+dispossessed them. Their disposition was to leave the Chinese in
+unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the most
+valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be
+found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they
+ventured too far in search of these products, fell into ambushes
+of hill-men who neither gave nor sought quarter, and who
+regarded a Chinese skull as a specially attractive article of
+household furniture. A violent rebellion is mentioned in 1788,
+put down only after the loss, it is said, of 100,000 men by disease
+and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels of silver.
+Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it is
+true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of administrative
+ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening
+of partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a
+section of the <i>Sheng-fan</i>, who thenceforth became known as
+Pe-pa-hwan (<i>Pepohoan</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly
+known to Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place
+on its coasts, and the dangers that the crews had to run from
+the cannibal propensities of the aborigines, and the almost
+equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese. Among the most
+notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig &ldquo;Ann,&rdquo; with
+fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed
+at Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened
+to European commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable
+for a port of trade, and the harbour of Tamsui was selected
+instead. From 1859 both Protestant and Presbyterian missions
+were established in the island. An attack made on those at
+Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation of Fort Zelandia
+and Anping by British forces; but this action was disapproved
+by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from
+the Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the
+Japanese for the purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder
+of a shipwrecked crew who had been put to death by one of the
+semi-savage tribes on the southern coast, the Chinese government
+being either unable or unwilling to punish the culprits.
+A war was averted through the good offices of the British
+minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment
+of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the
+island during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872
+there is recorded a proverb among the official classes, &ldquo;every
+three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion&rdquo;; but subsequent
+to 1877 some improvement was manifested, and public works
+were pushed forward by the Chinese authorities. In 1884, in
+the course of belligerent proceedings arising out of the Tongking
+dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were bombarded by
+the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for some
+months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town
+of Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained
+by the French fleet during the winter and spring of
+1884-1885. The troops were withdrawn on the conclusion of
+peace in June 1885.</p>
+
+<p>In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of
+Shimonoseki at the close of the Japanese war. The resident
+Chinese officials, however, refused to recognize the cession, declared
+a republic, and prepared to offer resistance. It is even said they
+offered to transfer the sovereignty to Great Britain if that
+power would accept it. A formal transfer to Japan was made
+in June of the same year in pursuance of the treaty, the ceremony
+taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the Chinese
+commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were
+thus left to take possession as best they could, and some four
+months elapsed before they effected a landing on the south of
+the island. Takau was bombarded and captured on the 15th of
+October, and the resistance collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious
+Black Flag general, and the back-bone of the resistance,
+sought refuge in flight. The general state of the island when the
+Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of Giran on
+the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by semi-barbarous
+folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,
+and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous
+feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and
+murderous violence. By many of these Chinese settlers the
+Japanese conquerors, when they came to occupy the island,
+were regarded in precisely the same light as the Chinese themselves
+had been regarded from time immemorial by the aborigines.
+Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving
+secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties
+of the Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of
+the country, which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find
+almost inaccessible refuge, but also by the unwillingness of
+experienced officials to abandon their home posts for the purpose
+of taking service in the new territory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;C. Imbault-Huart, <i>L&rsquo;Île Formose, histoire et
+description</i> (Paris, 1893), 4<span class="sp">o</span>; J.D. Clark, <i>Formosa</i> (Shanghai,
+1896); W.A. Pickering, <i>Pioneering in Formosa</i> (London, 1898);
+George Candidius, <i>A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the
+Indies</i> ..., vol. i.; Churchill&rsquo;s <i>Collection of Voyages</i> (1744);
+Robert Swinhoe, <i>Notes on the Island of Formosa</i>, read before the
+British Association (1863); W. Campbell, &ldquo;Aboriginal Savages of
+Formosa,&rdquo; <i>Ocean Highways</i> (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, <i>Description
+de l&rsquo;île de Formose, mém. rel. à l&rsquo;Asie</i> (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes,
+<i>Notes of a Six Years&rsquo; Residence in Formosa</i> (London, 1881); Y.
+Takekoshi, <i>Japanese Rule in Formosa</i> (transl. by G. Braithwaite)
+(London, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORMOSUS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen
+V. (or VI.). He first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto,
+he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards
+sided with a faction against John VIII., he was excommunicated,
+and compelled to take an oath never to return to Rome or again
+to assume his priestly functions. From this oath he was, however,
+absolved by Marinus, the successor of John VIII., and restored
+to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in 891 he was
+chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a struggle
+against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a powerful
+party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,
+king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus
+himself shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances
+and to consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son
+of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had already been consecrated by
+Stephen V., and died in 894. In the following year Arnulf
+succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned him emperor.
+But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf
+was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.
+Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April
+896. The discords in which he had been involved continued
+after his death. The validity of his acts was contested on the
+pretext that, having been originally bishop of Porto, he could
+not be a legitimate pope. The fundamental factor in these
+dissensions was the rivalry between the princes of Spoleto and
+the Carolingian house, represented by the king of Germany.
+The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI.,
+and treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal
+throne; but Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at
+a council presided over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus
+was declared valid and all his acts confirmed.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FORMULA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Lat. diminutive of <i>forma</i>, shape, pattern, &amp;c.,
+especially used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a
+stereotyped form of words to be used on stated occasions, for
+specific purposes, ceremonies, &amp;c. In the sciences, the word
+usually denotes a symbolical statement of certain facts; for
+example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition of a substance
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>); a botanical formula gives the differentia
+of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement and
+number of the teeth of an animal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1756-1799), Spanish
+satirist and scholar, was born at Mérida (Badajoz) on the 23rd
+of February 1756, studied at the university of Salamanca, and
+was called to the bar at Madrid in 1783. During the next few
+years&mdash;under the pseudonyms of &ldquo;Tomé Cecial,&rdquo; &ldquo;Pablo
+Segarra,&rdquo; &ldquo;Don Antonio Varas,&rdquo; &ldquo;Bartolo,&rdquo; &ldquo;Pablo Ignocausto,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;El Bachiller Regañadientes,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Silvio Liberio&rdquo;&mdash;Forner
+was engaged in a series of polemics with García de la
+Huerta, Iriarte and other writers; the violence of his attacks
+was so extreme that he was finally forbidden to publish any
+controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal post at
+Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where
+he died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner&rsquo;s brutality is almost
+unexampled, and his satirical writings give a false impression of
+his powers. His <i>Oración apologética por la España y su mérito
+literario</i> (1787) is an excellent example of learned advocacy,
+far superior to similar efforts made by Denina and Antonio
+Cavanilles; and his posthumous <i>Exequias de la lengua castellana</i>
+(printed in the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>, vol. lxiii.) testifies
+to his scholarship and taste.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORRES<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (Gaelic, <i>far uis</i>, &ldquo;near water&rdquo;), a royal and police
+burgh of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901)
+4317. It is situated on the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town
+and is crossed by a suspension bridge about a mile to the W.,
+11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland railway, and 6 m. by road
+from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one of the most ancient
+towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald (892-900), son
+of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of poisoning,
+and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said
+to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name
+to Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in
+1297 by the adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal
+residence from 1189 to 1371 and was occupied occasionally by
+William the Lion, Alexander II. and David II. It was burned
+down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The ruins on the hill,
+however, are those of a later edifice and are surmounted by a
+granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of Surgeon
+James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his
+life tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The
+public buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious
+house on the site of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum,
+containing among other exhibits several valuable fossils, and
+named after Dr Hugh Falconer (1808-1865), the distinguished
+palaeontologist and botanist, a native of the town; the mechanics&rsquo;
+institute; the agricultural and market hall; Leanchoil hospital
+and Anderson&rsquo;s Institution for poor boys. The cross, in Decorated
+Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on
+the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite
+public resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which
+was erected in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern
+slopes a well-known hydropathic. An excellent golf-course
+extends from Kinloss to Findhorn. The industries comprise
+the manufacture of chemicals and artificial manures, granite
+polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making, carriage-building
+and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable
+trade in cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Sueno&rsquo;s Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured
+monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town.
+Its origin and character have given rise to endless surmises.
+It is carved with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and
+captives on one side, and on the other with a cross and Runic
+ornamentation. One theory is that it is a relic of the early
+Christian church, symbolizing the battle of life and the triumph
+of good over evil. According to an older tradition it was named
+after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who won a victory
+on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it commemorates
+the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene&rsquo;s view
+is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of
+Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied
+stone is called the Witches&rsquo; Stone, because it marks the place
+near Forres where Macbeth is said to have encountered the
+weird sisters.</p>
+
+<p>Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary
+burghs, the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness.
+The town is amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest
+rainfall in the county.</p>
+
+<p>Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of
+Altyre, the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther
+south is Relugas House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas
+Dick Lauder, romantically situated on a height near the confluence
+of the Divie and the Findhorn. Not far away stand the
+ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left bank of the
+Findhorn, 3½ m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle, partly
+ancient and partly modern. The Brodies&mdash;the old name of
+their estate was Brothie, from the Irish <i>broth</i>, a ditch, in allusion
+to the trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of
+the house&mdash;were a family of great consequence at the period
+of the Covenant. Alexander Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth
+laird, was one of the commissioners who went to the Hague to
+treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a Scottish lord of
+session and an English judge. He and his son were regarded
+as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south
+is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands
+the earl of Moray&rsquo;s mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies
+the site of the castle which was built by Thomas Randolph,
+the first earl. Attached to it is the great hall, capable of accommodating
+1000 men, with an open roof of fine dark oak, the only
+remaining portion of the castle that was erected by Archibald
+Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a council
+in it in 1562. Earl Randolph&rsquo;s chair, not unlike the coronation
+chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands
+some 2½ m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by
+David I., and remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its
+suppression at the Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from
+1526 to 1540, was its greatest abbot. His hobby was gardening,
+and it is believed that many of the 123 varieties of pears and 146
+varieties of apples for which the district is famous were due to
+his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the abbey for a
+short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in
+1562.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORREST, EDWIN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1806-1872), American actor, was born
+at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of
+Scottish and German descent. He made his first stage appearance
+on the 27th of November 1820, at the Walnut Street theatre, in
+Home&rsquo;s <i>Douglas</i>. In 1826 he had a great success in New York
+as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the <i>Gladiator</i> in 1836,
+but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English audience, and
+his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly afterwards&mdash;when
+he stood up in a private box and hissed him,&mdash;was fatal to his
+popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted
+in the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine,
+daughter of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce
+suit in 1852 was a <i>cause célèbre</i> which hurt his reputation and
+soured his temper. His last appearance was as Richelieu in
+Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th of December 1872. He
+had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left by will to
+found a home for aged actors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lawrence Barrett&rsquo;s <i>Edwin Forrest</i> (Boston, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORREST, SIR JOHN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), West Australian statesman
+and explorer, son of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia,
+was born near Bunbury, on the 22nd of August 1847, and
+educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he became connected with
+the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in 1869 led
+an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D. Leichardt,
+penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+123° E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to
+Adelaide, along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother
+Alexander Forrest (born 1849), he explored eastwards from
+Champion Bay, following as far as possible the 26th parallel,
+and striking the telegraph line between Adelaide and Port
+Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in about five
+months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine
+achievement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Australia</a></span>: <i>Exploration</i>). John Forrest also
+surveyed in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers
+Ashburton and Lady Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district.
+In 1876 he was made deputy surveyor-general, receiving the
+thanks of the colony for his services and a grant of 5000 acres
+of land; for a few months at the end of 1878 he acted as commissioner
+of crown lands and surveyor-general, being given the
+full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the
+colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government,
+Sir John Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G.
+in 1901) became its first premier, and he held that position till
+in 1901 he joined the Commonwealth government, first as
+minister for defence, later as minister for home affairs and
+postmaster-general, resigning the office of federal treasurer in
+July 1907. His influence in West Australia was one of an
+almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his
+personality and his success in enforcing his views (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Western
+Australia</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In 1897 he was made a member of the
+Privy Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret
+Hamersley. He published <i>Explorations in Australia</i> (1876) and
+<i>Notes on Western Australia</i> (1884-1887).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1821-1877), Confederate
+cavalry general in the American Civil War, was born near Chapel
+Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of July 1821. Before his father&rsquo;s
+death in 1837 the family had removed to Mississippi, and for
+some years thereafter it was supported principally by Nathan,
+who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal
+education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling
+of his war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very
+fair success, and is said to have possessed considerable ability
+as a mathematician. He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in
+Mississippi, and a slave dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until
+1859, when he took to cotton planting in north-western Mississippi,
+where he acquired considerable wealth. At the outbreak
+of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a private, raised a
+cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and in February
+1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and refusing, like
+Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of the
+Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with
+all the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel
+and regimental commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction,
+receiving a severe wound. Shortly after this he was promoted
+brigadier-general (July 1862). At the head of a mounted brigade
+he took a brilliant part in General Bragg&rsquo;s autumn campaign,
+and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was continually active in
+raiding the hostile lines of communication. These raids have
+been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole
+their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time,
+and apart from the question of their utility, Forrest&rsquo;s raids were
+uniformly bold and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the
+history of the cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan,
+he was the finest cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the
+most remarkable of his actions was his capture, near Rome,
+Georgia, after five days of marching and fighting, of an entire
+cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight (April 1863). He
+was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September, after
+which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the
+army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest
+was made a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of
+1863-1864 he was as active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he
+raided as far north as Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864
+he assaulted and captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee on the
+Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a large part of the garrison
+and according to survivors many were massacred after the fort
+had surrendered. The &ldquo;Massacre of Fort Pillow&rdquo; has been the
+subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting
+testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself
+had no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated
+a superior Federal force at Brice&rsquo;s Cross Roads, Miss., and
+throughout the year, though the greatest efforts were made by the
+Federals to crush him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and
+Alabama with almost unvarying success. He was once more with
+the main Confederate army of the West in the last disastrous
+campaign of Nashville, and fought stubborn rearguard actions to
+cover the retreat of the broken Confederates. In February 1865
+he was made a lieut.-general, but the struggle was almost at
+an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the ablest of the
+Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few Confederates,
+now under Forrest&rsquo;s command, and stormed Selma, Alabama,
+on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his
+whole command, under the agreement between General Richard
+Taylor and General E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May.
+After the war he lived in Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation
+in 1867, and for some years was president of the Selma, Marion
+and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis, Tennessee, on the
+29th of October 1877.</p>
+
+<p>The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions
+of his technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his
+arm of the service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He
+never commanded a large force of all arms. He was uneducated,
+and had neither experience of nor training for the strategical
+handling of great armies. Yet his personality and his natural
+soldierly gifts were such that General Sherman considered him
+&ldquo;the most remarkable man the Civil War produced on either
+side.&rdquo; Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose greatness
+lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that Forrest,
+had he had the advantage of a thorough military training, &ldquo;would
+have been the great central figure of the war.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSKÅL, PETER<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and
+naturalist, was born in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Göttingen,
+where he published a dissertation entitled <i>Dubia de principiis
+philosophiae recentioris</i> (1756). Thence he returned to his
+native country, which, however, he had to leave after the publication
+of a pamphlet entitled <i>Pensées sur la liberté civile</i> (1759).
+By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V. of Denmark,
+who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an expedition
+to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at
+Jerim in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the
+care of editing his MSS., and published in 1775 <i>Descriptiones
+animalium, avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium,
+quae in itin. Orient. observavit Petrus Forskål</i>. In the same year
+appeared also his account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower
+Egypt, under the title of <i>Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1843-1901), Swedish historian
+and political writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished
+mathematician, was born at Gefle, where his father was professor,
+on 14th January 1843. At the age of sixteen he became
+a student in Upsala University, where he distinguished himself,
+and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of doctor, he was
+appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty, however,
+Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity,
+was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post
+after another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was
+appointed head of the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to
+the department of inland revenue, of which he continued to be
+president until the time of his death. In addition to the responsibilities
+which these offices devolved upon him, Forssell
+was constantly called to serve on royal commissions, and his
+political influence was immense. In spite of all these public
+duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence,
+Forssell also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of
+his historical writings the most important were: <i>The Administrative
+and Economical History of Sweden after Gustavus I.</i>
+(1869-1875) and <i>Sweden in 1571</i> (1872). He was also for several
+years, in company with the poet Wirsén, editor of the <i>Swedish
+Literary Review</i>. He published two volumes of <i>Studies and</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+<i>Criticisms</i> (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death of the
+historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat
+on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great,
+and he understood so little the economy of strength, that he
+unquestionably overtaxed his vital force. His death, however,
+which occurred with great suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901
+while he was staying at San Bernardino in Switzerland, was
+wholly unexpected. There was little of the typical Swedish
+urbanity in Forssell&rsquo;s exterior manner, which was somewhat dry
+and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life
+administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain
+want of sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were
+distinct, and held with great firmness; for example, he was a
+free-trader, and his consistent opposition to what he called &ldquo;the
+new system&rdquo; had a considerable effect on Swedish policy. He
+was not exactly an attractive man, but he was a capable, upright
+and efficient public servant. In 1867 he married Miss Zulamith
+Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known pomologist of Upsala;
+she survived him, with two sons and two daughters.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORST<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Forsta</span> or <span class="sc">Forste</span>), a town of Germany,
+in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m.
+S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two
+Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old Lutheran church;
+there are two schools and two hospitals in the town. The chief
+industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,
+dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on.
+Founded in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke
+of Saxe-Merseburg, becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740.
+It was ceded to Prussia in 1815.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1790-1872), French engraver, was
+born at Locle in Neufchâtel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In
+1805 he was apprenticed to an engraver in Paris, and he also
+studied painting and engraving simultaneously in the École des
+Beaux-Arts. His preference was ultimately fixed on the latter
+art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the first &ldquo;grand prix de gravure,&rdquo;
+the king of Prussia, who was then with the allies in Paris,
+bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500 francs for
+two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in
+Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works
+of Raphael. In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy.
+He died at Paris on the 27th of June 1872. Forster occupied
+the first position among the French engravers of his time, and
+was equally successful in historical pieces and in portraits.
+Among his works may be mentioned&mdash;The Three Graces, and
+<i>La Vierge de la légende</i>, after Raphael; <i>La Vierge au bas-relief</i>,
+after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros;
+St Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Dürer and Henry IV.,
+after Porbus; Wellington, after Gérard; and Queen Victoria,
+after Winterhalter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1791-1868), German
+historian and poet, was the second son of Karl Christoph Förster
+(1751-1811), and consequently a brother of the painter, Ernest
+Joachim Förster (1800-1885). Born at Münchengosserstadt on
+the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he received his early
+education at Altenburg, and after a course of theology at Jena,
+devoted some time to archaeology and the history of art. At
+the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the army,
+quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs
+added to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the
+war he was appointed professor at the school of engineering and
+artillery in Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings
+he was dismissed from this office in 1817. He then became
+connected with various journals until about 1829, when he
+received an appointment at the royal museum in Berlin, with
+the title of court councillor (<i>Hofrat</i>). He was the founder and
+secretary of the <i>Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein</i> in Berlin, and
+died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Förster&rsquo;s principal
+works are: <i>Beiträge zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1816);
+<i>Grundzüge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates</i> (Berlin, 1818);
+<i>Der Feldmarschall Blücher und seine Umgebungen</i> (Leipzig,
+1820); <i>Friedrich der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist</i>
+(Berlin, 1822); <i>Albrecht von Wallenstein</i> (Potsdam, 1834);
+<i>Friedrich Wilhelm I., König von Preussen</i> (Potsdam, 1834-1835);
+<i>Die Höfe und Kabinette Europas im 18. Jahrhundert</i> (Potsdam,
+1836-1839); <i>Leben und Taten Friedrichs des Grossen</i> (Meissen,
+1840-1841); <i>Wallensteins Prozess</i> (Leipzig, 1844); and <i>Preussens
+Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste preussische
+Geschichte</i>, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three concluding
+volumes of this work contain the history of the war of liberation
+of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel&rsquo;s works,
+adapted several of Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays for the theatre, wrote a
+number of poems and an historical drama, <i>Gustav Adolf</i> (Berlin,
+1832).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as
+<i>Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzählungen und Legenden</i> (Berlin, 1838).
+The beginning of an autobiography of Förster, edited by H. Kletke,
+has been published under the title, <i>Kunst und Leben</i> (Berlin, 1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1754-1794), German
+traveller and author, was born at Nassenhuben, a small village
+near Danzig, on the 27th of November 1754. His father, Johann
+Reinhold Forster, a man of great scientific attainments but an
+intractable temper, was at that time pastor of the place; the
+family are said to have been of Scottish extraction. In 1765 the
+elder Forster was commissioned by the empress Catherine
+to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov,
+which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian
+language and the elements of a scientific education. After a
+few years the father quarrelled with the Russian government,
+and went to England, where he obtained a professorship of
+natural history and the modern languages at the famous non-conformist
+academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon
+compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years
+he and his son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in
+London&mdash;a practical education, however, exceedingly useful
+to the younger Forster, who became a thorough master of
+English, and acquired many of the ideas which chiefly influenced
+his subsequent life. At length the turning point in his career
+came in the shape of an invitation for him and his father to
+accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world.
+Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth
+Forster&rsquo;s peculiar powers. His account of Cook&rsquo;s voyage
+(<i>A Voyage round the World</i>, London, 1777; in German, Berlin,
+1778-1780), is almost the first example of the glowing yet
+faithful description of natural phenomena which has since
+made a knowledge of them the common property of the educated
+world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for
+some time by differences with the admiralty, during which
+Forster proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment
+for his father as professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise
+that it was conferred upon himself. The elder Forster, however,
+was soon provided for elsewhere, being appointed professor
+of natural history at Halle. At Cassel Forster formed an intimate
+friendship with the great anatomist Sömmerring, and about
+the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him
+a leaning towards mysticism from which he <span class="correction" title="amended from subequently">subsequently</span>
+emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus
+at Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Göttingen, where
+he became betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the
+illustrious philologist, a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited
+to be Forster&rsquo;s wife. To be able to marry he accepted
+(1784) a professorship at the university of Wilna, which he did
+not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of Polish
+circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife&rsquo;s
+letters of this period. After a few years&rsquo; residence at Wilna he
+resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition
+projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment
+of this undertaking became librarian to the elector of
+Mainz. He actively promoted the incorporation of the left
+bank of the Rhine with France and in 1793 went to Paris to
+carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however, the Germans
+seized Mainz, and Forster&mdash;already disheartened by the turn
+of events in France&mdash;was cut off from all return. Domestic
+sorrows were added to his political troubles and he died suddenly
+at Paris on the 10th of January 1794.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span></p>
+
+<p>Forster&rsquo;s masterpiece is his <i>Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von
+Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich</i> (1791-1794),
+one of the ablest books of travel of the 18th century.
+His style is clear and vivid; his method of describing what
+he sees extraordinarily plastic; above all, he has the art of presenting
+objects to us from their most interesting and attractive
+side. The same qualities are also more or less conspicuous in
+his minor writings. By his translation (from the English) of the
+<i>Sakuntala</i> of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German interest
+in Indian literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Forster&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843.
+The <i>Ansichten vom Rhein</i>, &amp;c., has been frequently reprinted (best
+edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published
+(Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster&rsquo;s <i>Kleine Schriften</i>,
+which originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence
+was published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his <i>Briefwechsel
+mit Sömmerring</i> by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See
+J. Moleschott, <i>G. Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks</i> (1854; 3rd
+ed., 1874); K. Klein, <i>G. Forster in Mainz</i> (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann,
+<i>G. Forster</i> (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1812-1876), English biographer and critic,
+was born on the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father,
+who was a Unitarian and belonged to the junior branch of a
+good Northumberland family, was a cattle-dealer. After being
+well grounded in classics and mathematics at the grammar school
+of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to Cambridge,
+but after only a month&rsquo;s residence he removed to London, where
+he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the
+Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary
+pursuits. He contributed to <i>The True Sun, The Morning
+Chronicle</i> and to <i>The Examiner</i>, for which he acted as literary
+and dramatic critic; and the influence of his powerful individuality
+soon made itself felt. His <i>Lives of the Statesmen of
+the Commonwealth</i> (1836-1839) appeared partly in Lardner&rsquo;s
+Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with
+a <i>Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History</i>. Its
+merits obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became
+a prominent figure in that distinguished circle of literary men
+which included Bulwer, Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor,
+Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is said to have been for some time
+engaged to Letitia Landon, but the engagement was broken off,
+and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In 1843 he was
+called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.
+For some years he edited the <i>Foreign Quarterly Review</i>; in 1846,
+on the retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some
+months of the <i>Daily News</i>; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the
+<i>Examiner</i>. From 1836 onwards he contributed to the <i>Edinburgh
+Quarterly</i> and <i>Foreign Quarterly</i> Reviews a variety of articles,
+some of which were republished in two volumes of <i>Biographical
+and Historical Essays</i> (1858). In 1848 appeared his admirable
+<i>Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith</i> (revised in 1854). Continuing
+his researches into English history under the early Stuarts, he
+published in 1860 the <i>Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I.&mdash;A
+Chapter of English History rewritten</i>, and <i>The Debates on the
+Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English
+Freedom</i>. These were followed by his <i>Sir John Eliot: a Biography</i>
+(1864), elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the
+<i>Lives of Eminent British Statesmen</i>. In 1868 appeared his <i>Life
+of Landor</i>, and, on the death of his friend Alexander Dyce,
+Forster undertook the publication of his third edition of Shakespeare.
+For several years he had been collecting materials for
+a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies in this direction
+to write his standard <i>Life of Charles Dickens</i>. He had long been
+intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that John
+Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared
+in 1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the
+close of 1875 the first volume of his <i>Life of Swift</i> was published;
+and he had made some progress in the preparation of the second
+at the time of his death on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855
+Forster had been appointed secretary to the lunacy commission,
+and from 1861 to 1872 he held the office of a commissioner in
+lunacy. His valuable collection of manuscripts, including the
+original copies of Charles Dickens&rsquo;s novels, together with his
+books and pictures, was bequeathed to South Kensington
+Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the
+official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHN COOPER<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1823-1886), British surgeon, was
+born in 1823 in Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather
+before him had been local medical practitioners. He entered
+Guy&rsquo;s hospital in 1841, was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
+in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and surgeon, 1870. He became
+a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844, fellow in 1849 and
+president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold operator.
+In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in England
+for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known
+papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,
+intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and
+colloid cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book
+on <i>Surgical Diseases of Children</i> in 1860, founded on his experience
+as surgeon to the hospital for children and women in
+Waterloo Road. He died suddenly in London on the 2nd of
+March 1886.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1818-1886), British statesman,
+was born of Quaker parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire
+on the 11th of July 1818. He was educated at the Friends&rsquo;
+school at Tottenham, where his father&rsquo;s family had long been
+settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He
+declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming
+in due time a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford,
+Yorkshire (from which after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale),
+he soon made himself known as a practical philanthropist.
+In 1846-1847 he accompanied his father to Ireland
+as distributor of the Friends&rsquo; relief fund for the famine in
+Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression
+on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of William Penn</i>, defending the Quaker statesman against
+Macaulay&rsquo;s criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest
+daughter of the famous Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a
+Quaker, and her husband was formally excommunicated for
+marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to
+announce the sentence &ldquo;shook hands and stayed to luncheon.&rdquo;
+Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of
+England, for which, indeed, he was in later life charged with
+having too great a partiality. There were no children of the
+marriage, but when Mrs Forster&rsquo;s brother, William Arnold, died
+in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as
+their own.</p>
+
+<p>One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909),
+the well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament,
+who eventually became a member of Mr Balfour&rsquo;s cabinet; he
+was secretary to the admiralty (1900-1903), and then secretary
+of state for war (1903-1905), and was the author of numerous
+educational books published by Cassell &amp; Co., of which firm he
+was a director.</p>
+
+<p>W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public
+affairs by speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture
+before the Leeds Philosophical Institution on &ldquo;How we Tax
+India.&rdquo; In 1859 he stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, but
+was beaten. But he was highly esteemed in the West Riding,
+and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford. In 1865
+(unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again
+returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates
+on the American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary
+for the colonies in Earl Russell&rsquo;s ministry. It was then
+that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation.
+In 1866 his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted a good
+deal of attention. His speeches were full of knowledge of the
+real condition of the people, and contained something like an
+original programme of Radical legislation. &ldquo;We have other
+things to do,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;besides extending the franchise. We
+want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid
+of pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class
+which is more to be dreaded than the holders of a £7 franchise&mdash;I
+mean the dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+whether we cannot make for the agricultural labourer some
+better hope than the workhouse in his old age. We want to have
+Old England as well taught as New England.&rdquo; In these words
+he heralded the education campaign which occupied the country
+for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform Bill had
+passed, the necessity of &ldquo;inducing our masters to learn their
+letters&rdquo; (in Robert Lowe&rsquo;s phrase) became pressing. Mr
+Forster and Mr Cardwell, as private members in opposition,
+brought in Education Bills in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when
+the Liberal party returned to office, Mr Forster was appointed
+vice-president of the council, with the duty of preparing a
+government measure for national education. The Elementary
+Education Bill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span>) was introduced on the 17th of
+February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front.
+The Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education
+League had already formulated in the provinces the two opposing
+theories, the former standing for the preservation of denominational
+interests, the latter advocating secular rate-aided education
+as the only means of protecting Nonconformity against the
+Church. The Dissenters were by no means satisfied with Forster&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;conscience clause&rdquo; as contained in the bill, and they regarded
+him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own side; while
+they resented the &ldquo;25th clause,&rdquo; permitting school boards to
+pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of
+the rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th
+of March, when the second reading came on, the controversy
+had assumed threatening proportions; and Mr Dixon, the
+Liberal member for Birmingham and chairman of the Education
+League, moved an amendment, the effect of which was to
+prohibit all religious education in board schools. The government
+made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amendment
+was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the
+Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed.
+Extremists on both sides abused Forster, but the government
+had a difficult set of circumstances to deal with, and he acted
+like a prudent statesman in contenting himself with what he
+could get. An ideal bill was impracticable; it is to Forster&rsquo;s
+enduring credit that the bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, established
+at last some approach to a system of national education
+in England without running absolutely counter to the most
+cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal
+agencies already in existence.</p>
+
+<p>Forster&rsquo;s next important work was in passing the Ballot Act
+of 1872, but for several years afterwards his life was uneventful.
+In 1874 he was again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting
+attacks, and he took his full share of the work of the Opposition
+Front Bench. In 1875, when Mr Gladstone &ldquo;retired,&rdquo; he was
+strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, but
+declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington. In the same
+year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen
+University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming
+large, he visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches
+on the subject were marked by studious moderation, distasteful
+to extremists on both sides. On Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s return to office
+in 1880 he was made chief secretary for Ireland, with Lord
+Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried the Compensation for
+Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it thrown
+out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the
+agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy
+autumn and winter of 1880-1881 Forster&rsquo;s energy and devotion
+in grappling with the situation in Ireland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>) were
+indefatigable, his labour was enormous, and the personal risks
+he ran were many; but he enjoyed the Irish character in spite
+of all obstacles, and inspired genuine admiration in all his
+coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he introduced a new
+Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the growth of
+the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it to be
+&ldquo;the most painful duty&rdquo; he had ever had to perform, and one
+which would have prevented his accepting his office if he had
+known that it would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its
+provisions being one enabling the Irish government to arrest
+without trial persons &ldquo;reasonably suspected&rdquo; of crime and
+conspiracy. The Irish party used every opportunity in and out
+of parliament for resenting this act, and Forster was kept constantly
+on the move between Dublin and London, conducting
+his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in
+the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and
+anxiety to meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing
+with such antagonists, and the strain was intense and continuous.
+He was nicknamed &ldquo;Buckshot&rdquo; by the Nationalist press, on
+the supposition that he had ordered its use by the police when
+firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell was
+arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed.
+From that time Forster&rsquo;s life was in constant danger, and he
+had to be escorted by mounted police when he drove in Dublin.
+Early in March 1882 he visited some of the worst districts in
+Ireland, and addressed the crowd at Tullamore on the subject
+of outrages, denouncing the people for their want of courage in
+not assisting the government, but adding, &ldquo;whether you do or
+not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages, and
+stop them we will.&rdquo; Forster&rsquo;s pluck in speaking out like this
+was fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the
+revelations connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the
+dangers he had confronted were properly realized, and it became
+known that several plans to murder him had only been frustrated
+by the merest accidents. On the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone
+announced that the government intended to release Mr Parnell
+and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both Lord
+Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and
+the following Saturday Forster&rsquo;s successor, Lord Frederick
+Cavendish, was, with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It
+was characteristic of the man that Forster at once offered to go
+back to Dublin temporarily as chief secretary, but the offer was
+declined. His position naturally attracted universal attention
+towards him, particularly during the debates which ensued in
+parliament on the &ldquo;Kilmainham Treaty.&rdquo; But Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s
+influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of the
+damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and
+Forster&rsquo;s pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans
+to accuse him of a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the
+next session that he delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in
+the debate on the address, denouncing him for his connexion with
+the Land League, and quoting against him the violent speeches
+of his supporters and the articles of his newspaper organs. It
+was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster&rsquo;s charging him,
+not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or murder,
+but with conniving at them, ejaculated &ldquo;It&rsquo;s a lie&rdquo;; and,
+replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving
+Forster&rsquo;s charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration.
+Though, during the few remaining years of his life,
+Forster&rsquo;s political record covered various interesting subjects,
+his connexion with these stormy times in Ireland throws them
+all into shadow. He died on the 6th of April 1886, on the eve
+of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to which he was
+stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other questions
+on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian Liberalism,
+for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor
+was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the
+Birmingham programme. When the Redistribution Act divided
+Bradford into three constituencies, Forster was returned for the
+central division, but he never took his seat in the new parliament.</p>
+
+<p>Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative
+of the English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic,
+independent, incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed
+not only with great sympathy with progress, but also with a full
+faculty for resistance to mere democraticism. He was tall (the
+Yorkshiremen called him &ldquo;Long Forster&rdquo;) and strongly though
+stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes and straightforward
+manners and methods, was a typical North-country figure.
+His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and
+force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing
+to the government at the time of Gordon&rsquo;s danger at Khartum,
+spoke of Mr Gladstone as able &ldquo;to persuade most people of most
+things, and himself of almost anything,&rdquo; and though the phrase
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+was much resented by Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s <i>entourage</i>, the truth that
+underlay it may be taken as representing the very converse of
+his own character. His personal difficulties with some of his
+colleagues, both in regard to the Education Act of 1870 and his
+Irish administration, must be properly understood if a complete
+comprehension of his political career is to be obtained. For an
+account of them we need only refer to the <i>Life of the Right Hon.
+W.E. Forster</i>, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), British Nonconformist
+divine, was born at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class
+honours in classics at Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Göttingen
+(under Ritschl) and at New College, Hampstead, and
+entered the Congregational ministry. Having held pastorates
+at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he
+became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead,
+in 1901. In 1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on
+preaching at Yale University, published as <i>Positive Preaching and
+Modern Mind</i>. Among his other publications may be mentioned
+<i>Religion in Recent Art</i>, and articles in the <i>Contemporary Review</i>,
+<i>Hibbert Journal</i>, and <i>London Quarterly</i>. He was chairman of the
+Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTALEZA<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (usually called <span class="sc">Ceará</span> by foreigners), a city
+and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceará, on a
+crescent-shaped indentation of the coast-line immediately W.
+of Cape Mucuripe or Mocoripe, 7½ m. from the mouth of the
+Ceará river, in lat. 3° 42&prime; S., long. 38° 30&prime; W. Pop. (1890) of the
+municipality, including a large rural district, 40,902. The city
+stands on an open sandy plain overlooking the sea, and is
+regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved, gas-lighted streets
+and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the climate
+the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.
+The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong
+sea winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of
+yellow-fever, small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered
+to be healthy. A small branch of the Ceará river, called
+the Pajehú, traverses the city and divides it into two parts,
+that on its right bank being locally known as Outeiro. Fortaleza
+is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854, but it has no cathedral,
+one of its ten churches being used for that purpose. Its public
+buildings include the government house, legislative chambers,
+bishop&rsquo;s palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high school),
+Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the
+insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1¾ m.
+from the railway station in the city, with which it is connected
+by rail. The port is the principal outlet for the products of the
+state, but its anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most
+dangerous on the northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are
+compelled to anchor well out from shore and discharge into
+lighters. Port improvements designed by the eminent engineer
+Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for many
+years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturité railway,
+built by the national government partly to give employment
+to starving refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects
+the city and its port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends
+to Senador Pompeu, 178 m. distant. The exports include sugar,
+coffee, rubber, cotton, rum, rice, beans, fruits, hides and
+skins.</p>
+
+<p>Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort
+established at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took
+the name of Villa do Forte da Assumpçã, but it was generally
+spoken of as Fortaleza. In 1810 it became the capital of Ceará,
+and in 1823 it was raised to the dignity of a city under the title
+of Fortaleza da Nova Bragança.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT AUGUSTUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 706. It is delightfully situated at the south-western
+extremity of Loch Ness, about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the
+rivers Oich and Tarff and the Caledonian Canal. A branch line
+connects with Spean Bridge on the West Highland railway via
+Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was built in 1716
+for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and was
+enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the
+Jacobites in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden,
+when it received its present name in honour of William Augustus,
+duke of Cumberland, the victorious general. The fort was used
+as a sanatorium until 1857, when it was bought by the 12th Lord
+Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to the English order of
+Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its site a pile
+of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict&rsquo;s Abbey and
+school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the
+higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and
+gentry. The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery,
+hospice and scriptorium&mdash;the four forming a quadrangle connected
+by beautiful cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were
+many Catholic Scots and English peers and gentlemen whose
+arms are emblazoned on the windows of the spacious refectory
+hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft. high.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT DODGE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Webster county,
+Iowa, U.S.A., on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W.
+from Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state
+census) 14,369, (2269 being foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is
+served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Great Western, the
+Minneapolis &amp; Saint Louis, and the Fort Dodge, Des Moines &amp;
+Southern railways, the last an electric interurban line. Eureka
+Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and
+attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering
+bluffs. The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western
+railway steel bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country.
+Fort Dodge is the seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908),
+a commercial and business school, with preparatory,
+normal and classical departments, and courses in oratory and
+music; among its other institutions are St Paul&rsquo;s school
+(Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus
+Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of
+Lourdes convent and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and
+Reynold&rsquo;s Park are the city&rsquo;s principal parks. Immediately
+surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming country. To the E.
+of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area of about
+50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United
+States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries
+and deposits of clay in the vicinity&mdash;the clay being, for the most
+part, obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products
+of the surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable
+importance. It has various manufactures, including
+gypsum, plaster, oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery,
+foundry and machine-shop products, and shoes. In 1905 the
+value of all the factory products was $3,025,659, an increase
+of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was erected
+on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in
+1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to
+Fort Dodge in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867),
+who was a lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War
+of 1812, served with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted
+Volunteers in the Black Hawk War, resigned from the military
+service in March 1833, was governor of Wisconsin Territory
+from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848, and was a delegate
+from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to 1845, and a
+United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort
+was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out.
+It was chartered as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds
+near Fort Dodge was taken in 1868 the block of gypsum from
+which was modelled the &ldquo;Cardiff Giant,&rdquo; a rudely-fashioned
+human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga county,
+New York, where it was &ldquo;discovered&rdquo; late in 1869. It was
+then exhibited in various parts of the country as a &ldquo;petrified
+man.&rdquo; The hoax was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C.
+Marsh of Yale; and George Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed
+to the fraud, his object having been to discredit belief in the
+&ldquo;giants&rdquo; of Genesis vi. 4. (See &ldquo;The Cardiff Giant: the True
+Story of a Remarkable Deception,&rdquo; by Andrew D. White, in
+the <i>Century Magazine</i>, vol. xlii., 1902.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT EDWARD,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a village of Washington county, New York,
+U.S.A., in the township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river,
+56 m. by rail N. of Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of
+whom 385 were foreign-born; (1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+the township, including the village (1900), 5216; (1905), 5300;
+(1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the foot of a steep hill,
+is at the junction of the main line and the Glens Falls branch
+of the Delaware &amp; Hudson railway, and is also served by electric
+line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting
+Lake Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here.
+The river furnishes good water-power, which is used in the
+manufacture of paper and wood pulp, the leading industry.
+Shirts and pottery (flower pots, jars and drain tile) are manufactured
+also. The village is the seat of the Fort Edward
+Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls, which was
+founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village
+owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their
+way to Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this
+place, the head of navigation for small boats on the Hudson,
+to Lake George or Lake Champlain, and hence it was known
+as the Great Carrying Place. Governor (afterwards Sir) Francis
+Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against Canada, built
+here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years
+afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a
+settlement and protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius,
+but this was destroyed by the French and Indians in 1745. In
+1755, a third fort was built by General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774),
+as preliminary to the expedition against Crown Point
+under General William Johnson, and was named Fort Lyman;
+in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward,
+Duke of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was
+the headquarters of General Philip Schuyler while he and his
+troops were blocking the march of General Burgoyne&rsquo;s army
+from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of Burgoyne&rsquo;s forces was
+distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort Edward Hill,
+on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band whose
+assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered
+Jane McCrea (<i>c.</i> 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting
+friends in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day
+to the British camp and there to be married to David Jones, a
+loyalist serving as a lieutenant in Burgoyne&rsquo;s army; it is possible
+that she was shot accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian
+escorts, but her death did much to rouse local sentiment against
+Burgoyne and his Indian allies, and caused many volunteers to
+join the American army resisting Burgoyne&rsquo;s invasion. A
+monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea Chapter of the
+Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where she
+was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward.
+Fort Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the
+township of Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated
+in 1852.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R.O. Bascom, <i>The Fort Edward Book</i> (Fort Edward, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1394-<i>c.</i> 1476), English lawyer,
+the second son of Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in
+Devonshire, was born at Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire.
+He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. During the
+reign of Henry VI. he was three times appointed one of the
+governors of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1441 he was made a king&rsquo;s
+sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the
+king&rsquo;s bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for
+his wisdom, gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have
+enjoyed great favour with the king, who is said to have given
+him some substantial proofs of esteem and regard. He held his
+office during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI., to whom
+he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served that unfortunate
+monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of treason
+in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently
+fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue,
+who appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor
+of England. In 1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret
+and her court in their exile on the Continent, and returned with
+them afterwards to England. During their wanderings abroad
+the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the young prince
+Edward his celebrated work <i>De laudibus legum Angliae</i>. On
+the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission
+to Edward IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated
+Westminster, October 13, 1471. He died at an advanced age,
+but the exact date of his death has not been ascertained.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fortescue&rsquo;s masterly vindication of the laws of England, though
+received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom
+it was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of
+Henry VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was
+subsequently many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned
+work by Fortescue, written in English, was published in 1714, under
+the title of <i>The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy</i>.
+In the Cotton library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title
+of which it is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many
+passages show plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV.
+A revised edition of this work, with a very valuable historical and
+biographical introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer,
+under the title <i>The Governance of England</i>. All of Fortescue&rsquo;s minor
+writings appear in <i>The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected
+and Arranged</i>, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his
+descendant, Lord Clermont.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Plummer&rsquo;s Introduction to <i>The Governance of
+England</i>; <i>Life</i> in Lord Clermont&rsquo;s edition; Gairdner&rsquo;s <i>Paston
+Letters</i>; Foss&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1531-1607), English statesman,
+was the eldest son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539),
+and of his second wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or
+Rede of Borstall in Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his
+birth is unrecorded.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was restored in blood and to his
+estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551. Through his father&rsquo;s
+mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he was a second
+cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early
+a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct
+the Princess Elizabeth&rsquo;s classical studies in Mary&rsquo;s reign. On
+the accession of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great
+wardrobe. He was returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford,
+in 1586 for Buckingham borough, in 1588 and 1597 for
+Buckingham county, and in 1601 for Middlesex. In 1589 he
+was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a member of
+the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November
+1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative
+employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought
+large estates in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up
+much state and a large household. He took a prominent part
+in public business, was a member of the court of the star chamber
+and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on various important
+commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer explained the
+queen&rsquo;s financial needs and proposed subsidies in parliament.
+On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain restrictions
+should be imposed on James&rsquo;s powers, in order probably to limit
+the appointment of Scotchmen to office,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but his advice was not
+followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of
+the exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he
+retained his two other offices and entertained James several
+times at Henden and Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for
+Buckinghamshire, was defeated by Sir Francis Goodwin, whose
+election, however, was declared void by the lord chancellor on the
+ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he lay, and
+Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This
+incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor&rsquo;s
+jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament,
+which was repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the
+king. The matter after much debate was ended by a compromise,
+which, while leaving the principle unsettled, set aside the elections
+of both candidates and provided for the issue of a new writ.
+Fortescue was then in February 1606 returned for Middlesex,
+which he represented till his death on the 23rd of December 1607.
+He was buried in Mursley church in Buckinghamshire, where a
+monument was erected to his memory. His long public career
+was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and country
+with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments
+too were considerable&mdash;Camden styles him &ldquo;vir integer, Graece,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+Latineque apprime eruditus,&rdquo;<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and his scholarship is also praised
+by Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured
+gifts of books and manuscripts to the latter&rsquo;s library. Fortescue
+married (1) Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme,
+by whom, besides a daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and
+Sir William; and (2) Alice, daughter of Christopher Smyth
+of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he had one daughter.
+His descent in the male line became extinct with the death of
+Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>; Lord
+Clermont&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues</i>; <i>Hist. Notices of the
+Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme</i>, by A. Napier, p. 390; D. Lloyd&rsquo;s
+<i>State Worthies</i> (1670), p. 556; <i>Add. MSS.</i> 12497 f. 143 (&ldquo;Sir John
+Fortescue&rsquo;s meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir Julius
+Caesar]&rdquo;); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury&rsquo;s MSS.</i>;
+Spedding&rsquo;s <i>Life of Bacon</i>; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for
+Bucks, <i>Records of Bucks</i>, vol. i. p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death
+on the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Family
+of Fortescue</i>, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself,
+he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533
+(Bucks. Architect. and Archaeolog. Soc. <i>Records of Bucks</i>, i. p. 89).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> David Lloyd&rsquo;s <i>State Worthies</i> (1670), 556.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Annales</i>, 613.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTEVIOT,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on
+the Water of May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6¾ m. S.W.
+of Perth. Pop. of parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote
+antiquity, having been a capital of the Picts, when the district
+was known as Fortrenn, and afterwards of the Scots. The army
+led by Edward Baliol camped here before the battle of Dupplin
+(1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl of Mar, was slain along
+with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of Findo-Gask
+adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road,
+station and outpost, besides the &ldquo;auld hoose&rdquo; of Gask in which
+the Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one
+of her most popular songs. The new house in which she died
+dates from 1801.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT GEORGE,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
+It lies 12 m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small
+branch line connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield
+junction. It occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme
+end of the southern shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the
+Firth of Inverness), which is here only 1 m. wide. There is
+communication by ferry with Fortrose on the opposite coast of
+the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly after the plan
+of one of Vauban&rsquo;s works, and named in honour of George II.
+Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much impressed
+with it and thought it would, when finished, be &ldquo;the
+most considerable fortress and best situated in Great Britain.&rdquo;
+It covers 16 acres and contains accommodation for nearly 2200
+men. It is the depot of the Seaforth Highlanders, and a
+military training-ground of some size and importance because
+the surrounding country gives ample facilities for exercise and
+man&oelig;uvres. General Wade&rsquo;s road is maintained in good order.
+Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of
+detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put
+forward. About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown,
+in growing repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort
+and Inverness stands Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl
+of Moray.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTH,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river
+is formed by two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and
+Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan as it is called after it leaves Loch
+Ard, both rising in the north-east of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire,
+and uniting 1 m. west of Aberfoyle. From this point till it
+receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a Perthshire
+stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between
+the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the
+Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1½ m. due
+west of Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the
+shires of Stirling and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely
+tortuous character of its course between Gartmore and Alloa&mdash;the
+famous &ldquo;links of the Forth,&rdquo;&mdash;the actual length of the river
+is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct line (30 m.)
+between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the
+firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general
+direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the
+south, and the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie,
+Teith, Allan and Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan
+and Bannock. The alluvial plain extending from Gartmore to
+the county town is called the Carse of Stirling. The places of
+interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen, Stirling, Cambuskenneth,
+Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the Highland
+line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable
+beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip
+and Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa,
+and there are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for
+South Alloa) and Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 4½ m.
+above Stirling, where the river is navigable at high water by
+vessels of 100 tons. There is, however, a brisk shipping trade at
+Alloa, where the dock accommodates vessels of at least 300 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea,
+that is, to an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May,
+from the East Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Haddingtonshire&mdash;a
+distance of 48 m. Thus, according to some calculations,
+the Forth measures from source to sea 114 m. The width
+of the firth varies from ½ m. at Kincardine and 1½ m. at Queensferry
+to 6½ m. at Leith and 17½ m. at the mouth. The chief
+affluents are, on the south, the Carron, Avon, Almond, Leith,
+Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven, Kiel and
+Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth,
+Bo&rsquo;ness, Granton and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and
+Kirkcaldy; but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very
+numerous on both coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge
+(see Bridges) in 1890 the ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland
+have greatly diminished in importance. The fisheries are still
+considerable, though the oyster trade is dwindling. The larger
+islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of an abbey, Inchkeith,
+with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle of May, with a
+lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret&rsquo;s Hope, with the
+naval base of Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to
+the west of the Forth Bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The Forth was the <i>Bodotria</i> of Tacitus and the Scots Water
+of the chroniclers of the 11th and 12th centuries; while Bede
+(d. 735) knew the firth as <i>Sinus orientalis</i> (the Eastern Gulf),
+and Nennius (fl. 796) as <i>Mare Friesicum</i> (the Frisian Sea).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> &ldquo;Fortification&rdquo; is
+the military art of strengthening positions against attack. The
+word (Lat. <i>fortis</i>, strong, and <i>facere</i>, to make) implies the creation
+of defences. Thus the boy who from the top of a mound defies
+his comrades, or shelters from their snowballs behind a fence,
+is merely taking advantage of ground; but if he puts up a hurdle
+on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified his position.</p>
+
+<p>Fortification consists of two elements, viz. <i>protection</i> and
+<i>obstacle</i>. The protection shields the defender from the enemy&rsquo;s
+missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close
+quarters, and delays him under fire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protection</i> may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct
+protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough
+to stop the enemy&rsquo;s missiles. The value of this is reduced in
+proportion as the defender has to expose himself to return the
+enemy&rsquo;s fire, or to resist his attempts to destroy the defences.
+Indirect protection is given by <i>distance</i>, as for instance by a high
+wall placed on a cliff so that the defender on the top of the wall
+is out of reach of the enemy&rsquo;s missiles if these are of short range,
+such as arrows. This kind of defence was very popular in the
+middle ages. In the present day the same object is attained by
+pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town
+they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town
+as long as he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect
+protection of great importance is <i>concealment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>obstacle</i> may consist of anything which will impede the
+enemy&rsquo;s advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters.
+In the earliest forms of fortification the protecting wall was also
+the obstacle, or it may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement,
+a swamp, a thorn hedge, a spiked palisade, or some temporary
+expedient, such as crows&rsquo; feet or chevaux de frise. The two
+elements must of course be arranged in combination. The
+besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their protected
+position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at leisure.
+But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of modern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the
+obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.</p>
+
+<p>Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the
+enemy&rsquo;s methods of attack and the weapons he uses. The
+obstacle, on the other hand, should be of such a nature as to
+bring out the best effects of the defender&rsquo;s weapons. It follows
+from this that a well-armed force operating against a badly-armed
+uncivilized enemy may use with advantage very simple
+old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with it
+altogether if the obstacle is a good one.</p>
+
+<p>When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of
+protection is very great. In fact, it may be said that in proportion
+as missile weapons have grown more effective, the importance
+of protection and the difficulty of providing it have increased,
+while the necessity for a monumental physical obstacle has
+decreased.</p>
+
+<p>The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in
+appreciating and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem,
+such as the weapons in use, nature of the ground, materials
+available, temper of assailants and defenders, strategical possibilities,
+expenditure to be incurred, and so forth. Few of these
+conditions are in themselves difficult to understand, but they are
+so many and their reactions are so complex that a real familiarity
+with all of them is essential to successful work. The keynote
+of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first point
+usually lost sight of by the makers of &ldquo;systems,&rdquo; especially by
+those who during a long period of peace have time to give play
+to their imaginations.</p>
+
+<p>Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely
+<i>permanent fortification</i> and <i>field fortification</i>. Permanent fortifications
+are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can
+supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of
+enduring materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by
+troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and
+tools as may be procurable, and with materials that do not
+require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light
+timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as <i>semi-permanent
+fortification</i>. This is employed when in the course
+of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality
+with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made
+in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being
+available.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>objects of fortification</i> are various. The vast enceintes
+of Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war
+they might give shelter to the whole population of the country
+except the field army, with their flocks and herds and household
+stuff. The same idea may be seen to-day in the walls of such
+cities as Kano. In the middle ages feudal lords built castles
+for security against the attacks of their neighbours, and also to
+watch over towns or bridges or fords from which they drew
+revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely
+for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property.
+The feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-founding
+was fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the
+17th and 18th centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm
+of fortified towns, large and small, played a great part in delaying
+the march of victorious armies.</p>
+
+<p>In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for
+such purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts.
+Fortresses are used either to protect points of vital importance,
+such as capital cities, military depots and dockyards, or at
+strategic points such as railway junctions. Combinations of
+fortresses are also used for more general strategic purposes,
+as will be explained later.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. History</p>
+
+<p>The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn <i>hedge</i>,
+a type which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive
+conditions. Thus, Alexander found the villages of the
+Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges, and the same
+<span class="sidenote">Ancient methods.</span>
+arrangements may be seen to-day among the least
+civilized tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is
+the <i>bank</i> of earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments
+of sods or hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the
+hedge, as, besides being a better obstacle against assault, it gives
+the defenders an advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight.
+Such banks formed the defences of the German towns in Caesar&rsquo;s
+time, and they were constructed with a high degree of skill.
+Timber being plentiful, the parapets were built of alternate
+layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter were built in
+at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were thus very
+difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being set
+on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree
+trunks or hurdle-work.</p>
+
+<p>After the bank the most important step in advance for a
+nation progressing in the arts was the <i>wall</i>, of masonry, sun-dried
+brick or mud. The history of the development of the wall and
+of the methods of attacking it is the history of fortification for
+several thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security
+against escalade. The second-was thickness, so that the defenders
+might have a platform on the top which would give them space
+to circulate freely and to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick
+enough at the top for purposes of defence, would be very expensive
+if built of solid masonry; therefore the plan was early
+introduced of building two walls with a filling of earth or rubble
+between them. The face of the outer wall would be carried up a
+few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give protection
+against arrows and other projectiles.</p>
+
+<p>The next forward step for the defence was the construction
+of <i>towers</i> at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking
+fire along the front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison
+in case of a successful escalade, and from them the platform
+could be enfiladed.</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main
+requirements were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus
+the finest examples of the system known to history are also
+amongst the earliest. One of these was Nineveh, built more than
+2000 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The object of its huge perimeter, more than
+50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft. high and 30 ft.
+thick; and there were 1500 towers.</p>
+
+<p>After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was
+made for a very long time, from a constructional point of view.
+Many centuries indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of
+man evolved engines and methods of attack fit to cope with such
+colossal obstacles.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest form of attack was of course <i>escalade</i>, either by
+ladders or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable
+materials. When the increasing height of walls made escalade
+too difficult, other means of attack had to be invented. Probably
+the first of these were the <i>ram</i>, for battering down the walls, and
+<i>mining</i>. The latter might have two objects: (<i>a</i>) to drive an
+underground gallery below the wall from the besiegers&rsquo; position
+into the fortress, or (<i>b</i>) to destroy the wall itself by undermining.</p>
+
+<p>The use of missile <i>engines</i> for throwing heavy projectiles
+probably came later. They are mentioned in the preparations
+made for the defence of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the
+8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They are not mentioned in connexion with the
+siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre and Jerusalem by <span class="correction" title="amended from Nebuchadrezzar">Nebuchadnezzar</span>
+in 587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we first find mention of the ram and of movable
+towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.</p>
+
+<p>The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary
+for a systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for
+the Greeks practically to create this science. Taking
+it up in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they soon, under Philip
+<span class="sidenote">Classical times.</span>
+of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high
+degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods
+which were afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexander&rsquo;s
+siegecraft was extremely practical. His successors endeavoured
+to improve on it by increasing the size of their missile and other
+engines, which, however, were so cumbrous that they were of
+little use. When the Romans a little later took up the science
+they returned to the practical methods of Alexander, and by the
+time of Caesar&rsquo;s wars had become past-masters of it. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder
+was probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire.
+The beginning of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period
+at which to take a survey of the arts of fortification and siegecraft
+as practised by the ancients.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea.
+The towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the
+best resistance to the ram. The wall was usually reinforced
+by a ditch, which had three advantages: it
+<span class="sidenote">Conditions at opening of the Christian era.</span>
+increased the height of the obstacle, made the bringing
+up of the engines of attack more difficult, and supplied
+material for the filling of the wall. In special cases, as at
+Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled
+and trebled. Citadels were also built on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town
+was on high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep
+slopes falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point
+was a castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed
+in accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where
+the enemy&rsquo;s approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking
+towers stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers
+were made high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the
+river, it was defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades
+defended by towers were built out from either bank above and
+below the bridge, between which chains or booms could be stretched
+to bar the passage.</p>
+
+<p>The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus
+when a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills,
+the enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in
+the intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger,
+but would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence
+from the hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two
+strong masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with
+earth and stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable,
+the outside of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the
+parapet walk perhaps being but a little above the level of the town.
+Palisades were used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the
+gates.</p>
+
+<p>There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of
+Roman warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work
+of attack and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were
+specially apt. No modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed
+to rely on machinery, steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope
+to emulate the feats of the legionaries. In earthworks they excelled;
+and in such work as building and moving about colossal
+wooden towers under war conditions, they accomplished things at
+which nowadays we can only wonder.</p>
+
+<p>The attack was carried on mainly by the use of &ldquo;engines,&rdquo; under
+which head were included all mechanical means of attack&mdash;towers,
+missile engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different
+kinds, &ldquo;tortoises&rdquo; (see below), &amp;c. Mining, too, was freely resorted
+to, also approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced
+by the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a
+gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the destruction
+of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large chambers
+under the foundations. These were supported while the excavation
+was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the chambers
+were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall
+collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by countermines.
+With these they would undermine and destroy the besiegers&rsquo;
+galleries, or would break into them and drive out the workers,
+either by force of arms or by filling the galleries with smoke.</p>
+
+<p>Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two
+kinds. For dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the
+wall, steel-pointed heads were used; when this was done, another
+head, shaped like a ram&rsquo;s head, was substituted for battering down
+the filling of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but
+the most important means of attack against a high wall were the
+movable towers of wood. These were built so high that from their
+tops the parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and
+stones; and drawbridges were let down from them, by which a
+storming party could reach the top of the wall. The height of the
+towers was from 70 to 150 ft. They were moved on wheels of solid
+oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground
+floor contained one or two rams. The upper floors, of which there
+might be as many as fifteen, were furnished with missile engines
+of a smaller kind. The archers occupied the top floor. There also
+were placed reservoirs of water to extinguish fire. These were filled
+by force pumps and fitted with hose made of the intestines of cattle.
+Drawbridges, either hanging or worked on rollers, were placed at
+the proper height to give access to the top of the wall, or to a breach,
+as might be required. Apollodorus proposed to place a couple of
+rams in the upper part of the tower to destroy the crenellations of
+the wall.</p>
+
+<p>The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong
+timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the
+defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers,
+plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order
+to gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In
+that case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles,
+described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed
+on account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and
+their frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort,
+with brick walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one
+of the towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subsequently
+raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which
+projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy
+mats made of ships&rsquo; cables. The mats protected the men working
+at the walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually
+raised by the use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy
+beams and planks, over which were laid bricks and clay, and the
+whole was covered with mats and hides to prevent the bricks from
+being dislodged. This structure was completed without the loss of
+a man, and could only have been built by the Romans, whose soldiers
+were all skilled workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Although these towers were provided with bridges by which
+storming parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object
+was usually to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from
+the walls and towers. Under this protection breaching operations
+could be carried on. The approaches to the wall were usually made
+under shelter of galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed
+on wheels and moved into position as required. When the wall
+was reached, a shelter of stronger construction, known as a &ldquo;rat,&rdquo;
+was placed in position against it. Under this a ram was swung or
+worked on rollers; or the rat might be used as a shelter for miners
+or for workmen cutting away the face of the wall. The great rat at
+Marseilles, which extended from the tower already described to the
+base of the tower of the city, was 60 ft. long, and built largely of
+great beams 2 ft. square, connected by iron pins and bands. It
+was unusually narrow, the ground sills of the side walls being only
+4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to keep down the weight
+of the structure, which, massive as it was, had to be movable. The
+sloping roof and sides of timber were protected, like those of the
+tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool mattresses. Huge
+stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from the wall upon
+this rat without effect, and under its cover the soldiers loosened and
+removed the foundations of the tower until it fell down.</p>
+
+<p>In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures,
+it was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of
+the ground. For this purpose an &ldquo;approach tortoise&rdquo; was often
+used. This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery
+and the rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an
+open front with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up
+for filling the ditch was distributed.</p>
+
+<p>The missile engines threw stones up to 600 &#8468; weight, heavy
+darts from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege
+of Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 &#8468;. The ranges varied,
+according to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds.
+for direct fire and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jerusalem
+Titus employed three hundred catapults of different sizes
+and forty balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 &#8468;
+weight. At Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium
+catapults, 23 large and 52 small balistae, and a great number of
+scorpions and other small missile engines.</p>
+
+<p>Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers
+were used in great variety.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in
+the construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes.
+A kind of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used
+to hoist a cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall.
+A long spar with a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from
+a lofty frame, served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and
+overhanging galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow
+in replying with similar devices. Fenders were let down from the
+wall to soften the blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught
+and held by cranes. Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the
+rats and overturn them. Archimedes used the same idea in the
+defence of Syracuse for lifting and sinking the Roman galleys.
+Wooden towers were built on the walls to overtop the towers of the
+besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire were employed. The
+tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or a portion of it,
+at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with reflectors, is
+supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With a reflector
+having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small mirrors
+each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and wood was
+set on fire at 160 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long
+since reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the
+destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized
+defences were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger,
+and the attack was stronger than the defence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the
+twin sciences of fortification and siegecraft long enough for the
+Crusaders to learn from them what had been lost in the West.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+Byzantium, however, always a storehouse of military science,
+<span class="sidenote">Middle ages.</span>
+while conserving a knowledge of the ancient methods and
+the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas
+to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the
+Byzantines favoured multiplied enceintes or several
+concentric lines of defence. This of course is always a tendency
+of decadent nations.</p>
+
+<p>In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and
+the Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the
+defences of Carcassonne, Toulouse, &amp;c. in the 5th century.
+Viollet-le-Duc&rsquo;s description and illustrations of the defences of
+Carcassonne will give a very good idea of the methods then in
+use:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:157px" src="images/img682a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Plan of one of the Towers at
+Carcassonne.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is
+still preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those
+described by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated
+than the ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks.
+The curtain walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces
+of small cubical masonry alternating with courses of brick; the
+middle portion being filled, not with earth but with rubble run with
+lime. The towers were raised above these curtains, and their communication
+with the latter might be cut off, so as to make of each
+tower a small independent
+fort; externally
+these towers
+are cylindrical, and
+on the side of the
+town square; they
+rest, also towards
+the country, upon a
+cubical base or
+foundation. We
+subjoin (fig. 1) the
+plan of one of these
+towers with the curtains
+adjoining. A
+is the plan of the ground-level; B the plan of the first storey at the
+level of the parapet. We see, at C and D, the two excavations
+formed in front of the gates of the tower to intercept, when the
+drawbridges were raised, all communication between the town
+or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower. From the
+first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or battlemented
+portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed interiorly against
+the side of the flat wall. The external ground-level was much lower
+than that of the tower, and also beneath the ground-level of the
+town, from which it was reached by a descending flight of from ten
+to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower and its two curtains on the
+side of the town; the bridges of communication are supposed to have
+been removed. The battlemented portion at the top is covered with
+a roof, and open on the side of the town in order to permit the
+defenders of the tower to see what was going on therein, and also
+to allow of their hoisting up stones and other projectiles by means
+of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same tower on the side
+towards the country; we have added a postern, the sill of which
+is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate the use of a
+scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is defended,
+as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or postern
+being provided with a work of this kind.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:335px" src="images/img682b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:398px" src="images/img682c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;One of the Towers at Carcassonne,
+outside view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost disappeared.
+Its perfect development was only possible for an
+army like that of the Romans. The Huns and Goths knew
+nothing of it, and the efforts of Charlemagne and others of the
+Frankish kings to restore the art were hampered by the fact that
+their warriors despised handicrafts and understood nothing
+but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages the towns
+of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences,
+which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the
+sieges of that period dragged themselves out through long years,
+and if ultimately
+successful were so as
+a rule only through
+blockade and famine.
+It was not until the
+11th century that
+siegecraft was revived
+in the West on the
+ancient lines.</p>
+
+<p>By this time a new
+departure of great
+importance
+had been
+made in the seigneurial
+castle (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which restored for
+some centuries a definite
+superiority to
+the defence. Built
+primarily as strongholds
+for local magnates
+or for small
+bodies of warriors
+dominating a conquered country, the conditions which called
+<span class="sidenote">Castles.</span>
+them into existence offered several marked advantages. The
+defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town,
+and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be
+expected that a town would develop itself in the manner most
+suitable for defence; nor indeed that any position large enough
+for a town could be found that would be naturally strong
+all round. But the site of a castle could be chosen purely
+for its natural strength, without regard, except as a secondary
+consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and as
+its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position
+entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened
+that the existence of such a position was the <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i>
+of the castle. A small hill with steep sides might well be unapproachable
+in every direction by such cumbrous structures
+as towers and rats, while the height of the hill, added to the
+height of the walls, would be too much for the besiegers&rsquo; missiles.
+If the sides of the hill were precipitous and rocky, mining
+became impossible, and the site was perfect for defence. A
+castle built under such conditions was practically impregnable;
+and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in the
+11th and 12th centuries. They could only be reduced by
+blockade, and a blockade of long duration was very difficult in
+the feudal age.</p>
+
+<p>A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the
+Château Gaillard, built by Richard C&oelig;ur-de-Lion in 1196.
+This great castle, with ditches and escarpments cut out of the
+solid rock, and extensive outworks, was completed in one year.
+In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span> will be found the plan of the main work,
+which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon (or
+keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle,
+giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature
+in advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of
+the machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which
+at that time was usually given by wooden hoardings. After
+the death of Richard, Philip Augustus besieged the château,
+and carried it after a blockade of seven months and a regular
+attack of one month. In this attack the tower at A was first
+mined, after which the whole of that outwork was abandoned by
+the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by surprise;
+and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the
+pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+prevented the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter
+of the donjon, and they had to lay down their arms.</p>
+
+<p>Château Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general
+of his time, exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of
+the designs of the 12th century. It is easy to understand how
+at each step gained by the besiegers the very difficulties which
+had been placed in the way of their further advance prevented
+the garrison from reinforcing strongly the points attacked.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:504px" src="images/img683a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Donjon, Château Gaillard.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the 13th century many influences were at work in the
+development of castellar fortification. The experience of such
+sieges as that of Château Gaillard, and still more that gained in
+the Crusades, the larger garrisons at the disposal of the great
+feudal lords, and the importance of the interests which they had
+to protect in their towns, led to a freer style of design. We must
+also take note of an essential difference between the forms of
+attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the medieval
+chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers, preferred
+in siege works the certain
+if laborious methods of
+breaching and mining. The
+latter, who considered all
+manual labour beneath
+them and whose only ideal
+of warfare was personal
+combat, affected the tower
+and its bridge, giving access
+to the top of the wall rather
+than the rat and battering-ram.
+They were also fond
+of surprises, which the bad
+discipline of the time
+favoured.</p>
+
+<p>We find, therefore, important
+progress in enlarging
+the area of defence and
+in improving arrangements
+for flanking. The size and
+height of all works were
+increased. The keep of
+Coucy Castle, built in 1220,
+was 200 ft. high. Montargis
+Castle, also built
+about this time, had a
+central donjon and a large
+open enclosure, within
+which the whole garrison could move freely, to reinforce quickly
+any threatened point. The effect of flanking fire was increased
+by giving more projection to the towers, whose sides were in
+some cases made at right angles to the curtain walls.</p>
+
+<p>We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long
+after medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication
+of defences, to guard against surprise and localize successful
+assaults. Great attention was paid to the &ldquo;step by step&rdquo;
+defence. Flanking towers were cut off from their walls and
+arranged for separate resistance. Complicated entrances with
+traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence was
+from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the
+lower storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring.
+Machicouli galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either
+by stone walls built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings
+built in war time, for which the walls were prepared beforehand
+by recesses left in the masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were
+protected by shutters. Great care and much ingenuity were
+expended on details of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence had
+made provision for countermining, by building chambers and
+galleries at the base of the towers and walls. Further protection
+for the towers against the pioneer attack was given by carrying
+out the masonry in front of the tower in a kind of projecting
+horn. This was found later to have the further advantages of
+doing away with the dead ground in front of the tower unseen
+from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and therefore
+the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is seen
+in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ
+of the idea of the bastion.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:371px; height:461px" src="images/img683b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the
+13th century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of
+the best work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-le-Duc)
+show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a
+bird&rsquo;s-eye view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick
+black line shows the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then
+the moat. It will be noted that the wall of the lists as well as the
+main wall is defended by towers. There are only two gates. That
+on the east is defended
+by two
+great towers and
+a semicircular barbican.
+The gate
+of the castle, on
+the west, has a
+most complicated
+approach defended
+by a labyrinth of
+gates and flanking
+walls, which cannot
+be shown on
+this small scale,
+and beyond these
+is a huge circular
+barbican in several
+storeys, capable of
+holding 1500 men.
+On the side of the
+town the castle is
+protected by a
+wide moat, and the
+entrance is masked
+by another large
+semicircular barbican.
+An interesting
+feature of the
+general arrangement
+is the importance
+which the lists
+have assumed. The slight wooden barricade of older times has
+developed into a wall with towers; and the effect is that the
+besieger, if he gains a footing in the lists, has a very narrow space
+in which to work the engines of attack. The castle, after the
+Roman fashion, adjoins the outer wall of the town, so that there
+may be a possibility of communicating with a relieving force from
+outside after the town has fallen. There were also several posterns,
+small openings made in the wall at some height above the ground,
+for use with rope ladders.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients.
+Mining was the most effective form of attack, and the approach
+to the walls was covered by engines throwing great stones against
+the hoardings of the parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were
+sheltered behind light mantlets moved on wheels. Barrels of
+burning pitch and other incendiary projectiles were thrown as
+before; and at one siege we read of the carcasses of dead horses
+and barrels of sewage being thrown into the town to breed
+pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a capitulation.</p>
+
+<p>With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As
+Professor C.W.C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical
+application of the three powers of tension, torsion and counterpoise
+(in the missile engines) had its limits. If these engines were
+enlarged they grew too costly and unwieldy. If they were
+multiplied it was impossible on account of their short range and
+great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on a single
+portion of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a
+small space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the
+first two centuries after the introduction of gunpowder.
+The number of existing fortifications that had to be
+<span class="sidenote">Introduction of gunpowder.</span>
+modified was infinite, so also was the number of
+attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers
+had not yet begun to publish descriptions of their &ldquo;systems&rdquo;;
+also the new names and terms which came into use with the new
+works were spread over Europe by engineers of different countries,
+and adopted into new languages without much accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any
+effect on the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw
+so very light a projectile that they had no effect on masonry and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+were more useful for the defence than the attack. Later, larger
+pieces were made, which acted practically as mortars, throwing
+stone balls with high elevation, and barrels of burning composition.
+In the middle of the 15th century the art of cannon-founding
+was much developed by the brothers Bureau in France.
+They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened
+the guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely
+defeated by the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450
+Charles VII. was furnished with so powerful a siege train that he
+captured the whole of the castles in Normandy from the English
+in one year.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:597px" src="images/img684a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by
+Charles VIII. with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The
+astonishing rapidity with which castles and fortified towns fell
+before him proved
+the uselessness of
+the old defences.
+It became necessary
+to create a
+new system of
+defences, and,
+says Cosseron
+de Villenoisy,
+&ldquo;thanks to the
+mental activity of
+the Renaissance
+and the warlike
+conditions prevailing
+everywhere,
+the time
+could not have
+been more favourable.&rdquo;
+There
+is no doubt that
+the engineers of
+Italy as a body
+were responsible
+for the first advance
+in fortification.
+There,
+where vital and
+mental energy
+were at boiling-point,
+and where
+the first striking
+demonstration of
+the new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such
+as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied
+themselves over the problem of defence.</p>
+
+<p>It has been claimed that Albert Dürer was the first writer on
+modern fortification. This was not so; Dürer&rsquo;s work was
+published in 1527, and more than one Italian engineer, certainly
+Martini of Siena and San Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machiavelli,
+writing between 1512 and 1527, had offered some most
+valuable criticisms and general principles. Dürer, moreover,
+had little influence on the progress of fortification; though we
+may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the &ldquo;polygonal&rdquo;
+system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Dürer&rsquo;s
+work was to some extent a connecting link between the old
+fortification and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the
+old towers; and he provided both them and the curtains with
+vaulted chambers for guns (casemates) in several tiers, so as to
+command both the ditch and the ground beyond it. His projects
+were too massive and costly for execution, but his name is
+associated with the first practical gun casemates.</p>
+
+<p>Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the
+design of fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened
+the influence of the castles. First, their owners were slow to
+adopt the new ideas and abandon their high strong walls for
+low extended parapets, and, secondly, they had not the men
+necessary for long lines of defence. At the same time the
+corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active part in
+warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry
+from a distance two results followed: it was necessary to modify
+the masonry defences so as to make them less vulnerable, and
+to improve the means of employing the guns of the defence.
+For both these purposes the older castles with their restricted
+area were little suited, and we must now trace the development
+of the fortified towns.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:211px; height:154px" src="images/img684b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appearance
+of the new weapons was the bulwark (<i>boulevard, baluardo</i> or
+<i>bollwerk</i>). This was an outwork usually semicircular in
+plan, built of earth consolidated with timber and revetted
+<span class="sidenote">The bulwark.</span>
+with hurdles. Such works were placed as a shield in
+front of the gates, which could be destroyed even by the early light
+cannon-balls; and they offered at the same time advanced positions
+for the guns of the defence. They were found so useful for gun
+positions for flanking fire that later they were placed in front of
+towers or at intervals along the walls for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now
+to consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected
+both the construction and trace of the walls.</p>
+
+<p>The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls
+should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened.
+One method of doing this in the case of old works was
+by placing bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the
+<span class="sidenote">The wall.</span>
+lists or outer walls, being surrounded by moats, were already partially
+screened and suitable for conversion
+into the main defence; and as with
+improved flanking defence great height
+was no longer essential, the tops of the
+walls were in some cases cut down.
+In new works it was natural to sink
+the wall in a ditch, the earth from
+which was useful for making ramparts.</p>
+
+<p>As regards resistance to the effect
+of shot, it was found that thin masonry
+walls with rubble filling behind them
+were very easily destroyed. A bank
+of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of the shot, but
+once a breach was made the earth came down, making a slope
+easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood,
+timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank,
+and answered very well (fig. 7).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:476px; height:289px" src="images/img684c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counterforts.
+The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built
+<i>inward</i> from the wall into the rampart instead of <i>outward</i> (fig. 8).
+Their effect was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more
+difficult of ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening
+the wall was an arched gallery built behind it under the rampart
+(fig. 9). This construction was in harmony with the idea, already
+familiar, of a passage in the wall from which countermines could
+be started; but it has the obvious weakness that the destruction
+of the face wall takes away one of the supports of the arch. The
+best arrangement, which is ascribed to Albert Dürer, was the
+&ldquo;counter-arched revetment.&rdquo; This consisted of a series of arches
+built between the counterforts, with their axes at right angles to
+the face of the wall. Their advantage was that, while supporting
+the wall and taking all the weight of the rampart, they formed
+an obstacle after the destruction of the wall more difficult to surmount
+than the wall itself and very hard to destroy. The counter-arches
+might be in one, two or three tiers, according to the height
+of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter without the earth of the
+rampart and showing also a countermine gallery).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:130px" src="images/img685a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A more important question, however, than the improvement of
+the passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+defence by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room
+for the working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question
+<span class="sidenote">The rampart.</span>
+of modifying the existing defences at as little cost as
+possible. With this object the roofs of towers were
+removed and platforms for guns substituted, but this
+only gave room for one or two guns. Also the loopholes in the lower
+storeys of towers were converted into embrasures to give a grazing
+fire over the ditch; this became the commonest method of strengthening
+old works for
+cannon, but was of
+little use as the
+resulting field of
+fire was so small.
+In some cases the
+towers were made
+larger, with a semicircular
+front and
+side walls at right
+angles to the curtain.
+Such towers built at Langres early in the 16th century had
+walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.</p>
+
+<p>Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery
+defence with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Dürer
+in theory, and the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the
+best examples of this. The Italian engineers also showed much
+ingenuity in arranging for the defence of ditches with masonry
+caponiers. These were developed from external buttresses, and
+equally with the casemated flanking towers of Dürer contained the
+germs of the idea of &ldquo;polygonal&rdquo; defence.</p>
+
+<p>The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted,
+was the rampart; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall,
+which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
+plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:278px" src="images/img685b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>ditch</i>, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and
+medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic.
+Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying
+<span class="sidenote">The ditch.</span>
+earth for a rampart and allowing the wall to be sunk for
+concealment, it was found also to have a definite use as an obstacle.
+Hitherto the wall had sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being
+useful mainly to prevent the
+besieger from bringing up his
+engines of attack.</p>
+
+<p>When the wall (or escarp) was
+lowered, the obstacle offered by
+the ditch was increased by revetting
+the far side of it with a
+<i>counterscarp</i>. Beyond the
+counterscarp wall some of the
+earth excavated from the ditch
+was piled up to increase the
+protection given to the escarp
+wall. This earth was sloped
+down gently on the outer side
+to meet the natural surface of
+the ground in such a manner as
+to be swept by the fire from the
+ramparts and was called the
+<i>glacis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, a new difficulty
+arose. In all times a chief element in a successful defence has
+consisted in action by the besieged outside the walls. The old
+ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on the far side
+leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a convenient
+place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble without
+being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their
+attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented
+sorties from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the introduction
+of the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of
+it, behind the glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty
+was met by widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft.,
+in which there was room for troops to assemble. This was known as
+the <i>covered way</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of
+modern fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:124px" src="images/img685c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Up to the gunpowder period the <i>trace</i> of fortifications, that is,
+the plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very
+simple. It was merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted
+to the site and provided with towers at suitable intervals. The
+<span class="sidenote">The trace.</span>
+foot of the wall could be seen and defended everywhere, from
+the tops of the towers and the machicoulis galleries. The introduction
+of ramparts and artillery made this more difficult
+in two ways. The rampart, interposed between
+the defenders and the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical
+defence. Also with the inferior gun-carriages of the time very
+little depression could be given to the guns, and thus the top of
+the enceinte wall, with or without a rampart, was not a suitable
+position for guns intended to flank the ditch in their immediate
+neighbourhood. The problem of the &ldquo;trace&rdquo; therefore at the
+beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line of defence
+so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the besieged,
+both to oppose the besiegers&rsquo; breaching batteries and later to
+defend the breaches. At the outset the latter rôle was the more
+important.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this
+problem we must remember that for economical reasons they
+had to make the best use they could of the existing walls. At
+first for flanking purposes casemates on the ditch level were
+used, the old flanking towers being enlarged for the purpose.
+Masonry galleries were constructed across the ditch, containing
+casemates which could fire to either side, and after this casemates
+were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of the
+fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that
+the flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be
+dependent on outworks, and that greater freedom was required
+for guns than was consistent with casemate defence. The
+<i>bulwark</i> (which in its earliest shape suggests that it was in some
+sort the offspring of the barbican, placed to protect an entrance)
+gave plenty of space for guns, but was too detached for security.
+The enlarged tower, as an integral part of the lines, gave security,
+and its walls at right angles to the curtain gave direct flanking
+fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The blending of the
+two ideas produced the <i>bastion</i>, an element of fortification which
+dominated the science for three hundred years, and so impressed
+itself on the imagination that to this day any strong advanced
+position in a defensive line is called by that name by unscientific
+writers. The word had been in use for a long time in connexion
+with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes,
+the earliest forms being <i>bastille</i>, <i>bastide</i>, <i>bastillon</i>, and in its origin
+it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the construction
+than to its defensive intention.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:367px; height:294px" src="images/img685d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Bastion at Troyes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces
+and flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers
+often acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion
+were more or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a contemporary
+MS. by
+Viollet-le-Duc,
+shows a bastion
+added to the old
+wall of Troyes about
+1528. On the other
+hand, in fig. 14
+(taken from an
+English MS. of
+1559, which again is
+based on the Italian
+work of Zanchi published
+in 1554), we
+find <i>a a</i> spoken of
+as &ldquo;bulwarks&rdquo; and
+<i>b b</i> as &ldquo;bastilions.&rdquo;
+The triangular
+works between the
+bastilions are described
+as &ldquo;ramparts,&rdquo;
+intended to
+protect the curtains from breaching fire. (We may also notice in
+this design the broad ditch, the counterscarp with narrow covered
+way, and loopholes indicating counterscarp galleries.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 16th century the term &ldquo;bulwark&rdquo;
+began to be reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance
+in front of the main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it
+thus reverted to its original defensive intention. The term
+&ldquo;bastion&rdquo; henceforth denoted an artillery position connected
+by flanks to the main wall; and the question of the arrangement
+of these flanks was one of the main preoccupations of engineers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+Flanks retired, casemated or open, or sometimes in several tiers
+were proposed in infinite variety.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:474px; height:214px" src="images/img686a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual
+modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on
+account of the expense involved, the era of theoretical &ldquo;systems&rdquo;
+had begun, based on the mutual relations of flank and face.
+These can be grouped under three heads as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The <i>crémaillère</i> or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
+each other in regular order (fig. 15).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:427px; height:64px" src="images/img686b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>2. The <i>tenaille</i> trace: Flanks back to back between the faces
+(fig. 16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the
+<i>star</i> trace (fig. 17).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:524px; height:58px" src="images/img686c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>3. The <i>bastioned</i> trace: Flanks facing each other and connected
+by curtains (fig. 18).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless
+casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete.
+Guns on the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and
+therefore there are &ldquo;dead&rdquo; angles in the ditch. In the bastioned
+trace there is no &ldquo;dead&rdquo; ground, provided the flanks are so far
+apart that a shot from the rampart of a flank can reach the ditch
+at the centre of the curtain.</p>
+
+<p>Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who
+objected to casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of
+salvation. They were soon in the majority; perhaps
+because the symmetry and completeness of the idea
+<span class="sidenote">The bastioned trace.</span>
+captivated the imagination. At all events the
+bastioned trace, once fairly developed, held the field in
+one form or another practically without a rival until near the
+end of the 18th century. The Italian engineers, who were supreme
+throughout most of the 16th century, started it; the French,
+who took the lead in the following century, developed it, and
+officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century, when
+the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple
+of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component
+parts of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its
+outworks.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:148px" src="images/img686d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round
+the place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.</p>
+
+<p>ABC is an <i>exterior angle</i> or angle of the polygon.</p>
+
+<p>BC is an <i>exterior side</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>zz</i> is an <i>interior side</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>abcdefghijk</i> is the trace of the <i>enceinte</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>bcdef</i> is a <i>bastion</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>zdef</i> is a <i>demi-bastion</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>de</i> is a <i>face</i> of the bastion.</p>
+
+<p><i>ef</i> is a <i>flank</i> of the bastion.</p>
+
+<p><i>fg</i> is the <i>curtain</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>bf</i> is the <i>gorge</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(Two demi-bastions with the connecting curtain make the bastioned
+front, <i>defghi</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>zd</i> bisecting the <i>exterior angle</i> ABC is the <i>capital</i> of the bastion.</p>
+
+<p><i>xy</i> is the <i>perpendicular</i>, the proportionate length of which to the
+exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element
+of the trace.</p>
+
+<p><i>ef</i>C is the angle of <i>defence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>BC<i>f</i> is the <i>diminished angle</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>cde</i> is the <i>flanked angle</i> or <i>salient angle</i> of the bastion.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i> is the <i>shoulder</i> of the bastion.</p>
+
+<p><i>def</i> is the <i>angle of the shoulder</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>efg</i> is the <i>angle of the flank</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The line of the escarp is called the <i>magistral line</i> since it regulates
+the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without much
+detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of the
+parapet, are often the only ones shown,&mdash;the crest of the parapet,
+as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being
+usually emphasized by a thick black line.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:628px" src="images/img686e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an
+imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the
+different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the explanation
+of its figuring and lettering.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Flat bastion</i>: Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines
+of defence were too long for musketry range.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Demi-bastion</i>: Used generally on the bank of a river.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Tenaille bastion:</i> Used when the flanked angle is too acute;
+that is, less than 70°.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Redans</i>: Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet
+of the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.</p>
+
+<p>A, B. <i>Ravelins.</i></p>
+
+<p>C. <i>Demi-lunes</i>: So called from the shape of the gorge. They
+differ from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions
+instead of the curtains.</p>
+
+<p>D. <i>Counter-guards</i>: Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then
+going out of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>E. <i>Simple tenaille.</i></p>
+
+<p>F. <i>Double tenaille</i> (see L and M).</p>
+
+<p>(If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown
+alternatively, it is called a <i>swallow-tail</i>. If the double tenaille is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+reduced as at G, it is called a <i>bonnet de prêtre</i>. Such works were
+rarely used.)</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>H. <i>Hornwork:</i> Much used for gates, &amp;c.</p>
+<p>I. <i>Crown-work.</i></p>
+<p>K. <i>Crowned hornwork.</i></p>
+<p>L. M. New forms of <i>tenaille</i>: (N.B.&mdash;These are the forms which
+ultimately retained the name.)</p>
+<p>N. New form of work called a <i>demi-lune lunettée</i>, the ravelin N
+being protected by two counterguards, O.</p>
+<p>P. <i>Re-entering places of arms.</i></p>
+<p>Q. <i>Traverses.</i></p>
+<p>R. <i>Salient places of arms.</i></p>
+<p>S. <i>Places of arms</i> without <i>traverses</i>.</p>
+<p>T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.</p>
+<p>X. A <i>double bastion</i> or <i>cavalier</i>.</p>
+<p>Y. A <i>retrenchment</i> with a ditch, of the breach Z.</p>
+<p>&amp;. <i>Traverses</i> to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from
+enfilade.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find
+in the early examples of the use of the bastion that there is no
+attempt made to defend its faces by flanking fire, the curtains
+being considered the only weak points of the enceinte. Accordingly,
+the flanks are arranged at right angles to the curtain,
+and the prolongation of the faces sometimes falls near the middle
+of it. When it was found that the faces needed protection, the
+first attempts to give it were made by erecting <i>cavaliers</i>, or
+raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in the
+bastions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:320px" src="images/img687a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in
+Paciotto&rsquo;s citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we
+have faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces
+long enough to contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able
+to defend both curtain and faces. The weak points of this trace,
+due to its being arranged on a small pentagon, are that the terreplein
+or interior space of the bastions is rather cramped, and the
+salient angles too acute.</p>
+
+<p>In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589
+we find a distinct advance. Speckle&rsquo;s actual constructions in
+fortification are of no great importance; but he was a
+<span class="sidenote">The 16th century.</span>
+great traveller and observer, and in his work, published
+just before his death, he has evidently assimilated,
+and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put
+forward up to that time.</p>
+
+<p>Two specimens from Speckle&rsquo;s work are well worth studying
+as connecting links between the 16th and 17th centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no
+outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a
+battery in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large,
+but the faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the
+flanks. To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers
+in the middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank
+should be noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of
+which is arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great
+saliency of the bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement
+is simple and strong.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:398px" src="images/img687b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 22.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the second example, known as Speckle&rsquo;s &ldquo;reinforced trace&rdquo;
+(fig. 23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century.
+The ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are
+in prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle&rsquo;s other favourite
+ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own
+particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering
+place of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries
+did not find favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily
+destroyed by the
+besiegers&rsquo; batteries
+crowning the
+salients of the
+covered way.</p>
+
+<p>Speckle&rsquo;s book
+is of great importance
+as embodying
+the best work of
+the period. His
+own ideas are large
+and simple, but
+rather in advance
+of the powers of
+the artillery of his
+day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the beginning
+of the 17th
+century we find
+the Italian engineers
+following
+Paciotto in developing
+the complete
+bastioned
+trace; but they
+got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything
+to symmetry and system. The era of geometrical
+<span class="sidenote">The 17th century.</span>
+fortification (or, as Sir George Clarke has called it,
+&ldquo;drawing-board&rdquo; fortification) had already begun
+with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in
+finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical
+bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the
+oval, club, heart, figure of eight, &amp;c. Marchi, however, was one
+of the first to think of prolonging the resistance of a place by
+means of outworks such as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that
+Busca was the first to discuss the proportions and functions of
+all the component parts of a front; and Floriani, about 1630,
+was the last of the important Italians. The characteristics of
+a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at this time
+were, according to the same authority, that the works were well
+adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed,
+while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German
+schools will be referred to later.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:335px" src="images/img687c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Speckle&rsquo;s Reinforced Trace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting
+the principles already established to actual sites. In the first
+half of the century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as
+having contributed valuable studies to the advancement of the
+science. In putting forward their designs they discussed very
+fully such practical questions as the length of the line of defence,
+whether this should be governed by the range of artillery or
+musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in them of orillons,
+casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which is one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+of the most important periods in the history of fortification,
+chiefly because it was illuminated by the work of Vauban.
+It was at this time also that a prodigious output of purely
+theoretical fortification began, which went on till the French
+Revolution. Many of the &ldquo;systems&rdquo; published at this time
+were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge
+of the subject, some of them priests who were engaged in
+educating the sons of the upper classes, and who had to
+teach the elements of fortification among other things.
+They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable for
+their clearness of style; and with their industry and
+ingenuity the elaboration of existing methods was a very
+congenial task. Most of these essays took the form of
+multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an impossible
+scale, and they culminated in such fantastic
+extravagances as the system of Rhana, published in 1769
+(fig. 24). These proposals, however, were of no practical
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the real masters who knew more than
+they published can always be recognized by its comparative
+simplicity. The greatest of these was
+Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (<i>q.v.</i>). Born in
+1633, and busied from his eighteenth year till his death in
+<span class="sidenote">Vauban.</span>
+1707 in war or preparations for war, he earned alike by his
+genius, his experience, his industry and his personal character
+the chief place among modern military engineers. His
+experience alone puts him in a category apart from others.
+Of this it is enough to say that he took part in forty-eight
+sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer without
+a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than
+160 places. Vauban&rsquo;s genius was essentially practical, and he was
+no believer in systems. He would say, &ldquo;One does not fortify
+by systems but by common sense.&rdquo; Of new ideas in fortification
+he introduced practically none, but he improved and modified
+existing ideas with consummate skill in actual construction.
+His most original work was in the attack (see below), which he
+reduced to a scientific method most certain in its results. It
+is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should be
+chiefly known to us by three so-called &ldquo;systems,&rdquo; known as his
+&ldquo;first,&rdquo; &ldquo;second&rdquo; and &ldquo;third.&rdquo; How far he was from following
+a system is shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight
+fronts constructed by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of
+which are quite alike and most of which vary very considerably
+to suit local conditions.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:224px" src="images/img688a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Vauban&rsquo;s &ldquo;first system,&rdquo; as variously described by other
+writers even in his own time, is pieced together from some
+of the early examples of
+his work. The &ldquo;second
+system&rdquo; is the &ldquo;tower
+bastion&rdquo; defence of Belfort
+and Landau (1684-1688),
+obviously suggested
+by a design of Castriotto&rsquo;s
+one hundred years earlier;
+and the &ldquo;third system&rdquo;
+is the front of Neu-Breisach
+(1698), which is
+merely Landau slightly
+improved. In other
+works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower
+bastion idea.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient to take the &ldquo;first system,&rdquo; as reproduced
+in the Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25)
+as typical of much of Vauban&rsquo;s work. It may be observed that
+he sometimes uses the straight flank, and sometimes the curved
+flank with orillon. Parapets in several tiers are never used, nor
+cavaliers. The ravelin is almost always used. It is small,
+having little artillery power and giving no protection to the
+shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and occasionally
+a keep.</p>
+
+<p>The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a
+shield to the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by
+him. Fig. 25 shows two forms. In both the parapet of the
+tenaille had to be kept low, so that the flanks might defend a
+breach at the shoulder of the opposite bastion, with artillery
+fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the escarp. Traverses
+are used for the first time on the covered way to guard against
+enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which Vauban
+attached considerable importance, is large.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:567px; height:415px" src="images/img688b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Vauban&rsquo;s First System.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the construction of the trace an average length of about
+400 yds. (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the
+site) may be taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except
+for polygons of less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the
+bastions two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords
+of arcs struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described
+with the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and
+cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of
+the ravelin; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon
+the faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The main
+ditch has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the
+counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions.
+The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command
+of 25 ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft.
+over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The
+parapets are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works
+he used demi-revetments.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the
+so-called &ldquo;third system.&rdquo; It is worth introducing, simply as
+showing that even a mind like Vauban&rsquo;s could not resist in old
+age the tendency to duplicate defences. Here the main bastions
+and tenaille are detached from the enceinte. The line of the
+enceinte is broken with flanks and further flanked by the towers.
+The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section through the
+face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm,
+and a hedge as an additional obstacle.</p>
+
+<p>After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable
+additions to the system were few. Among his successors in the
+early part of the 18th century Cormontaingne (<i>q.v.</i>)
+has the greatest reputation, though his experience
+<span class="sidenote">18th and 19th centuries.</span>
+and authority fell far short of Vauban&rsquo;s. He was a
+clear thinker and writer, and the elements of the system
+were distinctly advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged
+ravelin with flanks, the ends of which were intended to close the
+gaps at the end of the tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with
+flanks. He provides a very large re-entering place of arms,
+also with a keep, the ditches of which are carefully traced so as
+to be protected from enfilade by the salients of the ravelin and
+bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent retrenchment
+of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with many
+alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as
+a text-book for the school of Mézières. This school was established
+in 1748, and from this time forward there was an official
+school of thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne&rsquo;s work,
+therefore, represents the modifications of Vauban&rsquo;s ideas accepted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+by French engineers in the latter part of the 18th century. The
+school of Mézières was afterwards replaced by that of Metz,
+which carried on its traditions. Such schools are necessarily
+conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual improvement
+in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the
+bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of
+the Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us
+that, before the Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification
+was to write one&rsquo;s self down ignorant. How far the general form
+of the bastion with its outworks had become crystallized is
+evident from a cursory comparison of fig. 27 with Vauban&rsquo;s
+early work. This figure is the front of the Metz school in 1822,
+by General Noizet.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:543px" src="images/img689a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 26.&mdash;Neu-Breisach.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:401px" src="images/img689b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 27.&mdash;Noizet.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines
+of the system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from
+Cormontaingne&rsquo;s time onwards were given to improvements of
+detail, and mainly to retard breaching operations as long as
+possible. We find enormous pains being bestowed on the study
+of the comparative heights of the masonry walls and crest levels;
+with the introduction here and there of glacis slopes in the ditches,
+put in both to facilitate their defence and to protect portions of
+the escarps.</p>
+
+<p>Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first
+of these is Chasseloup-Laubat (<i>q.v.</i>), who served throughout the
+wars of the Republic and Empire, and constructed the fortress
+of Alessandria in Piedmont.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chasseloup&rsquo;s main proposals to improve the bastioned system
+were two:</p>
+
+<p>First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached
+through the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward
+the ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the
+further advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-fire
+over the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the
+ravelin liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this
+system would have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able
+commander with a strong force; but under the opposite conditions
+it has a dangerous element of weakness.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those
+admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend
+his exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his
+bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the
+flank of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence,
+and the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length,
+being defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the
+tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it
+combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal
+systems without getting the full advantages of either.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:799px" src="images/img689c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.&mdash;Chasseloup-Laubat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup&rsquo;s system, of ordinary
+length, as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting
+detail, viz. the Chasseloup mask&mdash;a detached mask with tunnels
+for the casemate guns to fire through, the intention of which is to
+save them from being destroyed from a distance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French
+Engineers, born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+Two leading ideas are due to him. The first is that of the
+&ldquo;independence of parapets.&rdquo; A glance at any of the plans that
+have already been shown will show that hitherto the crests of
+parapets had always been traced parallel to the escarp or
+magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was
+necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with
+reference to the flanking arrangements, there was no such
+necessity as regards the parapets. By making the crest of the
+parapet quite independent of the escarp line he obtained great
+freedom of direction for his fire. The second idea is that of the
+&ldquo;inner glacis.&rdquo; This was a glacis parapet placed in the main
+ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to prevent the escarp
+of the body of the place from being breached in the usual way
+by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.</p>
+
+<p>The need for Choumara&rsquo;s improvements has passed by, but
+he was in his time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a
+resounding note: &ldquo;What is chiefly required in fortification is
+simplicity and strength. It is not on a few little contrivances
+carefully hidden that one can rely for a good defence. <i>The fate
+of a place should not depend on the intelligence of a corporal shut
+up in a small post prepared for his detachment.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:296px" src="images/img690a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Sedan in 1705.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study
+a couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one
+regular. Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the
+end of the 17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and
+there, but the work is for the most part apparently early 17th
+century. It will be observed that on the river side of the town the
+defence consists of very irregular bastions with duplicated wet
+ditches (see the Dutch style, below); and on the other side, where
+water is not available, strength is sought for by pushing a succession
+of hornworks far out.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early
+manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course
+never thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good
+nor bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the
+system.</p>
+
+<p>It must here be remarked that the reproach of &ldquo;geometrical&rdquo;
+fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and
+his immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which
+worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already
+pointed out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his
+fellows excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the
+engineer.</p>
+
+<p>The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the fortification
+problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range
+and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an
+obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of
+protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the
+bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was
+the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability
+and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the
+authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French
+school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while
+the conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they
+could admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not
+help being original, were struggling against the whole weight of
+official opposition.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:433px" src="images/img690b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 30.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not
+geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the attack,
+on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As to the
+policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us
+think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and that
+a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of retreat.
+There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of outworks,
+difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral effect of
+their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and Candia
+might well say, &ldquo;Oh, if only when we had held on to that bastion for
+so many months we had had a second and a third line of permanent
+retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place for
+ever.&rdquo; And who shall say that they were wrong? Let us at all
+events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men
+who had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves
+in comparison with them are the theorists.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods of
+fortification acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout
+resistance offered to the Spaniards by some of their
+fortresses, the three years&rsquo; defence of Ostend being
+<span class="sidenote">The Dutch school.</span>
+perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged defences,
+which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the
+besieged, were credited to the quality of their defences. In point
+of fact the Dutch owed more to nature, and more still to their
+own spirit, than to art; but they showed a good deal of skill in
+adapting recent ideas to their needs.</p>
+
+<p>Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch
+works at this time, viz. want of time, want of money and abundance
+of water. When the Netherlands began their revolt
+against Spain, they would no doubt have been glad enough of
+expensive masonry fortresses on such models as Paciotto&rsquo;s
+citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for
+such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately
+for them they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted
+walls. Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or
+canals were available for inundations. A wide and shallow
+ditch, while making a good obstacle, was also the readiest means
+of obtaining earth for the ramparts. High command was, owing
+to the flatness of the country, unnecessary and even undesirable,
+as it did not allow of grazing fire.</p>
+
+<p>What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns
+gives little evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an
+existing enceinte, sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide
+a broad wet ditch. No further provision was usually made on
+the sides of the town which were additionally protected by a
+river or inundation. On the other sides the wet ditch was made
+still broader, and sometimes contained a counterguard, sometimes
+ravelins and lunettes. These were quite irregular in their
+design and relation to each other. At the foot of the glacis would
+be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a peculiarly
+Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a
+river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line,
+strengthened by several redans.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+of a first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches,
+and further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities
+of palisading, for which purpose the timber of old ships was used.
+They also recognized the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches,
+as, for instance, that when frozen they no longer provide an
+obstacle; and they studied the means, not only of causing
+inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well as to
+fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence
+at this time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon
+Stevin, Maurice and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag.
+The fortress of Coevorden, constructed by Prince Maurice, of
+which fig. 31 shows a front, is a well-known example of this, and
+the section shows clearly some typical features of the school.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:325px" src="images/img691a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Coevorden.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace,
+but we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design.
+There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding
+the rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work,
+which partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard,
+served several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the
+rampart should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch,
+and the fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead
+ground at the foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire
+over the ditch, which was very important, and which the rampart
+supported by a plunging fire.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:272px" src="images/img691b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Coehoorn&rsquo;s First System.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Coehoorn (<i>q.v.</i>), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban,
+was the greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was
+distinguished as a fighting engineer, both in attack and
+defence; but in the attack he differed from him in
+<span class="sidenote">Coehoorn.</span>
+relying more on powerful artillery fire than systematic earthworks.
+He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His &ldquo;first
+system,&rdquo; which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is reproduced
+for the sake of comparison with the Coevorden front
+designed a hundred years earlier. Among other points will be
+noticed the combination of wet and dry ditches; the very broad
+main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep of the ravelin;
+the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent low
+parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;tenaille&rdquo; system and the &ldquo;polygonal&rdquo; system which
+grew out of it are mainly identified with the <i>German school</i>.
+That school, says von Zastrow, does not, like that of
+France, represent the authoritative teaching of an
+<span class="sidenote">German school.</span>
+official establishment, but rather the general practice
+of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of
+Dürer, Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in
+execution by Montalembert. &ldquo;The German engineers desired
+a simple trace, a strong fortification with retrenchments and
+keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and an organization suitable
+for an offensive defence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These had always been the German principles. Already in the
+16th century the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and
+Peitz had large bomb-proof casemates sufficient for a great
+part of the garrison. The same thing is seen in the defences of
+Giogau, Schweidnitz, &amp;c., built by Frederick the Great. These
+works show various applications of the tenaille system. In
+1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalembert,
+and his influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel.</p>
+
+<p>Whether through the influence of Albert Dürer or not cannot
+be said, but while the bastion was being developed in France
+the tenaille and the accompanying casemates from the first
+found acceptance in Germany, and thence in eastern and northern
+Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618, produced a sort of
+tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of Rimpler.
+Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d&rsquo;Aach
+(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion
+and tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion
+being usually distinguished by short faces and long flanks.</p>
+
+<p>Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the
+Turks in 1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a
+great influence. He had been struck by the weakness of the
+early Italian bastions at Candia, and published a book in 1673
+called <i>Fortification with Central Bastions</i>, which was practically
+the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks that Rimpler inspired
+Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to illustrate
+his ideas.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:352px" src="images/img691c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 33.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the
+Prussian service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence.
+He appears to have
+been the first who
+frankly advocated
+the tenaille alone,
+chiefly on the ground
+that the flank, which
+was the most important
+part of the
+bastioned system,
+was also the weakest.
+Fig. 33 shows his
+system, published in
+1712.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however,
+ultimately a Frenchman,
+Marc René
+Montalembert (<i>q.v.</i>),
+who was the great
+apostle of the tenaille,
+though in his later
+years he leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected
+to the bastioned trace on many grounds; principally
+that the bastion was a shell trap, that the flanks by
+<span class="sidenote">Montalembert and Carnot.</span>
+crossing their fire lost the advantage of the full
+range of their weapons, and that the curtain was
+useless for defence. He took the view that the bastions with
+their ravelins constituted practically a tenaille trace, spoilt by
+the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by the presence of
+the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted of redans,
+with salient angles of 60° or more, flanking each other at right
+angles; from which he gave to his system the name of &ldquo;perpendicular
+fortification.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Lazare Carnot (<i>q.v.</i>), the &ldquo;Organizer of Victory,&rdquo; was, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797
+a tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:220px" src="images/img692a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 34.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:124px" src="images/img692b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:227px" src="images/img692c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Montalembert, 1786.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he
+recommended a bastioned trace; but for wet ditches and for irregular
+ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797
+trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose
+faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients.
+There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends
+overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between
+the <i>tenaille trace</i> and the
+<i>tenaille</i>, it should be noted
+that the latter is a low detached
+parapet placed in
+front of the escarp of the
+body of the place, partly as
+a shield, and partly as an
+additional line of defence.
+It is used in front of the
+curtain in the bastioned
+trace, and in the re-entering
+angle in the tenaille trace.)</p>
+
+<p>Other important features
+of Carnot&rsquo;s work were: a
+continuous general retrenchment,
+or interior parapet,
+following more or less the
+lines of the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place
+of the escarp revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last
+(of which Carnot was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently
+outwards from a crest raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level
+of the ground, sloped inwards from the ground-level to the bottom
+of the ditch. The advantage of the additional obstacle of the
+counterscarp was thus lost to the defence. On the other hand, the
+besiegers&rsquo; saps, as they progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a
+plunging fire from the parapet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great believer in the
+mortar; but while Coehoorn introduced the small portable
+mortar that bears his name, Carnot expected great results from
+a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron balls at each discharge. He
+endeavoured to
+prove mathematically
+that the discharge
+of these
+mortars would in
+due course kill off
+the whole of the
+besieging force.
+These mortars he emplaced in open fronted mortar-casemates,
+in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one of these
+mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the retrenchment
+and a detached wall.</p>
+
+<p>The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful
+defence it was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that
+of the enemy. This idea led him to the adoption of
+casemates in several tiers; in preference to open
+<span class="sidenote">The polygonal trace.</span>
+parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds, high
+angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects
+of bastions he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking
+purposes two forms of trace were preferable; either the tenaille
+form, connecting the
+ravelins with the body of
+the place, or the form in
+which the primary flanking
+elements, instead of
+facing each other with
+overlapping fire, as with
+the bastions, should be
+placed back to back in
+the middle of the exterior
+side. Fig. 36 is an example
+of this. The central
+flanking work resulting
+from this arrangement is
+the caponier of the early Italians, reintroduced and developed;
+and with it Montalembert laid the foundation of the polygonal
+system of our own time.</p>
+
+<p>Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming
+necessity for detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly
+proposed to use his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille
+system for large places. In abandoning the bastioned trace
+he was already committed to the principle of casemate defence
+for ditches; and the combination of this principle with his
+desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him in the course
+of years of controversial writing into somewhat extravagant
+proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds.
+side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his
+caponier sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one
+above the other. Confiding in the power of such an artillery,
+he freely exposed the upper parts of his casemates to direct fire.</p>
+
+<p>Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas
+to fortification than any other man. His designs must be
+considered in some ways unworkable and unsound, but all the
+best work of the 19th century rests on his teaching. The Germans,
+who already used the tenaille system and made free provision
+of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal trace and
+the idea of the entrenched camp.</p>
+
+<p>The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or
+slightly broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers.
+The caponier is the vital point of the front, and is protected in
+important works by a ravelin and keep. The essence of the
+system is its simplicity, which allows of its being applied to any
+sort of ground, level or broken, and to long or short fronts.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:384px; height:615px" src="images/img692d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Front at Posen.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one
+in the history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive
+works that were constructed at this time were obsolete
+almost as soon as they were finished; but this was
+<span class="sidenote">1815-1855, entrenched camps.</span>
+inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world was
+travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic
+Confederation began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering
+that they had not derived much strategic advantage from their
+existing fortresses,
+the Germans
+took up
+Montalembert&rsquo;s
+idea of entrenched
+camps, utilizing
+at the same
+time his polygonal
+system
+with modifications
+for the
+main enceintes.
+The Prussians
+began with the
+fortresses of Coblenz
+and Cologne;
+later Posen,
+Königsberg and
+other places were
+treated on the
+same lines. The
+Austrians constructed,
+among
+other places,
+Linz and Verona.
+The Germanic
+Confederation
+reinforced Mainz
+with improved
+works, and reorganized <span class="correction" title="amended from enentirely">entirely</span>
+Rastatt
+and Ulm. The
+Bavarians built Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these
+works were conceived in the spirit of Rimpler and Montalembert,
+they showed the differences of national temperament.
+The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon powerful
+artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the enemy&rsquo;s
+view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth
+and gave more attention to detail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span></p>
+
+<p>The German development of the polygonal system at this
+time is not of great importance, since the great masonry caponiers
+were designed without sufficient consideration for the increasing
+powers of artillery. One example (fig. 37) is given for the
+sake of historical comparison. It is a front of Posen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long.
+It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a <i>detached
+bastion</i>.... The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the
+bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and
+sweeps both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has
+two floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and
+on the top is a parapet completely commanding alike the
+<span class="sidenote">Posen.</span>
+outworks and the body of the place. It contains barrack accommodation
+for a battalion of 1000 men, and has a large inner courtyard
+closed at the gorge by a detached wall. The caponier is itself flanked
+by three small caponiers at the head, and one at the inner end of each
+flank.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall;
+that of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and
+arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion
+there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated
+traverse for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion
+are parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from
+it as the faces.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as
+keeps of the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter
+case they have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery,
+which serves as a base for countermine galleries, and is connected
+with the detached bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counterscarp
+is not revetted if the ditch is wet.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160°, in order
+that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients
+of the detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry
+of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view.&rdquo; (R.M.A.
+<i>Text-book of F. &amp; M.E.</i>, 1886.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have now reached a period when the &ldquo;detached fort&rdquo;
+becomes of more importance than the organization of the enceinte.
+The early conception of the rôle of detached forts in
+connexion with the fortress was to form an entrenched
+<span class="sidenote">The detached fort.</span>
+camp within which an army corps could seek safety
+if necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who
+added to the permanent defences of Toulon a large camp defended
+by field parapets attached to one side of the fortress. The
+substitution of a ring of detached forts, while giving it the
+greater safety of permanent instead of field defences, gave also
+a wider area and freer scope for the operations of an army
+seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same time
+made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment.
+The use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body
+of the place from bombardment had not yet been made necessary
+by increased range of artillery.</p>
+
+<p>When these detached forts were first used by Germany the
+scope of the idea had evidently not been realised, as they were
+placed much too close to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for
+instance, were only some 400 or 500 yds. in advance of the
+ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in most of these forts
+as in the new enceintes; <i>i.e.</i> a lunette, with a casemated keep
+at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work, the
+rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery
+fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to
+flank its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring
+works with guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable
+arrangement, which is still sometimes used. The front ditches
+of the lunettes were flanked by caponiers. Some of the larger
+forts were simple quadrangular works with casemate barracks
+and caponier ditch defence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely
+fresh departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to
+provide an entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose
+works should require the smallest possible garrison. With this
+object Linz was surrounded with a belt of circular towers spaced
+about 600 yds. apart. The towers, 25 metres in diameter, were
+enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and contained 3 tiers of casemates.
+The masonry was concealed from view by the ditch and glacis.
+On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over which a
+battery of 13 guns fired <i>en barbette</i>. In order to find room for
+so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed
+parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.</p>
+
+<p>This new departure was received with a certain amount of
+approval at the time, which is somewhat difficult to account for,
+as a more faulty system could hardly be devised; but the
+experiment was never repeated.</p>
+
+<p>The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made
+in Germany during this period is due to General von Brese-Winiari,
+inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.</p>
+
+<p>France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for
+fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor
+improvements on the old lines. Belgium, having some money
+in hand, rebuilt and improved in detail a number of bastioned
+fortresses which had fallen into disrepair.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:615px" src="images/img693.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span> The Fortress of Antwerp.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with
+entrenched camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed,
+and detached forts were added at a cost, according to von
+Zastrow, of £8,000,000. The Belgian and German frontiers
+of France being considered fairly protected by the existing
+fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and Italian
+frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts at
+Belfort, Besançon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at
+Lyons was, according to the same writer, £1,000,000 without
+the armament. Here and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified
+on account of the advanced defences. That of Paris, which was
+influenced by political considerations, was a simple bastioned
+trace with rather long fronts and without ravelins or other
+outworks; the escarp was high and therefore exposed, and the
+counterscarp was not revetted.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of
+clearness of conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses
+in miniature, square or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts
+and containing defensible barracks. Those of Lyons were much
+more carefully designed, but the authors wavered between two
+ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but evidently hankering
+after the new caponiers, they produced a type which it is difficult
+to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or five-sided
+figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole interior
+space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had
+defensible barracks in the gorge.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:858px; height:666px" src="images/img694.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given
+to the science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the
+arrival of the rifled gun. One immediate result of these
+was the condemnation of masonry exposed to artillery
+<span class="sidenote">Period from 1855 to 1870.</span>
+fire. The most important work of the period was the
+new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859.
+This is chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest expression
+of the medieval enceinte, at a time when the war
+between the polygonal and bastioned traces was still raging,
+though the boom of the long-range guns had already given
+warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also associated
+with the name of General Brialmont (<i>q.v.</i>), of the
+Belgian engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as
+the greatest writer on fortification of the latter half of the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:545px" src="images/img694a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Sections of fig. 39.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859
+defences of Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its
+<span class="sidenote">Antwerp.</span>
+sections, as showing almost the last word of fortification
+before the arrival of high explosives.</p>
+
+<p>The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre
+of the national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for
+100,000 men. The length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The
+detached forts, which on the sides not defended by inundation
+are about 1¼ m. apart and from 2 to 3 m. in front of the enceinte,
+are powerful works, arranged for a garrison of 1000 men. They
+have each a frontal crest-line of over 700 yds. and are intended
+for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The general
+arrangement of the
+fronts of the enceinte
+should be
+compared with the
+earlier German
+type of Posen. It
+will be noticed that
+while the large
+casemated caponier
+at Posen breaks
+the enceinte and
+flanks it both without
+and within, at
+Antwerp the caponier
+is detached&mdash;a
+much sounder
+arrangement&mdash;and
+flanks the front
+only. The defence
+of the faces rests
+on the width of the
+wet ditches and on
+the flanking power
+of the caponier;
+there is no attempt
+to add to it by
+fausse-braie or
+detached wall.
+The dimensions are
+everywhere very
+generous, allowing
+free movement for
+the troops of the
+defence; the covered
+way is 22 yds.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+wide and there is a double terreplein on the face. The parapet
+of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the casemate guns
+in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is protected by earth,
+<i>à la</i> Haxo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery
+with some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by
+Radetzky in 1848 were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from
+the ramparts. Those now added, of which fig. 41 is an example,
+were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:418px" src="images/img695a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Austrian Fort at Verona.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the same year the land defences of some of the British
+dockyards were taken in hand. These first serious attempts at
+permanent fortification in England were received with approval
+on the continent, as constituting an advance on anything that
+had been done before. The detached forts intended to keep an
+enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works with
+small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the
+ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries.
+The forts were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to
+support each other by their fire.</p>
+
+<p>The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded
+to in the section below dealing with the &ldquo;Attack of Fortresses.&rdquo;
+As regards their effect on the designs of fortification
+the most important thing to note is the distance to
+<span class="sidenote">Period from 1870 to 1885.</span>
+which it was thought necessary to throw out the
+detached forts. These distances were of course influenced
+by the character of the ground, but for the most part
+they were very largely increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr
+was 18,000 yds. from the enceinte; at Verdun the distances
+varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at Belfort the new forts were
+from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to 4500; and at
+Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased
+distances was of course to increase very largely the length of
+the zone of investment, and therefore the strength necessary
+for the besieging force.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the character of the works, the typical shape
+adopted both in France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled
+lunette, shallow from front to rear. The German type had one
+parapet only, which was organized for artillery and heavily
+traversed, the living casemates being under this parapet. The
+ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached wall
+(see fig. 42).</p>
+
+<p>The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being
+placed over living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section
+of fig. 43 by a dotted line), and commanding the front one.
+There was a long controversy as to whether the artillery of the
+fort should be on the upper or the lower parapet, the advocates
+of the upper parapet attaching great importance to the command
+that the guns would have over the country in front. The other
+school, objecting to having guns on the skyline, preferred to
+sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet, as
+in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be
+observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches,
+like those of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:502px; height:438px" src="images/img695b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;German Fort about 1880.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:519px" src="images/img695c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;French Fort about 1880.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very
+active controversy had already begun on the general question
+as to whether guns should be employed in forts at all. Some
+declared that the accuracy and power of artillery had already
+developed so far, that guns in fixed and visible positions must
+needs be put out of action in a very short time. The remedy
+proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts into
+&ldquo;wing-batteries&rdquo; which should be less conspicuous; but soon
+the broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed
+positions and moving them from one to another by means of
+previously prepared roads or railways. Others declared that
+there was no safety for the guns outside the forts, and that the
+use of steel turrets and disappearing cupolas was the only
+solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who had by this
+time become the first European authority on fortification questions,
+ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed themselves
+eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced,
+namely, the obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive
+bursting charge. With its appearance we say good-bye to the
+old school and enter upon the consideration of the fortification
+of to-day.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Modern Permanent Fortification</p>
+
+<p>Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885.
+The Germans had begun experiments a year or two before this,
+with long shell containing large charges of gun-cotton.
+But it was the experiments at Fort Malmaison in France
+<span class="sidenote">High-angle fire with long shell.</span>
+in 1886 that set the military world speculating on the
+future of fortification. The fort was used as a target
+for 8-in. shell of five calibres length containing large charges of
+melinite. The reported effects of these made a tremendous
+sensation, and it was thought at first that the days of permanent
+fortification were over. Magazine casemates were destroyed
+by a single shell, and revetment walls were overturned and
+practicable breaches made by two or three shells falling behind
+them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were
+not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had
+enough earth over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but
+not enough to prevent it from coming into contact with the
+masonry, and the latter was not thick enough to resist the explosion
+of the big charges. Other experiments were made in
+the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and Austria.
+The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 &#8468; of high
+explosive.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:905px; height:765px" src="images/img696.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">From Plessix and Legrand&rsquo;s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Metz in 1899.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about
+adapting their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments
+were enormously strengthened, and designed so that their weight
+resisted overturning. Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft.
+thick, and in many cases the surface of the concrete was left bare
+so as to expose a hard surface to the shell without any earth
+tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded guns gained ground,
+and is now practically accepted all over the continent of Europe.
+In many cases the main armament, in some only the safety
+armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.</p>
+
+<p>But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature
+on the subject, and the whole policy of fortification as well as
+its minutest details were discussed <i>ab ovo</i>. The extremists of
+both sides revelled in their opportunity. Some declared that,
+with the use of heavy guns and armour, fortresses could be made
+stronger than ever. Others held that modern fortresses were far
+too expensive, that their use led to strategic mistakes, and
+(arguing from certain well-known examples) that extemporized
+field defences could offer as good a resistance as permanent
+works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span></p>
+
+<p>European military opinion generally is now more or less
+agreed on the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>1. Important places must be defended by fortresses.</p>
+
+<p>2. Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the
+bombardment of the place.</p>
+
+<p>3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate.</p>
+
+<p>4. A few guns (called &ldquo;safety armament&rdquo;) should be in the forts,
+and these must be protected by armour.</p>
+
+<p>5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the
+forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers
+in concealed positions.</p>
+
+<p>6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry
+positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being
+provided for the infantry.</p>
+
+<p>7. There should be ample communications&mdash;radial and peripheral&mdash;between
+the place and the forts, both by road and rail.</p>
+
+<p>8. Special lines of communication&mdash;such as mountain passes&mdash;should
+be closed by barrier forts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in
+detail, but first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz
+in 1899 (fig. 44).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily recognized.
+First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now
+<span class="sidenote">Metz.</span>
+<i>déclassée</i>. Next the detached forts, begun by the French
+engineers in 1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be
+readily recognized by their bastioned trace. Among them are Fort
+Manteuffel, formerly St Julien, and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly
+Queuleu. These were not altered in their general lines.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:344px" src="images/img697a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Plessix and Legrand&rsquo;s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Fort Goeben, Metz.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the
+enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal
+type such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a
+very important point, was converted into a fortified position, with
+two forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running
+north to Fort Alvensleben.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts
+can be clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by
+other batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate
+important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal
+battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries.</p>
+
+<p>There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in connexion
+with this line.</p>
+
+<p>Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899
+at about 9000 yds. from the place.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of
+<span class="sidenote">Fortresses.</span>
+groups of fortresses, the places which, as mentioned
+above, are intrinsically worth being defended as
+fortresses are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list" style="clear: both;">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Centres of national, industrial or military resources.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Places which may serve as <i>points d&rsquo;appui</i> for man&oelig;uvres.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Points of intersection of important railroads.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Bridges over considerable rivers.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Examples of (<i>a</i>) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again
+for (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz
+in the hands of the Germans may serve both as a base of supplies
+and a <i>point d&rsquo;appui</i> for one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head
+giving the Germans a secure retreat across the Rhine if beaten
+in the plains of Alsace, and an opportunity of resuming the
+offensive when they have re-formed behind the river.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:376px" src="images/img697b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Plessix and Legrand&rsquo;s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;St Quentin position, Metz.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the
+range of the siege artillery and the distance at which it can
+usually be established from the forts, and is variously
+given by different continental writers at from 4 to 9 km.
+<span class="sidenote">The ring of detached forts.</span>
+(4500 to 10,000 yds.). The bombarding range of siege
+howitzers with heavy shells is considered to be about
+8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within
+say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance
+of 6000 yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers
+extend the minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds.
+In practice, however, it must happen that the position of the
+forts is determined to a very large extent by the lie of the ground.
+Thus some good positions for forts may be found within 4000 or
+5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable on the same front
+within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of expense might
+necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples of
+the actual distances of existing forts have already been given.
+Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-10½,
+Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. <i>Strategic pivots</i> are in a different
+category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected
+from bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown
+out from 9 to 12 km., to get advantage of ground. Such are
+Langres, Epinal and Belfort.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Enceinte.</i>&mdash;The desirability of this is almost universally
+allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for
+any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is
+the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should
+be provisionally fortified to assist in a &ldquo;step-by-step&rdquo; defence: and
+behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a
+last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last moment.
+It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of an
+enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be
+the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is
+the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large
+modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to
+construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of
+the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief
+advantages claimed for an enceinte.</p>
+
+<p>In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in
+France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft.
+high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can
+only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in
+face of modern artillery, it is a <i>reductio ad absurdum</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Safety Armament.</i>&mdash;If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed
+in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very
+necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently
+in position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance,
+forcing him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the
+advance of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in
+secure positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from
+such positions they must have armour to shield them from the
+concentrated fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger
+could bring to bear from the first.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important
+part of the defence, and there is room for much discussion as to
+whether it should have positions prepared for it beforehand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+or should be placed in positions selected as the attack develops
+<span class="sidenote">The question of artillery positions.</span>
+itself. On the one hand the preparation of the positions beforehand,
+which in many cases means the use of armour
+and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense
+of the defence, and ties the defender somewhat in
+the special dispositions that become desirable once
+the attack has taken shape. Moreover, such expenditure
+must be incurred on all the fronts of the fortress, whereas
+the results would only be realized on the front or fronts
+actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour
+are involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with
+extemporized protection, and this becomes a serious consideration
+when one remembers how much work of all kinds is necessary
+in preparing a fortress against attack. Again, to avoid the danger
+of a successful attack on the intervals between the forts before
+their defences have been fully completed, the fire of the guns
+in the intermediate positions might be urgently required. The
+solution in any given case would no doubt depend on the importance
+of the place. In most cases a certain amount of compromise
+will come in, some preparation being made for batteries, without
+their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind
+must in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be
+overlooked that as, whatever theories may exist about successive
+lines of defence, the onus of the defence will now lie on the fort
+line, just as it formerly did on the enceintes, so that line should
+be fully prepared, and should not have to commence its fight in
+a position of inequality.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:949px; height:650px" src="images/img698.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont&rsquo;s <i>Progrès de la défense des états et de la fortification permanente depuis Vauban</i>, by permission of M. le Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Defence of Intervals of Forts.</i>&mdash;The frontal fire of the batteries in
+the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts
+will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on
+infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically
+a complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between
+the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously attacked.
+The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with good
+communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there
+must be some <i>points d&rsquo;appui</i> in the shape of redoubts or infantry
+forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores
+near the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts.
+If they are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built
+in peace time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i> are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate
+the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials
+required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully utilize
+the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include both
+railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the
+different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of forts;
+also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment
+is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must be
+got from earth parapets or plantations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the
+necessary line of communication cannot be easily diverted.
+For instance, in a comparatively flat country a barrier
+fort commanding a road or railway is of little use
+<span class="sidenote">Barrier forts.</span>
+because roads may be found passing round it, or a line
+of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. But in
+mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will
+be necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before he can
+advance; and the impossibility of surrounding it, the few
+positions from which siege artillery can be brought into play,
+and the fact that there is practically only one road of approach
+to be denied, make these positions peculiarly suitable for forts
+with armoured batteries. Italy makes considerable use of such
+forts for the defence of frontier passes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>General Brialmont&rsquo;s Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a Country.</i>&mdash;Before
+going into details, it is worth while to state the full claim
+of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont, the most
+thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>A. Fortify the capital.</p>
+
+<p>B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a
+strategic barrier.</p>
+
+<p>C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of
+communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by
+one or two places arranged so as to make a fortified district.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span></p>
+
+<p>D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across
+mountains or marshes.</p>
+
+<p>E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for
+the army watching it.</p>
+
+<p>F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications.</p>
+
+<p>G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the
+principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to establish
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>H. Fortify coasts and harbours.</p></div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:910px; height:1116px" src="images/img699.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont&rsquo;s <i>Progrès de la défense des états et de la fortification depuis Vauban</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the
+active armies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So many types of detached forts have been proposed by
+competent authorities, as well as actually constructed
+<span class="sidenote">Types of detached forts.</span>
+in recent years, that it is impossible here to consider
+all of them, and a few only will be reproduced of
+those which are most representative of modern continental
+thought.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns
+for the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give
+precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are
+taken from the <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &amp;c.</i>, published in 1898.
+The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section 1
+is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the
+defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment
+preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the counterscarp
+galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face of the
+counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been made
+to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps drive
+the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials
+into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may
+save the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious
+fumes, but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing
+it with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the
+rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a
+counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks
+have no counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the
+slope, and the covered way which is utilized for a wire entanglement
+which is under the fire of the parapet. The
+gorge has a very slight bastioned indentation, which allows
+for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a couple of machine
+guns placed in a single casemate on either side.</p>
+
+<p>The abolition of the covered way as such is noteworthy.
+It marks an essential difference between
+the fort and the old enceinte profiles; showing that
+offensive action is not expected from the garrison of
+the fort, and is the duty of the troops of the intermediate
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>The great central mass of concrete containing all
+the casemates and the gun-cupolas, a very popular
+feature, is omitted in this design, advantage being
+taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to spread
+the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge,
+with a communication across the centre of the
+fort. This arrangement gives more freedom to the
+disposition of the cupolas.
+The thickness of the concrete
+over the casemate
+arches is more than 8 ft.
+Communication between
+the faces and the counterscarp
+galleries is obtained
+by posterns under the ditch.
+The armament, which is all
+protected by cupolas, is
+powerful. It consists of two 150-mm. (6 in.) guns, four 120-mm.
+(4.7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (8.4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm. (8.4
+in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is
+also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont&rsquo;s designs before
+1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets
+and various <i>chicanes</i> which would not long survive bombardment.
+This type is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.</p>
+
+<p>The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a
+keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture
+of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the
+necessity of keeps for all important works. History of course gives
+instances of citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture
+the main work with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the
+progress of the general attack. It affords still more instances in
+which the keeps have made no resistance, or none of any value.
+Some think that the existence of a keep encourages the defenders of
+the main work; others that it encourages the idea of retreat. The
+British school of thought is against keeps. In any case they add
+largely to expense.</p>
+
+<p>In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends
+for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the
+main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically
+useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from establishing
+themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a
+reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying
+bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and
+inner gorge parapets.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the
+ditch and the armament are similar to the design last considered.
+This parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The casemates
+are all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all
+round giving access to the parapet and the cupolas.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:582px; height:445px" src="images/img700a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:99px" src="images/img700b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont&rsquo;s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &amp;c.</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is
+a simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on
+the gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air
+to the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the
+artillery fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each
+face are two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which
+purpose, it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the
+angles are look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp,
+and is defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no
+covered way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where
+it is uncovered, is about 10 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen
+defences are very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original
+thought, and effectiveness combined with economy. There is one
+special feature worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which
+Lyngby is one. These works are intended for the artillery fight only,
+their main armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in.
+howitzers, all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is
+trifling, consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun.
+There is no provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp
+or counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own
+defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to withdraw
+them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers,
+however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line,
+some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries.
+The object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery
+at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance to
+the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries, being
+withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require
+expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the
+advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend
+on the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and
+what that may be, war alone can tell us.</p>
+
+<p>In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of
+defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use
+of layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness
+of concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened
+underneath with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps
+of concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates
+look out on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the
+magazines are under the cupolas.</p>
+
+<p>The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking
+an important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be
+considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example
+of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent
+as <i>batteries traditores</i>, which seem to be growing in popularity.</p>
+
+<p>This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span>
+medium armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but
+to command the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the
+intervals. The fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accommodation.
+It contains eight 4.7-in. guns. Two of these are in a
+cupola concealed from view, though
+not protected, by a bank of earth in
+front. The other six are in an armoured
+battery behind the cupola. It may be
+remarked that as the cupola gets no
+real protection from the covering mass
+of earth, it would be better to be able
+to utilize the fire of its guns to the
+front. The <i>batterie traditore</i>, if properly
+protected overhead, would be very
+difficult to silence, and its flanking fire
+would probably be available up to the
+last moment. There is very much to
+be said both for and against the policy
+of so emplacing the guns. The immediate
+defence of the work, with the
+aid of a broad wet ditch, is easy; but
+the great mass of concrete, which is intended
+to form an indestructible platform
+and breastwork for the infantry,
+would seem to be a needless expense.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:619px; height:423px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:823px; height:231px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont&rsquo;s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &amp;c.</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.</span>&mdash;Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:906px; height:508px" src="images/img701c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner&rsquo;s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian
+lieutenant field-marshal Moritz Ritter
+von Brunner (1839-1904), is selected as
+a type of the intermediate fort which
+is intended only to be a strong point
+in the infantry line of defence between
+the main forts. It has a protected
+armament, but this,
+which consists only of four
+small Q.F. guns in cupolas, is
+for its own defence, and not
+to take part in the artillery
+duel. There is also a movable
+armament of four light Q.F.
+guns on wheels, for which a
+shelter is provided between the
+two observatory cupolas. The
+garrison would be a half company
+of infantry, for whom
+casemates are provided in the
+gorge. The gorge ditch is
+flanked by a caponier, but
+there is no flank defence for
+the front ditch. This is defended
+by a glacis parapet. At
+the bottom of the ditch is a wire entanglement and the glacis slope is
+planted with thorns. The thickness of concrete on the casemates is
+2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This is a strong and simple form of infantry
+work, but considering its rôle it appears to be needlessly expensive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p>
+
+<p>Fig. 53 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country.
+A powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson
+shield commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling casemates
+is surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries.
+There are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties
+of the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in
+mind.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle.</i>&mdash;After considering
+the above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the
+details in which modern construction has been modified to
+provide against the increasing power of artillery.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:493px" src="images/img702a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont&rsquo;s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &amp;c.</i>, by permission of Commandant
+G. Meeüs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature
+of the soil&mdash;the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers
+the greatest resistance to penetration, clay the least.
+Since, however, the penetration of heavy shells fired
+<span class="sidenote">Bomb-proof protection.</span>
+from long ranges with high elevation may be 20 ft.
+or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth
+alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again
+a moderate quantity of earth over a casemate increases the explosive
+effect of a shell by &ldquo;tamping&rdquo; it, that is by preventing
+the force of the explosion from being wasted in the open air.
+We find therefore that in most modern designs the tops of
+casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few inches of earth
+over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.</p>
+
+<p>For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed
+to fire, concrete (<i>q.v.</i>) has entirely replaced masonry and brickwork,
+not because of its convenience in construction, but because
+it offers the best resistance. The exact composition of the
+concrete is a matter that demands great care and knowledge.
+It should be, like an armour plate, hard on the surface and tough
+within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of concrete for casemate
+arches, very generally prescribed on the continent in important
+positions, is meant to meet the danger of several successive
+shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any siege
+calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough.
+A good deal is expected from the use of &ldquo;reinforced concrete&rdquo;
+(that is concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment
+walls and casemates.</p>
+
+<p>Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that
+is the superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so
+that the whole rampart can be swept by the fire of the
+defenders from the crest, and there is no dead ground
+<span class="sidenote">Parapets.</span>
+in front of it. It is also common to build the crest of the parapet
+in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete banquette, so that
+bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders have to
+man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be
+further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give
+head cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:767px" src="images/img702b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From General Rocchi&rsquo;s <i>Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great
+expense of a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A
+counterscarp of very solid construction is generally
+used. It is low and gives cover to a wire entanglement
+<span class="sidenote">Obstacles.</span>
+in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel unclimbable
+fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the covered
+way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are
+attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of
+revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against
+the action of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to
+overturn them, by thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows
+most of these dispositions.</p>
+
+<p>Electric search-lights are now used in all important works
+and batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas.
+They are of great value for discovering working parties
+at night, and lighting up the foreground during an
+<span class="sidenote">Search-lights.</span>
+attack; and since only the projector need be exposed,
+they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not
+be over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no
+way compare with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other
+mechanical contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks
+in war. They may give rise to a false confidence; an important
+light may fail at a critical moment; and in foggy weather they
+are useless.</p>
+
+<p>The use of armour (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armour-Plates</a></span>) for coast batteries
+followed closely upon its employment for ships, for those were
+the days of short ranges and close fighting, and it seemed
+natural not to leave the battery in a position of inferiority to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+<span class="sidenote">Armour.</span>
+the ship in the matter of protection. In England the coast battery
+for a generation after the Crimean War was a combination of
+masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont employed
+armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which
+commanded the Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however,
+engineers were very slow to adopt armour. Apart from all
+questions of difficulty of manufacture, expense, &amp;c., the idea was
+that sea and land fronts were radically different. It was pointed
+out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady platform, had not
+enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same spot;
+so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot
+would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on
+the other hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which
+could strike successive blows on the same spot, and break down
+the resistance of the strongest shield. But in time continental
+opinion gradually began to turn in favour of iron protection.
+Practical types of disappearing and revolving cupolas were
+produced, and many engineers were influenced in their favour
+by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually it was
+argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to obtain a
+resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a
+work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long
+as possible against a superior force; and that from this point of
+view armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:905px; height:145px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Deguise&rsquo;s <i>La Fortification permanente</i>, by permission of J. Polleunis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of
+theory. Practically every European state uses iron or steel
+casemates and cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other
+types of forts so armed have been shown. Recent French types
+have not been published, but it is known that cupolas are
+employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an
+uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his
+views. These countries have had to proceed gradually, by
+improving existing fortresses, and with such resources as could
+be spared from the needs of the active armies. Among the
+smaller states Rumania and Belgium have entered most freely
+into the new way. In England, which is less directly interested,
+opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the publication
+in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having witnessed
+officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St Chamond
+turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly
+against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly
+the theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the constructions
+under experiment, he added: &ldquo;The cost of the French
+turret was about £10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for
+this sum about six movable overbank guns of greater power
+could be provided.&rdquo; In view of the weight that belongs of right
+to his criticisms it is as well to point out that while this remark
+is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six gun detachments,
+with arrangements for supply, &amp;c.; a consideration
+which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum.
+The whole object of protection is to enable a few men and guns
+successfully to oppose a larger number.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the time when Sir George Clarke&rsquo;s first edition came out,
+such extravagances were before the public as Mougin&rsquo;s fort; &ldquo;a
+mastless turret ship,&rdquo; as he called it, &ldquo;buried up to the deck-level
+in the ground and manned by mechanics.&rdquo; Such ideas tended to
+throw discredit on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether
+the system be right or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken
+account of. Nowhere has it been applied more boldly than in
+Rumania. The defences of Bucharest (designed by Brialmont)
+consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with intermediate batteries.
+The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and 11,000 to 12,000 yds.
+from the centre of the place. The typical armament of a main fort
+is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for indirect fire), two 8.4-in.
+howitzers in cupolas, one 4.7-in. howitzer in a cupola, six small
+Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total armament of the place
+(all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns, seventy-four 8.4-in. howitzers,
+eighteen 4.7-in. howitzers, 127 small calibre Q.F. guns in disappearing
+cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns in casemates for flanking
+the ditches. The &ldquo;Sereth Line&rdquo; will be described later.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The
+broad difference between casemates or shielded batteries and
+turrets and cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter
+revolve and in some cases disappear. The casemate thus has
+the disadvantages that the arc of fire of the gun, which has to
+fire through a fixed embrasure or port-hole, is very limited, and
+that the muzzle of the gun and the port-hole, the weak points
+of the system, are constantly exposed to the fire of the enemy.
+The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative cheapness
+and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well suited
+for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and the
+Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such
+places as the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron casemates
+are also useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:909px; height:286px" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner&rsquo;s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Turrets and Cupolas.</i>&mdash;The difference between a turret and a
+cupola is that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat
+top and presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+dome, the vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The
+turret appears to be little used. The object of both forms is at
+once to give an all-round arc of fire to the guns and to allow of
+the weak point of the structure, the port-hole and muzzle of
+the gun, being turned away from the enemy in the intervals of
+firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete, which is
+strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron
+about 12 to 15 in. thick.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are four types of cupolas, viz. (<i>a</i>) Disappearing, (<i>b</i>) Oscillating,
+(<i>c</i>) Central pivot, (<i>d</i>) On roller rings.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing
+guns, on account of the expense of the various systems. They can
+be used for medium guns. The details of the best foreign
+systems are secret. (<i>b</i>) The oscillating turret is a Mougin
+<span class="sidenote">Cupolas.</span>
+type, in which the turret is supported in the centre by a knife-edge
+on which it can swing. The oscillation is controlled by powerful
+springs. The effect of it is that after firing, the front of the cupola
+with the port-hole swings downwards under cover, and is held there
+until the gun is ready to fire again. (<i>c</i>) Schumann&rsquo;s centre pivot is
+understood to be approved in Germany. It has been adopted in
+Rumania and Belgium for howitzer cupolas. It is only suitable for
+a single piece; d is strong and steady&mdash;the best cupola for coast
+batteries; c and d are best for rapid fire because they can be loaded
+without lowering. They are suited for long guns.</p>
+
+<p>The following types are illustrated as being generally representative
+of the different classes of cupola.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:733px; height:617px" src="images/img704a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp&rsquo;s typical cupola for one 6-in.
+gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small
+space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the possibility
+of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are
+muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition
+of a ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is
+controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to
+prevent the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola.
+To facilitate the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle
+pivotings the breech has of course to be moved through a much larger
+arc than with ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight.
+The cupola rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can
+be turned through a complete circle in about one minute.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:431px" src="images/img704b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner&rsquo;s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;Gruson Spherical Mortar.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar,
+<i>Kugelmörser</i>).  In this case it will be observed that the cupola is
+replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar
+(8.4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close
+completely the opening of the collar in any position.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4.7-in. Q.F. howitzer.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5.7-cm. gun.
+This is drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into
+action slides on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs
+about 2½ tons, and with carriage and platform about 4 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than
+it appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for
+the lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace
+with improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first
+made popular by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such
+purposes as the collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and
+compound plates for the tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most
+recent Krupp-Gruson designs being of nickel steel.</p>
+
+<p>The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with
+suitable enlargements in the port-hole;
+in others by sights affixed to the cupola
+itself (which of course can give horizontal
+direction only); in others training and
+elevation are given in accordance with
+the readings on electric dials, or instructions
+by telephone or speaking tube.
+There is of course nothing unreasonable
+in this in the case of indirect fire guns
+and howitzers, for if not firing from
+cupolas they would be behind the shelter
+of some wood or quarry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schumann&rsquo;s System: &ldquo;Armoured
+Fronts.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;Lieut.-Colonel Maximilian
+Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian
+engineers, who took a very prominent
+part in the design and advocacy of
+armoured defences, eventually produced
+a system which dispensed entirely with
+forts and relied on the fire of protected
+guns. It consists of several lines of batteries
+for Q.F. guns and howitzers in
+cupolas. He considered that such batteries
+would be able to defend their own
+front, and the infantry garrison was not
+to be called into action except in the
+case of the enemy breaking through at
+some point of the line.</p>
+
+<p>This system was actually adopted by
+Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth Line.
+There are three routes by which the
+Russians can enter the country across
+the Sereth river: through Focshani,
+Nemolassa and Galatz. These three
+routes are barred by bridge-heads, those
+at Focshani, the most important, being
+on the left bank of the Milkov, a tributary
+of the Sereth.</p>
+
+<p>The Focshani works consist of 71
+batteries arranged on a semicircular front about 12 m. long and
+from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the bridges. The batteries
+are placed in three lines, which are about 500 yds. apart, and are
+subdivided into groups. The normal group consists of 5 batteries,
+of which 3 are in the first line, 1 in the second, and 1 in the third.
+The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F. guns in travelling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small Q.F. guns in disappearing
+cupolas. The third-line batteries have one 120-mm. gun
+in a cupola, and two 210-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson shields.
+The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis planted
+with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:373px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner&rsquo;s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;Cupola for 4.7-in. Howitzer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost
+about £1,100,000. But the system of &ldquo;armoured fronts&rdquo; is never
+likely to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative
+continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter
+as follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security
+against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the
+defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most
+serious of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should
+expect half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with
+a gun, to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But
+imagine the feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone
+in his box, his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment
+and nights of watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around;
+he knows nothing of the progress of the attack, but expects everything,
+and feels every moment the door of his box being opened and
+the bayonet entering his back. No wise commander would submit
+his troops to such a test.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems.</i>&mdash;Before leaving
+the subject of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of
+those who, while recognizing the necessity for places permanently
+organized for defence, prefer to treat them more from the point
+of view of perfected field defences. It is to the credit of English
+military science that Sir George Clarke may be taken as the
+representative of this school of thought. His study of fortification,
+as he tells us, began with a history of the defence of Plevna
+(<i>q.v.</i>). He was led to compare the resistance made behind
+extemporized defences at such places as Sevastopol, Kars and
+Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the most complete
+manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the
+conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend
+on great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast
+expense, but on organization, communications and invisibility.
+In his 1907 edition he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the
+following categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in
+peace time and forming the key points
+of the position. (2) Gun emplacements,
+magazines and shelters for men in rear
+of the main line, all concrete structures
+and platforms to be completed,
+though some earthwork may be left
+until the position is placed in a state
+of defence. (3) Field works, trenches,
+&amp;c., guarding the intervals between
+the permanent defences in the main
+line, or providing rear positions.
+These should be deliberately planned
+in time of peace ready to be put in
+hand at short notice. The essence of
+a well-fortified position is that the
+weapons of the defender shall obtain
+the utmost possible scope of action,
+and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances of
+effecting injury.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:553px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Drawn from illustration in Leithner&rsquo;s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>, by permission.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 continental
+ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement
+as to the three categories of defences would be accepted
+anywhere now: the differences of opinion come in
+<span class="sidenote">Infantry redoubts.</span>
+when we reach the stage of classifying under the first
+head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time.
+In most countries these would include forts with guns for the
+artillery duel, forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with
+or without armour, and forts for infantry only. Sir George
+Clarke will have no armour for guns except in certain special
+cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and howitzers requiring
+permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &amp;c.) must either
+be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions.
+The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry.
+They are redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men,
+with casemate accommodation for three-fourths of that number.
+Fig. 61 shows the design:&mdash;two rows of casemates, one under
+the front parapet, one under a parados; frontal musketry
+defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements, mines, &amp;c.,
+with or without escarp and counterscarp.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:754px; height:250px" src="images/img705c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;Transportable Cupola for 5.7-cm. Gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be
+about 2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the conformation
+of the ground. Where there are good artillery positions
+falling within the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals
+will be permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence
+where the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a
+continuous chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+of groups of redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case,
+the redoubts in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back
+in approximately horse-shoe form.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:894px; height:395px" src="images/img706a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Sir George S. Clarke&rsquo;s Fortification, by permission of John Murray.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 61.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in
+future will undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore
+it is of great interest to compare with the above types two
+studies put forward by Schroeter (<i>Die Festung in der heutigen
+Kriegführung</i>), one in his first edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the
+other in the second in 1905 (fig. 63). In both these the defensive
+arrangements are merely trenches of field profile with entanglements,
+the command and the obstacle being less than in Sir
+George Clarke&rsquo;s work; and it will be noticed that in the 1905
+type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much
+less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been
+introduced. But these works of Schroeter&rsquo;s are merely infantry
+supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular
+type with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very complete
+arrangement of field defences and communications; while
+Sir G. Clarke&rsquo;s redoubts are the only permanent works giving
+casemate protection in the front line.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:744px; height:622px" src="images/img706b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Schoeter&rsquo;s Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 62.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The comparative merits of either design for an infantry
+redoubt are not of much importance. It is agreed that the
+main line of defence must consist of a more or less continuous
+line of field defences and obstacles, and that at some points
+in the line there should be infantry supporting points with
+bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big shells. The
+open question is, what additional
+works, if any, are required for the
+artillery, whether for the medium
+and heavy guns that will take part
+in the &ldquo;artillery duel,&rdquo; or for the
+lighter natures that will help in
+the close fight and defence of the
+intervals. Is it best for the defenders
+to rely on armoured protection or on
+concealment for his guns?</p>
+
+<p>Official opinion outside England has
+certainly sanctioned armour, since all
+over the continent it is to
+some extent adopted in
+practice. National practice
+is usually based on the advice
+of the most distinguished
+officers of the day, and therefore it is
+<span class="sidenote">Opposing views as to armour, gun positions, &amp;c.</span>
+unsafe to condemn it hastily. Sir
+George Clarke and those who are with
+him&mdash;and they are many, both in Great
+Britain and abroad&mdash;object entirely
+to armour. He says (<i>Fortification</i>, ed.
+1907, p. 96): &ldquo;The great advantage
+possessed by the attack in all ages
+has been the employment of a mobile
+artillery against armaments cribbed,
+cabined and confined by fortification.
+It is necessary to perpetuate this advantage?&rdquo;
+Of course the effect of
+long-range weapons, in increasing the
+length of front that can be held by
+a given force, has given much greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+freedom of action to the defence and this should be taken full
+advantage of.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:815px" src="images/img707.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Schroeter&rsquo;s <i>Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung</i>, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 63.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is
+not at present strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), &ldquo;If the high
+angle fire ... is ever to find a favourable opportunity, it will
+surely be against a cupola, the site of which can generally be
+determined with accuracy.&rdquo; On the other hand he says (p. 90),
+&ldquo;During the long and costly experiments carried on at Bucharest
+in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the Krupp 21 cm.
+mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area&rdquo; (about 430 sq. ft.)
+&ldquo;without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the
+targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting
+conditions were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned
+back to the firing point; but it must have been evident to the
+least instructed observer that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells
+on an invisible area 2 metres square would have been absolutely
+futile.&rdquo; These facts are adduced to prove that it is not necessary
+to give great thickness to concrete casemates, to resist successive
+bursts of shells in the same place; but surely they are equally
+applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), &ldquo;The experience gained
+at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as regards the
+use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour were
+sunk by opening their sea-valves.... Fire was subsequently
+directed upon them from 11 in. howitzers at ranges up to about
+7500 yds. This was deliberate practice from siege batteries at
+stationary targets; but the effect was distinctly disappointing.&rdquo;
+The cupolas therefore can hardly be considered ideal targets:
+and the probability is that they would hold their own against
+both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There are other
+and stronger arguments against the
+general use of them, all of which are
+clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.</p>
+
+<p>The worst objections to the cupola
+are the military disadvantages of
+isolation and immobility, and the
+multiplication of mechanical arrangements.
+For a successful round from
+a disappearing cupola, the elevating
+and traversing arrangements, the
+elevating and loading gear of the
+gun, and the telephone communication,
+must all be in good order. At
+night the successful co-operation of
+the searchlight is also in many cases
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The teaching of history is all against
+immobile mechanical defences. Initiative,
+surprise, unforeseen offensive
+action, keeping the besieger in ignorance
+of the dispositions of the
+garrison, and of what progress he is
+making: all these, with their influence
+on the morale of both sides, tend
+towards successful defences and do
+not point towards the use of armour.</p>
+
+<p>It may further be said that the
+use of armour as a general rule is unnecessary,
+because a concealed battery
+is a protected one; and with the long
+ranges now usual for heavy guns and
+howitzers, there is not generally much
+difficulty about concealment.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion, however, of the
+present writer an exception must be
+made for guns intended to flank the
+line of defence, which would generally
+need bomb-proof over-head cover.
+Further, when we leave theory and
+come to the consideration of actual
+problems of defence, it will often be
+found that it is necessary to place guns
+in certain positions where good concealment
+cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection
+must be given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of
+the attack.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">III. The Attack of Fortresses</p>
+
+<p>In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction
+of gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to
+follow, viz. the gradually increasing power of artillery, the
+systematizing of the works of attack, and in recent times
+the change that has been brought about by the effect of modern
+small-arm fire.</p>
+
+<p>Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars,
+to destroy hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of
+burning composition. Early in the 15th century we find cannon
+throwing metal balls, not only against hoarding and battlements,
+but also to breach the bases of the walls. It was only possible
+to work the guns very slowly, and archers or crossbowmen were
+needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from the
+crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period
+the artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and
+in much the same manner. The guns of the defence were inaccurate,
+and being placed high on the walls were made ineffective
+by bad mountings, which did not allow of proper depression.
+The besieger therefore could place his guns close to the walls,
+with only the protection of a few large gabions filled with earth,
+set up on the ground on either side of the muzzle.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the 15th century the power of artillery was
+largely increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it
+in an astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+The guns of the defence having gained equally in effectiveness,
+greater protection was needed for the attack batteries; bastions
+and outworks were introduced to keep the besieger at a distance
+from the inner walls; and the walls were sunk in ditches so that
+they could only be breached by batteries placed on the edge
+of the glacis.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 16th century fortresses were being rapidly remodelled
+on these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at
+once very much increased. The tendency of the assailants was
+still to make for the curtain, which had always been considered
+the weak point; but the besiegers now found that they had to
+bring their guns right up to the edge of the ditch before they could
+make a breach, and in doing so had to pass over ground which was
+covered by the converging fire from the faces of the bastions.
+Towards the end of the century the attack of the curtain was
+delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front increased by
+the introduction of ravelins.</p>
+
+<p>The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at
+first replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found inadequate;
+but a still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the
+siege guns to their positions, emplacing them and maintaining
+communication with them under fire. In addition to this, the
+guns of the defence until they could be overpowered (a slow
+process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of the fortress;
+and unless the besiegers could find some means of maintaining
+a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to be
+destroyed by sorties from the covered way.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the
+artillery. The besiegers found that they had first to bring up
+enough guns to overpower those of the defence; then
+<span class="sidenote">Siegecraft before Vauban.</span>
+to advance their guns to positions from which they
+could breach the walls; and throughout these operations
+to protect them against sorties. Breaches once
+made, the assault could follow on the old lines.</p>
+
+<p>The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the
+battery positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the
+first to make systematic use of them, having probably inherited
+the idea from the Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom,
+however, strongly disliked digging, and at first great leaders like
+Bayard and Montluc had themselves to use pick and shovel, to
+give their men an example. In due course the necessity of the
+trenches was recognized, but the soldiers never took kindly to
+them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner reminiscent
+of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry as
+workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.</p>
+
+<p>Through the 16th and most of the 17th century, therefore,
+we find the attack being conducted by means of trenches leading
+to the batteries, and supported by redoubts often called &ldquo;places
+of arms&rdquo; also made by trench work. During this period the
+result of a siege was always doubtful. Both trenches and
+batteries were arranged more or less at haphazard without any
+definite plan; and naturally it often happened that offensive
+action by the besieged against the trenches would disorder the
+attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken from a
+late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of
+the general practice of that day when Vauban&rsquo;s methods were
+not yet generally known.</p>
+
+<p>Another weak point about the attack was that after the
+escarp walls had been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has
+been described, there was no clear idea as to how they should
+be breached. The usual process was merely an indiscriminate
+pounding from batteries established on the crest of the glacis.
+Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned after they had
+been carried as far as the attempt to breach.</p>
+
+<p>It is in no way strange that this want of method should have
+characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had
+begun to assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had
+to be assimilated. Guns were gradually growing in power;
+sieges were conducted under all sorts of conditions, sometimes
+against medieval castles, sometimes against various and widely-differing
+examples of the new fortification; and the military
+systems of the time were not favourable to the evolution of
+method. It is the special feature of Vauban&rsquo;s practical genius
+for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and
+made the issue of a siege under normal conditions, a mere matter
+of time, usually a very short time.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of Vauban&rsquo;s teaching and practice cannot be
+condensed into the limits of this article, but special reference
+must be made to several points. The most important
+of these is his general arrangement of the attack.
+<span class="sidenote">Vauban&rsquo;s teaching.</span>
+The ultimate object of the attack works was to make
+a breach for the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary
+to establish breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and
+before this could be done it was necessary to overpower the
+enemy&rsquo;s artillery. This preliminary operation is nowadays
+called the &ldquo;artillery duel.&rdquo; In Vauban&rsquo;s day the effective
+range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us that it was customary
+to establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the place, but
+that at that range they did little more than make a great deal
+of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the
+preliminary operations of investment, &amp;c., had been completed,
+was to establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place,
+to counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front
+of attack; and to protect these batteries against sorties. After
+the artillery of the defences had been subdued&mdash;if it could not
+be absolutely silenced&mdash;it was necessary to push trenches to
+the front so that guns might be conveyed to the breaching
+positions and emplaced there in batteries. Throughout these
+processes it was necessary to protect the working parties and the
+batteries against sorties.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:532px" src="images/img708.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 64.&mdash;Siege-works of the 17th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For this purpose Vauban devised the <i>Places d&rsquo;armes</i> or <i>lignes
+parallèles</i>. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the
+siege of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which
+was captured in thirteen days after the opening of the trenches.
+The object of these parallels was to provide successive positions
+for the guard of the trenches, where they could be at hand to
+repel sorties. The latter were most commonly directed against
+the trenches and batteries, to destroy them and drive out the
+working parties. The most vulnerable points were the heads
+of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that the
+guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads
+of the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so
+from the covered way. This was provided for as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds.
+from the place, this being considered the limiting range of action
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+of a sortie. The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft.
+deep, the excavated earth being thrown forward to make a
+parapet 3 or 4 ft. high. In front of the first parallel and close
+to it were placed the batteries of the &ldquo;first artillery position.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy&rsquo;s
+artillery, for which purpose most of them were placed in prolongation
+of the faces of the fortress so as to enfilade
+them, the &ldquo;Approach Trenches&rdquo; were being pushed
+<span class="sidenote">The attack.</span>
+forward. The normal attack included a couple of
+bastions and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress
+as could support them; and the approach trenches (usually
+three sets) were directed on the capitals of the bastions and
+ravelin, advancing in a zigzag so arranged that the prolongations
+of the trenches always fell clear of the fortress and could not be
+enfiladed.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 65, taken from Vauban&rsquo;s <i>Attack and Defence of Places</i>,
+shows clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:834px; height:578px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Regular Attack (Vauban).</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly
+half-way to the most advanced points of the covered way, the
+&ldquo;second parallel&rdquo; was constructed, and again the approach trenches
+were pushed forward. Midway between the second parallel and the
+covered way, short branches called <i>Demi-parallels</i> were thrown out
+to either flank of the attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis
+came the third parallel. Thus there was always a secure position
+for a sufficient guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working
+parties could fall back and the guard would advance.</p>
+
+<p>Trenches were either made by <i>common trenchwork, flying trenchwork
+or sap</i>. In the first two a considerable length of trench was
+excavated at one time by a large working party extended along the
+trench: flying trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being
+distinguished from common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by
+the help of which protection could be more quickly obtained. Both
+these kinds of trenchwork were commenced at night, the position
+of the trench having been previously marked out by tape. The
+&ldquo;tasks&rdquo; or quantities of earth to be excavated by each man were
+so calculated that by daybreak the trench would afford a fair amount
+of cover. Flying trenchwork was generally used for the 2nd parallel
+and its approaches, and as far beyond it as possible. In proportion
+as the attack drew nearer to the covered way, the fire of the defenders&rsquo;
+small-arms and wall-pieces naturally grew more effective, though
+by this time most of their artillery would have been dismounted
+by the fire of the siege batteries. It therefore became necessary
+before reaching the 3rd parallel to have recourse to sap.</p>
+
+<p>Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing
+forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the
+sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a
+trench 1 ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench
+<span class="sidenote">Sapping.</span>
+he had a shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the
+gabions in position one after another as the sap-head progressed.
+Other men following strengthened the parapet
+with fascines, and increased the trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a
+width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig. 66, taken from Vauban&rsquo;s treatise on
+the attack, shows the process clearly. The sap after being completed
+to this extent could be widened at leisure to ordinary trench
+dimensions by infantry working parties.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:369px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;Sapping (Vauban).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged
+his sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which
+increased rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all
+concerned to do their best, and reckoned that under average conditions
+he could depend on a
+rate of progress for an ordinary
+sap of about 50 yds. in 24
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to compare
+the more recent method of
+sapping with that above described
+(fig. 67 taken from the
+<i>Instruction in Military Engineering</i>,
+1896). It is no longer
+possible to place gabions in
+position at the sap-head
+under fire. Accordingly the
+leading sapper excavates to the
+full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and
+the rate of progress is retarded
+proportionately, so that an
+advance of only 15 to 30 yds.
+in 24 hours can be reckoned
+on instead of 50. The head
+of the sap is protected by a
+number of half-filled sandbags,
+which the leading sapper
+throws forward as he goes on.</p>
+
+<p>The nearer the approaches
+drew to the covered way, the
+more oblique became the zig-zags,
+so that little forward
+progress was made in proportion
+to the length of the trench.
+The approaches were then
+carried straight to the front,
+by means of the &ldquo;double
+sap,&rdquo; which consisted of two
+single saps worked together
+with a parapet on each side
+(fig. 68). To protect these
+from being enfiladed from the
+front, traverses had to be left
+at intervals, usually by turning the two saps at right angles to right
+or left for a few feet, then forward, and so on as shown in fig. 69,
+the distance apart of these traverses being of course regulated by
+the height from which the enemy&rsquo;s fire commanded the trench.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From
+the third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis
+by means of the double sap. It was then pushed right and
+left along the glacis, a little distance from the crest of the
+<span class="sidenote">Later stages of the attack.</span>
+covered way. This was called &ldquo;crowning&rdquo; the covered way,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+and on the position thus gained breaching batteries were established
+in full view of the escarp. While the escarp was being
+breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack
+throughout, a mine gallery (see <i>Mining</i> below) was
+driven under the covered way and an opening made
+through the counterscarp into the ditch. The sap was
+then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the breach, the
+defenders&rsquo; resistance being kept under by musketry and artillery
+fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus
+captured successively, and where the bastions had been retrenched
+the same methods were used against the retrenchment.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:336px" src="images/img710a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Military Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery
+Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 67.&mdash;&ldquo;Deep&rdquo; Sap.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least
+expenditure of ammunition. This was done by making, with
+successive shots placed close together (which was feasible even
+in those days from a position so close as the crest of the covered
+way) horizontal and vertical cuts through the revetment wall.
+The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being thus
+detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the
+earth from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention
+of Vauban. He showed how, in enfilading the face of a work,
+by using greatly reduced charges a shot could be made to drop
+over the crest of the parapet and skim along the terreplein,
+dismounting guns and killing men as it went.</p>
+
+<p>The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method
+and thorough organization. There was a deadly certainty
+about his system that gave rise to the saying &ldquo;Place
+assiégée, place prise.&rdquo; He left nothing to chance,
+<span class="sidenote">18th-century principles of defence.</span>
+and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress
+of saps across the ditch and up the breach to the loss
+and delay that might follow an unsuccessful assault. His contemporary
+and nearest rival Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges
+by heavy artillery fire and attacks across the open; but in the
+long run his sieges were slower than Vauban&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>So much a matter of form did the attack become under these
+conditions, that in comparing the supposed defensive powers
+of different systems of fortification it was usual to calculate the
+number of days that would be required in each case before the
+breach was opened, the time being measured by the number of
+hours of work required for the construction of the various
+trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of
+course that no place under any circumstances could hold out
+more than a given number of days; and naturally, when the
+whole question had become one of formula, it is not surprising
+to find that places were very often surrendered without more
+than a perfunctory show of resistance.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:445px" src="images/img710b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Double Sap.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:254px" src="images/img710c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;Direct advance by Double Sap.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since
+it was impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected
+progress of the besiegers&rsquo; trenches, no real resistance was possible
+until after they had reached the covered way, and this idea is
+at the root of the extraordinary complications of outworks
+and multiplied lines of ramparts that characterized the &ldquo;systems&rdquo;
+of this period. No doubt if a successor to Vauban could have
+brought the same genius to bear on the actual defence of places
+as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that the
+essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the
+body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want
+of such a man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves
+contentedly to the loss of the open ground outside their walls,
+and relied either upon
+successive permanent lines
+of defence, or if these did
+not exist, upon extemporized
+retrenchments,
+usually at the gorge of the
+bastion.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that such
+experienced soldiers as
+most of them were should
+not have realized the fatal
+effect upon the minds of
+the defenders which this
+almost passive abandonment
+of line after line
+must needs produce. Even
+a civilian&mdash;Machiavelli&mdash;had
+seen into the truth
+of the matter years before
+when he said (<i>Treatise on
+the Art of War</i>, Book vii.):
+&ldquo;And here I ought to
+give an advice ... to
+those who are constructing
+a fortress, and that
+is, not to establish within its circuit fortifications which may
+serve as a retreat to troops who have been driven back from
+the first line.... I maintain that there is no greater danger
+for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire
+in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a
+secure retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does
+in fact abandon it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be remembered that in those days when
+soldiers were mostly of a separate or professional caste, the
+whole thing had become a matter of business. Fighting was
+so much regulated by the laws and customs of war that men
+thought nothing of giving up a place if, according to accepted
+opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they could no
+longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set
+in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now
+and then when
+some officer of
+very unusual resolution
+was in
+command. This
+is the real reason
+for the feeble resistance
+so often
+made by fortresses
+in the 17th and
+18th centuries,
+which has been
+attributed to inherent
+weakness
+in fortifications.
+Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a place
+until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at
+least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation
+of the powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign
+he was trying to impress upon his governors the importance of
+their charge. The limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for
+history at that time could have afforded plenty of instances of
+places that had been successfully defended for many months
+after breaches were opened, and assault after assault repulsed
+on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the 17th and
+18th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison
+which surrendered without giving too much trouble after a
+breach had been opened should have honourable consideration;
+while if they put the besiegers to the pains of storming the breach,
+they were liable to be put to the sword.</p>
+
+<p>It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft
+of Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest,
+but because the system he introduced was practically
+unaltered until the end of the 19th century. The
+<span class="sidenote">Peninsular War.</span>
+sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his
+lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposition
+of siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained
+in the Crimea, the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish
+War. The sieges in the Napoleonic wars were few, except in the
+Iberian peninsula. These last differed from those of the Vauban
+period and the 18th century in this, that instead of being deliberately
+undertaken with ample means, against fortresses that
+answered to the requirements of the time, they were attempted
+with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date
+works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had
+rudimentary outworks, and escarps that could be seen and
+breached from a distance. At that time, though the power of
+small arms had increased very slightly since the last century,
+there had been a distinct improvement in artillery, so that it
+was possible to breach a visible revetment at ranges from 500
+to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for engineers,
+siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be carried
+out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great
+importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical
+advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp
+from a distance&mdash;a new departure&mdash;and launching assaults
+from trenches that had not reached the covered way. Under
+these circumstances the direct attacks on breaches failed several
+times, with great loss of life. Wellington in one or two earlier
+despatches reflected on his engineers for not establishing their
+batteries on the crest of the glacis. The failures are, however,
+clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a conclusion without
+proper preparation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:710px; height:496px" src="images/img711.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>So much has been written of late years in criticism of the fortification
+to what may be called the Vauban period that it is important
+to note what were the preparations considered necessary for a siege
+at that time (<i>Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814</i>). Sir John
+Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data accumulated
+by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of
+Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work
+of entrenching, sapping, &amp;c., on the front attacked was much the
+same whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the
+other hand the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting
+men inside the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to
+be sufficient to allow three or four complete shifts or &ldquo;reliefs&rdquo; for all
+work and duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other
+duties, he calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place
+situated in open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080
+effectives, and remarks further that this force would be greatly
+exhausted after a month&rsquo;s service. The same place held by 10,000
+would call for a besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties
+increasing, but not working parties). Thus the besieger should if
+possible have a superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000,
+6 to 1 if 10,000 and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery,
+he should have as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those
+of the defender on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweeping
+every line subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses,
+&amp;c. Later in the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the
+covered way and places of
+arms, and finally, after the
+covering of the covered way,
+fifty additional battering guns
+would be required. It is
+apparent from this that the
+practical engineers of the day
+looked upon a siege as a serious
+matter, and did not find
+permanent fortifications wanting
+in defensive strength.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the long peace that
+followed the Napoleonic
+wars, one advance
+was made in siegecraft.
+In England in 1824
+successful experiments were
+carried out in breaching an
+unseen wall by curved or
+indirect fire from howitzers.
+At Antwerp in 1830 the increasing
+power and range
+of artillery, and especially
+of howitzers, were used for
+<span class="sidenote">Crimea.</span>
+bombarding purposes, the
+breaches there being mostly
+made by mines. Then came
+one of the world&rsquo;s great
+sieges; that of Sevastopol
+in 1854-1855 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crimean
+War</a></span>). The outstanding
+lesson of Sevastopol is the
+value of an active defence;
+of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench and
+countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in proportion
+to the increased power of the rifle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of
+Sevastopol with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is
+essential to remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal.
+Sir John Jones has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and
+besieged should be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery
+for the attack. The following quotations may be added:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The siege corps should be sufficiently strong&mdash;(1) To invest the
+fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the
+efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to
+execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete
+investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has
+repeatedly shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously
+increased if the garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies
+from outside, and to rid themselves of their sick and wounded.&rdquo;
+(Lewis). Again as regards artillery: &ldquo;In a regular attack, where
+every point is gained inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without
+overpowering the defensive artillery&rdquo;; and &ldquo;it is useless to attempt
+to sap near a place till its artillery fire is subdued ...&rdquo; (Jones).</p>
+
+<p>These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol
+that (<i>a</i>) there was no investment&mdash;in fact the Russians came nearer
+to investing the Allies; (<i>b</i>) the Russians had the preponderance in
+guns almost throughout; (<i>c</i>) the Russian force in and about
+Sevastopol was numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must
+add to this that Todleben had been able to get rid of most of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+civilian population, and those who remained were chiefly dockyard
+workmen, able to give most valuable assistance on the defence works.
+The circumstances were therefore exceptionally favourable to an
+active defence. The weak point about the extemporized earthworks,
+which eventually led to the fall of the place, was the want of good
+bomb-proof cover near the parapets.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty.
+The Germans were not anxious to undertake siege operations
+when it could be avoided. In several cases minor
+fortresses surrendered after a slight bombardment.
+<span class="sidenote">Franco-German War.</span>
+In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans
+contented themselves with establishing a blockade or
+detaching a small observing force. By far the most interesting
+siege was that of Belfort (<i>q.v.</i>). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau
+employed the active defence so successfully by extemporizing
+detached redoubts and fortifying outlying villages, that he
+obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small force at first)
+to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded in holding
+the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the enceinte,
+for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect fire,
+withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the
+ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &amp;c. At Paris the French
+found great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous
+positions outside the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a
+disadvantage in being fired through embrasures. These had
+served their purpose when artillery fire was very inaccurate,
+but had now for a long time been recognized by the best engineers
+as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Düppel in 1864
+had mounted their siege guns on &ldquo;overbank&rdquo; carriages; that
+is, high carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the
+parapet of the battery without embrasures. The guns in the
+Paris forts which were further handicapped by conspicuous
+parapets and the bad shooting of the gunners were easily
+silenced.</p>
+
+<p>At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The
+escarp of Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method.
+The breaching battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck
+the face of the wall at an angle (horizontally) of 55°, the effect
+being observed and reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds
+from 60-pounder guns sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will
+be observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in
+the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was
+crossed by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a
+parapet or screen of sandbags.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds.
+wide, and 6 to 9 ft. deep.... It was determined to effect the
+passage by a cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by
+breweries near at hand.... The formation of the bridge was begun
+at nightfall. A pioneer swam across, hauled over a cable, and made
+it fast to the hedge on the berm. Four men were stationed in the
+water, close to the covered way, the casks were rolled down to them
+one after the other, and fitted with saddles, so as to form piers ...
+these piers were successively boomed out along the line of the cable.... In
+two hours the bridge was finished, and the lunette was
+entered.... The work had not been discovered by the besieged,
+and the formation of lodgments inside the lunette was already begun,
+when the noise made by some troops in passing the bridge attracted
+attention, and drew a fire which cost the besiegers about 50 men.
+A dam was afterwards substituted for the bridge, as it was repeatedly
+struck by shells.&rdquo; (<i>R.E. Professional Papers</i>, vol. xix.)</p>
+
+<p>It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time.
+Such operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending
+guns remained in action.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically
+nothing from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish
+war taught less, Plevna (<i>q.v.</i>) having been defended
+by field works and attacked by the old-fashioned
+<span class="sidenote">Modern siege warfare.</span>
+methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century
+military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the
+sieges of the future would work out. As guns and projectiles
+continued to improve the &ldquo;attaque brusquée&rdquo; proposed by von
+Sauer had many adherents. It was thought that a heavy
+bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the way for
+an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special
+appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the
+strength of the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works,
+would be greater than ever when the field works were backed by
+permanent works, good communications and the resources of a
+fortress. One thing was obvious&mdash;namely, that as long as the
+artillery of the place, of even the smallest calibres, remained
+unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and sapping would be
+enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed a clear
+conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture
+delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair
+example of the vagueness of idea then prevailing: &ldquo;For the
+attack, the following is the actual procedure: Accumulation and
+preparation of material for attack before the fortress: advance
+of attacking artillery, covered by infantry. Artillery duel.
+Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of the capability
+for defence of the position attacked; when possible by long-range
+artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers. Occupation
+of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines
+of the fortress.&rdquo; That seemed quite a simple prescription, but
+the necessary drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur
+great uncertainty as to the future of the attack remains.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:729px" src="images/img712.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Textbook of Fortification</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery
+Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 71.&mdash;Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege
+batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed
+each other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided
+human eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the
+parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly
+the task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets
+and embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege
+batteries were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the construction
+of such batteries, with traverses, &amp;c., involved much work.
+The height of parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft.
+6 in. to 8 ft., a great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the
+gun-platforms about 4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this
+was only possible where rock or water were not near the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of
+earth necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very
+easily deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+especially the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted
+earth, and clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These
+facts were taken note of in England more than on the Continent in
+the design of instructional siege batteries.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the
+long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule
+be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even
+from balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct fire
+batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets
+unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light
+splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of
+common shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure
+and by daylight.</p>
+
+<p>The most important point about the modern battery is the gun
+platform for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require
+very solid construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not
+long ago it was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance
+than the attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required
+a concrete bed, which could not be made at short notice. The
+Japanese, however, at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 11 in.
+howitzers. It may be remarked that difficulties which loom largely
+in peace are often overcome easily enough under the stress of war.</p>
+
+<p>Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The
+old powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to
+batteries, and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such propellants
+as cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open.
+They are very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode
+like gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof
+magazines for them in connexion with the batteries.</p>
+
+<p>In future sieges the question of supply will be more important
+than it has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up
+of supplies from the base of operations, the task of distribution at
+the front is a very large one. The Paris siege man&oelig;uvres of 1894
+furnish some instructive data on this point. The main siege park
+was at Meaux, 10 m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average
+distance from the 1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked
+was 5000 yds. The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral
+batteries covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st
+artillery position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds.
+To connect Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of
+narrow gauge railway largely along existing roads. The line was
+single, with numerous branches and sidings. They ran 11 regular
+trains to the front daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The
+amount of artillery material sent up was over 5000 tons, without
+any projectiles; but it can easily be imagined that large demands
+were also made on transport for other purposes. For instance, one
+complete bakery train was sent up daily. The amount of ammunition
+sent up would be limited only by the power of transporting it.
+A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of from 500 to
+1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of firing.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future
+(putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of
+the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour
+the artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery
+duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers&rsquo; guns do not succeed
+in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery
+position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed positions,
+will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will be necessary
+for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points, and to fight
+for those that offer better positions for fire and observation. In
+doing this they will have to face the defenders&rsquo; infantry, entrenched,
+backed by their unsilenced guns, and having secure places of assembly
+from which to deliver counter-attacks. The distance to which they
+can work forward and establish themselves under these conditions
+will depend on the ground. It will then be for the engineers to
+cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present conditions,
+will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough to cause
+the failure of the siege.</p>
+
+<p>As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be &ldquo;deep,&rdquo; as long
+as the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap
+already described was first introduced, it was known as a &ldquo;deep sap&rdquo;;
+but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep
+sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got
+below the surface of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the
+whole of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench
+to the rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by
+splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a
+foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should
+be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is
+completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet
+in places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the
+guard of the trenches.</p>
+
+<p>The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders&rsquo;
+trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be
+made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better
+of the defenders in a contest with shells from
+short-range mortars.</p>
+
+<p>Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary
+eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so
+in the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle
+of a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground
+give the utmost opportunity to the defenders&rsquo; fire, and the least
+chance of concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable
+latitude of choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course,
+the same latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the
+<i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the
+whole country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be
+unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the
+difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will
+provide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated
+by searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be
+crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great
+the task will be for the besieger.</p>
+
+<p>There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed,
+the use of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is
+expected of balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to
+correspond to peace expectations. They must be kept at a considerable
+distance from the enemy&rsquo;s guns, a distance which will increase
+as the means of range-finding improve; and as the height from which
+they can observe usefully is limited, so is the observers&rsquo; power to
+search out hidden objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a
+captive balloon at a height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from
+an enemy&rsquo;s howitzer battery: and suppose the battery placed
+behind a steep hill-side or a grove of trees, at such a distance that a
+shell fired with 30° elevation can just clear this screen. The line of
+sight from the observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal
+at 2000 / (3 × 4000), that is <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span>, or roughly 10°. It is obvious, therefore, that
+the observer cannot see the battery.</p>
+
+<p>Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking
+the effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale
+a balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100
+guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number
+of highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in
+existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and
+the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an
+enemy were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions.</p>
+
+<p>Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly
+are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps
+marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery
+fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give
+better results than ever before, and the question of communication
+and transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs
+detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and
+supplies that will have to be handled.</p>
+
+<p>The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn
+and revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great
+attention. It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges
+in the future, when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient
+resources, will depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in
+trench work, on mining and countermining in connexion with the
+trenches, and on the use of light mortars made to throw large charges
+of high explosive for short distances with great accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of
+the greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its
+military importance, the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Japanese War</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Definitions.</span>&mdash;The following definitions may be useful, but have
+no place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is
+mainly devoted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Investment.</i>&mdash;This most necessary, almost indispensable operation
+of every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged,
+so as to cut off its communications with the outside world.
+<i>Preliminary investment</i> which is carried out by cavalry and light
+troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing
+the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. <i>Close
+investment</i> should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of
+communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term
+&ldquo;<i>blockade</i>&rdquo; is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation.</i>&mdash;These now obsolete
+terms were in great use until the 19th century. The <i>circumvallation</i>
+was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing
+position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of
+attack by a relieving army. The line of <i>contravallation</i> was the line
+of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the
+town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Observing Force.</i>&mdash;When circumstances make the reduction of a
+particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force
+is often detached to &ldquo;observe&rdquo; it. The duty of this force will be
+to watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids
+on the lines of communications.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bombardment.</i>&mdash;This operation, common to all ages, consists in a
+general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole
+target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target.
+In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment&mdash;whether
+of ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters
+tending to breed pestilence&mdash;upon a population closely crowded
+within its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military
+importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern
+conditions it cannot do much real harm.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">IV. Military Mining</p>
+
+<p>It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient
+resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining
+operations dates from the end of the 15th century. When
+Shakespeare makes Fluellen say, at Henry V.&rsquo;s siege of Harfleur,
+&ldquo;th&rsquo;athversary is digt himself four yards under the countermines;
+I think &rsquo;a will plow up all, if there is not better directions,&rdquo;
+he is anticipating the development of siegecraft by nearly 100
+years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is credited with the
+first practical use of explosive mines. He employed them with
+great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards,
+when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably
+the first to make permanent provision for their use in countermines.
+Countermining had been a measure of defence against
+the earlier methods of attack-mining; the object being to break
+into the besiegers&rsquo; galleries and fight hand to hand for the possession
+of them. When the explosive mine was introduced, it
+became the object of the defenders to establish their countermines
+near the besiegers&rsquo; galleries and destroy them by the effect
+of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have passed this
+branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods of
+mining have not advanced much, and the increased power
+of high explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least
+advantage in moving masses of earth.</p>
+
+<p>When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a
+certain distance of the enemy&rsquo;s works without having subdued
+their fire, he may find that the advance by sap becomes too slow
+and too dangerous. He can then advance underground by means
+of mine galleries, and by exploding large charges at the heads of
+these galleries can make a series of craters. These craters are
+then occupied by infantry, and are connected with each other
+and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming a new
+parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger
+can advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp.
+His mines will now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the
+counterscarp and afterwards the escarp. This is done by
+placing suitable charges at intervals behind the scarps at such a
+height above the foundations that the pressure of the earth above
+the mine will more than counterbalance the resistance of the
+masonry.</p>
+
+<p>But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There
+is as a general rule this broad difference between the mines of
+the defence and those of the attack, that the defenders
+do not wish the surface of the ground broken, lest
+<span class="sidenote">Mines and countermines.</span>
+increased opportunities of getting cover should be
+offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence,
+therefore, is to destroy the besiegers&rsquo; galleries without forming
+craters, and for this purpose they generally endeavour to get
+underneath the attack galleries. The defenders may, however,
+wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to explode mines under
+the attack parallels, in which case there is of course no objection
+to disturbing the surface.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed pt1">
+<p>&ldquo;At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object
+of the defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations
+as early as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the
+siege. Every endeavour must be made to push forward countermines
+so as to meet and check the attack. On the approach of the
+opponents to each other careful listening for the enemy must be
+resorted to. To this end it is necessary at <i>irregular</i> intervals to
+suspend all work for some minutes at a time, closing doors of communication
+and employing experienced listeners at the heads of the
+countermines. This matter is a most important one, as a premature
+explosion of the defender&rsquo;s mines is a double loss to the defender, a
+loss of a mine and an advantage to the enemy in more than one way.
+As soon as the overcharged mines of the besieger have been fired, a
+heavy fire should be brought to bear on the craters, and if possible
+sorties should be made to prevent the enemy occupying them. At
+the same time every effort should be made underground to surround
+with galleries, and as it were isolate, the craters so as to prevent the
+besieger making a new advance from them. The efforts of the
+attack at this stage will probably be directed to the formation of
+what are called &ldquo;Boule shafts&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> shafts partially lined in which
+charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), and to meet these
+in time the defender may resort to the use of boring tools, and so
+place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the countermines.
+His great object must be to prevent as long as possible
+the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions,
+when the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater
+than, that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence.&rdquo;
+(Lewis, <i>Text-book on Fortification, &amp;c.</i>, 1893.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of
+being able to establish beforehand a system of countermine
+galleries in masonry. Many systems have been worked out for
+this purpose. A good typical arrangement is that of General
+Marescot, published in 1799, shown in fig. 72.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:489px; height:845px" src="images/img714.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Textbook of Fortification</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery
+Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 72.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from
+the counterscarp gallery <i>e</i> to three of the points <i>a</i>) fall gently
+to the front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface&mdash;the
+deeper they are the less they will suffer from the enemy&rsquo;s mines.
+Branch galleries (marked <i>c b</i> + <i>d c</i>) run obliquely upward from
+them to right and to left, leading to the mines, which are placed
+at various depths, according to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Two main points must be observed in any system of countermines:
+the branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as
+not to present their sides to the action of the enemy&rsquo;s mines;
+and the distance between the ends of the branches from adjacent
+main galleries should be such that the enemy cannot pass between
+them unheard. This distance will vary with the nature of the
+soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient size
+for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries
+may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other
+branch galleries, called <i>listeners</i>, will be pushed out from main
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+and branch galleries. The section to fig. 1 of fig. 72 shows openings
+left for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches.
+A permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour,
+is shown in fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity
+was expended in the 18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments.</p>
+
+<p>The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which
+is desired. When the charge is strong enough to produce a
+crater, the radius of the circular opening on the surface
+of the ground is called the <i>radius of the crater</i>. The
+<span class="sidenote">Different kinds of mines.</span>
+line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest
+surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the <i>line
+of least resistance</i> (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the
+diameter of which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is
+called a one-lined crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R.,
+a <i>two-lined crater</i> and so on. <i>Common mines</i> are those which
+produce a two-lined crater. <i>Over-charged mines</i> produce craters
+greater than two-lined, and <i>undercharged mines</i> less. A <i>camouflet</i>
+does not produce a crater; it is used when the object is to
+destroy an enemy&rsquo;s gallery without breaking the surface. Fig.
+73 shows sections of the different kinds of mines, with their
+craters and the effect they will produce downwards and horizontally
+in ordinary earth.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:643px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Instructions in Military Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M.
+Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 73.&mdash;Mines.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place
+a long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will
+destroy all galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius,
+without much disturbing the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively
+recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in
+one of his galleries and his position approximately determined by the
+sound, it is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that
+direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to
+load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own
+mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations
+of war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most
+skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made
+less dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a
+hole several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction.
+With suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore
+hole 20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then
+pushed up to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small
+camouflet chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this
+chamber the charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No
+tamping of course is required.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results.
+It will certainly delay the besiegers&rsquo; advance very much and may
+do so indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence,
+namely that when ground has been much mined it becomes
+charged with poisonous gases. Some explosives are less noxious
+than others in this way, and it will be advantageous for the attack,
+but not necessarily for the defence, to make use of these.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Calculation of Charges.</i>&mdash;The quantity of powder required for a
+charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.<span class="sp">3</span>, and the following
+formulae are used:</p>
+
+<p>l = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in
+pounds, s = a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>For a common mine c = (s/10) l<span class="sp">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>For an overcharged mine c = (s/10) {l + .9 (r &minus; l)}<span class="sp">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>For an undercharged mine c = (s/10) {l &minus; .9 (l &minus; r)}<span class="sp">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The values to be given to s are:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; Nature of Soil.</td> <td class="tcc">Value of s.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Very light earth</td> <td class="tcc">0.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Common earth</td> <td class="tcc">1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hard sand</td> <td class="tcc">1.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Earth mixed with stones</td> <td class="tcc">1.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clay mixed with loam</td> <td class="tcc">1.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Inferior brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">1.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rock or good new brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">2.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Very good old brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">2.50</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Military mining is carried on by means of vertical <i>shafts</i> and
+horizontal or inclined <i>galleries</i>. When the soil is very stiff, very
+little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but
+usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used
+at intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases
+are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they
+take up more timber.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British
+service, namely the <i>common gallery</i> whose interior dimensions with
+cases are 5 ft. 6 in. × 2 ft., and the <i>branch gallery</i> which
+is 4 ft. × 2 ft. The <i>shaft</i> has about the same dimensions as
+<span class="sidenote">Shafts and galleries.</span>
+a branch gallery. Formerly it was sometimes necessary
+in the systematic attack of a fortress to get guns down into the ditch.
+For this purpose a &ldquo;great gallery&rdquo; was used, 6 ft. 6 in. in height and
+6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Miners&rsquo; Tools.</i>&mdash;These are few and simple. The pick and shovel
+differ from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable
+for the confined space in which they are used. There is also a <i>push-pick</i>,
+an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel head
+6 in. long and 3½ in. wide. The <i>miner&rsquo;s truck</i>, used for drawing the
+earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a small
+wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. Formerly the noise
+of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden floor of
+the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy. To obviate
+this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens nailed
+to the floor. The <i>miner&rsquo;s bucket</i> is a small canvas bucket with a
+couple of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up the
+shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to
+it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface.
+By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and
+labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the
+bucket.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventilation</i> is an important point. The breath of the miners and
+the burning of their candles (when electric light is not available)
+vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a
+gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing
+some means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing
+fresh air, by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to
+the head of the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by,
+there is great danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil
+into the gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of
+special apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped,
+so that the wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all.
+Ventilation can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the
+surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a
+mine, a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+side of the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of
+the direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the
+explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or
+boxes, precautions being taken against damp.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine
+is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which
+may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably
+be necessary to untamp the mine in order to renew the
+<span class="sidenote">Charging mines.</span>
+fuze; an operation attended by considerable danger.
+The loading of the mine should therefore be done by the officer in
+charge with his own hands. He has to work in a very cramped
+position and practically in the dark (unless with electric light) as of
+course no naked lights can be allowed near powder. Everything
+should therefore be prepared beforehand to facilitate the loading of
+the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham a 1000 &#8468; mine, at
+the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded in 30 minutes.
+The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in sandbags, and
+emptied into a box of the required size.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer
+who loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to
+make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery
+are not liable to damage in the process of tamping.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tamping.</i>&mdash;This operation consists in filling up the head of the
+gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no possibility
+of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The distance
+depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For a
+common mine it should extend to about 3/2 L.L.R. from the charge,
+when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to
+about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of
+timber across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;This may be done electrically, or by means of <i>safety</i> or
+<i>instantaneous fuze</i> or <i>powder hose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being
+exploded at any given moment. For this purpose <i>electric fuzes</i> (for
+powder) or <i>electric detonators</i> (for guncotton or other high explosive)
+are employed. The current that fires them is passed through copper
+wire leads.</p>
+
+<p>The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of
+about 3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile
+a minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in
+conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading
+from the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.</p>
+
+<p>Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by
+making a tube of strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with
+powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explosives.</i>&mdash;The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black
+variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and
+prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because
+their action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape
+through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick
+shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than gunpowder
+in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them
+give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent
+high explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively
+innocuous in this respect.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some formulae have been given above for the calculation
+of charges. It will, however, simplify matters for the
+<span class="sidenote">Effects of mines.</span>
+reader to record some actual instances of charges
+fired both in peace and war.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual
+leading the way, and the following results among others were obtained
+by him at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 &#8468; placed
+13 ft. below the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined
+crater, or &ldquo;common mine&rdquo;). Galleries were destroyed at distances
+equal to the L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions.
+Double the charge, placed at double the depth, <i>i.e.</i> 324 &#8468; with an
+L.L.R. of 27 ft. made no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries
+below it and on each side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge
+of 3828 &#8468; with L.L.R. of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed
+a gallery distant 61 ft. horizontally.</p>
+
+<p>Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experiments
+at La Fère about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer
+and inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His
+experiments were directed towards destroying an enemy&rsquo;s galleries
+at greater distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by
+means of very large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he
+called &ldquo;globes of compression.&rdquo; In one of them a charge of 4320 &#8468;
+of powder placed only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or
+&ldquo;compressed&rdquo; a gallery distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of
+the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.</p>
+
+<p>At Frederick the Great&rsquo;s siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very
+large charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 &#8468; with an L.L.R.
+of 16 ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle&rsquo;s
+<i>Frederick the Great</i> may recall his description of the contest of the
+rival engineers on this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 &#8468; of powder
+placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of
+15 ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 &#8468; of guncotton, calculated as
+being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under
+the same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence
+of tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the
+siege of Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The
+circumstances were all abnormal, and the untechnical
+account of it in <i>Battles and Leaders of the Civil War</i> (vol.
+<span class="sidenote">The Petersburg Mine, 1864.</span>
+iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining tools or materials
+and no military miners were available; and no one had
+any confidence in the success of the attempt except its
+originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession,
+his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and
+General Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrenchments
+were 130 yds. apart. The mine gallery was started behind the
+Federal lines and driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a
+field redoubt in the Confederate lines. There two branches were
+made right and left, each about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines
+aggregating 8000 &#8468; of powder were placed. The first attempt to
+fire them failed, and an officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter
+the gallery to seek the cause of the failure. A defective splice in two
+lengths of fuze was thus discovered and repaired. At the second
+attempt all the mines were fired simultaneously with success, and
+made a gigantic crater 170 ft. long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep.
+The occupants of the redoubt, at least several hundred men (they
+have been stated at 1000), were blown up and mostly killed. The
+assault which followed, however, failed completely, for want of
+organization. The infantry was drawn up in readiness to advance,
+but no outlets had been provided from the parallel, and this and other
+causes delayed the occupation of the crater and gave the defending
+artillery a moment&rsquo;s respite. Thus the assailants gained the crater
+but could not advance beyond it in face of the defenders&rsquo; fire, nor
+could they establish themselves within it, on its steep clay sides,
+for want of entrenching tools. A good many troops were sent forwards
+in support, but being in many cases of inferior quality, they
+could not be induced to go forward, and huddled in disorder in the
+already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were captured
+when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack and the
+total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing
+to advance the science of military mining, but a good deal has
+been done in peace to improve the means. Electric lighting and
+electric firing of mines will be a great help; modern drilling
+machines may be used to go through rock; ventilating arrangements
+are much improved; and the use of bored mines is sure
+to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught
+nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but
+the siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in
+future, in the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose
+trench, so in fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than
+ever. It appears that they will be essential to destroy both
+the ditch-flanking arrangements of forts and the escarp or other
+permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">V. Field Fortification</p>
+
+<p><i>Field Fortifications</i>, now more often spoken of as field defences,
+are those which are constructed at short notice, with the means
+locally available, usually when the enemy is near at hand.
+Subject to the question of time, a very high degree of strength
+can be given to them, if the military situation makes it worth
+while to expend sufficient labour. A century or more ago,
+the dividing line between permanent and field fortification
+was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high masonry
+escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent
+fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized.
+Works without masonry, in other ways made as strong as
+possible with deep ditches and heavy timbers,&mdash;such as would
+require about six weeks for their construction&mdash;were known
+as <i>semi-permanent</i>, and were used for the defence of places
+which acquired strategic importance in the course of a
+war, but were not immediately threatened. The term <i>field</i>
+fortification was reserved for works constructed of lighter
+materials, with parapets and ditches of only moderate development.
+Redoubts of this class required a fortnight at most for
+their construction.</p>
+
+<p>In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches
+were essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would
+be equally clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally
+admitted, and where the resources exist, the use of our present
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+means of construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, reinforced
+concrete and wire, in conjunction with the defensive
+power of modern firearms, makes it possible to extemporize
+in a very short time works having much of the resisting power
+of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can be expanded
+from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too exposed,
+in the presence of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions,
+a very limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration
+will show that its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected
+by the change from machine-thrown projectiles to those fired
+by rude smooth-bore guns. There is therefore nothing in the
+history of this branch of the subject that is worth tracing, from
+the earliest ages to about the end of the 18th century. One or
+two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is probably
+one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile
+weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth
+while to seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been
+found desirable to have some means of checking the onrush of
+an enemy physically or numerically superior. Hence the use
+by savage tribes, to this day, of pits, pointed stakes hidden in
+the grass, entanglements and similar obstacles. In this direction
+the ages have made no change, and the most highly civilized
+nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protection
+of camps at night, where small forces are operating against
+an enemy more numerous but inferior in arms and discipline.
+In daylight such an enemy is not feared, but at night his numbers
+might be dangerous. Hence the Roman practice of making
+each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for palisades; and the
+simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British for their
+camps in the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have
+always been used. Except wire, there is practically no new
+material. As to methods, the laagers of the Boers are preceded
+by the wagon-forts of the Hussites, and those no doubt by
+similar arrangements of British or Assyrian war chariots; and
+so in almost every direction it will be found that the expedient
+of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the countless yesterdays.
+The only really marked change in the arrangements of
+field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing
+rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to
+consider briefly what were the principles of field fortification at
+the end of the 18th century. That period has been chosen
+because it gives us the result of a couple of centuries of constant
+fighting between disciplined troops with fairly effective firearms.
+The field defences of the 19th century are transitional in
+character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show only
+faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not
+till quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted
+began to take shape.</p>
+
+<p>The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the
+Peninsular War were <i>command</i> and <i>obstacle</i>; now they are
+<i>protection</i> and <i>concealment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of
+smooth-bore muskets and guns as in those of javelins and
+arrows. When the enemy could get close up to a
+work without serious loss, and attack in close order,
+<span class="sidenote">Old type of field defences.</span>
+the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front
+of them. Moreover, since they could not rely on their
+fire alone to repulse the attack, they needed a two-deep line, with
+reserves close at hand, to meet it with the &ldquo;arme blanche.&rdquo;
+For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft. high, with a steep slope,
+perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must climb after
+passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after firing
+their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the
+parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had
+also the advantage that the attackers could not tell what was
+going on inside the redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered
+from their fire as well from view until the last moment.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended
+principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little
+power of defence at the time, unless they held practically as
+many men as would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles
+on the other hand had a greater value, against the inelastic
+tactics of the time, than they have now. A good position therefore
+was one which offered good fire-positions for redoubts and
+plenty of facilities for creating obstacles. Strong redoubts
+which could resist determined assaults; good obstacles in the
+intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, and troops
+in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes&mdash;these
+were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.</p>
+
+<p>The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns
+before the attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be
+made of a suitable thickness&mdash;from 4 or 5 ft. upwards&mdash;according
+to the time available, the resisting nature of the soil, and the
+severity of the bombardment expected.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained
+from the ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this
+obstacle. The garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt
+were to be sheltered, if possible, from the enemy&rsquo;s fire, and with
+this object great pains were bestowed on the principle of &ldquo;defilade.&rdquo;
+The object of defilade, which was a great fetish in
+theoretical works, was so to arrange the height of the parapet
+with reference to the terreplein of a work that a straight line
+(not, be it observed, the trajectory of the projectiles) passing
+from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most commanding
+point of the enemy&rsquo;s position, over the crest of the parapet,
+should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of
+the work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date
+after the development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless
+taught with great rigour till within the last twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with
+an addition of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of
+the parapet. If a wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary,
+the surplus earth could be used to form a glacis.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to
+allow the garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter
+of some difficulty if a small irregularly shaped work had to
+contain a strong garrison. Consideration of the plan and sections
+of these works will show that the banquette for infantry with
+its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off a good deal from the
+interior space within the crest-line. Guns were usually placed
+at the salients, where they could get the widest field of fire.
+They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through
+embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to
+fire over the parapet (<i>en barbette</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to
+elaborate theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was
+made between forts and redoubts, the former being those which
+were arranged to flank their own ditches, while the redoubts did
+not. Redoubts again were classed as &ldquo;closed,&rdquo; those which had
+an equally strong defence all round; and &ldquo;half-closed,&rdquo; those
+which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade for the gorge
+or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge defence)
+were named according to their trace, as <i>redans</i> and <i>lunettes</i>. A
+redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It was
+frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or
+breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming
+an obtuse angle, and two flanks.</p>
+
+<p>The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected,
+were designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-bastioned
+fronts, star traces, and so forth, and in the same books
+intricate calculations were entered into to balance the <i>remblai</i>
+and <i>déblai</i>, that is, the amount of earth in the parapets with that
+excavated from the ditches. In practice such niceties of course
+disappeared, though occasionally when the ground allowed of it
+star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.</p>
+
+<p>On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt
+to the ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the
+foreground, and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter
+without adding the complications of flanking defences. Sir
+John Jones, speaking of the traces of the several works in the
+Torres Vedras lines, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a,
+limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and
+two pieces of artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and
+six pieces of artillery, the importance of the object to be
+<span class="sidenote">Torres Vedras.</span>
+attained being the only guide in forming the dimensions.
+Many of the redoubts first thrown up, even some of the smallest,
+were shaped like stars, under the idea of procuring a flank defence
+for the ditches; but this construction was latterly rejected, it being
+found to cut up the interior space, and to be almost fallacious with
+respect to flank defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in
+some cases equal to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even
+when, from the greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus
+gained, the angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it
+demanded more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably
+to be expected to aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and
+further, this construction prevented the fire of the work being more
+powerful in front than in rear.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:223px" src="images/img718a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Torres Vedras Works.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to
+consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing
+himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to
+insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity.
+In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of
+adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients.
+In the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the establishment
+of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too
+simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most
+fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or
+musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present
+the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object
+to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of
+proceeding.</p>
+
+<p>This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to
+isolated works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those
+considered the key of any position. No labour or expense should be
+spared to render such works capable of resisting the most furious
+assaults, either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a
+flank defence in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula
+shows that an unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field
+profile, if skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be
+carried.... Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior
+space, which renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small
+works, apply to works of large dimensions.... Under this view
+the great work on Monte Agraça (fig. 75) must be considered as very
+defective, the flank defence being confined to an occasional break
+of a few feet in the trace, caused by a change of direction in the
+contour of the height, whilst the interior space is more than doubly
+sufficient for the number of its allotted garrison to encamp.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:340px" src="images/img718b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;Monte Agraça, Torres Vedras.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Interior and other Defences.</i>&mdash;This work, however, had some of its
+salient points ... cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply
+revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the
+interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within
+it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient
+points formed into an independent post. These interior defences
+and retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic
+amongst the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part
+of indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by
+the entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such
+interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of a
+large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or tower,
+placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent earthen
+works, and merit far more attention than they generally receive.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:350px" src="images/img718c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;Torres Vedras Works.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently
+found occupying salient knolls ... readily converted into admirable
+interior posts of that nature. The profile of the several works
+varied on every face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked
+or cannonaded; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches
+should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the crest
+of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the
+counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless
+exposed to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft.;
+and some, on high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility
+be brought against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft.
+in thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the
+use of the defenders&rsquo; bayonets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:272px" src="images/img718d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 77.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration
+because they offer very good historical examples, and also
+because of the value of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones,
+who as a captain was the engineer in charge of their construction.
+At the same time it must be remembered that they differ from
+ordinary field-works in having an unusual degree of strength,
+plenty of time and civilian labour having been available for their
+construction. In this respect they approximate more to semi-permanent
+works, the main reason why they did not receive
+under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and
+parapet being that in addition to the large number of works
+required, much labour was expended in abatis, inundations,
+scarping hill-sides and constructing roads.</p>
+
+<p>Some further remarks of Sir John on the <i>situations of the
+works</i> are very instructive:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations
+on the summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+appearance; but it was in reality a defect ... for the fire of their
+artillery on the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose
+half its powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face
+of the hill sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of
+most uncertain effect.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave confidence
+to the young troops which composed their garrisons, protected
+them from a cannonade, and screened their interior from
+musketry, unless fired at a high angle, and consequently at random.
+These considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites
+selected for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot
+induce an approval of them as a general measure.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts
+were the most important features of lines of defence, and that
+they combined physical obstacle and protection with good
+musketry and artillery positions. The value of concealment
+was not ignored, but it was as a rule subordinated to other
+considerations.</p>
+
+<p>The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the
+Crimean War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle
+began to assert itself, and it was found that a simple
+breastwork defended by a double rank of men could
+<span class="sidenote">19th century.</span>
+protect itself by its fire against an ordinary assault.
+This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to
+any defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls,
+hedges or any natural cover. About the period of the Franco-German
+War other considerations came in. The increased
+velocity of artillery projectiles reduced in some ways their
+destructive effects against earth parapets, because the shell had
+an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on striking a bank
+of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it impossible for
+troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some distance
+behind the parapet.</p>
+
+<p>These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that
+time. The reason was partly a want of touch between the
+engineers and the non-technical branches of most armies, and
+partly that original writers from the Napoleonic wars to the
+present day have been more occupied with the primary question
+of the value of field defences as a matter of tactics than with
+their details considered from the standpoint of fortification.</p>
+
+<p>There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed
+against all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so
+essential to success. Those writers who treated of the arrangements
+of defences devoted themselves to theoretical details of
+trace quite after the old style; discussing the size and shape of
+typical redoubts, their distance apart and relation to lines of
+trenches, &amp;c. The profiles&mdash;the thick parapet with command
+of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the inadequate cover behind
+the parapet&mdash;remained as they had been for a century.</p>
+
+<p>The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind
+slight defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It
+proved the great resisting power of extemporized lines; but
+more than that, we begin to find new arrangements for protection
+against shell fire (see plans and sections in Greene&rsquo;s <i>The Russian
+Army and its Campaign in Turkey</i>). The trace of the works and
+the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres Vedras; but
+a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof shelters
+show the necessity for a different class of protection. The
+parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a
+better; the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the
+necessities of the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers
+of musketry fire, as for instance one from the crest of the glacis,
+one from the parapet, and one from a traverse in rear of it.
+This, however, is a development which will not be necessary in
+future, thanks to magazine rifles.</p>
+
+<p>From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly
+increased, and certain new principles, causing the field defences
+of the present day to differ radically from those of
+the 18th century, remained to be developed. These
+<span class="sidenote">Principles of modern field defences.</span>
+may be considered under the following heads: the
+nature of protection required, the diminished need
+of obstacle, and the adaptation of works to ground.</p>
+
+<p>The principle that <i>thickness</i> of parapet is no longer required,
+to resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896.
+The distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on
+parapets comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the
+crest of a parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way,
+and displace a bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the
+contents of the shell, whether shrapnel or explosive, that is
+the source of danger and not the shell itself. Thus the enemy&rsquo;s
+object is to burst his common shell immediately behind the
+parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in front of it, in order
+to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet is thick enough
+if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same thickness will
+<i>a fortiori</i> keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of shell. For this
+purpose 3 ft. is enough.</p>
+
+<p>Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the
+parapet, deep enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel,
+and narrow enough to minimize the chance of a common shell
+dropping into it. This protection is increased by frequent
+traverses across the trench.</p>
+
+<p>The most essential point of all is <i>concealment</i>. In gaining this
+we say good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection
+is now given by the trench rather than the parapet; command
+and the ditch-obstacle (which furnished the earth for the high
+parapet) are alike unnecessary. Concealment can therefore be
+studied by keeping the parapet down to the lowest level above
+the surface from which the foreground can be seen. This may be
+18 in. or less.</p>
+
+<p>The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders
+are not abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night
+work, or when the assailant is so strong as to be able to force
+home his attack in face of protected rifle fire, what is needed is not
+a deep ditch immediately in front of the parapet, difficult to
+climb, but also difficult to flank, but an obstacle that will
+detain him under fire at short range. It may be an entanglement,
+an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check the
+rush and make him move slowly.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>adaptation of works to ground</i>, the governing factor is
+the power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in
+Peninsular times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence
+of lines by guns in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple
+line of trench could not resist a strong attack without such
+support. Now, however, infantry behind a slight trench, with
+a good field of fire should be able to defend themselves against
+any infantry attack.</p>
+
+<p>This being so, the enemy&rsquo;s artillery seeks to locate the trenches
+and to cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the
+defenders to keep down under cover. If they can succeed in
+doing this, it is possible for the attacking infantry to advance,
+and the artillery fire is kept up until the last moment, so that the
+attack may have the narrowest possible space to cover after the
+defenders have manned their parapets and opened fire. Fig. 78
+shows the action of various natures of projectiles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:297px" src="images/img719.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 78.&mdash;Effect of Projectiles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We need not here discuss the rôle of the defenders&rsquo; artillery in
+replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor
+for the moment consider how far the defence of the trenches
+while under artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover.
+The main question is&mdash;what is, in view of the nature of the attack,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+the best disposition of lines of trench; and do they require the
+addition of redoubts?</p>
+
+<p>The most important point, with the object of protection, is
+that the trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best
+defence against artillery. With the object of resistance by their
+own fire they must have a good view, or, as it is generally
+described, no <i>dead ground</i> in front of them. For this purpose
+300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the ground is even and affords
+no cover.</p>
+
+<p>This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness
+of the zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has
+of late years very much affected the choice of ground for a line
+of trenches.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down
+until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the
+&ldquo;military crest&rdquo; (Fr. <i>crête militaire</i>), <i>i.e.</i> the highest
+point on the hill from which the whole of the slopes in
+<span class="sidenote">Siting of trenches.</span>
+front can be seen. Thus in the three sections of ground
+shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b and c respectively. The simplicity
+of this prescription made it attractive and it came to be rather
+abused in the text-books. There were, even before the improvements
+in artillery, objections to it, because on most slopes the military
+crest would be found at very different elevations on different parts
+of the line, so that by a strict adherence to the rule some of the
+trenches would be placed near the top of the hill, and some in
+dangerous isolation near the bottom. Moreover a rounded hill has
+no military crest.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:119px" src="images/img720a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 79.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of
+the fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and
+the whole question is extremely difficult.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not
+vary along the line, the positions at <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, fig. 79, are bad because
+they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery.
+That at <i>b</i> is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that
+the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire
+down it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the
+very last moment. The position <i>c</i> has the advantage of not being
+on the sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:69px" src="images/img720b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 80.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:367px; height:83px" src="images/img720c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 81.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:107px" src="images/img720d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 82.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:141px" src="images/img720e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 83.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Such a position as that at
+<i>d</i>, fig. 80, is good, but protected
+or concealed communications
+must be made
+for the supports coming
+from <i>e</i> over the brow of the
+hill.</p>
+
+<p>Another possible position for the infantry line is at <i>f</i>, fig. 81, with
+the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite
+concealed from the enemy&rsquo;s artillery. The drawback is that no
+retirement up the
+exposed slope
+would be possible
+for them, except
+at night. The fire
+from <i>f</i> will be
+<i>grazing</i>, which will
+be a great advantage as compared with the <i>plunging</i> fire that would
+be obtained from a position up the hill.</p>
+
+<p>It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration
+to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on
+the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and
+only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the
+advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid
+for in some degree by exposure to the enemy&rsquo;s artillery; and at
+least as much consideration&mdash;possibly as much labour&mdash;must be
+given to communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches
+themselves. Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment
+but also gives cover to the enemy&rsquo;s approach. The lie of the ground
+will itself dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the predispositions
+of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the
+general trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a
+more difficult target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of
+cross and flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care
+should, however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique
+or enfilade fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by
+traversing.</p>
+
+<p>Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the
+freshly turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches
+or grass. In this connexion it should be remembered
+that after a day or two cut leaves and grass wither and
+<span class="sidenote"><i>Trenches.</i></span>
+may become conspicuous against a green surface. Where the ground
+is so even that a good view of the foreground is possible from the
+surface level, the trench may be made
+without a parapet; but this entails
+great labour in removing and disposing
+of the excavated earth. A common
+device is to conceal the parapet as well
+as possible and to make a dummy
+trench some distance away to draw
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the direct concealment of
+trenches, care must be taken that the site is not conspicuous. Thus
+a trench should not be placed along the meeting line of two different
+kinds of cultivation, or along the edge of a belt of heather on a hill-side,
+or where a difference of gradient is sharply defined; or where
+any conspicuous
+landmark would
+help the enemy&rsquo;s
+artillery to get the
+range.</p>
+
+<p>Trenches are
+broadly distinguished
+as &ldquo;fire
+trenches&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;cover trenches,&rdquo;
+according as they
+are for the firing
+line or supporting troops. The following simple types are taken
+from the 1908 edition of <i>Military Engineering</i> (part 1): &ldquo;Field
+Defences.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour
+is saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take 1½ to
+2 hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved
+by 2 or 3 hours&rsquo; more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without
+parapet, with cover trench and communication.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:95px" src="images/img720f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i> (1908), by permission of the Controller
+H. M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 84.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The addition of a loophole of sandbags on the top for
+concealment (called <i>head-cover</i>), gives increased protection, but at
+the cost of greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead
+cover can only be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still
+greater height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench
+not used for firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection
+by putting over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches
+of earth: or by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be
+had. A better plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches
+immediately behind and communicating with the fire trench.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:383px; height:232px" src="images/img720g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the
+Controller H. M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 85.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly
+they were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power
+of a line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was
+always imagined as one of the older type, with a high
+<span class="sidenote"><i>Redoubts.</i></span>
+conspicuous parapet. Of course a redoubt of such a nature would
+be readily identified and made untenable. But the idea of a redoubt
+does not necessarily
+imply
+command. Its
+object is that it
+shall be capable
+of all-round defence.
+There
+can be no doubt
+that as there
+is always a possibility
+of lines
+being pierced
+somewhere, it is
+desirable, unless
+the whole line is
+to be thrown
+into confusion
+and forced
+back, to have
+some point at which the defenders can maintain themselves.
+This is not possible unless at such points there is provision for
+defence towards both flanks and rear, that is to say, when there are
+redoubts, which can hold on after certain portions of the line have
+been lost and thereby can localize the enemy&rsquo;s success and simplify
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+the action of supporting troops. In order that redoubts may
+exercise this function, all that is necessary is that their defenders
+should be able to see the ground for a furlong in front of them in
+every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need be in no way more
+conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire trenches, and in
+that case there is no fear of their drawing special attention from the
+enemy&rsquo;s artillery. Whatever theories may have been put forward
+en the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and in the Russo-Japanese
+War, where the experience of South Africa was already
+available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:320px" src="images/img721a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 86.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more conspicuous
+than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground
+that will give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted
+angles. Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches
+and improving the overhead cover; and special use may here be
+made of obstacles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:125px" src="images/img721b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 87.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of
+those required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and
+field casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt,
+and figs. 87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a
+work can easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives
+excellent cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against
+howitzer common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate
+fire to bear on it.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:140px" src="images/img721c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 88.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind
+it for a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would
+require a concealed position, which can often be found a little in
+rear of the firing line.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:138px" src="images/img721d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i> (1908), by permission of the Controller H.M.
+Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 89.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by
+a type of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the
+surface, giving only just room for a man to stand; but undercut
+or hollowed out below, so that he could sit down with very good
+<span class="sidenote">Boer, Russian and Japanese types.</span>
+cover. Such a section is only possible in very firm soil. Apart from
+this, the type is really only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper
+should have room for officers and N.C.O&rsquo;s to move along
+within it. The Boers showed great skill in concealing their
+trenches. One good point was that there was generally
+something making a background immediately behind the
+men&rsquo;s heads, so that they did not stand out in relief
+when raised above the parapet.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:501px; height:554px" src="images/img721e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Russo-Japanese War: British Officers&rsquo; Reports</i>, vol. ii., by permission of the
+Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 90 and 91.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset
+were of old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better
+types were evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from
+Port Arthur; the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the
+top. The Japanese appear to have taken their type mainly from
+the latest British official books, but applied them with great skill
+to the ground studying especially invisibility. In their prepared
+positions they used large redoubts manned by several companies.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:314px" src="images/img721f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the Controller H. M.
+Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 92.&mdash;Gun-pit.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Cover for Guns.</i>&mdash;Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the
+shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface
+of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank
+is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and
+3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up
+to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for
+the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the
+shelter is called a gun-pit.</p>
+
+<p>In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun.
+Shelter can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but
+it is generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span></p>
+
+<p>The commonest forms of <i>obstacle</i> now used are <i>abatis</i> and
+<span class="sidenote">Obstacles.</span>
+<i>wire entanglements</i>. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The
+branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are
+buried and pegged firmly down. Wire entanglement
+may be added to this with advantage. An abatis should be protected
+from artillery fire, which is sometimes done by placing it in a shallow
+excavation with the earth thrown up in front of it.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:496px; height:88px" src="images/img722a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M.
+Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 93.&mdash;Abatis.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Wire may be used as a <i>high</i> or <i>low entanglement</i> or as a fence or
+trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire entanglement
+consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long, driven
+firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected horizontally
+and diagonally with barbed wire.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:93px; height:155px" src="images/img722b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:205px; height:293px" src="images/img722c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 94.&mdash;Crows&rsquo; Feet.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 95.&mdash;Plan and section
+of Trous-de-loup.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Palisades</i> are still used, and need no description. They were
+formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible.
+<i>Fraises</i> are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasionally
+in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with
+deep ditches, and are palisades placed
+so as to project horizontally from the
+escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom
+of the ditch. <i>Military pits</i> both <i>deep</i> and
+<i>shallow</i> (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called
+<i>trous de loup</i>) are not so much used as
+formerly, because the obstacle is hardly
+worth the labour expended on it. Both,
+however, were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. <i>Crows&rsquo; feet</i>,
+formerly much used as a defence against cavalry, are practically
+obsolete. They consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their
+bases in such a manner that however they were thrown down one
+point would always be pointing upwards (fig. 94). <i>Chevaux-de-frise</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>) were formerly a much-used type of obstacle.</p>
+
+<p>The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object
+with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of
+view barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is
+that it gives no cover whatever to the enemy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fougasses</i> have always for convenience been classed as obstacles.
+A fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping
+pit. Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over
+the shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96,
+gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form,
+charged with 80 &#8468; of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a
+surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder
+hose, fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter
+of chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dams</i> are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of
+their use. They are constructed by military engineers as small
+temporary dams would be in civil works.</p>
+
+<p>A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles,
+is that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric
+searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting
+the enemy&rsquo;s movements at some distance; but their use
+<span class="sidenote">Illumination.</span>
+will naturally always be restricted. Star shells and
+parachute lights fired from guns are not of much use for the immediate
+foreground, and do not burn very long. They were formerly chiefly
+of use in siege works, to light up an enemy&rsquo;s working parties.
+Germany has introduced lightballs fired from pistols, which will
+probably have a considerable future.</p>
+
+<p>Various civilian forms of <i>flare-light</i> would be very useful to
+illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field. <i>Bonfires</i>
+are very useful when material is available. They require careful
+treatment, <i>e.g.</i> they must be so arranged that they can be lighted
+instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means of a
+trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once (this
+can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum);
+they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them
+easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind
+them so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.</p>
+
+<p>Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played
+<span class="sidenote">Blockhouses.</span>
+in the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned
+permanent fortification they were used as keeps in such
+positions as re-entering places of arms and built of
+masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been used in the
+Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built cruciform,
+so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of bullet-proof log-cabins
+they have played a great part in warfare between pioneer
+settlers and savages.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:244px" src="images/img722d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 96.&mdash;Fougasse.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to give
+partial protection against field artillery; the walls being built of
+two thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and
+covered with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the
+walls up to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in
+positions where it is not likely that artillery will be brought against
+them: but they may be made tenable for a while even under artillery
+fire if they are surrounded by a trench and parapet.</p>
+
+<p>Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such
+points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy
+by cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loopholed
+wall, arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the
+garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some
+arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular blockhouses
+were very popular in South Africa. They were made of
+sheets of corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework,
+the space between the sheets being filled with small stones. The
+loopholes were made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls.
+Fig. 97 shows a section of one of these blockhouses.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:436px; height:120px" src="images/img722e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 97.&mdash;Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field
+defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized,
+trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood
+concealed the numbers of the defenders. A wood was
+<span class="sidenote">Woods.</span>
+therefore generally considered a useful addition to a line of defence.
+It was customary to hold the front edge of the wood, the irregularities
+of the outline being utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while
+obstacles were disposed some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully prepared
+position, clearings would be made parallel to the front and
+some distance back from it, for support positions, and great attention
+was paid (in theory at least) to clearing communications, erections,
+signposts, &amp;c., so that the defending troops might move freely in any
+desired direction.</p>
+
+<p>Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is
+hard to dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication,
+at the best, is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered
+a strong defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent
+ranging mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not
+easily made, because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that
+no reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against
+the modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood,
+the position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action.
+If a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that
+in most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the
+best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the
+fighting line at the outset.</p>
+
+<p>The defence of villages is another question which has been much
+affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages
+were very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and
+strong points for a detached force to hold. There were
+<span class="sidenote">Villages.</span>
+indeed always drawbacks. The preparations for defence entailed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+a good deal of labour, and the defending force was scattered in houses
+and enclosures, so that control and united action were difficult.
+But the value of the ready-made protection afforded by walls was so
+great&mdash;and sometimes even decisive&mdash;that villages were occupied
+as a matter of course. This is certainly now changed, but precisely
+to what extent it will be impossible to say, until after the next
+European war. A village under fire is not now an ideal defensive
+position. A single shrapnel penetrating the outer wall may kill
+all the occupants of a room; a single field-howitzer shell may
+practically ruin a house. At the same time, a house or line of houses
+may (without any preliminary labour at all) give very good protection
+against shell fire to troops <i>behind</i> them. Further, the value to the
+defence of the slightest cover, once the infantry attack has developed,
+is so great that the ruins of walls and houses occupied at the right
+moment may prove an impregnable stronghold. This class of fighting,
+however, does not properly come under the present heading. For the
+details of the defence of walls, houses, &amp;c., see the official <i>Mil.
+Engineering</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<p><i>Entrenching under Fire.</i>&mdash;Progress in this direction has been
+delayed by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable
+entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry
+soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic
+inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the
+pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or corkscrew.
+A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom satisfactory
+for any.</p>
+
+<p>The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry,
+when their advance is checked by the enemy&rsquo;s fire, to maintain the
+ground they have won by extemporizing cover where
+none exists. The need of this was first felt in the American
+<span class="sidenote">Extemporized cover.</span>
+Civil War, and towards the close of it a small entrenching
+spade 22 in. long and weighing only 1½ &#8468; was introduced
+by Brigadier-General H.W. Benham into the Army of the Potomac.
+Since that time a great number of patterns have been tried, including
+shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular of these has been
+the Linnemann spade, which is used by most continental armies
+and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool is a rectangular
+spade with straight handle. The length over all is a little less than
+20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of it has a saw
+edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the blade is enclosed
+in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or the waist-belt.
+In the British army the Wallace combined pick and shovel was used
+for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was always great
+doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool was such as
+to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in carrying it.
+But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to have finally
+established the necessity of it, and also the fact that it must generally
+be used lying down. For this purpose and for convenience in carrying
+it on the person, a very light short-handled tool is required.</p>
+
+<p>The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can
+make a little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of
+his head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check
+in the advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward,
+the supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus
+commenced.</p>
+
+<p>There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of
+training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it, it is tiring and
+tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its
+importance. At the same time it is a commonplace of
+<span class="sidenote">General remarks.</span>
+recent history that men who have been in action a few
+times develop a great affection for the shovel. The need of trenches
+grows with the growth of firearms, and the latest feature of modern
+tactics is the use of them in attack as well as in defence. The
+observation has often been made&mdash;with what truth as a general
+proposition we cannot here discuss&mdash;that modern battles tend more
+and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is said, entrenches
+itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining as much
+ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall and
+entrench; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment
+before dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced
+to gaining ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground,
+where the rifle and gun have full play, the trench is to the modern
+soldier very much what the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms,
+an absolute essential.</p>
+
+<p>The most important point in connexion with modern field fortification
+is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting
+power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the
+frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its
+position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before.
+This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite
+possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification
+as that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger
+than itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out
+and compel its surrender.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. Conclusion</p>
+
+<p>In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in
+outlining the practice of our own time it has been necessary to
+dwell chiefly on the material means of defence and attack.
+The human element has had to be almost ignored. But here
+comes in the paradox, that the material means are after all the
+least important element of defence. Certainly it is inconceivable
+that the designer of a fortress should not try to make it as strong
+as is consistent with the object in view and the means at his
+disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly
+for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that
+the best defences recorded in history owed little to the builder&rsquo;s
+art. The splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte,
+of early Italian design, was already obsolete but whose capture
+cost the Turks 100,000 men; the three years defence of Ostend
+in 1601; the holding of Arcot by Clive, are instances that present
+themselves to the memory at once. The very weight of the odds
+against them sometimes calls out the best qualities of the
+defenders; and the <i>man</i> when at his best is worth many times
+more than the <i>rampart</i> behind which he fights. But it would be a
+poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to
+evoke these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison
+will rise to the occasion, and the weakness of the place has very
+often been found an excuse for giving it up with little or no
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French
+saying, &ldquo;tant vaut l&rsquo;homme, tant vaut la place.&rdquo; Among modern
+men we think of Todleben (not governor, but the soul of the
+defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams at Kars, Denfert-Rochereau
+at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The sieges
+of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which
+the event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the
+governor; in some cases distinguished by courage, skill and
+foresight, in others by incapacity, cowardice or treachery.
+The reader is referred to Carnot&rsquo;s <i>Défense des places fortes</i> for a
+most interesting summary of such cases, one or two of which
+are quoted below.</p>
+
+<p>Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September
+1673 and defended by Philippe de Procé, sieur Dupas. The
+duke of Luxemburg visited the place some hours
+before it was invested, and arranged with Dupas to
+<span class="sidenote">The spirit of the defence.</span>
+relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry.
+But the governor lost his head when he saw the enemy
+encamped round the place, and surrendered it before he had even
+lost the covered way. He was subsequently tried by a council of
+war and sentenced to be degraded before the troops and imprisoned
+for life. The reason the court gave for not condemning
+him to death was that they could find no regulation which
+condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that
+period the decapitation of a governor who was considered to
+have failed in his duty was not uncommon.) This man, however,
+was not wanting in physical courage. He was in prison at Grave
+when it was besieged a year later, obtained leave to serve as a
+volunteer in the defence, fought well and was killed.</p>
+
+<p>A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the
+young governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was
+entertaining a party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell
+appeared and summoned him to surrender. The attacking force
+had no firearm more powerful than a carbine, but the governor,
+overawed by Cromwell&rsquo;s personality, yielded. Charles I., who
+was usually merciful to his officers, caused this governor to be
+shot.</p>
+
+<p>A defence of another kind was that of Quilleb&oelig;uf in 1592.
+Henry IV. had occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before
+the works had been well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake
+it. Bellegarde undertook its defence, with 115 soldiers, 45
+gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had ammunition but not
+much provisions. With these forces and a line of defence a
+league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on the
+17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The
+relieving forces were astonished to find that he had been defending
+not a fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the
+places where it had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft.
+wide and deep.</p>
+
+<p>At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span>
+alluded to had been recognized, but many commanders retained
+the old spirit of chivalry in their reluctance to say the &ldquo;loth
+word.&rdquo; The gallant Marshal d&rsquo;Essé, who feared nothing but the
+idea of dying in his bed, was lying ill at his country house when
+he was sent for by the king. He was ordered to take command
+at Thérouanne, then threatened by Charles V., and made his
+farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of Grenville:
+&ldquo;Sire, je m&rsquo;y en vais donc de bon et loyal c&oelig;ur; mais j&rsquo;ai ouï dire
+que la place est mal envitaillée, non pas seulement pourvue de
+palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la
+terre; mais lors, quand entendrez que Thérouanne est prise,
+dites hardiment que d&rsquo;Essé est guéri de sa jaunisse et mort.&rdquo;
+And he made good his word, for he was killed at the breach by
+a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish soldier.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of
+the inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of
+Rochelle (1627) and Saint-Jean de Lône (1636), but these are too
+long to quote. We may, however, mention Livron, which is
+curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one of his favourites, Saint
+Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the Dauphiné. Being
+entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to achieve
+some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of
+Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the
+inhabitants. But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the
+women of the town conceived such a contempt for him that they
+came in crowds to empty their slops at the breach by way of
+insult. This annoyed him very much, and he ordered a fresh
+assault. The women alone sustained this one, repulsed it
+lightheartedly, and the siege was raised.</p>
+
+<p>The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest
+than any other branch of military history. It is full of the
+personal element, of the nobility of human endurance
+and of dramatic surprises. And more than any battles
+<span class="sidenote">Arcot.</span>
+in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage of men
+fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120
+Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two 18-pounders and 8 lighter
+guns, he held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000
+native troops. &ldquo;The fort&rdquo; (says Orme) &ldquo;seemed little capable
+of sustaining the impending siege. Its extent was more than a
+mile in circumference. The walls were in many places ruinous;
+the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of artillery; the
+parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers were
+decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one
+piece of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others
+dry and in some choked up,&rdquo; &amp;c. These feeble ramparts were
+commanded almost everywhere by the enemy&rsquo;s musketry from
+the houses of the city outside the fort, so that the defenders were
+hardly able to show themselves without being hit, and much
+loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his tiny garrison, which
+timbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the enclosure,
+Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really severe
+assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and
+after which the enemy hastily decamped.</p>
+
+<p>Such feats as this make arguments about <i>successive lines of
+defence</i> and the <i>necessity of keeps</i> seem very barren. History,
+as far as the writer knows, shows no instances where successive
+lines have been held with such brilliant results.</p>
+
+<p>Clive&rsquo;s defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted
+rules of war were untenable, brings us to another point which has
+been already mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honourably
+make terms when there was an open breach in their main
+line of defence. This is a question upon which Carnot delivers
+himself very strongly in endeavouring to impress upon French
+officers the necessity of defence to the last moment. Speaking of
+Cormontaingne&rsquo;s imaginary <i>Journal of the Attack of a Fortress</i>
+(which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes by the words
+&ldquo;It is now time to surrender&rdquo;), he says with great scorn: &ldquo;Crillon
+would have cried, &lsquo;It is time to begin fighting.&rsquo; He would have
+said as at the siege of Quilleb&oelig;uf, &lsquo;Crillon is within, the enemy
+is without.&rsquo; Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered
+walls of Mézières, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there,
+would have said, &lsquo;It is time to surrender.&rsquo; Thus when Guise
+was repairing the breaches of Metz under the redoubled fire of
+the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would
+have said, &lsquo;It is time to surrender.&rsquo;&rdquo; Carnot of course allows
+that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is for the
+accepted principle, not for the man.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks
+by Sir John Jones, made in answer to Carnot&rsquo;s book. He says
+in the notes to the second volume of the <i>Journals
+of the Sieges in Spain</i>: &ldquo;When the breach shall be
+<span class="sidenote">Resisting &ldquo;to the last.&rdquo;</span>
+pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon
+the ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed,
+as by so doing he spills the blood of many brave men without a
+justifiable object, his life and the lives of the garrison should be
+made the forfeit. A system enforced by terror must be counteracted
+by still greater terror. Humanity towards an enemy in
+such a case is cruelty to one&rsquo;s own troops.... The principle to
+be combated is not the obligation to resist behind the breach&mdash;for
+where there is a good retrenchment the bastion should be
+disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can
+as safely be so&mdash;but the doctrine that surrender shall not take
+place when successful resistance becomes hopeless.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Carnot&rsquo;s word is &ldquo;fight to the last.&rdquo; Sir John Jones says the
+commander has no right to provoke further carnage when
+resistance is hopeless. The question of course is, When is resistance
+hopeless? Sir John Jones&rsquo;s reputation leaves little doubt
+that if he had been commanding a fortress on British soil he
+would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as there
+was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these
+two men of similar temper are found in opposition is quite
+simple. When Carnot wrote, the French army occupied most
+of the important fortresses of Europe, and it was to the interest
+of the emperor that if attacked they should be held to the last
+moment, in order to cause the enemy as much delay and loss
+as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the engineers
+who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his arguments
+were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen
+whose lives were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.</p>
+
+<p>A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the
+ideas in which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic
+era. In the 18th century fortresses were many, good
+roads few, and campaigns for the most part leisurely. To the
+European nations of that time, inheritors of a perennial state
+of war, the idea of concentrating the national resources on a
+short and decisive campaign had not occurred. The &ldquo;knock-out
+blow&rdquo; had not been invented. All these conditions are now
+so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been
+set up, both for the defence of places and the general employment
+of fortification.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a
+garrison as a penalty for holding out too long would meet with
+no sympathy in the present day. On the other hand, the issue
+of modern wars is worked out so rapidly that if a fortress is well
+defended, with the advantage of the present weapons, there is
+always a chance of holding out till the close of the war. If the
+place is worth holding, it should as a rule be held to the bitter
+end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs; moreover,
+the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions
+imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large
+number of his troops.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding this article some elementary considerations
+in connexion with the use of permanent defences may be noticed,
+though the general question of strategic fortification
+is outside its scope. The objects of fortification differ,
+<span class="sidenote">Permanent defences.</span>
+as has been shown, from age to age. In former times
+a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical
+Norsemen might find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron
+might look on his castle as so much capital invested;
+a wealthy medieval town might prove the value of its walls
+more than once in a generation; a country without a standing
+army might gain time for preparation by means of fortresses
+barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the question
+stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+their full fighting strength at a few hours&rsquo; notice? It can only
+be answered when the circumstances of a particular country are
+examined.</p>
+
+<p>If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations
+of equal fighting strength and equal resources standing ready
+in arms to defend a common frontier, and that the
+theatre of war presents no difficulties on either side,
+<span class="sidenote">The use and abuse of fortresses.</span>
+then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as
+an adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses
+do not decide the issue of a campaign; they can only influence
+it. It is better, therefore, to put all the money the fortress would
+have cost, and all the man-power that its maintenance implies,
+into the increase and equipment of the active army. For the
+fate of the fortress must depend <span class="correction" title="amended from utlimately">ultimately</span> on the result of the
+operations of the active armies. Moreover, the very assumption
+that resources on both sides are equal means that the nation
+which has spent money on permanent fortifications will have
+the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself beforehand
+to a defensive rôle.</p>
+
+<p>This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the
+tendency to over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In
+practice there will always be occasion for some use of fortification.
+A mountain range may lend itself to an economical defence
+by a few men and some inexpensive barrier forts. A nation may
+have close to its frontier an important strategic centre, such as a
+railway junction, or a town of the first manufacturing importance,
+which must be protected. In such a case it may be necessary
+to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again, if one
+nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other,
+it may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by
+fortresses so as to force invasion into a district where concentration
+against it is easiest.</p>
+
+<p>As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary
+if it stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the
+active armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting
+strength of the country has been practically destroyed, it is not
+of much use to stand a siege in the capital. There can be but
+one end, and it is better, as business men say, to cut losses.
+If the fighting strength is not entirely destroyed and can be
+recruited within a reasonable time, say two or three months,
+then it appears that under modern conditions the capital might
+be held for that time by means of extemporized defences.
+The question is one that can only be decided by going into the
+circumstances of each particular case.</p>
+
+<p>The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive
+neighbours is in a different category. If she stands alone she
+will be eaten up in time, fortifications or no fortifications; but
+if she can reckon on assistance from outside, it may be worth
+while to expend most of the national resources on permanent
+defences.</p>
+
+<p>These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as
+illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual
+problems that soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too
+complex to be dealt with in generalities, and no mere treatise
+can supply the place of knowledge, thought and practice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The more important works on the subject are:
+Dürer, <i>Unterricht zur Befestigung</i> (Nüremberg, 1527); Speckle,
+<i>Architectur von Festungen</i> (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, <i>L&rsquo;Architecture
+mil. ou la f. nouvelle</i> (Paris, 1637); Pagan, <i>Les Fortif.</i> (Paris, 1689);
+de Ville, <i>Les Fortif.</i> (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, <i>Introduction à la fortification</i>
+(Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, <i>Science des Ingénieurs, &amp;c.</i>
+(Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban, Montalembert, Cormontaingne;
+Mandar, <i>De l&rsquo;architecture des forteresses</i> (Paris, 1801);
+Chasseloup-Laubat, <i>Essais sur quelques parties de l&rsquo;artil. et de la
+fortification</i> (Milan, 1811); Carnot, <i>Défense des places fortes</i> (Paris,
+1812); Jones, <i>Journals of Sieges in Spain</i> (3rd ed., London, 1846);
+T. Choumara, <i>Mémoire sur la fortification</i> (1847); A. von Zastrow,
+<i>Geschichte der beständigen Befestigung</i> (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of
+Sir C. Pasley; Noizet, <i>Principes de fortif.</i> (Paris, 1859); Dufour,
+<i>De la fortif. permanente</i> (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, <i>L&rsquo;Architecture
+militaire au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy,
+<i>Essai historique sur la fortification</i> (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont
+(<i>q.v.</i>); Delambre, <i>La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la tactique
+et la stratégie</i> (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, <i>Angriff und Verteidigung fester
+Plätze</i> (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, <i>Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung</i>
+(Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner, <i>Die beständige
+Befestigung und der Festungskrieg</i> (Vienna, 1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen,
+<i>Grundriss der Befestigungslehre</i> (Berlin, 1900-1909); Plessix
+and Legrand, <i>Manuel complet de fortification</i> (Paris, 1900, new edition
+1909); Ritter v. Brunner, <i>Die beständige Befestigung</i> (Vienna, 1909),
+<i>Die Feldbefestigung</i> (Vienna, 1904); Rocchi, <i>Traccia per lo studio della
+fortificazione permanente</i> (Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, <i>Fortification</i>
+(1907); V. Deguise, <i>La Fortification permanente contemporaine</i>
+(Brussels, 1908); Royal Military Academy, <i>Text-book of Fortification</i>,
+pt. ii. (London, 1893); British official <i>Instruction in Military
+Engineering</i>, pts. i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTLAGE, KARL<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1806-1881), German philosopher, was
+born at Osnabrück. After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin,
+he became professor of philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he
+held till his death. Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to
+Fichte and Beneke (<i>q.v.</i>), with whose insistence on psychology as
+the basis of all philosophy he fully agreed. The fundamental idea
+of his psychology is impulse, which combines representation (which
+presupposes consciousness) and feeling (<i>i.e.</i> pleasure). Reason
+is the highest thing in nature, <i>i.e.</i> is divine in its nature, God is
+the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fortlage&rsquo;s chief works are: <i>Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit
+Kant</i> (Leipzig, 1852); <i>System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft</i>
+(2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); <i>Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise für das
+Dasein Gottes</i> (Heidelberg, 1840); <i>Beiträge zur Psych. als Wissenschaft</i>
+(Leipzig, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT LEE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
+in the N.E. part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson
+river, opposite the northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905)
+3433; (1910) 4472. It is connected with the neighbouring towns
+and cities by electric railways, and by ferry with New York City,
+of which it is a residential suburb. The main part of the borough
+lies along the summit of the Palisades; north of Fort Lee is an
+Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of Independence the
+Americans erected here a fortification, first called Fort Constitution
+but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General Charles Lee.
+The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the village that
+grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until the 20th
+of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene
+with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of
+Fort Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the
+crossing of the Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made
+it necessary for Greene to abandon this post and join Washington
+in the famous &ldquo;retreat across the Jerseys.&rdquo; An attempt to
+recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony Wayne in
+1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,
+designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a
+Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908.
+The borough of Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT MADISON,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lee county,
+Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the
+state, and about 20 m. S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901;
+(1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910)
+8900. Fort Madison is served by the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa
+Fé (which has repair shops here) and the Chicago, Burlington
+&amp; Quincy railways. The city has various manufactures, including
+canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements; the value
+of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of
+50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of
+Iowa&rsquo;s penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site
+of the city in 1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently
+settled in 1833, Fort Madison was laid out as a town in 1836,
+and was chartered as a city in 1839.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTROSE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Gaelic for <i>t&rsquo;rois</i>, &ldquo;the wood on the promontory&rdquo;),
+a royal and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated
+on the south-eastern coast of the peninsula of the Black Isle,
+8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26¼ m. by rail. It is the terminus
+of the Black Isle branch of the Highland railway; there is communication
+by steamer with Inverness and also with Fort
+George, 2½ m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose
+consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1
+m. apart, which were united into a free burgh by James II. in
+1455 and created a royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable
+antiquity, a monastery having been established in the 6th
+century by St Moluag, a friend of Columba&rsquo;s, and St Peter&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+church built in the 8th century. In 1124 David I. instituted
+the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and the town acquired
+some fame for its school of theology and law. The cathedral
+is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of Ross
+(her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and
+finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at
+Melrose is said to account for the Perpendicular features of his
+portion of the work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform
+in plan, and built of red sandstone, but all that is left are the
+south aisles of the nave and the chancel, with the chapter-house,
+a two-storeyed structure, standing apart near the north-eastern
+corner. The cathedral and bishop&rsquo;s palace were destroyed by
+order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great fort at
+Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of 1460.
+These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but
+other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination
+poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some
+consequence, and the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie,
+in the churchyard of which is an ancient Celtic cross, is much
+resorted to for sea-bathing, and there is a golf course in Chanonry
+Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness district group of
+parliamentary burghs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT SCOTT,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county,
+Kansas, U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of
+Kansas City, Missouri. Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946;
+(1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were negroes; (1910 census)
+10,463. It is the point of intersection of the Kansas City, Fort
+Scott &amp; Memphis (St Louis &amp; San Francisco system), the
+Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways,
+and has in consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a
+rolling plain. Among its institutions are an Epworth house
+(1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the Goodlander home, and a
+Carnegie library. Near the city there is a national cemetery.
+Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral fields, and its
+trade in bituminous coal is especially important. Building
+stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also
+found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water
+is procured from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is
+a mineral-water bath house. The city is also a trading centre
+for a rich farming region, and is a horse and mule market of
+considerable importance. Among its manufactures are mattresses,
+syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry products.
+In 1905 the total value of the city&rsquo;s factory product was
+$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city
+owns and operates its waterworks. The fort after which the
+city is named was established by the Federal government in 1842,
+at a time when the whole of eastern Kansas was still parcelled
+out among Indian tribes; it was abandoned in 1855. The
+town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was chartered as a
+city in 1860.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT SMITH,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county,
+on the extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about
+440 ft. above sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river,
+at its junction with the Poteau, and at the point where the
+Arkansas breaks through the Boston mountains. Pop. (1890)
+11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were of negro descent and
+684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975. Transportation
+is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St Louis &amp;
+San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain &amp; Southern, the
+Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith &amp; Western, the Midland Valley
+and the Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business
+centre of the city facilitates freight transfers. Some of the
+business streets are unusually broad, and the streets in the
+residential district are well shaded. Fort Smith is the business
+centre of a fine agricultural country and of the Arkansas coal
+and natural gas region. It has extensive wholesale jobbing
+interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in its own
+manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,
+chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and
+bricks. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was
+$2,329,454, an increase of 66.2% since 1900. The public
+schools have a rich endowment: the proceeds of lands (about
+200 acres) once belonging to the local military reservation,
+which&mdash;except the part occupied by a national cemetery&mdash;was
+given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of the
+city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there
+is a Carnegie library. A United States army post was established
+here in 1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county
+was created in 1851. Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in
+1842, and was chartered as a city in 1845. All transportation
+was by river and wagon until 1876, when the railway was
+completed from Little Rock. The military post, in earlier years
+the chief depôt for the western forts, was abandoned in 1871.
+During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with
+the Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April
+1861, and was reoccupied by the Union forces in September
+1863. There was considerable unrest due to border &ldquo;bushwhacking&rdquo;
+throughout the war, and several skirmishes took
+place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than doubled
+in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNA<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Fortune</span>), an Italian goddess of great antiquity,
+but apparently not native at Rome, where, according to universal
+Roman tradition, she was introduced by the king Servius Tullius
+as Fors Fortuna, and established in a temple on the Etruscan
+side of the Tiber outside the city, and also under other titles in
+other shrines. In Latium she had two famous places of worship,
+one at Praeneste, where there was an oracle of <i>Fortuna primigenia</i>
+(the first-born), frequented especially by women who, as we may
+suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their children or their
+own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well known
+from Horace&rsquo;s ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna
+was never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented
+the hopes and fears of men and especially of women at different
+stages of their life and experience; thus we find her worshipped
+as time went on under numerous cult-titles, such as <i>muliebris</i>,
+<i>virilis</i>, <i>hujusce diei</i>, <i>equestris</i>, <i>redux</i>, &amp;c., which connected her
+supposed powers with individuals, groups of individuals, or
+particular occasions. Gradually she became more or less closely
+identified with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="Tychê">&#932;&#973;&#967;&#951;</span>, and was represented on coins, &amp;c.,
+with a cornucopia as the giver of prosperity, a rudder as the
+controller of destinies, and with a wheel, or standing on a ball,
+to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this semi-Greek form
+she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and Pliny
+(<i>N.H.</i> ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all
+places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis,
+and as <i>Panthea</i> was supposed to combine the attributes of all
+other deities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Mythological Lexicon</i> (<i>s.v.</i>); see also Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus
+der Römer</i>, p. 206 foll.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. F.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> Latin grammarian, flourished
+in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author of a treatise on
+metres, dedicated to one of his pupils, a youth of senatorial rank,
+who desired to be instructed in the Horatian metres. The
+manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental ideas of
+metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed
+analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used
+are Caesius Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the
+grammarian of the <span class="grk" title="Technê">&#932;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span> of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a
+common name in the African provinces, it is probable that the
+author was a countryman of Juba, Terentianus Maurus and
+Victorinus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions of the <i>Ars</i> in H. Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, vi., and separately
+by him (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATUS,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the legendary hero of a popular European
+chap-book. He was a native, says the story, of Famagusta in
+Cyprus, and meeting the goddess of Fortune in a forest received
+from her a purse which was continually replenished as often as
+he drew from it. With this he wandered through many lands,
+and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the treasures
+which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had
+the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired.
+Of this hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to
+Cyprus, where he led a luxurious life. On his death he left the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+purse and the hat to his sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they
+were jealous of each other, and by their recklessness and folly
+soon fell on evil days. The moral of the story is obvious: men
+should desire reason and wisdom before all the treasures of the
+world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus occupies in
+Karl Simrock&rsquo;s <i>Die deutschen Volksbücher</i>, vol. iii., upwards of
+158 pages. The scene is continually shifted&mdash;from Cyprus to
+Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France;
+and a large number of secondary characters appear. The style
+and allusions indicate a comparatively modern date for the
+authorship; but the nucleus of the legend can be traced back
+to a much earlier period. The stories of Jonathas and the three
+jewels in the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, of the emperor Frederick and
+the three precious stones in the <i>Cento Novelle antiche</i>, of the
+Mazin of Khorassan in the <i>Thousand and one Nights</i>, and the
+flying scaffold in the <i>Bahar Danush</i>, have all a certain similarity.
+The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus
+appeared at Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators
+are disposed to regard this as the original form.
+Innumerable versions occur in French, Italian, Dutch and
+English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in 1553,
+and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter&rsquo;s comedy
+appeared in a German translation in <i>Englische Komödien und
+Tragödien</i>, 1620. Ludwig Tieck has utilized the legend in his
+<i>Phantasus</i>, and Adelbert von Chamisso in his <i>Peter Schlemihl</i>;
+and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished narrative poem entitled
+&ldquo;Fortunatus and his Sons.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt&rsquo;s <i>Fortunatus und seine Söhne, eine
+Zauber-Tragödie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang</i>, &amp;c. (Berlin,
+1819); Joseph Johann Görres, <i>Die deutschen Volksbücher</i> (1807).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>
+(530-609), bishop of Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time,
+was born near Ceneda in Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan
+and Ravenna, with the special object of excelling as a rhetorician
+and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to France, where he was
+received with much favour at the court of Sigbert, king of
+Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an
+<i>epithalamium</i>. After remaining a year or two at the court of
+Sigbert he travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons
+of distinction, and composing short pieces of poetry on any
+subject that occurred to him. At Poitiers he visited Queen
+Radegunda, who lived there in retirement, and she induced him
+to prolong his stay in the city indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed
+the friendship of the famous Gregory of Tours and other eminent
+ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of Poitiers in 599, and
+died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were collected
+in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the <i>Vexilla regis
+prodeunt</i>, Englished by J.M. Neale as &ldquo;The royal banners
+forward go&rdquo;), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour
+of his patroness Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of
+a nunnery at Poitiers. He also wrote a large poem in 4 books
+in honour of St Martin, and several lives of the saints in prose.
+His prose is stiff and mechanical, but most of his poetry has an
+easy rhythmical flow.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower
+at Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A.
+Luschi (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologiae
+cursus completus</i>, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch
+(Berlin, 1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and
+Leroux (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNE, ROBERT<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and
+traveller, was born at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of
+September 1813. He was employed in the botanical garden at
+Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal Horticultural Society&rsquo;s
+garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of the Chinese
+War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in
+China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of
+many beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in
+1848 on behalf of the East India Company, had much more
+important consequences, occasioning the successful introduction
+into India of the tea-plant. In subsequent journeys he visited
+Formosa and Japan, described the culture of the silkworm and
+the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many trees,
+shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The
+incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting
+books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1838-1874),
+Spanish painter, was born at Reus on the 11th of June
+1838. His parents, who were in poor circumstances, sent him
+for education to the primary school of his native town, where he
+received some instruction in the rudiments of art. When he was
+twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care of
+his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a
+collection of wax figures, with which he was travelling from
+town to town. In the working of this show the boy took an active
+part, modelling and painting many of the figures; and two years
+later, when he reached Barcelona, the cleverness of his handiwork
+made so much impression on some people in authority there that
+they induced the municipality to make him an allowance of
+forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go
+through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy
+of Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio
+Lorenzale, and in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that
+entitled him to complete his studies in Rome. Then followed
+a period of more than two years, during which he laboured
+steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had access at
+Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the
+war between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny
+was sent by the authorities of Barcelona to paint the most
+striking incidents of the campaign. The expedition lasted for
+about six months only, but it made upon him an impression that
+was powerful enough to affect the whole course of his subsequent
+development, and to implant permanently in his mind a preference
+for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He returned
+to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned
+by the city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture
+of the camps of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the
+Spanish army. After making a large number of studies he went
+back to Rome, and began the composition on a canvas fifteen
+metres long; but though it occupied much of his time during
+the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself
+instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great
+size, in which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities
+of technique and modulations of colour. He visited Paris in
+1868 and shortly afterwards married the daughter of Federico
+Madrazo, the director of the royal museum at Madrid. Another
+visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two years&rsquo; stay at Granada,
+but then he returned to Rome, where he died somewhat suddenly
+on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of malarial fever,
+contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and Portici in
+the summer of 1874.</p>
+
+<p>The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life
+is distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a
+marvellous cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but
+the qualities of his art are those that are attainable by a master
+of technical resource rather than by a deep thinker. His insight
+into subtleties of illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity
+was remarkable in the extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious
+to the point of extravagance. At the same time in such pictures
+as &ldquo;La Vicaria&rdquo; and &ldquo;Choosing a Model,&rdquo; and in some of his
+Moorish subjects, like &ldquo;The Snake Charmers&rdquo; and &ldquo;Moors
+playing with a Vulture,&rdquo; he showed himself to be endowed with
+a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a thorough
+understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love
+of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the
+fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Davillier, <i>Fortuny, sa vie, son &oelig;uvre, sa correspondance, &amp;c.</i>
+(Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, <i>Fortuny</i> (<i>Artistes célèbres</i> series) (Paris,
+1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. L. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT WAYNE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Allen county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., 102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where
+the St Joseph and St Mary&rsquo;s rivers join to form the Maumee
+river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890) 35,393; (1900) 45,115, of
+whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 63,933. It is
+served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton &amp; Dayton, the Fort Wayne,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+Cincinnati &amp; Louisville, the Grand Rapids &amp; Indiana, the Lake
+Shore &amp; Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago &amp; St Louis,
+the Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban
+electric lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft.
+above sea-level) and level, and its land area was in 1906 a little
+more than 6 sq. m. The streets are laid out on a rectangular
+plan and bordered by a profusion of shade trees. The city has
+several parks, including Lawton Park (31 acres), in which there
+is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry Ware Lawton
+(1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side
+Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre),
+and Old Fort Park (¼ acre), which is on the site of Old Fort
+Wayne. The educational institutions include the German
+Concordia Collegium (Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having
+220 students in 1908, and the state school for feeble-minded
+youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie library. Fort Wayne
+is one of the most important railway centres in the Middle West,
+and several railways maintain here their principal car and repair
+shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing
+industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state
+in the value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway
+companies. The other manufactories include foundries and
+machine shops, iron and steel mills, knitting mills, planing mills,
+sash and door, car-wheel, electrical machinery, and woodenware
+factories and flour mills. In 1905 the total value of the factory
+product of the city was $15,129,562, showing an increase of
+34.3% since 1900.</p>
+
+<p>The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood,
+and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or
+Great Miami Village), was situated on the E. bank of the St
+Joseph river, within the limits of the present city. On the E. bank
+of the St Mary&rsquo;s a French trading post was built about 1680. In
+1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was moved to the E.
+bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in 1760 and
+Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than three
+months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September
+1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the
+Maumee river the stockade fort which was named in his honour,
+the site of which forms the present Old Fort Park. By the treaty
+of Greenville, concluded by General Wayne on the 3rd of August
+1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area, including the tract of the
+Miami towns, was ceded to the United States, and free passage
+to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was
+guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians.
+By the treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H.
+Harrison on the 7th of June 1803, the tract about Vincennes
+reserved to the United States by the treaty of Greenville was
+described and defined; by the second treaty of Fort Wayne,
+concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the
+Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land,
+mostly S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort
+Wayne was besieged by Indians, who withdrew on the arrival,
+on the 12th of September, of General Harrison with about 2700
+men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort was abandoned on the
+19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The first permanent
+settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was
+an important fur-trading depôt until 1830. The opening of the
+Wabash &amp; Erie canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was
+platted and was made the county-seat in 1824; and in 1840
+Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.A. Brice, <i>History of Fort Wayne</i> (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John
+B. Dillon, <i>History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by
+Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816</i> (Indianapolis,
+Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, <i>History of the Maumee
+River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization into
+Counties</i> (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT WILLIAM,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the principal town of Thunder Bay district,
+Ontario, Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the
+Kaministiquia river, about a mile from Lake Superior. It
+is the lake terminus of the Canadian Pacific railway, of the new
+Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several steamship lines.
+Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern railway,
+lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain
+elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export
+trade in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also
+exported from the mining district, of which it is the centre.
+Industries, such as saw, planing and flour mills, have also
+sprung up. The population was 4800 in 1901, but has since
+increased with great rapidity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT WILLIAM,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe,
+an arm of the sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or
+canal, and was, in bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands.
+It is 122½ m. N.E. of Glasgow by the West Highland railway.
+The fort, at first called Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in
+1655 to hold the Cameron men in subjection, and was enlarged
+in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed it after William
+III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour of
+his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe
+met to share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully
+besieged it in 1715 and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860,
+and demolished in 1890 to provide room for the railway and the
+station. Amongst the public buildings are the Belford hospital,
+public hall, court house and the low-level meteorological
+observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in connexion with
+the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter was
+closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the distilleries,
+about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape.
+Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory
+of Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born
+in the parish. Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place
+of call for the steamers passing through the Caledonian canal.
+The town is the point from which the ascent of Ben Nevis&mdash;4½ m.
+E.S.E. as the crow flies&mdash;is commonly made. At Corpach,
+about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins, the series of locks
+between here and Banavie&mdash;within little more than a mile&mdash;being
+known as &ldquo;Neptune&rsquo;s Staircase.&rdquo; Both the Lochy and
+the Nevis enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort
+William. A mile and a half from the town, on the Lochy, stands
+the grand old ruin of Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular
+pile with a round tower at each corner, a favourite subject with
+landscape painters. Close by is the scene of the battle of the
+2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose completely defeated
+the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the Scottish Baronial
+style, 1½ m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and farther from the
+river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORT WORTH,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county,
+Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the
+West Fork of the Trinity river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890)
+23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were foreign-born and
+4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served by the
+Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Gulf, the Fort Worth &amp; Denver City,
+the Fort Worth &amp; Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco
+&amp; Texas of the &ldquo;Frisco&rdquo; system, the Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa
+Fé, the Houston &amp; Texas Central, the International &amp; Great
+Northern, the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, the St Louis South-Western,
+the Texas &amp; Pacific, and the Trinity &amp; Brazos Valley
+(Colorado &amp; Southern) railways. Fort Worth is beautifully
+situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of Fort
+Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal institution,
+which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College
+in 1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy,
+a college of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a
+law school, a medical school, a school of commerce, and a department
+of oratory and elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students;
+the Polytechnic College (coeducational; Methodist Episcopal,
+South), which was established in 1890, has preparatory, collegiate,
+normal, commercial, and fine arts departments and a summer
+school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and (altogether) 696
+students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a kindergarten
+training school; St Andrews school (Protestant
+Episcopal), and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There
+are several good business, municipal and county buildings, and
+a Carnegie library. On the 3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed
+ten blocks in the centre of the city. Fort Worth lies in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+midst of a stock-raising and fertile agricultural region; there
+is an important stockyard and packing establishment just
+outside the city; and considerable quantities of cotton are
+raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,
+flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,
+clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and
+overalls; and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries.
+In 1905 the total value of the city&rsquo;s factory product
+was $5,668,391, an increase of 62.5% since 1900; Fort
+Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of the state in the
+value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth. Fort
+Worth&rsquo;s numerous railways have given it great importance
+as a commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates
+the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant.</p>
+
+<p>A military post was established here in 1849, being called
+first Camp Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in
+1853. A settlement grew up about the fort, and the city was
+incorporated in 1873. The fort and the settlement were named
+in honour of General William Jenkins Worth (1794-1849), a
+native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of 1812,
+commanded the United States forces against the Seminole
+Indians in 1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and
+General Scott in the Mexican War, distinguishing himself at
+Monterey (where he earned the brevet of major-general) and in
+other engagements, and later commanded the department of
+Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of
+government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORTY,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word
+is derived from the O. Eng. <i>feówertig</i>, a combination of <i>feówer</i>,
+four, and <i>tig</i>, an old form of &ldquo;ten,&rdquo; used as a suffix, cf. Icel.
+<i>tiu</i>, Dan. <i>ti</i>, ten, and Ger. <i>vierzig</i>, forty. The name &ldquo;The Forty&rdquo;
+has been given to various bodies composed of that number of
+members, particularly to a judicial body in ancient Athens,
+who tried small cases in the rural districts, and to a court of
+criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal courts in the Venetian
+republic. The French Academy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academies</a></span>) has also been
+known as &ldquo;The Forty&rdquo; or &ldquo;The Forty Immortals.&rdquo; The
+period just before the repeal of the corn laws in the United
+Kingdom is frequently alluded to, particularly by the free trade
+school, as the &ldquo;hungry forties&rdquo;; and the &ldquo;roaring forties&rdquo;
+is a sailor&rsquo;s name for the stormy region between the 40th and
+50th latitudes N. and S., but more particularly applied to the
+portion of the north Atlantic lying between those latitudes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORUM<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Lat. from <i>foris</i>, &ldquo;out of doors&rdquo;), in Roman
+antiquity, any open place used, like the Greek <span class="grk" title="agora">&#7936;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#940;</span>, for the
+transaction of mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes
+merely as a promenade. It was level, rectangular in form,
+surrounded by porticoes, basilicas, courts of law and other
+public buildings. In the laws of the Twelve Tables the word is
+used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, <i>De legibus</i>, ii. 24); in
+a Roman camp the forum was an open place immediately beside
+the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally applied
+generally to the space in front of any public building or gateway.
+In Rome (<i>q.v.</i>) itself, however, during the period of the early
+history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and
+formerly marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills
+(also called Forum Romanum), which probably even during the
+regal period afforded the accommodation necessary for such
+public meetings as could not be held within the area Capitolina.
+In early times the Forum Romanum was used for athletic games,
+and over the porticoes were galleries for spectators; there were
+also shops of various kinds. But with the growth of the city
+and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum
+became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number
+of <i>civilia</i> (judicial) and <i>venalia</i> (mercantile) fora came into
+existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of
+Caesar and Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum
+<i>boarium</i> (cattle), <i>holitorium</i> (vegetable), <i>piscarium</i> (fish),
+<i>pistorium</i> (bread), <i>vinarium</i> (wine), to the latter. The Fora of
+Nerva (also called <i>transitorium</i> or <i>pervium</i>, because a main road
+led through it to the Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian,
+although partly intended to facilitate the course of public
+business, were chiefly erected to embellish the city. The construction
+of separate markets was not, however, necessarily the
+rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii, at the north-east end
+of the forum, there was a <i>macellum</i> (market), and shops for
+provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a
+building supposed to have been the clothworkers&rsquo; exchange,
+and at Timgad in North Africa (a military colony founded under
+Trajan) the whole of the south side of the forum was occupied by
+shops. The forum was usually paved, and although on festal
+occasions chariots were probably driven through, it was not a
+thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the entrances, of
+which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites for
+new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the
+centre, and the two main streets crossed one another close to
+but not through it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or
+6 ft. lower than the forum. The word <i>forum</i> frequently appears
+in the names of Roman market towns; as, for example, in
+Forum Appii, Forum Julii (<i>Fréjus</i>), Forum Livii (<i>Forli</i>), Forum
+Sempronii (<i>Fossombrone</i>). These <i>fora</i> were distinguished from
+mere <i>vici</i> by the possession of a municipal organization, which,
+however, was less complete than that of a prefecture. In legal
+phraseology, which distinguishes the <i>forum commune</i> from the
+<i>forum privilegiatum</i>, and the <i>forum generale</i> from the <i>forum
+speciale</i>, the word is practically equivalent to &ldquo;court&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;jurisdiction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the fora at Rome, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>, and works quoted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORUM APPII,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> an ancient post station on the Via Appia,
+43 m. S.E. of Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor
+of the road. Horace mentions it as the usual halt at
+the end of the first day&rsquo;s journey from Rome, and describes it
+as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The presence of
+the former was due to the fact that it was the starting-point of
+a canal which ran parallel to the road through the Pomptine
+Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and
+Horace (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia, Via</a></span>). It is mentioned also as a halting place
+in the account of Paul&rsquo;s journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15).
+Under Nerva and Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription
+records expressly the paving with silex (replacing the former
+gravelling) of the section from Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum
+Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was similarly repaired, and
+that at Forum Appii, though it bears no inscription, is of the
+same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have been found
+here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via
+Appia was reconstructed.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORUM CLODII,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a post station on the Via Clodia, about
+23 m. N.W. of Rome (not 32 m. as in the <i>Antonine Itinerary</i>),
+situated above the western bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod.
+Lake of Bracciano), and connected with the Via Cassia at
+Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side of the
+lake (<i>Ann. Inst.</i>, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church of
+SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the
+8th or 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses
+have come to light on the spot; and an inscription
+of the Augustan period, which probably stood over the door of a
+villa, calls the place Pausilypon&mdash;a name justified by the beauty
+of the site.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, <i>ibid.</i> (1895), 342.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORUM TRAIANI<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (mod. <i>Fordongianus</i>), an ancient town of
+Sardinia, on the river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the
+Roman road through the centre of the island from Carales to
+Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of its ruins have been
+destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the baths, erected
+over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the water
+and the large central <i>piscina</i> are noteworthy. The bridge over
+the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite
+bank are the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off
+is a group of <i>nuraghi</i>, of which that of St Barbara in the commune
+of Villanova Truschedda is one of the finest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Taramelli in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1903), 469.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1770-1842), English antiquary,
+was born in London on the 27th of May 1770. He was
+educated at St Paul&rsquo;s school and Pembroke College, Oxford,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was ordained and
+became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he remained
+till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and
+remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards
+as vicar. His first important work, <i>British Monachism</i>
+(2 vols., 1802), was a compilation, from manuscripts in the
+British Museum and Bodleian libraries, of facts relating to
+English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke had been elected
+fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for which he
+is best remembered, the <i>Encyclopaedia of Antiquities</i>, appeared
+in 1824. A sequel to this, <i>Foreign Topography</i>, was published
+in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died
+at Walford on the 1st of January 1842.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSCARI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged
+to a noble Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices
+of the republic&mdash;ambassador, president of the Forty, member
+of the Council of Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, <i>avvogadore
+di comun</i>, &amp;c. His first wife was Maria Priuli and his
+second Maria Nani; of his many children all save one son
+(Jacopo) died young. But although a capable administrator
+he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge
+Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the
+various candidates for the succession, warned the council against
+electing Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the
+republic into disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari
+was elected (1423) and reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming
+the new doge the customary formula which recognized
+the people&rsquo;s share in the appointment and asked for their
+approval&mdash;the last vestige of popular government&mdash;was finally
+dropped.</p>
+
+<p>Foscari&rsquo;s reign bore out Mocenigo&rsquo;s warning and was full of
+wars on the <i>terra ferma</i>, and through the doge&rsquo;s influence Venice
+joined the Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was
+carried on with varying success for eight years. In 1430 an
+attempt was made on Foscari&rsquo;s life by a noble to whom he had
+refused an appointment; and three years later a conspiracy of
+young bloods to secure the various offices for themselves by
+illicit intrigues was discovered. These events, as well as the
+long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory state of Venetian
+finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to abdicate, which
+was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic tragedy
+by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge&rsquo;s
+son Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and
+irresponsible youth, was in that year accused of the serious
+crime of having accepted presents from various citizens and
+foreign princes who either desired government appointments or
+wished to influence the policy of the republic. Jacopo escaped,
+but was tried in contumacy before the Council of Ten and
+condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and
+to have his property confiscated. But the execution of the
+sentence was delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually
+the penalty was commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446).
+Four years later Ermolao Donato, a distinguished official who
+had been a member of the Ten at the time of the trial, was
+assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of complicity
+in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for
+the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed
+to his guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the
+accused, and so merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his
+life, with a pension of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the
+council received information from the rector (governor) of Candia
+to the effect that Jacopo Foscari had been in treasonable correspondence
+with the duke of Milan and the sultan of Turkey.
+He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a year&rsquo;s
+imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.
+His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to
+Jacopo&rsquo;s entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him,
+he replied advising him to bear his punishment without protest.
+When the year was up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died
+in January 1457. The doge was overwhelmed with grief at this
+bereavement and became quite incapable of attending to business.
+Consequently the council decided to ask him to abdicate;
+at first he refused, but was finally obliged to conform to their
+wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats. Within
+a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days
+later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added
+many picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them
+tending to show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo&rsquo;s judges and
+accusers, whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional
+leniency. The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin&rsquo;s
+<i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i>, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice,
+1855); where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan,
+<i>I due Foscari</i> (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the
+subject Byron&rsquo;s tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger&rsquo;s
+poem <i>Italy</i> (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the
+subject entitled <i>I due Foscari</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSCOLO, UGO<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at
+Zante in the Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the
+death of his father, a physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the
+family removed to Venice, and in the University of Padua
+Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the Dalmatian grammar
+school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was the abbé
+Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly
+popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo&rsquo;s literary
+tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies
+in ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the
+appearance in 1797 of his tragedy <i>Tieste</i>&mdash;a production which
+obtained a certain degree of success. Foscolo, who, from
+causes not clearly explained, had changed his Christian name
+Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an active part in the
+stormy political discussions which the fall of the republic of
+Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the
+national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the
+liberator, expecting from the military successes of the French
+general, not merely the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy,
+but the establishment of a free republican government.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which
+Napoleon handed Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude
+shock to Foscolo, but did not quite destroy his hopes. The state
+of mind produced by that shock is reflected in the <i>Letters of
+Jacopo Ortis</i> (1798), a species of political <i>Werther</i>,&mdash;for the hero
+of Foscolo embodies the mental sufferings and suicide of an
+undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero of Goethe places before
+us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering and at last cutting
+short the life of a private German scholar. The story of Foscolo,
+like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy fact.
+Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student
+of Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances
+akin to those described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo&rsquo;s
+mind appears to have been only too familiar with the thought
+of suicide. Cato and the many classical examples of self-destruction
+scattered through the pages of Plutarch appealed to the
+imaginations of young Italian patriots as they had done in France
+to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde. In the case
+of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the
+writer&rsquo;s mind by the composition of the work seems to have been
+beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future
+rudely shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and
+sought relief in now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national
+poet. At Milan, whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he
+was engaged in other literary pursuits besides the composition
+of <i>Ortis</i>. The friendship formed there with the great poet Parini
+was ever afterwards remembered with pride and gratitude.
+The friendship formed with another celebrated Milanese poet soon
+gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still hoping that his
+country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a volunteer
+in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and
+the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When
+released he returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches
+to his <i>Ortis</i>, published a translation of and commentary upon
+<i>Callimachus</i>, commenced a version of the <i>Iliad</i>, and began his
+translation of Sterne&rsquo;s <i>Sentimental Journey</i>. The result of a
+memorandum prepared for Lyons, where, along with other
+Italian delegates, he was to have laid before Napoleon the state
+of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him for his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of
+France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his <i>Carme
+sui sepolcri</i>, of which the entire spirit and language may be
+described as a sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the
+misery of the present and the darkness of the future. The
+mighty dead are summoned from their tombs, as ages before
+they had been in the masterpieces of Greek oratory, to fight
+again the battles of their country. The inaugural lecture on
+the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in January
+1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,
+was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged
+his young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to
+academic traditions, but in their relation to individual and
+national life and growth. The sensation produced by this
+lecture had no slight share in provoking the decree of Napoleon
+by which the chair of national eloquence was abolished in all the
+Italian universities. Soon afterwards Foscolo&rsquo;s tragedy of <i>Ajax</i>
+was represented but with little success at Milan, and its supposed
+allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an object of suspicion,
+he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The chief
+fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of <i>Ricciarda</i>, the
+<i>Ode to the Graces</i>, left unfinished, and the completion of his
+version of the <i>Sentimental Journey</i> (1813). His version of Sterne
+is an important feature in his personal history. When serving
+with the French he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had
+traversed much of the ground gone over by Yorick; and in his
+memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the version is ascribed,
+he throws much curious light on his own character. He returned
+to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence he
+passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin
+on his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the
+shores of England at the close of 1816.</p>
+
+<p>During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until
+his death there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the
+most brilliant circles of the English capital confer on foreigners
+of political and literary renown, and experienced all the misery
+which follows on a disregard of the first conditions of domestic
+economy. His contributions to the <i>Edinburgh</i> and <i>Quarterly
+Reviews</i>, his dissertations in Italian on the text of Dante and
+Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on Petrarch, of
+which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre&rsquo;s admirable
+translations of some of Petrarch&rsquo;s finest sonnets, heightened his
+previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and
+forethought in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment,
+and at last consigned him to a prison; and when
+released he felt bitterly the change in his social position, and the
+coldness now shown to him by many whom he had been
+accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in society&mdash;if
+we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an
+observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott&mdash;had unhappily
+not been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships.
+He died at Turnham Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four
+years after his death, in 1871, his remains were brought to
+Florence, and with all the pride, pomp and circumstance of a
+great national mourning, found their final resting-place beside
+the monuments of <span class="correction" title="amended from Macchiavelli">Machiavelli</span> and Alfieri, of Michelangelo
+and Galileo, in Italy&rsquo;s Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa
+Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully
+entitled. For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour
+of his diction his country honours him as a great classic author.
+He had assigned to the literature of his nation higher aims than
+any which it previously recognized. With all his defects of
+character, and through all his vicissitudes of fortune, he was
+always a sincere and courageous patriot.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ample materials for the study of Foscolo&rsquo;s character and career
+may be found in the complete series of his works published in
+Florence by Le Monnier. The series consists of <i>Prose letterarie</i>,
+(4 vols., 1850); <i>Epistolario</i> (3 vols., 1854); <i>Prose politiche</i> (1 vol.,
+1850); <i>Poesie</i> (1 vol., 1856); <i>Lettere di Ortis</i> (1 vol., 1858); <i>Saggi
+di critica storico-letteraria</i> (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this
+series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn
+in 1876, <i>Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di
+Staël, a Vincenzo Monti</i>. The work published at Florence in the
+summer of 1878, <i>Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi</i>, throws
+much doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo&rsquo;s writings as
+given in the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some
+curious and original illustrations of Foscolo&rsquo;s familiarity with the
+English language.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSS, EDWARD<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer,
+was born in London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a
+solicitor by profession, and on his retirement from practice in
+1840, he devoted himself to the study of legal antiquities. His
+<i>Judges of England</i> (9 vols., 1848-1864) is a standard work,
+characterized by accuracy and extensive research. <i>Biographia
+Juridica</i>, <i>a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges</i>, appeared
+shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the Incorporated
+Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He
+died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSANO<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy,
+in the province of Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has
+an imposing castle with four towers, begun by Filippo d&rsquo;Acaia
+in 1314. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the
+18th century. The place began to acquire some importance in
+the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, but in
+1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Fillippo">Filippo</span> d&rsquo;Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of
+Savoy. It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has
+a branch line to Mondovì.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSANUOVA<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome,
+near the railway station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It
+is the finest example of a Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian
+Early Gothic style, in Italy, and dates from the end of the 12th
+to the end of the 13th century. The church (1187-1208) is
+closely similar to that of Casamari. The other conventual
+buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in
+1274.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Enlart, <i>Origines françaises de l&rsquo;architecture gothique en
+Italie</i> (Paris, 1894) (<i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et
+de Rome</i>, fasc. 66).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Foss</span>) <b>WAY</b>, the Early English name of a Roman
+road or series of roads in Britain, used later by the English,
+running from Lincoln by Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost
+all the Roman line is still in use as modern road or lane. It
+passes from Lincoln through Newark and Leicester (the Roman
+<i>Ratae</i>) to High Cross (<i>Venonae</i>), where it intersects Watling Street
+at a point often called &ldquo;the centre of England.&rdquo; Hence it runs to
+Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and Ilchester, crosses
+the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and enters Exeter.
+Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but without
+warrant. (See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ermine Street</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSICK<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning
+fussy or troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of
+Australia to the search for gold by solitary individuals, in
+untried localities or in abandoned diggings. A &ldquo;fossicker,&rdquo;
+or pocket miner, is one who buys up the right to search old
+claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked by previous
+diggers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSOMBRONE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Sempronii</i>), a town and episcopal
+see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
+11 m. E.S.E. of the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
+(1901) town, 7531, commune, 10,847. The town is situated
+in the valley of the Metauro, in the centre of fine scenery, at the
+meeting-point of roads to Fano, to the Furlo pass and Fossato
+di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino and to Sinigaglia,
+the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The cathedral,
+rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor
+Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured <i>ancona</i>
+of 1480. S. Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal.
+The library, founded by a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains
+some antiquities. Above the town is a medieval castle. There
+is a considerable trade in silk.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E.
+at S. Martino al Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station
+on the Via Flaminia and a <i>municipium</i>. The date of its foundation
+is not known. Excavations in 1879-1880 led to the discovery
+of a house and of other buildings on the ancient road (A.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+Vernarecci in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1880, 458). It already had
+a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta obtained
+possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold, with
+Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the
+latter it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Count</span> (1754-1844), Tuscan
+statesman and mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was
+educated at the university of Pisa, where he devoted himself
+particularly to mathematics. He obtained an official appointment
+in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was entrusted
+by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the drainage
+of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a treatise
+in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but
+on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily.
+On the erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom
+of Etruria, under the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed
+president of the commission of finance. In 1809 he went
+to Paris as one of the senators for Tuscany to pay homage to
+Napoleon. He was made president of the legislative commission
+on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand III. in 1814,
+and subsequently prime minister, which position he retained
+under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which
+was only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote
+the well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany,
+and the bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the
+law, honesty in the administration of justice and toleration of
+opinion, but he totally neglected the moral improvement of the
+people. At the age of seventy-eight he married, and twelve
+years afterwards died, in 1844.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Gino Capponi, <i>Il Conte V. Fossombroni</i>, A. von
+Reumont, <i>Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg</i>
+(Gotha, 1877); Zobi, <i>Storia civile delta Toscana</i> (Florence, 1850-1853);
+Galeotti, <i>Delle Leggi e dell&rsquo; amministrazione della Toscana</i>
+(Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, <i>Leopoldo II</i>. (Florence, 1871); see
+also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capponi, Gino</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand III.</a></span>, of Tuscany, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leopold II.</a></span>, of Tuscany.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1841-1904), English
+geologist and mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve
+Foster (for many years secretary of the Society of Arts), was
+born at Camberwell on the 23rd of March 1841. After receiving
+his early education at Boulogne and Amiens, he studied successively
+at the Royal School of Mines in London and at the mining
+college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the Geological
+Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards
+in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894)
+he communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865
+the now classic paper &ldquo;On the superficial deposits of the Valley
+of the Medway, with remarks on the Denudation of the Weald.&rdquo;
+In this paper the sculpturing of the Wealden area by rain and
+rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from the Geological
+Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to mineralogy
+and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was
+appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for
+the S.W. of England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N.
+Wales district. In 1890 he was appointed professor of mining
+at the Royal College of Science and he held this post until the
+close of his life. His later work is embodied largely in the reports
+of mines and quarries issued annually by the home office. He
+was distinguished for his extensive scientific and practical
+knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone quarrying. He
+was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While
+investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man
+in 1897 his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide
+gas, and he never fully recovered from the effects. He
+died in London on the 19th of April 1904. He published <i>Ore and
+Stone Mining</i>, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and <i>The Elements of Mining
+and Quarrying</i>, 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), Canadian politician
+and financier, was born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of
+September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist descent. After a brilliant
+university career at the university of Brunswick, at Edinburgh
+and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught in various
+local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and
+history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative
+member for King&rsquo;s County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament,
+and in 1885 entered the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister
+of marine and fisheries; in 1888 he became minister of finance,
+which position he held till the defeat of his party in 1896. A
+careful and even brilliant financier, and a keen debater, he
+became known as a strong believer in protection for Canadian
+industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, JOHN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1770-1843), English author and dissenting
+minister, generally known as the &ldquo;Essayist,&rdquo; was born in a small
+farmhouse near Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September
+1770. Partly from constitutional causes, but partly also from
+the want of proper companions, as well as from the grave and
+severe habits of his parents, his earlier years were enshrouded
+in a somewhat gloomy and sombre atmosphere, which was never
+afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful energy, finding no
+proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to morbid
+intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own
+testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of
+a &ldquo;painful sense of an awkward but entire individuality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The small income accruing to Foster&rsquo;s parents from their
+farm they supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he
+began to assist them by spinning wool by the hand wheel, and
+from his fourteenth year by weaving double stuffs. Even &ldquo;when
+a child,&rdquo; however, he had the &ldquo;feelings of a foreigner in the
+place&rdquo;; and though he performed his monotonous task with
+conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing
+his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without
+difficulty passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a
+great taste for reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut
+himself up alone in a barn, afterwards working at his loom
+&ldquo;like a horse,&rdquo; to make up for lost time. He had also at this
+period &ldquo;a passion for making pictures with a pen.&rdquo; Shortly
+after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of
+the Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents
+were connected; and with the view of preparing himself for
+the ministerial office he began about the same time to attend
+a seminary at Brearley Hall conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted
+to the Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of
+study at this institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+where he preached to an audience of less than a hundred
+persons, in a small and dingy room situated near the river at the
+top of a flight of steps called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he
+remained only three months. In the beginning of 1793 he proceeded
+to Dublin, where, after failing as a preacher, he attempted
+to revive a classical and mathematical school, but with so little
+success that he did not prosecute the experiment for more than
+eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a
+Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself
+with more earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the
+discharge of his ministerial duties, his efforts produced little
+apparent impression, and the gradual diminution of his hearers
+necessitated his resignation. After employing himself for a few
+months at Battersea in the instruction of twenty African youths
+brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with the view of
+having them trained to aid as missionaries to their fellow-countrymen,
+he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small congregation at
+Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years. In
+1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he
+became pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the
+thyroid gland compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the
+same year he published the volume of <i>Essays</i> on which his
+literary fame most largely if not mainly rests. They were
+written in the form of letters addressed to the lady whom he
+afterwards married, and consist of four papers,&mdash;&ldquo;On a Man
+writing Memoirs of himself&rdquo;; &ldquo;On Decision of Character&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;On the Application of the Epithet Romantic&rdquo;; and &ldquo;On some
+Causes by which Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable
+to Men of Cultivated Taste.&rdquo; The success of this
+work was immediate, and was so considerable that on resigning
+his charge he determined to adopt literature as his profession.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+The <i>Eclectic Review</i> was the only periodical with which he established
+a connexion; but his contributions to that journal,
+which were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles.
+On his marriage in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water,
+a small village in Gloucestershire, where he remained
+till 1817, when he returned to Downend and resumed his duties
+to his old congregation. Here he published in 1820 his <i>Essay
+on Popular Ignorance</i>, which was the enlargement of a sermon
+originally preached on behalf of the British and Foreign School
+Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol, and in
+1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead
+chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the
+settlement of Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued,
+as in such circumstances it appeared to Foster to be &ldquo;altogether
+superfluous and even bordering on impertinent.&rdquo; The health
+of Foster during the later years of his life was somewhat infirm,
+the result chiefly of the toil and effort of literary composition;
+and the death of his only son, his wife and the greater number
+of his most intimate friends combined with his bodily ailments
+to lend additional sombreness to his manner of regarding the
+events and arrangements of the present world&mdash;the &ldquo;visage of
+death&rdquo; being almost his &ldquo;one remaining luminary.&rdquo; He died
+at Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.</p>
+
+<p>The cast of Foster&rsquo;s mind was meditative and reflective rather
+than logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately
+Calvinistic views, his language even in preaching very seldom
+took the mould of theological forms. Though always retaining
+his connexion with the Baptist denomination, the evils resulting
+from organized religious communities seemed to him so
+great that he came to be &ldquo;strongly of opinion that churches are
+useless and mischievous institutions, and the sooner they are
+dissolved the better.&rdquo; The only Christian observances which
+he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the
+Lord&rsquo;s Supper, and it so happened that he never administered
+the ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured
+by a constant reference to the &ldquo;endless future.&rdquo; He was a firm
+believer in supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing
+hope that a ray of light from the other world might sometimes
+in this way be vouchsafed to mortals. As a writer he was most
+painstaking and laborious in his choice of diction, and his style
+has its natural consequent defects, though the result is eloquent
+in its way.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a
+<i>Discourse on Missions</i> (1818); &ldquo;Introductory Essay&rdquo; to Doddridge&rsquo;s
+<i>Rise and Progress of Religion</i> (1825); &ldquo;Observations on
+Mr Hall&rsquo;s Character as a Preacher,&rdquo; prefixed to the collected edition
+of Hall&rsquo;s <i>Works</i> (1832); an &ldquo;Introduction&rdquo; to a pamphlet by Mr
+Marshman on the Serampore Missionaries; several political letters
+to the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, and contributions to the <i>Eclectic Review</i>,
+published posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. <i>His Life and Correspondence</i>,
+edited by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1836-1907), English physiologist,
+was born at Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After
+graduating in medicine at London University in 1859, he began
+to practise in his native town, but in 1867 he returned to London
+as teacher of practical physiology at University College, where
+two years afterwards he became professor. In 1870 he was
+appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its praelectorship in
+physiology, and thirteen years later he became the first occupant
+of the newly-created chair of physiology in the university,
+holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and administrator,
+and had a very large share in the organization and development
+of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was
+one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity
+exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great
+Britain. In 1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president
+of the British Association at its meeting at Dover. In the
+following year he was elected to represent the university of
+London in parliament. Though returned as a Unionist, his
+political action was not to be dictated by party considerations,
+and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he played no
+prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was
+defeated. His chief writings were a <i>Textbook of Physiology</i>
+(1876), which became a standard work, and <i>Lectures on the
+History of Physiology in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries</i> (1901),
+which consisted of lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical
+College, San Francisco, in 1900. He died suddenly in London
+on the 29th of January 1907.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1825-1899), English painter,
+was born at North Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the
+workshop of Ebenezer Landells, a wood engraver, with whom
+he worked for six years as an illustrative draughtsman, devoting
+himself mainly to landscape. During the succeeding fifteen
+years he became famous as a prolific and accomplished illustrator,
+but about 1861 abandoned illustration for painting, and gained
+wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water colours, of
+landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of children.
+He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of the
+Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable
+for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and
+pleasantness of sentiment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Birket Foster, his Life and Work</i> (extra number of the <i>Art
+Journal</i>) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and
+<i>Birket Foster, R.W.S.</i>, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very
+complete and fully illustrated biography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1826-1864), American song
+and ballad writer, was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the
+4th of July 1826. He was the youngest child of a merchant of
+Irish descent who became a member of the state legislature
+and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. Stephen
+early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,
+the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge
+of French and German. He was sent to school in Towanda,
+Pennsylvania, and later to Athens, Pennsylvania, and when
+thirteen years old he wrote the song &ldquo;Sadly to Mine Heart
+Appealing.&rdquo; At sixteen he wrote &ldquo;Open thy Lattice, Love&rdquo;;
+at seventeen he entered his brother&rsquo;s business house, Cincinnati,
+Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile
+such popular pieces as &ldquo;Old Uncle Ned,&rdquo; &ldquo;O Susannah!&rdquo; and
+others. He then adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief
+successes were songs written for the negro melodists or Christy
+minstrels. Besides those mentioned the following attained
+great popularity: &ldquo;Nelly was a Lady,&rdquo; &ldquo;Old Kentucky Home,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Old Folks at Home,&rdquo; &ldquo;Massa&rsquo;s in de Cold, Cold Ground,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+For these and other songs the composer received considerable
+sums, &ldquo;Old Folks at Home&rdquo; bringing him, it is said, 15,000
+dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music.
+In 1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned
+to Pittsburg. His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies,
+many of which have been popular on both sides of the Atlantic
+and sung in many tongues. &ldquo;Old Black Joe,&rdquo; the last of these
+negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His later songs were sentimental
+ballads. Among these are &ldquo;Old Dog Tray,&rdquo; &ldquo;Gentle
+Annie,&rdquo; &ldquo;Willie, we have missed you,&rdquo; &amp;c. His &ldquo;Come where
+my Love lies Dreaming&rdquo; is a well known vocal quartet. Although
+as a musician and composer Foster has little claim to high
+rank, his song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern
+developments of popular music. He died at New York on the
+13th of January 1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOSTORIA,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and
+partly in Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo.
+Pop. (1890) 7070; (1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597.
+It is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the New York, Chicago &amp;
+St Louis, the Ohio Central, the Lake Erie &amp; Western, and the
+Hocking Valley railways, and by two interurban electric lines.
+The city is situated in an agricultural region, and oil abounds in
+the vicinity. Among the city&rsquo;s manufactures are glass, flour,
+planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages, barrels, incandescent
+lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile
+engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear.
+The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality.
+In 1832, upon the coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome
+and Risdon, were laid out on the site of what is now Fostoria.
+A bitter rivalry arose between them, but they were finally united
+under one government, and the city thus formed was named in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles Foster (1828-1904),
+governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and secretary of
+the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to promote
+its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOTHERGILL, JOHN<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1712-1780), English physician, was
+born of a Quaker family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End
+in Yorkshire. He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736,
+and after visiting the continent of Europe he in 1740 settled in
+London, where he gained an extensive practice. In the epidemics
+of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to have had sixty patients
+daily. In his leisure he made a study of conchology and botany;
+and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive botanical
+garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various
+parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the
+South Sea voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by
+Anthony Purver, a Quaker, was made and printed at his expense.
+His pamphlet entitled &ldquo;Account of the Sore Throat attended
+with Ulcers&rdquo; (1748) contains one of the first descriptions of
+diphtheria in English, and was translated into several languages.
+He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOTHERINGHAY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a village of Northamptonshire, England,
+picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1½ m.
+from Elton station on the Peterborough branch of the London
+&amp; North-Western railway. The castle, of which nothing but the
+earthworks and foundations remain, is famous as the scene
+of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from September
+1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587. The
+earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of
+very early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times.
+It became an important stronghold of the Plantagenets from
+the time of Edward III., and was the birthplace of Richard III.
+in 1452. The church of St Mary and All Saints, originally
+collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the nave with aisles, and
+the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but the building
+is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of York,
+who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the
+third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the
+earl of Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of
+Wakefield in 1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments
+were erected by Queen Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs
+in ruins.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1819-1868), French
+physicist, was the son of a publisher at Paris, where he was born
+on the 18th of September 1819. After an education received
+chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which, however, he speedily
+abandoned for physical science, the improvement of L.J.M.
+Daguerre&rsquo;s photographic processes being the object to which
+he first directed his attention. During three years he was experimental
+assistant to Alfred Donné (1801-1878) in his course of
+lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he
+carried on a series of investigations on the intensity of the light
+of the sun, as compared with that of carbon in the electric arc,
+and of lime in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the
+interference of heat rays, and of light rays differing greatly in
+lengths of path; and on the chromatic polarization of light.
+In 1849 he contributed to the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> a description
+of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp, and,
+in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision.
+By the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir
+Charles Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric
+currents, he was enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater
+velocity of light in air than in water, and to establish that the
+velocity of light in different media is inversely as the refractive
+indices of the media. For his demonstration in 1851 of the
+diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation of the plane of oscillation
+of a freely suspended, long and heavy pendulum exhibited
+by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the following
+year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the
+Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year
+he was made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at
+Paris. In September of that year he discovered that the force
+required for the rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when
+it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a magnet,
+the disk at the same time becoming heated by the eddy or
+&ldquo;Foucault currents&rdquo; induced in its metal. Foucault invented
+in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the succeeding
+year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting
+telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution.
+With Wheatstone&rsquo;s revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the
+absolute velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000
+m.) a second, or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous
+experimenters. He was created in that year a member of the
+Bureau des Longitudes and an officer of the Legion of Honour,
+in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal Society of London,
+and next year a member of the mechanical section of the
+Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of
+Watt&rsquo;s governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting
+with a view to making its period of revolution constant,
+and on a new apparatus for regulating the electric light; and in
+the following year (<i>Compt. Rend.</i> lxiii.) he showed how, by the
+deposition of a transparently thin film of silver on the outer side
+of the object glass of a telescope, the sun could be viewed without
+injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault died of paralysis
+on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year 1845
+he edited the scientific portion of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. His
+chief scientific papers are to be found in the <i>Comptes Rendus</i>,
+1847-1869.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Revue cours scient.</i> vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>
+xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, <i>Notice historique sur la
+vie et les travaux de Léon Foucault</i> (Paris, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of Otranto</span> (1763-1820), French
+statesman, was born in a small village near Nantes on the 21st
+of May 1763. His father, a seafaring man, destined him for the
+sea; but the weakness of his frame and the precocity of his
+talents soon caused this idea to be given up. He was educated
+at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed marked
+aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to
+enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept
+by brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made
+rapid progress, and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the
+colleges of Niort, Saumur, Vendôme, Juilly and Arras. At Arras
+he had some dealings with Robespierre at the time of the beginning
+of the French Revolution (1789).</p>
+
+<p>In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to
+their college at Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal
+for revolutionary principles; but at Nantes he showed even
+more democratic fervour. His abilities and the zeal with which
+he espoused the most subversive notions brought him into
+favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a leading
+member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the
+college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouché gave
+up all connexion with the church, whose major vows he had
+not taken. After the downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of
+August 1792, he was elected as deputy for the department of
+the Lower Loire to the National Convention which met at the
+autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The literary
+and pedagogic sympathies of Fouché at first brought him into
+touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists;
+but their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of
+Louis XVI. (December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to
+espouse the cause of the Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more
+thoroughgoing champions of revolutionary doctrine. On the
+question of the execution of the king, Fouché, after some preliminary
+hesitations, expressed himself with the utmost vigour
+in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who
+&ldquo;wavered before the shadow of a king.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the
+Convention against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and
+a little later against Spain, brought Fouché into notoriety as
+one of the fiercest of the Jacobinical fanatics who then held
+power at Paris. While the armies of the first coalition threatened
+the north-east of France, a revolt of the royalist peasants of
+Brittany and la Vendée menaced the Convention on the west.
+That body deputed Fouché with a colleague, Villers, to proceed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial
+powers for the crushing of the revolt of &ldquo;the whites.&rdquo; The
+vigour with which he carried out these duties earned him other
+work, and he soon held the post of commissioner of the republic
+in the department of the Nièvre. Together with Chaumette,
+he helped to initiate the atheistical movement, the founders of
+which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the extinction of
+Christianity in France. In the department of the Nièvre he
+ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and
+established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the
+cemeteries, he ordered these words to be inscribed: &ldquo;Death is
+an eternal sleep.&rdquo; He also waged war against luxury and
+wealth, and desired to abolish the use of money. The new cult
+was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the strange orgy
+known as &ldquo;The Festival of Reason&rdquo; (November 10, 1793).</p>
+
+<p>Fouché then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance
+of the Convention on that city, which had revolted against the
+new Jacobin tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable
+for its obscene parody of religious rites, he then, along with
+his colleague, Collot d&rsquo;Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to
+work with a rigour which made his name odious. Modern
+research, however, proves that at the close of those horrors
+Fouché exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his
+conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return
+to Paris early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy:
+&ldquo;The blood of criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes
+power on sure foundations.&rdquo; By that time Robespierre
+had struck down the other leaders of the atheistical party; but
+early in June 1794, at the time of the &ldquo;Festival of the Supreme
+Being,&rdquo; Fouché ventured to mock at the theistic revival which
+Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took
+place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of
+Fouché from the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouché, however,
+was working with his customary skill and energy, and along with
+Tallien and others, managed to effect the overthrow of the
+theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July 28), 1794. The ensuing
+reaction in favour of more merciful methods of government
+threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been
+mainly instrumental in carrying through the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of
+Thermidor; but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouché in intrigue,
+they managed for a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords,
+however, crept in which left him for a time almost isolated, and
+it needed all his ability to withstand the attacks of the moderates.
+A vigorous attack on him by Boissy d&rsquo;Anglas, on the 9th of
+August 1795, caused him to be arrested, but the troubles which
+ensued in Vendémiaire averted the doom that seemed to be
+pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was
+passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year
+1795.</p>
+
+<p>In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799),
+Fouché remained at first in obscurity, but the relations
+which he had with the communists, once headed by Chaumette
+and now by François N. (&ldquo;Gracchus&rdquo;) Babeuf (<i>q.v.</i>), helped
+him to rise once more. He is said to have betrayed to the
+director Barras the secret of the strange plot which Babeuf and
+a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent research
+has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from
+poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the
+supply of military <i>matériel</i>, which offered opportunities direct
+and indirect. After offering his services to the royalists, whose
+movement was then gathering force, he again decided to support
+the Jacobins and the director Barras (<i>q.v.</i>). In the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>
+of Fructidor 1797 he made himself serviceable to Barras, who in
+1798 appointed him to be French ambassador to the Cisalpine
+republic. At Milan he carried matters with so high a hand
+against the Gallophobes of that government that his actions
+were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused
+state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold
+his own and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early
+in 1799 he returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office
+as ambassador at The Hague, he became minister of police at
+Paris (July 20, 1799). The newly elected director, Sieyès (<i>q.v.</i>),
+was then in the ascendant and desired to curb the excesses of
+the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club. Fouché,
+casting consistency to the winds, closed the Jacobins club in a
+manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted down
+the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists,
+who were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of
+the return of Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin
+was one of the most powerful men in France.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouché lent
+himself to the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyès for their overthrow.
+His activity in furthering the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire
+18-19 (November 9-10), 1799, procured him the favour of
+Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v. Napoleon I.). In the
+ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouché behaved
+with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and
+extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouché
+was careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of
+the new master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted
+himself with so much skill as to earn at times the gratitude
+even of the royalists. Thus, while countermining a foolish
+intrigue of theirs in which the duchesse de Guiche was the chief
+agent, Fouché took care that she should escape. Equally skilful
+was his action in the affair of the so-called Aréna-Ceracchi plot,
+in which the <i>agents provocateurs</i> of the police were believed to
+have played a sinister part. The chief &ldquo;conspirators&rdquo; were
+easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivôse
+(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This
+far more serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded
+a bomb near the First Consul&rsquo;s carriage with results disastrous
+to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouché to be the work of
+royalists; and when the First Consul, eager to entrap the still
+formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten the blame on them, Fouché
+firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove
+that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his efforts,
+however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was
+resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters
+(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the
+spring of 1802) Fouché was thought to have secured the Jacobins
+concerned from the vengeance of the First Consul. In any case
+the latter resolved to rid himself of a man who had too much
+power and too much skill in intrigue to be desirable as a subordinate.
+On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul
+for life (August 1, 1802) Fouché was deprived of his office;
+but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of
+police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended
+ministry of justice. Fouché also became a senator and received
+half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated
+during his tenure of office. He continued, however, to intrigue
+through his spies, whose information was so superior to that of
+the new minister of police as to render great services to Napoleon
+at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy (February-March
+1804).</p>
+
+<p>As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouché
+to the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also
+later on entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no
+less important than at the time of the Consulate. His police
+agents were ubiquitous, and the terror which Napoleon and
+Fouché inspired, owing to their proven ability to benefit by plots,
+partly accounts for the absence of conspiracies after 1804. After
+Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouché uttered the <i>mot</i> of the
+occasion: &ldquo;Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old aristocracy;
+the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of
+fear, of Fouché was proved by his conduct in the early days
+of 1808. While engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor
+heard rumours that Fouché and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies,
+were having interviews at Paris in which Murat, king of Naples,
+was concerned. At once the sensitive autocrat hurried to Paris,
+but found nothing to incriminate Fouché. In that year Fouché
+received the title of duke of Otranto. During the absence of
+Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British
+Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+Antwerp. Fouché thereupon issued an order to the prefects of
+the northern departments of the empire for the mobilization of
+60,000 National Guards. He added to the order a statement
+in which occurred the words: &ldquo;Let us prove to Europe that
+although the genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France,
+his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy.&rdquo;
+The emperor&rsquo;s approval of the measure was no less marked
+than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months
+brought further causes of friction between emperor and minister.
+The latter, knowing the desire of his master for peace at the
+close of the year 1809, undertook on his own account to make
+secret overtures to the British ministry. A little later Napoleon
+opened negotiations and found that Fouché had forestalled him.
+His rage against his minister was extreme, and on the 3rd of June
+1810 he dismissed him from his office. However, as it was not
+the emperor&rsquo;s custom completely to disgrace a man who might
+again be useful, Fouché received the governorship of Rome.
+He went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving
+the emperor&rsquo;s order to give up certain important documents of
+his former ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that
+the rest were destroyed. At this the emperor&rsquo;s anger burst
+forth again, and Fouché on learning, after his arrival at Florence,
+that the storm was still raging at Paris, prepared to sail to the
+United States. Compelled, however, by stress of weather and
+sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in Elisa Bonaparte,
+grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed
+to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point
+Carré. In 1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the
+projected invasion of Russia; and on the return of the emperor
+in haste from Smorgoni to Paris at the close of that year, the
+ex-minister of police was suspected of complicity in the conspiracy
+of General Malet, which came so strangely near to success.
+From this suspicion Fouché cleared himself and gave the emperor
+useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic
+situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the
+arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the
+Illyrian provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system
+in Germany in October 1813 Fouché was ordered to repair to
+Rome and thence to Naples, in order to watch the movements of
+Murat. Before Fouché arrived at Naples Murat threw off the
+mask and invaded the Roman territory, whereupon Fouché
+received orders to return to France. He arrived at Paris on the
+10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being constrained
+by his marshals to abdicate.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of Fouché at this crisis was characteristic. As
+senator he advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte
+d&rsquo;Artois, brother of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation
+between the monarchy and the nation. A little later he addressed
+to Napoleon, then at Elba, a letter begging him in the
+interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United
+States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an appeal
+in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures
+which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but
+Fouché remained unmolested.</p>
+
+<p>This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that
+there were no hopes of advancement, he entered into relations
+with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons.
+Lafayette and Davout were concerned in the affair, but their
+refusal to take the course desired by Fouché and other bold
+spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon escaped from
+Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before
+his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to
+Fouché an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined,
+saying, &ldquo;It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat.&rdquo;
+He then foiled an attempt of the royalists to arrest him, and on
+the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the portfolio
+of police. That, however, did not prevent him from
+entering into secret relations with Metternich at Vienna, his aim
+being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities. Meanwhile
+he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his
+rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words
+&ldquo;The sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of
+power&rdquo; in the declaration of the council of state. But the
+autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could scarcely be held in
+check, and Fouché seeing the fall of the emperor to be imminent,
+took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests. On
+the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second time, and
+Fouché was next day elected president of the commission which
+provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with
+Louis XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the
+overtures of his agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for
+the recognition of Napoleon II., he facilitated the success of the
+Bourbon cause, and thus procured for himself a place in the
+ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill, however, was unequal
+to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists who remembered
+his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He resigned
+office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at Dresden,
+he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he
+died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great
+wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was
+at least conscientious, Fouché&rsquo;s character deteriorated in and
+after the year 1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition
+represented all that was worst in the life of France during
+the period of the Revolution and Empire. In Fouché the
+enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a cold, selfish and
+remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the period
+1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest
+instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking
+to the level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were
+marked by a certain aloofness. He multiplied the means of
+resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that though
+removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced. Despised
+by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by all
+on account of his cleverness. He repaid the contempt of his
+superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of impenetrable
+reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected
+no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success
+appeared to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the
+servant of the victors, present or prospective, he never gave
+himself to any one party. In this versatility he resembles
+Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. Both professed,
+under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving France.
+Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; Fouché
+may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Fouché wrote some political pamphlets and reports,
+the chief of which are <i>Réflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet</i> (1793);
+<i>Réflexions sur l&rsquo;éducation publique</i> (1793); <i>Rapport et projet de loi
+relatif aux collèges</i> (1793); <i>Rapport sur la situation de Commune-Affranchie</i>
+[<i>Lyons</i>] (1794); <i>Lettre aux préfets concernant les prêtres</i>,
+&amp;c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a <i>Lettre au
+duc de Wellington</i> (1817). The best life of Fouché is that by L.
+Madelin, <i>Fouché</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called <i>Fouché Memoirs</i>
+are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least in
+part, from notes written by Fouché, and are often valuable, though
+their account of events (<i>e.g.</i> of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is
+not seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle,
+<i>Napoléon et l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904).
+For the plots with which Fouché had to deal see E. Daudet, <i>La
+Police et les Chouans sous le Consulat et l&rsquo;Empire</i> (Paris, 1895);
+P.M.C. Desmarest, <i>Témoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute
+police</i> (Paris, 1833, 2nd ed., 1900); É. Picard, <i>Bonaparte et Moreau</i>
+(Paris, 1905); G.A. Thierry, <i>Conspirateurs et gens de police</i>; <i>le
+complot de libelles</i> (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H.
+Welschinger, <i>Le Duc d&rsquo;Enghien</i> (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, <i>Les Complots
+militaires sous le Consulat et l&rsquo;Empire</i> (Paris, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUCHER, SIMON<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1644-1696), French philosopher, was
+born at Dijon on the 1st of March 1644. He was the son of a
+merchant, and appears to have taken orders at a very early age.
+For some years he held the position of honorary canon at Dijon,
+but this he resigned in order to take up his residence in Paris.
+He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the remainder of his
+life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the 27th of April
+1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a keen
+opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was
+one of scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived
+the old arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with
+much ingenuity against Malebranche&rsquo;s doctrine. Otherwise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+his scepticism is subordinate to orthodox belief, the fundamental
+dogmas of the church seeming to him intuitively evident. His
+object was to reconcile his religious with his philosophical creed,
+and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an academician.
+His writings against Malebranche were collected under the
+title <i>Dissertations sur la recherche de la vérité</i>, 1693.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Rabbe, <i>L&rsquo;Abbé Simon Foucher</i> (1867); C. Jourdain in
+<i>Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques</i> (1875), pp. 557-559.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUCQUET, JEAN,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Jehan</span> (<i>c.</i> 1415-1485), French painter,
+born at Tours, is the most representative and national French
+painter of the 15th century. Of his life little is known, but it is
+certain that he was in Italy about 1437, where he executed the
+portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and that upon his return to
+France, whilst retaining his purely French sentiment, he grafted
+the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had acquired during
+his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks, which was
+the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became
+the founder of an important new school. He was court painter
+to Louis XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator
+and miniaturist, of exquisite precision in the rendering of the
+finest detail, and his power of clear characterization in work on
+this minute scale, have long since procured him an eminent
+position in the art of his country, his importance as a painter
+was only realized when his portraits and altarpieces were for
+the first time brought together from various parts of Europe
+in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at the
+Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet&rsquo;s most
+important paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame
+de Melun, of which one wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the
+Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum and the other in the
+Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of Charles
+VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a
+portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from
+his brush is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous
+are his illuminated books and miniatures that have come down
+to us. The Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains
+forty miniatures from a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for
+Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed by Foucquet on the Berlin
+wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet&rsquo;s hand again
+are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a translation
+of Josephus at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The second volume
+of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen
+miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry
+Yates Thompson at a London sale, and restored by him to France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>&OElig;uvres de Jehan Foucquet</i> (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867);
+A. de Champeaux and P. Gauchery, <i>&OElig;uvres d&rsquo;art exécutées pour le duc
+de Berry</i>; &ldquo;Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet&rdquo; from
+vols. i. and ii. of the <i>Anciennetés des Juifs</i> (London, 1902); Charles
+Blanc, <i>Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles</i> (introduction); and
+Georges Lafenestre, <i>Jehan Fouquet</i> (Paris, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUGÈRES,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m.
+N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 21,847. Fougères is
+built on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the
+Nançon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was formerly one of
+the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy, and it
+still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,
+notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St
+Sulpice. The castle, which is situated in the lower part of the
+town, directly overlooking the Nançon, is now a picturesque
+ruin, but gives abundant evidence in its towers and outworks of
+its former strength and magnificence. The finest of the towers
+was erected in 1242 by Hugues of Lusignan, and named after
+Mélusine, the mythical foundress of the family. The churches
+of St Léonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in part, from
+the 15th century. An hôtel de ville and a belfry, both of the 15th
+century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses
+many curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de
+Lari Coisière (d. 1812), born in the town. Fougères is the seat
+of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
+of commerce and a communal college. It is the chief industrial
+town of its department, being a centre for the manufacture of
+boots and shoes; tanning and leather-dressing and the manufacture
+of sail-cloth and other fabrics are also important industries.
+Trade is in dairy produce and in the granite of the
+neighbouring quarries. Fougères frequently figures in Breton
+history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the
+English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne,
+the captor on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the
+towers of the castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of
+Charles VIII. under la Trémoille. In the middle ages Fougères
+was a lordship of some importance, which in the 13th century
+passed into the possession of the family of Lusignan, and in
+1307 was confiscated by the crown and afterwards changed
+hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the Vendée,
+it was occupied by the insurgents.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1838-&emsp;&emsp;), French
+philosopher, was born at La Pouëze on the 18th of October
+1838. He held several minor philosophical lectureships, and
+from 1864 was professor of philosophy at the lycées of Douai,
+Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and 1868 he
+was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work
+on Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences
+at the École Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy
+in recognition of his two treatises, <i>Platonis Hippias Minor sive
+Socratica contra liberum arbitrium argumenta</i> and <i>La Liberté et le
+déterminisme</i>. The strain of the next three years&rsquo; continuous
+work undermined his health and his eyesight, and he was compelled
+to retire from his professorship. During these years he
+had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history of
+philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed
+his philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through
+which he endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with
+the naturalistic and mechanical standpoint of science. In
+<i>L&rsquo;Évolutionnisme des idées-forces</i> (1890), <i>La Psychologie des
+idées-forces</i> (1893), and <i>La Morale des idées-forces</i> (1907), is
+elaborated his doctrine of <i>idées-forces</i>, or of mind as efficient
+cause through the tendency of ideas to realize themselves in
+appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological developments
+of this theory succeed its physical and psychological treatment,
+the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially
+important. Fouillée&rsquo;s wife, who by a previous marriage was the
+mother of the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888),
+is well known, under the pseudonym of &ldquo;G. Bruno,&rdquo;
+as the author of educational books for children.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His other chief works are: <i>L&rsquo;Idée moderne du droit en Allemagne,
+en Angleterre et en France</i> (Paris, 1878); <i>La Science sociale contemporaine</i>
+(1880); <i>La Propriété sociale et la démocratie</i> (1884);
+<i>Critique des systèmes de morale contemporains</i> (1883); <i>La Morale,
+l&rsquo;art et la religion d&rsquo;après Guyau</i> (1889); <i>L&rsquo;Avenir de la métaphysique
+fondée sur l&rsquo;expérience</i> (1889); <i>L&rsquo;Enseignement au point de vue national</i>
+(1891); <i>Descartes</i> (1893); <i>Tempérament et caractère</i> (2nd ed., 1895);
+<i>Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception sociologique du monde</i> (1896);
+<i>Le Mouvement idéaliste et la réaction contre la science positive</i> (1896);
+<i>La Psychologie du peuple français</i> (2nd ed., 1898); <i>La France au
+point de vue moral</i> (1900); <i>L&rsquo;Esquisse psychologique des peuples
+européens</i> (1903); <i>Nietzsche et l&rsquo; &ldquo;immoralisme&rdquo;</i> (1903); <i>Le Moralisme
+de Kant</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOULD, ACHILLE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1800-1867), French financier and politician,
+was born at Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of
+a rich Jewish banker, he was associated with and afterwards
+succeeded his father in the management of the business. As
+early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in
+that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes Pyrénées.
+From that time to his death he actively busied himself with the
+affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution
+of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence
+in financial matters on the provisional government then formed.
+He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use
+of paper money, entitled, <i>Pas d&rsquo;Assignats!</i> and <i>Observations
+sur la question financière</i>. During the presidency of Louis
+Napoleon he was four times minister of finance, and took a
+leading part in the economical reforms then made in France.
+His strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine
+of free trade, and disposed him to hail the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> and the
+new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence of
+the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+he resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the
+same day appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government
+as minister of state and of the imperial household. In
+this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855. The
+events of November 1860 led once more to his resignation, but
+he was recalled to the ministry of finance in November of the
+following year, and retained office until the publication of the
+imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when Émile Ollivier
+became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last tenure
+of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican
+war had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan
+of 300 millions of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon
+financial abilities, had a taste for the fine arts, which he developed
+and refined during his youth by visiting Italy and the eastern
+coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 he was made a member
+of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes on the 5th
+of October 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOULIS, ANDREW<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1712-1775) and <b>ROBERT</b> (1707-1776),
+Scottish printers and publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow
+maltman. Robert was apprenticed to a barber; but his ability
+attracted the attention of Dr Francis Hutcheson, who strongly
+recommended him to establish a printing press. After spending
+1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his
+brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had
+received a better education, he started business in 1741 in
+Glasgow, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university.
+In this same year he brought out <i>Demetrius Phalereus de
+elocutione</i>, in Greek and Latin, the first Greek book ever printed
+in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the famous 12mo
+edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to
+be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in
+the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any
+inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped
+detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partnership,
+and they continued for about thirty years to issue carefully
+corrected and beautifully printed editions of classical works in
+Latin, Greek, English, French and Italian. They printed more
+than five hundred separate publications, among them the small
+editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and
+Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the
+Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol., 1756-1758);
+Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon,
+Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray&rsquo;s Poems;
+Pope&rsquo;s Works; Milton&rsquo;s Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman&rsquo;s
+designs were executed, is perhaps the most famous production
+of the Foulis press. The brothers spared no pains, and
+Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the classics,
+and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.
+Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution
+for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their
+chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to
+&ldquo;print for posterity and prosper,&rdquo; they spent their money in
+collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture and models, in paying
+for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in
+copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen
+were not ripe for such an attempt, and the &ldquo;Academy&rdquo; not only
+proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew
+died on the 18th of September 1775, and his brother went to
+London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures.
+They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and Robert
+returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh
+on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was the author of a <i>Catalogue
+of Paintings with Critical Remarks</i>. The business was afterwards
+carried on under the same name by Robert&rsquo;s son Andrew.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.J. Duncan, <i>Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary
+History of Glasgow</i>, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which
+<i>inter alia</i> contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis
+press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of
+Paris produced at the &ldquo;Academy&rdquo; in the university of Glasgow.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1717-1789), French administrator,
+was born at Saumur. During the Seven Years&rsquo; War he
+was intendant-general of the armies, and intendant of the army
+and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle. In 1771 he was appointed
+intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker was dismissed,
+Foullon was appointed minister of the king&rsquo;s household, and
+was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But
+he was unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested
+him on account of his severity, the Parisians on account of
+his wealth accumulated in utter indifference to the sufferings
+of the poor; he was reported, probably quite without foundation,
+to have said, &ldquo;If the people cannot get bread, let them eat hay.&rdquo;
+After the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July, he withdrew
+to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread the news of his
+death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried off with
+a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hôtel de ville, and, in spite
+of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace
+and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Eugène Bonnemère, <i>Histoire des paysans</i> (4th ed., 1887),
+tome iii.; C.L. Chassin, <i>Les Élections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789</i>.
+(Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNDATION<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fundatio</i>, from <i>fundare</i>, to found), the
+act of building, constituting or instituting on a permanent
+basis; especially the establishing of any institution by endowing
+or providing it with funds for its continual maintenance. The
+word is thus applied also to the institutions so established, such
+as a college, monastery or hospital; and the terms &ldquo;on the
+foundation,&rdquo; or &ldquo;foundationer,&rdquo; are used of members of such a
+college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars, &amp;c., the benefits
+of the endowment. Formerly &ldquo;foundation&rdquo; also meant the
+charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and
+it is still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The terms &ldquo;old foundation&rdquo; and &ldquo;new foundation&rdquo; used in
+connexion with the organizing of English cathedral chapters
+have no reference to the age of the cathedrals. At the time
+of the Reformation under Henry VIII. the old college chapters
+were left unchanged, and are referred to as the &ldquo;old foundations,&rdquo;
+but the monastic chapters were all suppressed, consequently
+new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and these
+constitute the &ldquo;new foundations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Foundation&rdquo; also means the base (natural or artificial)
+on which any erection is built up; generally made below the
+level of the ground (see Foundations below). A foundation-stone
+is one of the stones at the base of a building, generally a
+corner-stone, frequently laid with a public ceremony to celebrate
+the commencement of the building. The term is also applied
+to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making,
+the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material
+used for stiffening purposes, as &ldquo;foundation muslin or net.&rdquo;
+In knitting or crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest
+are worked are called the &ldquo;foundation chain.&rdquo; In gem-cutting
+the &ldquo;foundation-square&rdquo; is the first of eight squares round the
+edges of a brilliant made in bevel planes and from which the
+angles are all removed to form three-corner facets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNDATIONS,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> in building. The object of foundations is
+to distribute the weight of a structure equally over the ground.
+In the construction of a building the weights are concentrated
+at given points on piers, columns, &amp;c., and these foundations
+require to be spread so as to reduce the weight to an average.
+In the preparation of a foundation care must be taken to prevent
+the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed upon
+sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any
+damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with
+in ordinary practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand,
+vary as to their capabilities of bearing weight. There is no
+provision in any English building acts as to the load that may
+be placed on any of these soils, but under the New York Building
+Code it is provided that, where no test of the sustaining power
+of the soil is made, different soils, excluding mud, at the bottom
+of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the following
+loads to the superficial foot:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">per sq. ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Soft clay</td> <td class="tcl cl">1 ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers, wet and springy</td> <td class="tcl">2 tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry</td> <td class="tcl cl">3 tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay</td> <td class="tcl">4 tons.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span></p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation
+by the walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided
+for by the London Building Act of 1894, and a comparison
+of a few of the principal authorities, will be
+<span class="sidenote">Load on foundation.</span>
+found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision as to
+what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a
+wall of the warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base
+for a height of 27 ft. is 2½ bricks thick (or 22½ in.), and for the
+same distance in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the
+remainder to the top being 1½ bricks thick (or 14 in.). The
+weight of brickwork per foot run of such a wall is 4.05 tons on
+any area of 3.75 ft. super. of brickwork. According to the act
+the concrete is to project 4 in. on each side; we have then an
+additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus making the total
+foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft. super. to take
+a weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super. (viz.
+.9 ton.)</p>
+
+<p>Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration,
+viz. the weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the
+roof. In this case there would be at least six floors, and the
+entire weight could hardly be taken at less than 6 tons, which
+would give a total weight of 10.05 tons on an area of 4.41 ft.
+super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot super. This is on the
+assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on the foundations
+by openings or piers, or by girders, &amp;c., in which case, in
+addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations
+should be increased in area. Piers always involve a great
+increase of weight on the foundations, and in very many instances
+this increased weight, instead of being provided for by increasing
+the area of the foundations and so reducing the weight per foot
+super., is only partly met by the improper method of merely
+increasing the depth of the concrete, while keeping the same
+projection of concrete round the footings as for the walls. As an
+example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80 tons,
+standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by
+a brick pier 22½ in. square. In this case we should have, after
+allowing for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of
+4 ft. 5 in. square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure
+of 4.1 tons per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much
+as in the previous example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead
+of increasing the depth of the concrete, it would be necessary
+to increase its width; if it were made 6 ft. square, we should have
+an area of 36 ft. super. to take the 80 tons, and thus the pressure
+would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the cost of the foundation
+be much the same.</p>
+
+<p>If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class,
+as prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a
+wall 50 ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22½ in. as for
+the warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall
+weighing 3.75 tons per foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super.,
+or .85 ton per foot without weight of floors and roof as against
+the .9 ton in the warehouse example. To this must be added the
+weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at a total of 3 tons per foot run
+of wall, and we then have an aggregate of 6.75 tons per foot run
+and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28 tons in the warehouse
+class.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel
+Seddon in the <i>Aide Memoir</i> gives the load which ordinary foundations
+will bear as a safe load per foot super. as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Rock, moderately hard</td> <td class="tcl cl">&ensp;9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rock of strength of good concrete</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Rock, very soft</td> <td class="tcl cl">1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Firm earth</td> <td class="tcl">1 to 1½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Hard clay</td> <td class="tcl cl">1 to 1½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from spreading sideways</td> <td class="tcl">1 to 1½</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the
+latter heads, and according to this table we have, when we erect
+walls in accordance with the building act, to overload our
+foundations.</p>
+
+<p>As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an
+example the chimney at Adkin&rsquo;s Soap Works in Birmingham,
+312 ft. high, so arranged that its pressure on the foundations is
+only 1½ tons per foot super.; also the great St Rollox chimney
+at Glasgow, which has a pressure of 1¾ tons; the weight of the
+Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4 bases, each 130 ft.
+square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or 2<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> cwt., per foot
+super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per foot on the
+granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by spreading
+to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The piers
+under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2¼ tons only, those of
+the Imperial Institute 2¼ tons, and those of the destructor cells
+and chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6¾ cwt. per foot
+super. From these various examples it would appear that on
+sound clay or gravel foundation a load of from 2¼ to 4 tons may
+be employed with safety.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>One of the first and most important requirements in preparing
+drawings for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil
+and strata at different levels over the proposed site,
+so as to be able to arrange the footings accordingly at the
+<span class="sidenote">Trial borings.</span>
+various depths and to decide as to the various forms and
+methods to be employed. For this purpose trial holes or borings
+are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon which the
+concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom is
+found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations
+must be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile foundations,
+&amp;c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples
+of the varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will
+be noticed the great depths dug before getting through the made
+ground: At the Bank of England there were 22 ft. of made ground
+resting on 4 ft. of gravel. Some of the made ground was of ancient
+date, and preserved relics of Roman occupation. In some parts the
+subsoils have been excavated for ballast or gravel, as at Kensington,
+or for brick earth, as at Highbury, and the pits filled in with rubbish.
+Rock, which forms an excellent and unchanging foundation in one
+situation, may prove a dangerous foundation in another. Thus
+chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain positions, but
+when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop of the gault
+or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for any building,
+as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the Dorsetshire coast
+bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the Thames
+embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in. greensand,
+wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5) 5½ ft. peaty
+bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean ballast, resting at a
+depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue clay. A boring at
+Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18 ft. loam,
+(3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand. These
+examples show that while trial holes should always be made before
+designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care
+must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block
+2 of the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial
+holes upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay
+to be about 29½ ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual
+excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution
+of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west
+corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground.
+The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are placed
+in a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid
+concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland
+Avenue (London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38½ ft.
+made ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3)
+6 ft. rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue
+clay. At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north
+end 37 ft. The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft.
+wide. The site was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about
+6 ft. wide, forming a species of boxes, and the whole was covered
+with a depth of 6 ft. of concrete upon which the walls were raised.
+The foundation for 53 Parliament Street, where running sand was
+encountered, was constructed with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and
+6 in. diam., pointed and placed as close together as possible over
+the whole foundation, the tops were then sawn off level, and a
+concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over the whole area. At the
+Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster,
+the foundations to the two party walls upon each side of the
+building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement level,
+that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side
+24 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the
+erection of buildings on sites that have been used as &ldquo;shoots&rdquo; for
+faecal matter or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the
+objectionable material must be removed prior to the
+<span class="sidenote">Construction.</span>
+commencement of building operations, and the holes
+from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other rubbish
+well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or
+navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level
+pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow,
+rammer or punner, &amp;c. In digging the ordinary trenches and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have
+to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides
+of the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts;
+this work is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms
+of planking and strutting for the different soils.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:349px" src="images/img740a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:373px" src="images/img740b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is
+used for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket
+with a cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the
+excavation, and on being
+withdrawn cuts off a portion
+of soil which is hoisted and
+deposited in carts for removal
+to any desired position
+within the radius commanded
+by the crane. The
+work of trimming the excavation
+to a regular shape
+must always be done by
+manual labour.</p>
+
+<p>Concrete for filling into
+the foundations is usually
+mixed by navvies; for large
+works it is sometimes mixed
+by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the work of
+excavating and constructing
+the foundations may proceed
+in a water-logged site, pumps
+have to be employed, and
+where the inrush of water is
+great it is usual to sink a sump
+hole lower than the depth
+required for the foundations,
+and to use a steam pump
+kept going day and night.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance
+with the London Building and Amendment Acts: &ldquo;The projection
+of the bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall
+shall be at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base,
+unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may
+be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the
+footings of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the
+height from the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall
+be at least equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its
+base.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brickwork</a></span>.) The base of a wall is the thickness above
+the footing; the footing is the brickwork built directly on the top
+of the concrete and diminishing in width in every course. Thus:
+&ldquo;The projection of the bottom footing to be equal to one-half the
+thickness of wall on
+both sides&rdquo; means
+that a 13½-in. wall
+would require to
+have three courses
+of footings, the
+bottom one being
+27 in. wide. &ldquo;The
+height from the
+bottom of such
+footing to the base
+of the wall shall be
+at least equal to
+two-thirds the
+thickness of wall at
+its base&rdquo; means
+that in the case of
+a 13½-in. wall the
+height of footings
+would have to be
+9 in., or three
+courses of brickwork,
+each measuring
+3 in.</p>
+
+<p>The New York
+Building Code
+enters more fully
+into the requirements
+for the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use
+in London. Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except
+buildings erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the
+water front, shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete
+laid not less then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid
+ground or level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers
+when solid earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a
+wall, pier or post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than
+20 in. on centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable,
+and their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure
+proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than
+5 in. at the small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles
+20 ft. or less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding
+40,000 &#8468;. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining
+power shall be determined by the following formula: twice the
+weight of the hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall
+in feet divided by the least penetration of pile under the last blow
+in inches plus one. There are also further requirements as to piles,
+&amp;c., and the commissioner of buildings must be notified when the
+piles are to be driven.</p>
+
+<p>The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that
+foundation walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers
+built below the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to
+serve as supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or
+beams. Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland
+cement concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland
+cement concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall
+above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every
+additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4 in.
+in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in. thicker
+than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb
+level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they
+shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course
+shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up
+brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight
+to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete,
+the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the stones
+shall not be less than 2 × 3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness for walls,
+and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers, columns or posts.
+The footing or base course, whether formed of concrete or stone, shall
+be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom width of walls, and at least
+12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom width of said piers, columns
+or posts. If the superimposed load is such as to cause undue transverse
+strain on a footing projecting 12 in., the thickness of such
+footing is to be increased so as to carry the load with safety. For
+small structures and for small piers sustaining light loads the commissioner
+of buildings having jurisdiction may, in his discretion,
+allow a reduction in the thickness and projection specified for
+footing or base courses. All base stones shall be bedded and laid
+crosswise, edge to edge. If stepped-up footing of brick is used in place
+of stone above the concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall
+each not exceed 1½ in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall
+not exceed 3 in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half
+the thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the
+load to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that
+the American acts are far more extensive than in London. The
+London Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest
+upon the solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure.
+The building act amendment says: &ldquo;The foundations of the walls
+of every house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete
+not less than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side
+of the lowest course of footings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Various Types of Foundations.</i>&mdash;The most natural foundations
+for walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly
+upon the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard
+or consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply
+levelled and the building commenced.</p>
+
+<p>The next and most universally recognized method, which might
+safely be said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the
+system of placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches
+where the walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and
+in these laying the concrete. The London Building Act requires this
+concrete bed to be at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of
+footings on each side of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider
+on each side and in general circumstances the depth of the concrete
+is varied according to the weight placed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course,
+&amp;c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies
+low, naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is
+soft. It is here that special foundations are required.</p>
+
+<p>In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These
+are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building,
+and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may
+require according to the nature of the ground; and on
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete piers, legs, or stilts.</span>
+the tops of these stilts concrete arches or lintels are
+turned over (fig. 3). As an example of the stilt principle,
+mention may be made of some premises at Stratford and
+a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers
+were sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4½ ft. square, in pot holes dug
+out of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the
+intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of
+18 in. or the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in
+which steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment,
+London, the foundations were formed with cement
+concrete stilts or piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London
+clay; from the tops of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning
+the spaces between the piers, and upon these arches the walls were
+built.</p>
+
+<p>Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works,
+consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6 in.
+to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom
+ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to
+<span class="sidenote">Pile foundations.</span>
+be easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have
+an iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+the band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of
+driving these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary
+structure, upon one side of which is a guide path
+faced with sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up
+and down this guide path a heavy iron weight, called a
+monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted to the top of
+the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or steam, and
+when released descends with a good force, and so drives the piles into
+the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10 cwt.
+and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:346px" src="images/img741a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or
+under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In
+the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles, each
+with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of 52½ ft.
+and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a period of two
+weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile was adopted
+as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads used in
+practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles 50 ft.
+in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y., piles 20 ft.
+in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2 tons; Schiller
+building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case the building
+settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of all piles
+should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped with
+concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks
+of granite.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:372px" src="images/img741b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement
+concrete blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land,
+&amp;c. In some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and
+the centres are filled with blocks of concrete and grouted
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete piles.</span>
+in. The Yarmouth destructor cells and chimney shaft
+were built in this way; the cylinders were constructed of 9 in.
+brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4 ft. being encased
+in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the gravel and sand
+at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of a grab, the
+bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a diver.
+Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement concrete
+having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron shoes and
+head for driving (fig. 6).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:523px; height:250px" src="images/img741c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist
+of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the
+lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary
+from 9 in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of
+the projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the
+shaft. For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3½ to 4½ ft.
+will be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest.
+The lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being
+bevelled and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting
+into and penetrating the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists
+in driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these,
+also driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in.,
+which form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In
+this way the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing
+the building to settle unevenly.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9),
+<span class="sidenote">Plank foundations.</span>
+consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the
+trench and spiked together; on the top of these are laid
+similar planks but at right angles to the last, and upon
+the platform thus formed the wall is built. This method
+is used in soft ground.</p>
+
+<p>Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction
+of the foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in
+<span class="sidenote">Caissons.</span>
+foundations for buildings are to be found in the American
+Surety and the Manhattan Life Insurance buildings,
+New York City. The latter building is 242 ft. high to the parapet,
+and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher. The building is carried
+on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft. below the street level
+to solid rock, and these piers support the 34 cast iron columns upon
+which the building is erected. The piers to each building were
+constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caisson</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:306px" src="images/img741d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy
+is to build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully
+practised in Madras. The wells are made
+circular, about 3 ft. in diameter and one brick thick.
+<span class="sidenote">Well foundations.</span>
+The first course is laid and cemented together on the
+surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is
+excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another
+is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards.
+The brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+to building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with
+rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon
+foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under
+the city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:593px; height:714px" src="images/img742a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water
+whilst putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed
+with two rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced
+about 6 ft. apart, and filled in between with a double row
+<span class="sidenote">Coffer dams.</span>
+of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the space between the rows being
+packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The general rule for the thickness of
+a coffer dam is to make it equal to the depth of water. An interesting
+example of a coffer dam is that at the Keyham dock extension,
+where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to 85 ft. They were driven in
+a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 were used.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:101px" src="images/img742b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large
+concrete tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty
+arises as to the ingress of water. They are considered
+the best method of constructing a building on soft ground
+<span class="sidenote">Dock foundations.</span>
+and of keeping a building dry (fig. 11). This type of
+foundation was used at the new colonial office, Whitehall,
+London, and the new admiralty buildings at St James&rsquo;s Park,
+London. A few buildings treated after the style of a dock, but in
+some instances without the enclosing walls, are the following:
+At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete retaining
+wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and is
+joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered
+with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside
+clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new
+&ldquo;Old Bailey&rdquo; buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed
+on a concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy
+Auxiliary Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet&rsquo;s Wharf, near Southwark
+Bridge, a concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the
+site, with an extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed
+similarly to dock foundations, but in addition having steel joists and
+rods inserted in the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole
+together, are known as <i>gridiron</i> foundations.</p>
+
+<p>In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &amp;c., are formed
+with small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed
+for floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended
+foundation on soft ground.</p>
+
+<p>Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is
+not sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of
+building pier foundations at some distance from the proposed
+new wall. On the top of these piers rest
+<span class="sidenote">Cantilever foundations.</span>
+steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon cast
+iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one
+end to a column, while the other ends go through the full
+thickness of the new wall. Upon these last ends is placed a
+steel girder upon which the wall is built. This construction
+(fig. 12) has been used in America, and in the Ritz Hotel,
+Piccadilly, London.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in
+the case of some premises at Carr&rsquo;s Lane, Birmingham,
+partly built over the Great Western railway tunnel (fig. 13).
+In this instance large piers were built below the ground at
+the side of the tunnel. From the tops of these piers large
+steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the crown of
+the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the
+building constructed upon them.</p>
+
+<p>In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy
+ground, the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited
+by the sewage water from the ancient or Arab
+quarter of the city, which is situated on an adjacent
+<span class="sidenote">Foundations in Tunis.</span>
+hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about
+33 ft. To prepare the soil for supporting an
+ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to 10 ft. square are excavated
+to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level of the ground
+water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and
+powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt
+stone from the lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust
+when exposed to the air. The mixture is thrown into pits in
+layers about 12 in. thick and rammed down for a very long
+time by specially trained labourers. A gang of 15 or 20
+men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the
+foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard
+bed is thus obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface
+of the ground, and on this artificial bed the foundations of
+the building are laid. Although this method of construction
+is crude, it is stated that the practical results are
+superior to those obtained by using piles, concrete or other
+recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is much less,
+for labour is cheap.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:287px" src="images/img742c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a
+signal station at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on
+top of the highest sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so
+that the observer may have an unobstructed
+<span class="sidenote">Building on sand.</span>
+view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the
+sea and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is
+absolutely required that it shall stand firmly planted in
+such a way that even a hurricane shall not shake it or
+make it tremble, since that would affect the sight of the telescope
+in the observatory. The usual mode of securing such a building is
+by means of a foundation of screw piles or of heavy timbers sunk
+into the sand; this method, however, has the disadvantage that if
+the wind shifts the sand away from around the foundation, it
+becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To avoid such an
+accident, recourse was had to the following design, which was
+considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an effective
+anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a cellar,
+above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a
+square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and
+pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made
+likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined
+together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are
+mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet
+above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first
+room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper
+room. Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts.
+The structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside
+with rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and
+grooved yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal
+in shape, is securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a
+corrugated iron roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with
+3 in. wood, and boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit
+was first dug in the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on
+the bottom. The cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure
+built upon it; thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top
+of the hill or the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up
+with sand and packed solid all round, consequently the building is
+anchored in its place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in
+weight.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:742px" src="images/img743a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,
+is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much importance
+that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact
+and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site
+answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best
+form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if
+that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight,
+on a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of
+solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of
+the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before
+his work can even be started on its way to completion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The principal books for reference on this subject
+are: <i>A Practical Treatise on Foundations</i>, by W.M. Patron, C. E.;
+<i>Building Construction and Superintendence</i>, part i., by F.E. Kidder;
+<i>Notes on Building Construction</i>, vols. i. ii. and iii.; <i>Aide Memoir</i>,
+vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; <i>Advanced Building Construction</i>,
+by C.F. Mitchell; <i>Modern House Construction</i>, by G.L. Sutcliffe;
+<i>Building Construction</i>, by Professor Henry Adams; <i>Practical
+Building Construction</i>, by J.P. Allen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Bt.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNDING<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>fundere</i>, to pour), the process of casting
+in metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running
+molten metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from
+that object. To enable the founder to prepare a mould for the
+casting, he must receive a pattern similar to the casting required.
+Some few exceptions occur, to be noted presently, but the above
+statement is true of perhaps 98% of all castings produced. The
+construction of such patterns gives employment to a large
+number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire the necessary
+knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to seven
+years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the
+work of pattern construction&mdash;that of the craft itself and that
+of the moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed
+strongly. They are generally of wood, and they thus require
+skill in the use of woodworking tools and the making of timber
+joints, together with a knowledge of the behaviour of timber,
+&amp;c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or white metal
+alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the
+founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without
+inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since
+cast work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including
+projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the
+withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and
+fracture of the sand must involve many difficult problems that
+have to be as fully understood by the pattern-maker as by the
+moulder. It is from this point of view that the work of the pattern-maker
+should be approached in the first place. No closed mould
+can possibly be made without one or more joints, for if a pattern
+is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it cannot be withdrawn
+except by making a parting in the sand, and it is not difficult to
+conceive that the parting in the pattern might advantageously
+be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately, with that
+of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal
+of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the
+lower than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle
+smaller or &ldquo;tapered.&rdquo; Nor may they have any lateral extensions
+into the lower sand, unless these can be made to withdraw
+separately from the main portion of the pattern. Finally, there
+are many internal spaces which cannot be formed by a pattern
+directly in the sand, but provision for which must be made by
+some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:351px" src="images/img743b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A single example must illustrate the main principles which have
+just been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves
+questions of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding.
+The casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1
+illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation
+of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious
+difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it
+were made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with
+the open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the
+pieces A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will &ldquo;deliver&rdquo;
+freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as
+shown in fig. 3, or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as
+in fig. 4, or along the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+timber shadings in figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable
+arrangement of material. The prints are &ldquo;boxed up.&rdquo; Fig. 4
+shows a certain stage of the moulding, in which one half of the pattern
+has been &ldquo;rammed&rdquo; in sand, and turned over in the &ldquo;bottom box,&rdquo;
+and the upper half is ready to be rammed in the &ldquo;top box,&rdquo; with
+&ldquo;runner pin&rdquo; or &ldquo;git stick&rdquo; A, set in place. The lower loose piece
+has had its skewer removed during the ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates
+the mould completed and ready for pouring. The boxes have been
+parted, the pattern has
+been withdrawn, cores
+inserted in the impressions
+left by the prints,
+vents taken from the
+central body of
+cinders, the pouring
+basin made and the
+boxes cottered
+together.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:271px" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Every single detail
+now briefly noted in
+connexion with this
+bracket is applied and
+modified in an almost
+infinite number of
+ways to suit the ever
+varying character of
+foundry work. Yet
+this process does not
+touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting.
+There is a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete
+patterns and core boxes are never made, because of the great expense
+that would be involved in the pattern construction. There are also
+some cases in which the methods adopted would not permit of the
+use of patterns, as in that group of work in which the sand or loam
+is &ldquo;swept&rdquo; to the form required for the moulds and cores by means
+of striking boards, loam boards, core boards or strickles. In these
+classes of moulding the loose green sands and core sands are not
+much used; instead, loam&mdash;a wet and plastic sand mixture&mdash;is
+employed, supported against bricks (loam moulds) or against core
+bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam cores). All heavy marine
+engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping, and all massive cores
+for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides much large circular and
+cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders, soap pans, lead pans,
+mortar pans, large propeller blades, &amp;c. In these cases the edge of
+the striking board is a counterpart of the profile of the work swept
+up. Joints also have to be made in such moulds, not of course in
+order to provide for the removal of a pattern, but for the exposure
+of the separate parts in course of construction, and for closing them
+up, or putting them together in their due relations. These joints
+also are swept by the boards, generally cut to produce suitable
+&ldquo;checks,&rdquo; or &ldquo;registers&rdquo; to ensure that they accurately fit together.
+Fig. 6, showing a portion of a swept-up mould, illustrates the general
+arrangement. A plate, A, carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are
+embedded in loam, and break joint. To a striking bar, C, supported
+in a step, a striking board or sweeping board, D, is bolted,
+and is swept round against plastic loam, which is afterwards dried.
+The check on the board at A corresponds with a similar check on the
+board which strikes the interior of the pan, and by which top and
+bottom portions of the mould are registered together. This is
+indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept on bricks, and
+turned over into place, and the metal is poured into the space b, b,
+between the two moulds. There is also a large group of swept-up
+work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation. Then
+the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges
+of &ldquo;core plates,&rdquo; or of &ldquo;core irons&rdquo; (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the
+volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of
+this kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and
+B the &ldquo;strickle,&rdquo; sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves
+pasted together completing the core.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:441px" src="images/img744b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:432px" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:335px" src="images/img744d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often
+involving as much detail as the construction and moulding of
+patterns. Two perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in
+both of which provision exists for removing the box parts from the
+core after the latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and
+tapered, and often have loose pieces within them, and also prints,
+into the impressions of which other cores are inserted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:255px" src="images/img744e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Machine-moulding.</i>&mdash;There is a development of modern
+methods of founding which is effecting radical changes in some
+departments of foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines.
+The advantages of this method are manifold, and its limitations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+are being lessened continually. There are two broad departments
+between which machine-moulding is divided. One, of less
+importance, is that of toothed wheels; the other is that of general
+work, except of a very massive character.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:177px; height:132px" src="images/img745a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:296px; height:275px" src="images/img745b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special
+adaptation of the mechanism of the dividing engine, by means
+of which, instead of using a complete pattern of a toothed wheel,
+two or three pattern teeth
+are used, and the machine
+takes charge of the correct
+pitching or division of the
+teeth moulded therefrom,
+leaving to the moulder the
+work only of turning the handle of the division plate, and
+ramming the sand around the pattern teeth. The result is
+accurate pitching, and the use of two or three teeth instead of a
+full pattern, together with any core boxes and striking boards
+that are necessary for the arms.</p>
+
+<p>The other department of machine moulding includes nearly
+every conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions.
+There are some dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for
+no one type is suitable for all classes of moulds, while some are
+designed specially for one or two kinds only.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:590px" src="images/img745c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The
+pattern parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate
+or table A (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they
+must partake of
+certain movements
+which
+are imparted to
+it. Often patterns
+mounted,
+as in fig. 10, are
+moulded by
+hand, without
+any aid from
+a machine, by
+methods of
+&ldquo;plate-moulding.&rdquo;
+The delivery
+of the
+pattern from
+the sand is invariably
+accomplished
+by
+a perpendicular
+movement of a
+portion of the
+machine (fig.
+11), withdrawing
+either the
+pattern from
+the mould or
+the mould from
+the pattern.
+The important
+point is that
+the perpendicular
+movement,
+being under the
+coercion of the
+vertical guides
+provided in the
+hand machines,
+or the hydraulic
+ram in fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental
+to withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine
+performed nothing more than this it would justify its existence.
+Little or no taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds
+are more nearly uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds.
+But there are other advantages. In machine-moulding the joint
+faces for parting moulds are produced by the faces of the plates
+on which the pattern is mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by
+the hands and trowel of the moulder. When the joint face is of
+irregular outline, as it often is, this item alone saves a good deal of
+time, which again is multiplied by the number of moulds repeated,
+often amounting to thousands. Further, provision is generally
+made on machine plates for the ingates and runners (fig. 10)
+through which the metal enters the mould, the preparation of which
+in hand work occupies a considerable amount of time. Another
+great advantage applies especially to the case of deep moulds.
+These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the
+liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of
+the pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled
+by a plate, termed a &ldquo;stripping plate,&rdquo; which is pierced to allow
+the patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly
+on the sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from
+becoming torn up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but
+is a necessity in numerous instances. The most familiar example
+is that of the teeth of gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount
+of taper interferes with accurate engagement, and this is representative
+of many other portions of mechanism. These stripping
+plates are of metal, but in order to save the cost of filing them in
+iron or steel, many are cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy
+round the actual pattern itself in the first place, the white metal
+being enclosed and retained in a plain iron frame which forms the
+body of the plate. Lastly, many machines, but not the majority,
+include provision for mechanically ramming the sand around the
+pattern by power instead of by hand. This is really the least
+valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it is not applicable
+to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly used for these,
+but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand round a
+pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by
+careful hand ramming.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:553px" src="images/img745d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when
+(1) several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a
+single plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould
+are produced on different machines, carrying each its moiety of
+the pattern; (3) when the machine and pattern details are simplified
+so much that the labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of
+unskilled attendants who are taught in a month or two the few
+simple operations required. That is the direction in which repetitive
+casting is now rapidly tending.</p>
+
+<p>In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with
+the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so
+as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for
+ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the
+final squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of
+the hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D.
+The plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent
+of the ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the
+stage seen in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on
+the carriage F, provided with wheels to run on rails.</p>
+
+<p>Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &amp;c., is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing
+principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green,
+<i>i.e.</i> moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being
+used), and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and
+machine moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted.
+The differences in working are those due to the various characteristics
+of the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the
+sand mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of
+the temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the
+fluxing and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical
+character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department
+must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably
+fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings
+would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither
+brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned
+suitably for iron.</p>
+
+<p>A special kind of casting is that into &ldquo;chill moulds,&rdquo; adopted in
+a considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels
+in the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and
+steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &amp;c. The chill ranges
+in depth from ¼ in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a special
+mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron surface, the
+parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled being surrounded
+by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of chill-casting
+is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.</p>
+
+<p>The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account
+of by the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are
+made larger than the size of the casting required by the exact amount
+that the metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold
+state. This amount varies from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings,
+to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. to <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. per
+foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be
+borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with
+or without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a
+fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings, particularly
+of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this respect than
+iron, and iron much less than steel.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNDLING HOSPITALS,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> originally institutions for the
+reception of &ldquo;foundlings,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> children who have been abandoned
+or exposed, and left for the public to find and save. The early
+history of such institutions is connected with the practice of
+infanticide, and in western Europe where social disorder was
+rife and famine of frequent occurrence, exposure and extensive
+sales of children were the necessary consequences. Against these
+evils, which were noticed by several councils, the church provided
+a rough system of relief, children being deposited (<i>jactati</i>) in
+marble shells at the church doors, and tended first by the
+<i>matricularii</i> or male nurses, and then by the <i>nutricarii</i> or foster-parents.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite
+institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as
+Trèves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias,
+archbishop of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable
+work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de
+Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the
+countess of Joigny, Mme le Gras and other religious ladies,
+rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of a primitive
+institution named La Couche (rue St Landry), and ultimately
+obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicêtre for their accommodation.
+Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital
+in 1670. The Hôtel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance.
+No provision, however, was made outside the great towns; the
+houses in the cities were overcrowded and administered with
+laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet
+be seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> From 1452
+to 1789 the law had imposed on the <i>seigneurs de haute justice</i> the
+duty of succouring children found deserted on their territories.
+The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a state
+debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were
+given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the &ldquo;enfants de la
+patrie.&rdquo; By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. &ldquo;Toute recherche
+de la paternité est interdite,&rdquo; while by art. 341 of the Code
+Napoléon, &ldquo;la recherche de la matérnité est admise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The laws of France relating to this part of what is called
+L&rsquo;Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction
+of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of
+the 5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law
+of the 27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles
+of the law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the
+system of national poor relief established by the Revolution. The
+<i>enfants assistés</i> include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings
+proper, (3) children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated,
+neglected or morally abandoned children whose parents have been
+deprived of their parental rights by the decision of a court of justice,
+(5) children, under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for
+certain crimes, whose parental rights have been delegated by a
+tribunal to the state. Children classified under 1-5 are termed
+<i>pupilles de l&rsquo;assistance</i>, &ldquo;wards of public charity,&rdquo; and are distinguished
+by the law of 1904 from children under the protection of the
+state, classified as: (1) <i>enfants secourus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children whose parents
+or relatives are unable, through poverty, to support them; (2)
+<i>enfants en dépôt</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence
+and children temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital,
+and (3) <i>enfants en garde</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children who have either committed or
+been the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state
+care by judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these
+children is a departmental (<i>établissement dépositaire</i>), and not a
+communal institution. The établissement dépositaire is usually
+the ward of an hospice, in which&mdash;with the exception of children
+<i>en dépôt</i>&mdash;the stay is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing
+the principle laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of
+age under the guardianship of the state, except the mentally or
+physically infirm, must be boarded out in country districts. They
+are generally apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural
+industry, and until majority they remain under the guardianship
+of the administrative commissioners of the department. The state
+pays the whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The
+expenses of administration, the &ldquo;home&rdquo; expenses, for the nurse
+(<i>nourrice sédentaire</i>) or the wet nurse (<i>nourrice au sein</i>), the <i>prime
+de survie</i> (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the &ldquo;outdoor&rdquo;
+expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried
+mothers in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the
+foster-parents (<i>nourriciers</i>) in the country for board, school-money,
+&amp;c.; (3) clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children;
+(5) printing, &amp;c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials
+and apprentice fees&mdash;are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by
+the state two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by
+the communes. The following figures show the number of children
+(exclusive of <i>enfants secourus</i>) relieved at various periods:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">Year.</td> <td class="tcc">Number relieved.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcl">95,701</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcl">121,201</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcl">138,308</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcl">149,803</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The <i>droit de recherche</i> is conceded to the parent on payment of a
+small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all
+expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed
+a <i>tour</i> or revolving box (<i>Drehcylinder</i> in Germany) to be kept at
+each hospital. These have been discontinued. The &ldquo;Assistance
+Publique&rdquo; of Paris is managed by a &ldquo;directeur&rdquo; appointed by the
+minister of the interior, and associated with a representative <i>conseil
+de surveillance</i>. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistés contains
+about 700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities
+for the adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible
+here to give even a sketch of the long and able controversies which
+have occurred in France on the principles of management of foundling
+hospitals, the advantages of <i>tours</i> and the system of admission
+<i>à bureau ouvert</i>, the transfer of orphans from one department to
+another, the hygiene and service of hospitals and the inspection of
+nurses, the education and reclamation of the children and the rights
+of the state in their future. Reference may be made to the works
+noticed at the end of this article.</p>
+
+<p><i>Belgium.</i>&mdash;In this country the arrangements for the relief of
+foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose
+very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully
+described apart from the general questions of local government and
+poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles,
+however, are purely communal bodies, although they receive
+pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. A
+decree of 1811 directed that there should be an asylum and a wheel
+for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last &ldquo;wheel,&rdquo;
+that of Antwerp, was closed in 1860. (See <i>Des Institutions de
+bienfaisance et de prévoyance en Belgique</i>, 1850 à 1860, par M.P.
+Lentz.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy</i> is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans
+and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See
+<i>Della carità preventiva in Italia</i>, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one
+branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola
+Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time
+of Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual
+number of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See <i>The Charitable
+Institutions of Rome</i>, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa
+degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving
+450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The
+splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+support of about 160 children by the &ldquo;Congregazione di Carità&rdquo;
+acting through 30 parish boards (<i>deputazione fraternate</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Austria.</i>&mdash;In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent
+place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of April
+1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment
+commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were
+declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported
+by the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October
+1860 handed them over to the provincial committees. They are
+now local institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite
+separate from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is
+gratuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent
+by a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for
+four months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a
+certificate from the parish priest and &ldquo;poor-father&rdquo; (the parish
+inspector of the poor-law administration) that she has no money.
+In other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two
+months old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the
+neighbourhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates
+from the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected
+by the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive
+a constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be
+determined by 14 days&rsquo; notice on either side. The foster-parents
+may retain the child in their service or employment till the age of
+twenty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the
+foundling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the
+foster-parents.</p>
+
+<p><i>Russia.</i>&mdash;Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings
+were received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by
+the state. But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals
+have been in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity
+(prykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions
+(Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch
+at Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought
+the baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the
+child may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse
+her child. After the usual period of six years in the country very
+great care is taken with the education, especially of the more promising
+children. The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the
+public service. Malthus (<i>The Principles of Population</i>, vol. i. p. 434)
+has made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues
+that they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that
+the best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He
+adds: &ldquo;An occasional child murder from false shame is saved
+at a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some
+of the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great
+part of the nation.&rdquo; It does not appear, however, that the rate of
+illegitimacy in Russia is comparatively high; it is so in the two great
+cities. The rights of parents over the children were very much restricted,
+and those of the government much extended by a ukase
+issued by the emperor Nicholas in 1837. The most eminent Russian
+writer on this subject is M. Gourov. See his <i>Recherches sur les
+enfants trouvés</i>, and <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire des enfants trouvés</i> (Paris,
+1829).</p>
+
+<p>In <i>America</i>, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private charities,
+exist in most of the large cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Great Britain.</i>&mdash;The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated
+by royal charter in 1739 &ldquo;for the maintenance and education
+of exposed and deserted young children.&rdquo; The petition of Captain
+Thomas Coram, who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+states as its objects &ldquo;to prevent the frequent murders of poor
+miserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman
+custom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets.&rdquo; At
+first no questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing
+mark was put on each child by the parent. These were
+often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses
+written on scraps of paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully
+recorded. One entry is, &ldquo;Paper on the breast, clout on the head.&rdquo;
+The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting
+with red, white and black balls was adopted. In 1756 the House of
+Commons came to a resolution that all children offered should be
+received, that local receiving places should be appointed all over
+the country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A
+basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum
+age for admission was raised from two to twelve months, and a flood
+of children poured in from the country workhouses. In less than
+four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile trade grew up
+among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the country
+to the hospital,&mdash;an undertaking which, like the French <i>meneurs</i>,
+they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. Of
+these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total expense
+was about £500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons.
+After throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary
+funds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they
+came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be
+discontinued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources,
+adopted a pernicious system of receiving children with considerable
+sums (<i>e.g.</i> £100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed
+by the parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it
+is now a fundamental rule that no money is received. The committee
+of inquiry must now be satisfied of the previous good character
+and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the
+child has deserted it and the mother, and that the reception of
+the child will probably replace the mother in the course of virtue
+and in the way of an honest livelihood. All the children at the
+Foundling hospital are those of unmarried women, and they are all
+first children of their mothers. The principle is in fact that laid
+down by Fielding in <i>Tom Jones</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Too true I am afraid it is that
+many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last
+degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip.&rdquo; At present
+the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of fifteen.
+The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of
+admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named
+after the patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a
+list. Children are seldom taken after they are twelve months old.
+On reception they are sent down to the country, where they stay
+until they are about four or five years old. At sixteen the girls
+are generally apprenticed as servants for four years, and the boys at
+the age of fourteen as mechanics for seven years. There is a small
+benevolent fund for adults. The musical service, which was originally
+sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the
+generosity of Handel, who frequently had the &ldquo;Messiah&rdquo; performed
+there, and who bequeathed to the hospital a MS. copy (full
+score) of his greatest oratorio. The altar-piece is West&rsquo;s picture of
+Christ presenting a little Child. In 1774 Dr Burney and Signor
+Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connexion with
+the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Conservatorium
+of the Continent. In 1847, however, a successful &ldquo;Juvenile
+Band&rdquo; was started. The educational effects of music have been
+found excellent, and the hospital supplies many musicians to the best
+army and navy bands. The early connexion between the hospital
+and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is one of extreme
+interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, which were
+organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the formation
+of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of
+Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to
+Finchley, and Roubillac&rsquo;s bust of Handel. (See <i>History and Objects of
+the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder</i>, by J. Brownlow.)</p>
+
+<p>In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No
+inquiry was made about the parents, and no money received. From
+1500 to 2000 children were received annually. A large income was
+derived from a duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In
+1822 an admission fee of £5 was charged on the parish from which
+the child came. This reduced the annual arrivals to about 500.
+In 1829 the select committee on the Irish miscellaneous estimates
+recommended that no further assistance should be given. The
+hospital had not preserved life or educated the foundlings. The
+mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the total cost £10,000 a year.
+Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then Irish Secretary) closed the
+institution.</p>
+
+<p>Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In
+1759 John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious
+and charitable purpose &ldquo;of preventing child murder&rdquo; by the
+establishment of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and
+taking care of their children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament
+in 1822, which sets forth &ldquo;doubts as to the propriety&rdquo; of the
+original purpose, the money was given to trustees to erect a hospital
+for the maintenance and education of destitute children.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouvés</i>
+by MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent
+medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the
+foundling hospital); Remacle, <i>Des hospices d&rsquo;enfants trouvés en
+Europe</i> (Paris, 1838); Hügel <i>Die Findelhäuser und das Findelwesen
+Europas</i> (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, &ldquo;Das Armenwesen und die
+Armengesetzgebung,&rdquo; in <i>Europäischen Staaten</i> (Berlin, 1870);
+Sennichon, <i>Histoire des enfants abandonnés</i> (Paris, 1880); the annual
+<i>Rapport sur le service des enfants assistés du département de la Seine</i>;
+Epstein, <i>Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten</i> (Prague, 1882);
+Florence D. Hill, <i>Children of the State</i> (2nd ed., 1889). For United
+States, see H. Folks, <i>Care of Neglected and Dependent Children</i> (1901);
+A.G. Warner, <i>American Charities</i> (enlarged, 1908) and <i>Reports of
+Massachusetts State Board of Charities</i>. Information may also be got
+in the <i>Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries</i>, communicated to
+the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary; <i>Accounts and
+Papers</i> (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; <i>Report of Committee on the Infant
+Life Protection Bill</i> (1890); <i>Report of Lords Committee on the Infant
+Life Protection Bill</i> (1896). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity and Charities</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>, ii. 474.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De l&rsquo;administration des finances</i>, iii. 136; see also the article
+&ldquo;Enfant exposé&rdquo; in Diderot&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, 1755, and Chamousset&rsquo;s
+<i>Mémoire politique sur les enfants,</i> 1757.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Addison had suggested such a charity (<i>Guardian</i>, No. 3).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNTAIN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Late Lat. <i>fontana</i>, from <i>fons</i>, a spring), a term
+applied in a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether
+fed by natural or artificial means, have contrivances of human
+art at a point where the water emerges. A very early existing
+example is preserved in the carved Babylonian basin (about 3000
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and Layard mentions
+an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the river Gomel,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock and
+descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally
+led from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which
+was ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is
+applied equally to the simpler arrangements for letting water
+gush into an ornamental basin or to the more elaborate ones
+by which water is mechanically forced into high jets; and a
+&ldquo;fountain&rdquo; may be either the ornamental receptacle or the jet
+of water itself. In modern times the examples of ornamental
+or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to mention
+some of the more important facts of historical interest.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities.
+Springs being very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill
+was required to convey the water from place to place. Receptacles
+of sufficient size were made for it at the springs; and to maintain
+its purity, structures were raised enclosing and covering the
+receptacle. In Greece they were dedicated to gods and goddesses,
+nymphs and heroes, and were frequently placed in or near temples.
+That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by Herodotus) was
+formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells from which
+the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects
+it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when
+bewailing her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was
+changed into a fountain. The city of Corinth possessed
+many fountains. In one near the statues of Diana and Bellerophon
+the water flowed through the hoofs of the horse
+Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was
+dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown
+herself into it believing that its waters could counteract the
+poisons of Medea. Another Corinthian fountain had a bronze
+statue of Poseidon standing on a dolphin from which the water
+flowed. The fountain constructed by Theagenes at Megara
+was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for the number
+of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and
+the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool
+summer retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo,
+and in it a fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite architectural
+detail when he says that a fountain at Patrae was
+reached from without by descending steps. Mystical, medicinal,
+surgical and other qualities, as well as supernatural origin,
+were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia was said
+to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into
+it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the
+legends of fountains and other waters with strange powers to
+heal are numerous in many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus
+at Athens was called Callirrhoe before the time the water was
+drawn from it by the nine pipes from which it took its later name.
+Two temples were above it, according to Pausanias, one dedicated
+to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to Triptolemus. The
+fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was supplied
+by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that in
+the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.</p>
+
+<p>The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were
+on a scale to be expected from a people of such great practical
+power. The remains of the aqueducts which stretched from the
+city across the Campagna are amongst the most striking monuments
+of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.) gives minute particulars
+concerning the methods to be employed for the discovery,
+testing and distribution of water, and describes the properties
+of different waters with great care, proving the importance which
+was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts
+supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last
+all the populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate
+pipe to their houses, obtained their water. These fountains
+were therefore of large size and numerous. They were formed
+at many of the <i>castella</i> of the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius,
+each <i>castellum</i> should have three pipes,&mdash;one for public fountains,
+one for baths and the third for private houses. Considerable
+revenue was drawn from the possessors of private water-pipes.
+The Roman fountains were generally decorated with figures
+and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman
+villas and country houses; in those so situated the water generally
+ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a
+second fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses
+in Pompeii had very remarkable fountains. One, says Gell,
+&ldquo;is covered with a sort of mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae
+of different colours, but in which blue predominates. These are
+sometimes arranged in not inelegant patterns, and the grand
+divisions as well as the borders are entirely formed and ornamented
+with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat of the
+eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries&rdquo; (<i>Pompeiana</i>,
+i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated
+with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured
+figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples.
+This fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is
+placed, and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure
+up to the eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column
+in the piscina was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth
+of which water issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a
+fountain which was decorated with marine shells.</p>
+
+<p>Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the
+crossways in Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes
+from the reservoirs, and had little ornament except a human
+or animal head, from the mouth of which it was arranged that the
+water should issue. Not only did simple running fountains
+exist, but the remains of <i>jets d&rsquo;eau</i> have been found; and a
+drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water,
+standing on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been
+the impluvium of a house. There was also a <i>jet d&rsquo;eau</i> at the
+eastern end of the peristyle of the Fullonica at Pompeii.</p>
+
+<p>As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of superstitious
+beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be
+traced in monumental and legendary remains. Near the village
+of Primaleon in Brittany was a very remarkable monument,&mdash;one
+possibly unique, as giving distinct proof of the existence
+of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is a dolmen composed of a
+horizontal table supported by two stones only, one at each end.
+All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long square
+basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of
+water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of
+fountains. Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon
+which it is built, is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an
+ancient chapel, which with its ivy-covered walls has a most
+romantic appearance. A Gothic vault protects this fountain.
+Miraculous virtues are still attributed to its water, and on
+certain days the country people still come with offerings to draw
+it (see La Poix de Freminville, <i>Antiquités de la Bretagne</i>, i. p. 101).
+In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous from its
+connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was
+said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water
+from it, and sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous
+storm of thunder and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious
+feeling concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints
+were erected upon the rude structures that collected the water
+and preserved its purity. There is some uniformity in the
+architectural characteristics of these structures during the
+middle ages. A very common form in rural districts was that
+in which the fountain was reached by descending steps (<i>fontaine
+grotte</i>). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a
+spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered
+by a sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and
+sculptured figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain
+at Poitiers is a fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert,
+which though restored in 1597 was originally a structure of the
+14th century. This kind of fountain is frequently decorated with
+figures of the Virgin or of saints, or with the family arms of its
+founder; often, too, the water is the only ornament of the
+structure, which bears a simple inscription. A large number
+of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed throughout
+France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved
+by the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst
+the peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was
+that of a large open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+form, with a columnar structure at the centre, from the lower
+part of which it was arranged that spouts should issue, playing
+into an open basin, and supplying vessels brought for the purpose
+in the cleanest and quickest manner. The columns take very
+various forms, from that of a simple regular geometrical solid,
+with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of an elaborate
+and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins, saints and
+warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At
+Provins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which
+is in form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre,
+the capital of which is pierced by three mouths, which are
+furnished with heads of bronze projecting far enough to cast the
+water into the basin. In the public market-place at Brunswick
+is a fountain of the 15th century, of which the central structure
+is made of bronze. Many fountains are still existing in France
+and Germany which, though their actual present structure may
+date no earlier than the 15th or 16th century, have been found
+on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as restorations
+of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains
+are of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are
+at the abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another,
+of granite, is at Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains
+are simple, open reservoirs enclosed in structures which, however
+plain, still carry the charm that belongs to the stone-work of
+those times. There is one of this kind at Cully, Calvados, walled
+on three sides, and fed from the spring by two circular openings.
+Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with mouldings.
+At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front of
+the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular
+plan, which bears a statue of Neptune.</p>
+
+<p>The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown
+by the fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing
+Mount Parnassus, upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the
+horse Pegasus, Philosophy and the Nine Muses. At the top
+Apollo, in the 16th-century costume, plays a harp. Rocks, grass
+and sheep fill up the scene.</p>
+
+<p>Purely ornamental fountains and <i>jets d&rsquo;eau</i> are found in or
+near many large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The
+celebrated Fontana di Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the
+18th century under Pope Clement XII., and has all the characteristics
+of decadence. La Fontana Paolina and those in the piazza
+of St Peter&rsquo;s are perhaps next in celebrity to that of Trevi, and
+are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine des Innocens
+(the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs Elysées
+and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The
+fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace
+are, with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The
+largest <i>jets d&rsquo;eau</i> are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham
+Crystal Palace and at San Ildefonso.</p>
+
+<p>About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England
+occurs in Moxon&rsquo;s <i>Tutor to Astronomie and Geographie</i> (1659);
+it is &ldquo;surmounted by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak,
+and set upon a composite column at Leadenhall corner, in the
+majoralty of Sir John Dethick, Knight.&rdquo; The water springs
+from the top and base of the column, which stands upon a square
+pedestal and bears four female figures, one at least of which
+represents the costume of the period.</p>
+
+<p>In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important
+institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These
+&ldquo;sebeels&rdquo; are not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful
+in the fields and villages.</p>
+
+<p>The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has
+done much to provide facilities in London for both man and
+beast to get water to drink in the streets. And in the United
+States liberal provision has also been made by private and public
+enterprise.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUNTAINS ABBEY,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical
+ruins in England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river
+Skell, 3 m. S.W. of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation
+is most beautiful. The little Skell descends from the uplands
+of Pateley Moor to the west a clear swift stream, traversing a
+valley clothed with woods, conspicuous among which are some
+ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the monks who
+first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale.
+Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise
+the picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately
+tower, and the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which
+enable the great abbey to be almost completely reconstructed
+in the mind. The arrangements are typical of a Cistercian
+house (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>). Building began in earnest about 1135,
+and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th century,
+after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby&rsquo;s
+tower (<i>c.</i> 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of
+Ripon) contains the ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal
+Dutch style, the work of John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the
+early part of the 18th century. Near the abbey is the picturesque
+Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.</p>
+
+<p>In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary&rsquo;s abbey, York,
+being dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the
+monastery and with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of
+York, founded a house in the valley of the Skell, where they
+adopted the Cistercian rule. While building their monastery
+the monks are said to have lived at first under an elm and then
+under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two years
+later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter&rsquo;s, York, who
+brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection
+of books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St
+Mary&rsquo;s abbey, York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others.
+Henry I. and succeeding sovereigns granted them many privileges.
+During the reign of Edward I. the monks appear to have again
+suffered from poverty, partly no doubt owing to the invasion of
+the Scots, but partly also through their own &ldquo;misconduct and extravagance.&rdquo;
+On account of this Edward I. in 1291 appointed
+John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay
+their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough
+for their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them
+exemption from taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold
+the manor and site of the monastery to Sir Richard Gresham,
+and from him after passing through several families it came to
+the marquess of Ripon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Yorkshire</i>; Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i>;
+Surtees Society, <i>Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains</i>,
+collected and edited by J.R. Walbran (1863-78).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1828-1904), French geologist
+and petrologist, was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on
+the 21st of June 1828. At the age of twenty-one he entered the
+<i>École Normale</i> in Paris, and from 1853 to 1858 he held the appointment
+of keeper of the scientific collections. In 1877 he
+became professor of natural history at the <i>Collège de France</i>,
+in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of the Academy
+of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much
+assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course
+of time he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic
+phenomena and earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was
+the first to introduce modern petrographical methods into France.
+His studies of the eruptive rocks of Corsica, Santorin and elsewhere;
+his researches on the artificial reproduction of eruptive
+rocks, and his treatise on the optical characters of felspars
+deserve special mention; but he was perhaps best known for
+the joint work which he carried on with his friend Michel Lévy.
+He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief publications
+were: <i>Santorin et ses éruptions</i>, 1879; (with A. Michel Lévy)
+<i>Minéralogie micrographique, Roches éruptives françaises</i> (2 vols.,
+1879); and <i>Synthèse des minéraux et des roches</i> (1882).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1777-1843), German writer of the romantic movement,
+was born on the 12th of February 1777 at Brandenburg. His
+grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great&rsquo;s generals
+and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally
+intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué
+ultimately gave up his university studies at Halle to join the
+army, and he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest
+of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many
+of the younger romanticists, Fouqué owed his introduction to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+literature to A.W. Schlegel, who published his first book,
+<i>Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin</i> in 1804. His next work,
+<i>Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval</i> (1805), showed more plainly his
+allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the <i>Historie vom edlen
+Ritter Galmy</i> (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of
+medieval chivalry. <i>Sigurd der Schlangentöter, ein Heldenspiel</i>
+(1808), the first modern German dramatization of the <i>Nibelungen</i>
+saga, attracted attention to him, and influenced considerably
+subsequent versions of the story, such as Hebbel&rsquo;s <i>Nibelungen</i>
+and Wagner&rsquo;s <i>Ring des Nibelungen</i>. These early writings indicate
+the lines which Fouqué&rsquo;s subsequent literary activity followed;
+his interests were divided between medieval chivalry on the one
+hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, the year
+of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the Prussian
+army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people
+left its mark upon his writings.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1810 and 1815 Fouqué&rsquo;s popularity was at its height;
+the many romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned
+out with extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood
+of the hour. The earliest of these are the best&mdash;<i>Undine</i>, which
+appeared in 1811, being, indeed, one of the most charming of all
+German <i>Märchen</i> and the only work by which Fouqué&rsquo;s memory
+still lives to-day. A more comprehensive idea of his powers
+may, however, be obtained from the two romances <i>Der Zauberring</i>
+(1813) and <i>Die Fahrten Thiodulfs des Isländers</i> (1815). From 1820
+onwards the quality of Fouqué&rsquo;s work rapidly degenerated, partly
+owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his inability
+to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained
+the belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to
+new interests, clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia
+of romanticism; but in the cold, sober light of the post-romantic
+age, these appeared merely flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing
+imaginative power of his early years deserted him, and the
+sobriquet of a &ldquo;Don Quixote of Romanticism&rdquo; which his
+enemies applied to him was not unjustified.</p>
+
+<p>Fouqué&rsquo;s first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended
+in divorce. His second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831)
+enjoyed some reputation as a novelist in her day. After her
+death Fouqué married a third time. Some consolation for the
+ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by the munificence
+of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a
+pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort.
+He died in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fouqué&rsquo;s <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i>, edited by himself, appeared in 12
+vols. (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found
+in Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, vol. 146, part ii. (Stuttgart,
+1893); <i>Undine</i>, <i>Sintram</i>, &amp;c., in innumerable reprints. Bibliography
+in Goedeke&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i>
+(2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouqué&rsquo;s works
+have been translated, and the English versions of <i>Aslauga&rsquo;s Knight</i>
+(by Carlyle), <i>Sintram and his Companions</i> and <i>Undine</i>, have been
+frequently republished. For Fouqué&rsquo;s life cp. <i>Lebensgeschichte des
+Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn selbst</i>
+(Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the introduction to
+Koch&rsquo;s selections in the <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUQUET<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Foucquet</span>), <b>NICOLAS</b> (1615-1680), viscount of
+Melun and of Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of
+finance in France under Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615.
+He belonged to an influential family of the <i>noblesse de la robe</i>,
+and after some preliminary schooling with the Jesuits, at the age
+of thirteen was admitted as <i>avocat</i> at the parlement of Paris.
+While still in his teens he held several responsible posts, and in
+1636, when just twenty, he was able to buy the post of <i>maître
+des requêtes</i>. From 1642 to 1650 he held various intendancies at
+first in the provinces and then with the army of Mazarin, and,
+coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650 to
+buy the important position of <i>procureur général</i> to the parlement
+of Paris. During Mazarin&rsquo;s exile Fouquet shrewdly remained
+loyal to him, protecting his property and keeping him informed
+of the situation at court.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the cardinal&rsquo;s return, Fouquet demanded and received
+as reward the office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a
+position which, in the unsettled condition of the government,
+threw into his hands not merely the decision as to which funds
+should be applied to meet the demands of the state&rsquo;s creditors,
+but also the negotiations with the great financiers who lent
+money to the king. The appointment was a popular one with
+the moneyed class, for Fouquet&rsquo;s great wealth had been largely
+augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille,
+who also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His
+own credit, and above all his unfailing confidence in himself,
+strengthened the credit of the government, while his high position
+at the parlement (he still remained <i>procureur général</i>) secured
+financial transactions from investigation. As minister of finance,
+he soon had Mazarin almost in the position of a suppliant.
+The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers, who followed the
+example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for Fouquet to
+meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit,
+but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own
+to good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless;
+fraudulent operations were entered into with impunity, and the
+financiers were kept in the position of clients by official favours
+and by generous aid whenever they needed it. Fouquet&rsquo;s fortune
+now surpassed even Mazarin&rsquo;s, but the latter was too deeply
+implicated in similar operations to interfere, and was obliged to
+leave the day of reckoning to his agent and successor Colbert.
+Upon Mazarin&rsquo;s death Fouquet expected to be made head of the
+government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his poorly
+dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he
+made the well-known statement, upon assuming the government,
+that he would be his own chief minister. Colbert fed the
+king&rsquo;s displeasure with adverse reports upon the deficit, and
+made the worst of the case against Fouquet. The extravagant
+expenditure and personal display of the superintendent served to
+intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had bought the port
+of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with a view to
+taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous
+sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent,
+magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of
+Versailles. Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest
+paintings, jewels and antiques in profusion, and above all surrounded
+himself with artists and authors. The table was open
+to all people of quality, and the kitchen was presided over by
+Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were among the multitude
+of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already set upon his
+destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a <i>fête</i> rivalled in
+magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which
+Molière&rsquo;s <i>Les Fâcheux</i> was produced for the first time. The
+splendour of the entertainment sealed Fouquet&rsquo;s fate. The king,
+however, was afraid to act openly against so powerful a minister.
+By crafty devices Fouquet was induced to sell his office of <i>procureur
+général</i>, thus losing the protection of its privileges, and he
+paid the price of it into the treasury.</p>
+
+<p>Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to
+Nantes, taking Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he
+was leaving the presence chamber, flattered with the assurance
+of his esteem. The trial lasted almost three years, and its violation
+of the forms of justice is still the subject of frequent monographs
+by members of the French bar. Public sympathy was
+strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sévigné
+and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was
+sentenced to banishment, the king, disappointed, &ldquo;commuted&rdquo;
+the sentence to imprisonment for life. He was sent at the
+beginning of 1665 to the fortress of Pignerol, where he undoubtedly
+died on the 23rd of March 1680.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Louis acted throughout &ldquo;as
+though he were conducting a campaign,&rdquo; evidently fearing that
+Fouquet would play the part of a Richelieu. Fouquet bore
+himself with manly fortitude, and composed several mediocre
+translations in prison. The devotional works bearing his name
+are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland,
+in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances
+which Colbert addressed to the States-General. A second
+edition under the title of <i>&OElig;uvres de M. Fouquet</i> appeared
+in 1696.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Chéruel, <i>Mémoires sur la vie publique et privée de Fouquet ...
+d&rsquo;après ses lettres et des pièces inédites</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J. Lair,
+<i>Nicolas Foucquet, procureur général, surintendant des finances,
+ministre d&rsquo;État de Louis XIV</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1890); U.V. Châtelain,
+<i>Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et
+des sciences</i> (Paris, 1905); R. Pfnor et A. France, <i>Le Château de
+Vaux-le-Vicomte dessiné et gravé</i> (Paris, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Fouquet has been identified with the &ldquo;Man with the Iron Mask&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron Mask</a></span>), but this theory is quite impossible.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1746-1795),
+French revolutionist, was born at Hérouel, a village in the
+department of the Aisne. Originally a <i>procureur</i> attached to
+the Châtelet at Paris, he sold his office in 1783, and became a
+clerk under the lieutenant-general of police. He seems to have
+early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little is known of the part
+he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When the Revolutionary
+Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March
+1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which
+he filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this
+time earned him the reputation of one of the most terrible and
+sinister figures of the Revolution. His function as public
+prosecutor was not so much to convict the guilty as to see that
+the proscriptions ordered by the faction for the time being in
+power were carried out with a due regard to a show of legality.
+He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as Robespierre himself; he
+could be moved from his purpose neither by pity nor by bribes;
+nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which made the
+ordinary Jacobin <i>enragé</i> by turns ferocious and sentimental. It
+was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him
+so effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic
+eloquence; but the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his
+charges was more convincing than any rhetoric, and he seldom
+failed to secure a conviction.</p>
+
+<p>His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the
+terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the 1st of August 1794 he
+was imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial.
+His defence was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Committee
+of Public Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one
+days, he was condemned to death, and guillotined on the 7th of
+May 1795.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Mémoire pour A.Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public près le
+tribunal révolutionnaire</i>, &amp;c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, <i>Fouquier-Tinville
+et le tribunal révolutionnaire</i> (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon,
+<i>Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris</i> (1880-1882) (a work
+of general interest, but not always exact); George Lecocq, <i>Notes et
+documents sur Fouquier-Tinville</i> (Paris, 1885). See also the documents
+relating to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in <i>Bibliographie
+de l&rsquo;histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution Française</i>, vol. i.
+Nos. 4445-4454 (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURCHAMBAULT,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a town of central France in the department
+of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 4½ m. N.W. of
+Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes
+its importance to its extensive iron-works, established in 1821,
+which give employment to 2000 workmen and produce engineering
+material for railway, military and other purposes. Among
+the more remarkable <i>chefs-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i> which have been produced at
+Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du Carrousel,
+the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and the
+vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small
+canal unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1755-1809),
+French chemist, the son of an apothecary in the household of
+the duke of Orleans, was born at Paris on the 15th of June 1755.
+He took up medical studies by the advice of the anatomist
+Félix Vicq d&rsquo;Azyr (1748-1794), and after many difficulties
+caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his doctor&rsquo;s
+diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by
+J.B.M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the
+Medical School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed
+P.J. Macquer (1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college
+of the Jardin du Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity.
+He was one of the earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier,
+which he helped to promulgate by his voluminous writings,
+but though his name appears on a large number of chemical
+and also physiological and pathological memoirs, either alone or
+with others, he was rather a teacher and an organizer than an
+original investigator. A member of the committees for public
+instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon,
+director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the
+establishment of schools for both primary and secondary education,
+scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy
+died at Paris on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on
+which he had been created a count of the French empire. By
+his conduct as a member of the Convention he has been accused
+of contributing to the death of Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his
+<i>Éloge historique</i> of Fourcroy repels the charge, but he can
+scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference, if indeed
+active, though secret, participation be not proved against him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Royal Society&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i> enumerates 59
+memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and
+others, mostly L.N. Vauquelin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1772-1837),
+French socialist writer, was born at Besançon in Franche-Comté
+on the 7th of April 1772. His father was a draper in good
+circumstances, and Fourier received an excellent education at
+the college in his native town. After completing his studies
+there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and Holland.
+On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount of
+property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged
+by the troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his
+means of livelihood Fourier entered the army, but after two
+years&rsquo; service as a chasseur was discharged on account of ill-health.
+In 1803 he published a remarkable article on European
+politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon, some of whose
+ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after the
+author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving
+the army Fourier entered a merchant&rsquo;s office in Lyons, and
+some years later undertook on his own account a small business
+as broker. He obtained in this way just sufficient to supply his
+wants, and devoted all his leisure time to the elaboration of his
+first work on the organization of society.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of his life, and while engaged in commerce,
+he had become deeply impressed with the conviction that
+social arrangements resulting from the principles of individualism
+and competition were essentially imperfect and immoral. He
+proposed to substitute for these principles co-operation or united
+effort, by means of which full and harmonious development
+might be given to human nature. The scheme, worked out in
+detail in his first work, <i>Théorie des quatre mouvements</i> (2 vols.,
+Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a
+particular psychological proposition and a special economical
+doctrine. Psychologically Fourier held what may with some
+laxity of language be called natural optimism,&mdash;the view that
+the full, free development of human nature or the unrestrained
+indulgence of human passion is the only possible way to happiness
+and virtue, and that misery and vice spring from the unnatural
+restraints imposed by society on the gratification of desire.
+This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his
+grandest discovery&mdash;a discovery which did more than set him on
+a level with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction
+or harmony among material bodies. Throughout his works,
+in uncouth, obscure and often unintelligible language, he
+endeavours to show that the same fundamental fact of harmony
+is to be found in the four great departments,&mdash;society, animal
+life, organic life and the material universe. In order to give
+effect to this principle and obtain the resulting social harmony,
+it was needful that society should be reconstructed; for, as
+the social organism is at present constituted, innumerable
+restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human
+desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier
+advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects
+what he says of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous
+waste of economic force which the actual arrangements of
+society entail, still deserves attention, and some of the most
+recent efforts towards extension of the co-operative method,
+<i>e.g.</i> to house-keeping, were in essentials anticipated by him.
+But the full realization of his scheme demanded much more than
+the mere admission that co-operation is economically more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be
+organized on the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation
+and to the harmonious evolution of human nature. The details
+of this reorganization of the social structure cannot be given
+briefly, but the broad outlines may be thus sketched. Society,
+on his scheme, is to be divided into departments or <i>phalanges</i>,
+each <i>phalange</i> numbering about 1600 persons. Each <i>phalange</i>
+inhabits a <i>phalanstère</i> or common building, and has a certain
+portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The <i>phalanstères</i>
+are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic arrangements
+are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the
+<i>phalanges</i> is, of course, agriculture, but the various <i>series</i> and
+<i>groupes</i> into which the members are divided may devote themselves
+to such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need
+any occupation become irksome from constant devotion to it.
+Any member of a group may vary his employment at pleasure,
+may pass from one task to another. The tasks regarded as
+menial or degrading in ordinary society can be rendered attractive
+if advantage is taken of the proper principles of human nature:
+thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a fondness
+for &ldquo;cleaning up,&rdquo; may easily be induced to accept with eagerness
+the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier&rsquo;s
+scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished,
+nor is the privacy of family life impossible within the <i>phalanstère</i>.
+Each family may have separate apartments, and there may
+be richer and poorer members. But the rich and poor are to be
+locally intermingled, in order that the broad distinction between
+them, which is so painful a feature in actual society, may become
+almost imperceptible. Out of the common gain of the <i>phalange</i>
+a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each member the
+minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in shares
+to labour, capital and talent,&mdash;five-twelfths going to the first,
+four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third.
+Upon the changes requisite in the private life of the members
+Fourier was in his first work more explicit than in his later
+writings. The institution of marriage, which imposes unnatural
+bonds on human passion, is of necessity abolished; a new and
+ingeniously constructed system of licence is substituted for it.
+Considerable offence seems to have been given by Fourier&rsquo;s
+utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later
+advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in
+silence or to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical
+language.</p>
+
+<p>The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the
+<i>Théorie</i> first appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in
+his obscure position at Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother
+put him in possession of a small sum of money, with which he
+retired to Bellay in order to perfect his second work. The
+<i>Traité de l&rsquo;association agricole domestique</i> was published in 2 vols.
+at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the following year.
+After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in the hope
+that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the
+realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this
+expectation he returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited
+Paris, and as a considerable portion of his means had been
+expended in the publication of his book, he accepted a clerkship
+in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared what is
+probably the most finished exposition of his views, <i>Le Nouveau
+Monde industriel</i>. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doctrines
+of Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work <i>Pièges et
+charlatanisme de deux sectes, St Simon et Owen</i>. His writings now
+began to attract some attention. A small body of adherents
+gathered round him, and the most ardent of them was Victor
+Considérant (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1832 a newspaper, <i>Le Phalanstère ou la
+réforme industrielle</i> was started to propagate the views of the
+school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined from
+a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was
+revived in 1836 as <i>Le Phalange</i>, and in 1843 became a daily paper,
+<i>La Démocratie pacifique</i>. In 1850 it was suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and
+the only practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a
+<i>phalanstère</i> was a complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary,
+deputy for Seine-et-Oise, who had become a convert, purchased
+an estate at Condé-sur-Vesgre, near the forest of Rambouillet,
+and proceeded to establish a socialist community. The capital
+supplied was, however, inadequate, and the community broke
+up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this failure,
+and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, he lived in daily
+expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his
+scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization.
+It may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the
+<i>phalanstère</i> have been uniformly unsuccessful.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensitive
+disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed,
+as if he were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true
+nature of social arrangements, and of the manner in which they
+naturally grow and become organized, he must be pronounced
+extremely ignorant. The faults of existing institutions presented
+themselves to him in an altogether distorted manner, and he
+never appears to have recognized that the evils of actual society
+are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of his
+arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed
+harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically
+disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even
+more irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard
+to the economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course
+to be granted that co-operation is more effective than individual
+effort, but he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable
+consequences of organizing society on the abolition of those
+great institutions which have grown with its growth. His
+temperament was too ardent, his imagination too strong, and
+his acquaintance with the realities of life too slight to enable him
+justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic views. That this
+description of him is not expressed in over-strong language
+must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in
+his works,&mdash;and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar
+discovery of Fourier&rsquo;s,&mdash;but who takes into account the whole
+body of his speculations, the cosmological and historical as well
+as the economical and social. No words can adequately describe
+the fantastic nonsense which he pours forth, partly in the form
+of general speculation on the universe, partly in the form of
+prophetic utterances with regard to the future changes in
+humanity and its material environment. From these extraordinary
+writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much
+of insanity in Fourier&rsquo;s mental constitution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Ch. Pellarin, <i>Fourier, sa vie et sa théorie</i> (5th ed.,
+1872); Sargant, <i>Social Innovators</i> (1859); Reybaud, <i>Réformateurs
+modernes</i> (7th ed., 1864); Stein, <i>Socialismus und Communismus des
+heutigen Frankreichs</i> (2nd ed., 1848); A.J. Booth, <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynski, <i>Notice bibliographique sur C.
+Fourier</i> (1841); Ferraz, <i>Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le positivisme</i>
+(1877); Considérant, <i>Exposition abrégée du système de Fourier</i> (1845);
+Transon, <i>Théorie sociétaire de Charles Fourier</i> (1832); Stein,
+<i>Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich</i> (1850); Marlo,
+<i>Untersuchungen über die Organisation der Arbeit</i> (1853); J.H. Noyes,
+<i>History of American Socialisms</i> (1870); Bebel, <i>Charles Fourier</i>
+(1888); Varschauer, <i>Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kommunismus
+im 19. Jahrhundert</i> (1903); Sambuc, <i>Le Socialisme de Fourier</i> (1900);
+M. Hillquit, <i>History of Socialism in the United States</i> (1903);
+H. Bourgin, <i>Fourier, contribution à l&rsquo;étude de socialisme français</i>
+(1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ad.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Several experiments were made to this end in the United States
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Communism</a></span>) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines
+were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in
+the years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement
+waxed and waned, no fewer than forty-one <i>phalanges</i> were founded,
+of which some definite record can be found. The most interesting
+of all the experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from
+the fact that it attracted the support of many of the most intellectual
+and cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1768-1830), French
+mathematician, was born at Auxerre on the 21st of March 1768.
+He was the son of a tailor, and was left an orphan in his eighth
+year; but, through the kindness of a friend, admission was gained
+for him into the military school of his native town, which was then
+under the direction of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur. He soon
+distinguished himself as a student and made rapid progress,
+especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army
+on account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
+professor of mathematics in the school in which he had been a
+pupil. In 1787 he became a novice at the abbey of St Benoît-sur-Loire;
+but he left the abbey in 1789 and returned to his college,
+where, in addition to his mathematical duties, he was frequently
+called to lecture on other subjects,&mdash;rhetoric, philosophy and
+history. On the institution of the École Normale at Paris in
+1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was afterwards attached
+to the École Polytechnique, where he occupied the chair of
+analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied
+Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he
+was called to discharge important political duties in addition to
+his scientific ones. He was for a time virtually governor of half
+Egypt, and for three years was secretary of the Institut du
+Caire; he also delivered the funeral orations for Kléber and
+Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in the following
+year he was nominated prefect of Isère, and was created baron
+and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important
+part in the preparation of the famous <i>Description de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>
+and wrote the historical introduction. He held his prefecture
+for fourteen years; and it was during this period that he carried
+on his elaborate and fruitful investigations on the conduction
+of heat. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, in 1815, Fourier
+published a royalist proclamation, and left Grenoble as Napoleon
+entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture, and, although
+immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after again
+deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Académie
+des Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of
+Louis XVIII. was not admitted till the following year, when he
+succeeded the Abbé Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made
+perpetual secretary in conjunction with Cuvier, in succession to
+Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member of the French
+Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the
+council of the École Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a
+member of the government commission established for the
+encouragement of literature. He died at Paris on the 16th of
+May 1830.</p>
+
+<p>As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his
+fame chiefly rests on his strikingly original contributions to
+science and mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his
+attention quite early, and in 1812 he obtained a prize offered
+by the Académie des Sciences with a memoir in two parts,
+<i>Théorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les corps solides</i>. The
+first part was republished in 1822 as <i>La Théorie analytique de la
+chaleur</i>, which by its new methods and great results made an
+epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science
+(see below: <span class="sc"><a href="#ar143">Fourier&rsquo;s Series</a></span>). An English translation has
+been published by A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German
+by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884). His mathematical researches
+were also concerned with the theory of equations, but the
+question as to his priority on several points has been keenly
+discussed. After his death Navier completed and published
+Fourier&rsquo;s unfinished work, <i>Analyse des équations indéterminées</i>
+(1831), which contains much original matter. In addition to the
+works above mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on
+scientific subjects, and <i>éloges</i> of distinguished men of science.
+His works have been collected and edited by Gaston Darboux
+with the title <i>&OElig;uvres de Fourier</i> (Paris, 1889-1890).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a list of Fourier&rsquo;s publications see the <i>Catalogue of Scientific
+Papers of the Royal Society of London</i>. Reference may also be made
+to Arago, &ldquo;Joseph Fourier,&rdquo; in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> (1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURIER&rsquo;S SERIES,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> in mathematics, those series which
+proceed according to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable,
+the various multiples being in the ratio of the natural numbers;
+they are used for the representation of a function of the variable
+for values of the variable which lie between prescribed finite
+limits. Although the importance of such series, especially in the
+theory of vibrations, had been recognized by D. Bernoulli,
+Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some discussion
+of their properties, J.B.J. Fourier (see above) was the
+first clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions
+which the series can represent, and to make any serious attempt
+to prove the validity of such representation; the series are
+consequently usually associated with the name of Fourier.
+More general cases of trigonometrical series, in which the
+multiples are given as the roots of certain transcendental equations,
+were also considered by Fourier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of
+series to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision
+what is to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary
+function by an infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x
+to be arbitrarily given for values of x between two fixed values a
+and b; this means that, corresponding to every value of x such
+that a &#8806; x &#8806; b, a definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned
+by means of some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined
+may be denoted by &fnof;(x); the rules by which the values of the
+function are determined may be embodied in a single explicit
+analytical formula, or in several such formulae applicable to different
+portions of the interval, but it would be an undue restriction of
+the nature of an arbitrarily given function to assume <i>à priori</i> that
+it is necessarily given in this manner, the possibility of the representation
+of such a function by means of a single analytical expression
+being the very point which we have to discuss. The
+variable x may be represented by a point at the extremity of an
+interval measured along a straight line from a fixed origin; thus
+we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value x = c
+of the variable, and of &fnof;(c) as the value of the function assigned to
+the point c. For any number of points between a and b the function
+may be discontinuous, <i>i.e.</i> it may at such points undergo abrupt
+changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of such
+points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will be
+those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity
+exists at the point c if &fnof;(c + &epsilon;), &fnof;(c &minus; &epsilon;) have distinct but definite
+limiting values as &epsilon; is indefinitely diminished; these limiting values
+are known as the limits on the right and on the left respectively
+of the function at c, and may be denoted by &fnof;(c + 0), &fnof;(c &minus; 0). The
+discontinuity consists therefore of a sudden change of value of the
+function from &fnof;(c &minus; 0) to &fnof;(c + 0), as x increases through the value c.
+If there is such a discontinuity at the point x = 0, we may denote
+the limits on the right and on the left respectively by &fnof;(+0),
+&fnof;(&minus;0).</p>
+
+<p>Suppose we have an infinite series u<span class="su">1</span>(x) + u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... + u<span class="su">n</span>(x) + ...
+in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form;
+let any value x = c (a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the
+series, and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so
+obtained approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased;
+this limit is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of
+c such that a &#8806; c &#8806; b the sum exists and agrees with the value of
+&fnof;(c), the series &Sigma; <span class="sp1">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> u<span class="su">n</span>(x) is said to represent the function (&fnof;x) between
+the values a, b of the variable. If this is the case for all points
+within the given interval with the exception of a finite number, at
+any one of which either the series has no sum, or has a sum which
+does not agree with the value of the function, the series is said to
+represent &ldquo;in general&rdquo; the function for the given interval. If
+the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by S<span class="su">n</span>(c), the condition
+that S<span class="su">n</span>(c) converges to the value &fnof;(c) is that, corresponding to any
+finite positive number &delta; as small as we please, a value n<span class="su">1</span> of n can
+be found such that if n &#8807; n<span class="su">1</span>, |&fnof;(c) &minus; Sn(c)| &lt; &delta;.</p>
+
+<p>Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number
+of points within the given interval have no definite value, and series
+have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in
+the interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees
+with the value of the function; the narrower conception above will
+however be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article,
+reference to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion
+with the history of the theory of Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uniform Convergence of Series.</i>&mdash;If the series u<span class="su">1</span>(x) + u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... +
+u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b,
+and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite
+positive number &delta;, as small as we please, a finite number n<span class="su">1</span> can be
+found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) &minus; S<span class="su">n</span>(x), where n &#8925; n<span class="su">1</span>
+is less than &delta; for every value of x in the given interval, the series is
+said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may however happen
+that as x approaches a particular value the number of terms of the
+series which must be taken so that |S(x) &minus; S<span class="su">n</span>(x)| may be &lt; &delta;, increases
+indefinitely; the convergence of the series is then infinitely
+slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the series is not uniformly
+convergent throughout the given interval, although it converges
+at each point of the interval. If the number of such points
+in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to converge uniformly
+be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals of finite
+magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and considering
+the convergence of the series in the given interval with
+such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now
+uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is
+said to be <i>in general</i> uniformly convergent within the given interval
+a to b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion
+of a finite number of portions of the interval, each such portion
+being arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite
+series of continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in
+the neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+uniform, but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not
+necessarily imply discontinuity in the sum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Form of Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</i>&mdash;If it be assumed that a function &fnof;(x)
+arbitrarily given for values of x such that o &#8806; x &#8806; l is capable of
+being represented in general by an infinite series of the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">A<span class="su">1</span> sin</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ A<span class="su">2</span> sin</td> <td>2&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + A<span class="su">n</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ...,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly
+convergent throughout the interval 0 to l, the form of the coefficients
+A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series
+by sin n&pi;x / l, and integrate the product between the limits 0 and l,
+then in virtue of the property <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span>  sin (n&pi;x / l) sin (n&prime;&pi;x / l) dx = 0, or ½ l, according
+as n&prime; is not, or is, equal to n, we have ½ lA<span class="su">n</span>= <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin (n&pi;x / l) dx, and
+thus the series is of the form 2/l &Sigma; <span class="sp1">&infin;</span><span class="su1">1</span>  sin (n&pi;x / l) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span>  sin (n&pi;x / l) dx ...</p>
+<div class="author">(1)</div>
+
+<p>This method of determining the coefficients in the series would
+not be valid without the assumption that the series is in general
+uniformly convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem
+the sum of the integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise
+not necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption
+being made, it is further assumed that &fnof;(x) is such that <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x)sin (n&pi;x /l) dx
+has a definite meaning for every value of n.</p>
+
+<p>Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions
+made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce
+other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">B<span class="su">0</span> + B<span class="su">1</span> cos</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ B<span class="su">2</span> cos</td> <td>2&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... + B<span class="su">n</span> cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td><td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">for the representation of &fnof;(x) in the interval o to l, let us apply the
+series (1) to represent the function &fnof;(x) sin (&pi;x / l); we thus find</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) <span class="f150">{</span> cos</td> <td>(n &minus; 1) &pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; cos</td> <td>(n + 1) &pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span> dx.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On rearrangement of the terms this becomes</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) dx +</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma; sin</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>hence &fnof;(x) is represented for the interval 0 to l by the series of cosines</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) dx +</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(2)</div>
+
+<p>We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary
+function &fnof;(x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by a
+series of sines, as in (1), or by a series of cosines, as in (2). Some
+important differences between the two series must, however, be
+noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum
+when x = 0 or x = l; it therefore does not represent the function at
+the point x = 0, unless &fnof;(0) = 0, or at the point x = l, unless &fnof;(l) = 0,
+whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both
+these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (1) and
+(2) for values of x which do not lie between o and l. As &fnof;(x) is given
+only for values of x between 0 and l, the series at points beyond these
+limits have no necessary connexion with &fnof;(x) unless we suppose that
+&fnof;(x) is also given for such general values of x in such a way that the
+series continue to represent that function. If in (1) we change x into
+&minus;x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series changes sign,
+and if x be changed into x + 2l, the series is unaltered; we infer that
+the series (1) represents an odd function of x and is periodic of
+period 2l; thus (1) will represent &fnof;(x) in general for values of x
+between ±&infin;, only if &fnof;(x) is odd and has a period 2l. If in (2) we
+change x into &minus;x, the series is unaltered, and it is also unaltered
+by changing x into x + 2l; from this we see that the series (2) represents
+&fnof;(x) for values of x between ±&infin;, only if &fnof;(x) is an even function,
+and is periodic of period 2l. In general a function &fnof;(x) arbitrarily
+given for all values of x between ±&infin; is neither periodic nor odd,
+nor even, and is therefore not represented by either (1) or (2) except
+for the interval 0 to l.</p>
+
+<p>From (1) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines
+and cosines, which will represent a function &fnof;(x) arbitrarily given
+in the interval &minus;l to l, for that interval. We can express by (1)
+the function ½ {&fnof;(x) &minus; &fnof;(&minus;x)} which is an odd function, and thus
+this function is represented for the interval &minus;l to +l by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma; sin</td> <td>n&pi;x </td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {&fnof;(x) &minus; &fnof;(&minus;x)} sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">we can also express ½ {&fnof;(x) + &fnof;(&minus;x)}, which is an even function, by
+means of (2), thus for the interval &minus;l to +l this function is represented
+by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {&fnof;(x) + &fnof;(&minus;x)} dx +</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {&fnof;(x) + &fnof;(&minus;x)} cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It must be observed that &fnof;(&minus;x) is absolutely independent of &fnof;(x),
+the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting
+&minus;x for x in a formula; both &fnof;(x) and &fnof;(&minus;x) are functions given
+arbitrarily and independently for the interval 0 to l. On adding the
+expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which
+represents &fnof;(x) for the interval &minus;l to l. The integrals</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(&minus;x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx, &emsp; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(&minus;x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">are equivalent to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&minus;l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx, &emsp; + <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&minus;l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">thus the series is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x) dx +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which may be written</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x&prime;) dx&prime; +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma;<span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">1</span> <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x&prime;) cos</td> <td>n&pi; (x &minus; x&prime;)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx&prime;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(3)</div>
+
+<p>The series (3), which represents a function &fnof;(x) arbitrarily given
+for the interval &minus;l to l, is what is known as Fourier&rsquo;s Series; the
+expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which
+(3) takes in the two cases, in which &fnof;(&minus;x) = &minus;&fnof;(x), or &fnof;(&minus;x) = &fnof;(x)
+respectively. The expression (3) does not represent &fnof;(x) at points
+beyond the interval &minus;l to l, unless &fnof;(x) has a period 2l. For a value
+of x within the interval, at which &fnof;(x) is discontinuous, the sum of
+the series may cease to represent &fnof;(x), but, as will be seen hereafter,
+has the value ½ {&fnof;(x + 0) + &fnof;(x &minus; 0)}, the mean of the limits at the
+points on the right and the left. The series represents the function
+at x = 0, unless the function is there discontinuous, in which case
+the series is ½ {&fnof;(+0) + &fnof;(&minus;0)}; the series does not necessarily
+represent the function at the points l and &minus;l, unless &fnof;(l) = &fnof;(&minus;l).
+Its sum at either of these points is ½ {&fnof;(l) + &fnof;(&minus;l)}.</p>
+
+<p><i>Examples of Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Let &fnof;(x) be given from 0 to l,
+by &fnof;(x) = c, when 0 &#8806; x &lt; ½ l, and by f(x)= &minus;c from ½ l to l; it is
+required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which shall
+represent the function in the interval.</p>
+
+<p>We have</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx = c <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">½ l</span> <span class="su2">0</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx &minus; c <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">½l</span> sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>cl</td>
+<td rowspan="2">(cos n&pi; &minus; 2 cos ½n&pi; + 1).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n&pi;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4m, but if n = 4m + 2 it is equal to
+4cl / n&pi;; the series is therefore</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>4c</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>2&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>6&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>10&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... <span class="f150">)</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">3</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">5</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates
+of the series of straight lines in fig. 1, except that it vanishes at
+the points 0, ½ l, l, <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span> l ...</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:341px; height:159px" src="images/img754a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We find similarly that the same function is represented by the
+series</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>4c</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>3&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>5&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; + ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">3</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">5</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">during the interval 0 to l; for general values of x the series represents
+the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it vanishes
+at the points ½ l, <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span> l ...</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:335px; height:147px" src="images/img754b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Let &fnof;(x) = x from 0 to ½ l, and f(x) = l &minus; x, from ½ l to l; then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">½ l</span> <span class="su2">0</span> x sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx + <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">½ l</span> (l &minus; x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td>l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²n</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; cos n&pi; <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">n²&pi;²</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos n&pi; &minus;</td> <td>l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>2l²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>n&pi;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">2n&pi;</td>
+<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">n²&pi;²</td>
+<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">n²&pi;²</td>
+<td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span></p>
+
+<p>hence the sine series is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>4l</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> sin</td> <td>nx</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>3&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>5&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;²</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">3²</td> <td class="denom">l</td>
+<td class="denom">5²</td><td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the
+row of broken lines in fig. 3.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:339px; height:138px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cosine series, which represents the same function for the
+interval 0 to l, may be found to be</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">l &minus;</td> <td>2l</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>2&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>6&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>10&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">4</td> <td class="denom">&pi;²</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">3²</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">5²</td>
+<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the
+set of broken lines in fig. 4.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:335px; height:134px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Dirichlet&rsquo;s Integral.</i>&mdash;The method indicated by Fourier, but first
+carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain
+restrictions as to the nature of the function &fnof;(x), that function is in
+general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum of
+n+1 terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value
+of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that
+the series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum
+converges is ½ {&fnof;(x + 0) + &fnof;(x &minus; 0)}, which is in general equal to &fnof;(x).
+It will be convenient throughout to take &minus;&pi; to &pi; as the given interval;
+any interval &minus;l to l may be reduced to this by changing x
+into lx / &pi;, and thus there is no loss of generality.</p>
+
+<p>We find by an elementary process that</p>
+
+<p class="center">½ + cos (x &minus; x&prime;) + cos 2(x &minus; x&prime;) + ... + cos n(x &minus; x&prime;)</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>sin ½ (2n + 1) (x&prime; &minus; x)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2 sin ½ (x&prime; &minus; x)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n+1 terms
+of (3) is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(x&prime;)</td> <td>sin ½ (2n + 1) (x&prime; &minus; x)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx&prime;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2 sin ½ (x&prime; &minus; x)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">If we suppose &fnof;(x) to be continued beyond the interval &minus;&pi; to &pi;, in
+such a way that &fnof;(x) = &fnof;(x + 2&pi;), we may replace the limits in this
+integral by x + &pi;, x &minus; &pi; respectively; if we then put x&prime; &minus; x = 2z, and
+let &fnof;(x&prime;) = F(z), the expression becomes 1/&pi; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">&minus;&pi;/2</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz, where
+m = 2n + 1; this expression may be written in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(&minus;z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td>
+<td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(4)</div>
+
+<p>We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is
+indefinitely increased, of <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz; the form of the second
+integral being essentially the same. This integral, or rather the
+slightly more general one <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">0</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz, when 0 &lt; h &#8806; ½&pi;, is known
+as Dirichlet&rsquo;s integral. If we write X(z) = F(z) (z / sin z), the integral
+becomes <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">0</span> X(z) (sin mz) / z dz, which is the form in which the integral
+is frequently considered.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Second Mean-Value Theorem.</i>&mdash;The limiting value of Dirichlet&rsquo;s
+integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a
+theorem in the integral calculus known as the second mean-value
+theorem. Let a, b be two fixed finite numbers such that a &lt; b,
+and suppose &fnof;(x), &phi;(x) are two functions which have finite and
+determinate values everywhere in the interval except for a finite
+number of points; suppose further that the functions &fnof;(x), &phi;(x)
+are integrable throughout the interval, and that as x increases
+from a to b the function &fnof;(x) is monotone, <i>i.e.</i> either never diminishes
+or never increases; the theorem is that</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span>
+&fnof;(x) &phi;(x) dx = &fnof;(a + 0) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;</span> <span class="su1">a</span>
+&phi;(x) dx + &fnof;(b &minus; 0) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">&xi;</span> &phi;(x) dx</p>
+
+<p class="noind">when &xi; is some point between a and b, and &fnof;(a), &fnof;(b) may be written
+for &fnof;(a + 0), &fnof;(b &minus; 0) unless a or b is a point of discontinuity of the
+function &fnof;(x).</p>
+
+<p>To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two
+integrable functions is an integrable function, <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &fnof;(x) &phi;(x) dx exists,
+and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a series</p>
+
+<p class="center">&fnof;(x<span class="su">0</span>) &phi;(x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">0</span>) + &fnof;(x<span class="su">1</span>) &phi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) (x<span class="su">2</span> &minus; x<span class="su">1</span>) + ... + &fnof;(x<span class="su">n&minus;1</span>) &phi;(x<span class="su">n&minus;1</span>) (x<span class="su">n</span> &minus; x<span class="su">n&minus;1</span>)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where x<span class="su">0</span> = a, x<span class="su">n</span> = b and x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n&minus;1</span> are n &minus; 1 intermediate
+points. We can express &phi;(x<span class="su">r</span>) (x<span class="su">r+1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">r</span>) in the form Y<span class="su">r+1</span> &minus; Y<span class="su">r</span>, by putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">Y<span class="su">r</span> = &Sigma;<span class="sp2">K=r</span> <span class="su2">K=1</span> &phi; (x<span class="su">K-1</span>) (x<span class="su">K</span> &minus; x<span class="su">K&minus;1</span>), Y<span class="su">0</span> = 0.</p>
+
+<p>Writing X<span class="su">r</span> for &fnof;(x<span class="su">r</span>), the series becomes</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="su">0</span> (Y<span class="su">1</span> &minus; Y<span class="su">0</span>) + X<span class="su">1</span> (Y<span class="su">2</span> &minus; Y<span class="su">1</span>) + ... + X<span class="su">n&minus;1</span> (Y<span class="su">n</span> &minus; Y<span class="su">n&minus;1</span>)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or</p>
+
+<p class="center">Y<span class="su">1</span> (X<span class="su">0</span> &minus; X<span class="su">1</span>) + Y<span class="su">2</span> (X<span class="su">1</span> &minus; X<span class="su">2</span>) + ... + Y<span class="su">n</span>(X<span class="su">n&minus;1</span> &minus; X<span class="su">n</span>) + Y<span class="su">n</span>X<span class="su">n</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Now, by supposition, all the numbers Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span> ... Y<span class="su">n</span> are finite,
+and all the numbers X<span class="su">r&minus;1</span> &minus; X<span class="su">r</span> are of the same sign, hence by a known
+algebraical theorem the series is equal to M (X<span class="su">0</span> &minus; X<span class="su">n</span>) + Y<span class="su">n</span>X<span class="su">n</span>, where
+M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of
+the numbers Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ... Y<span class="su">n</span>. This remains true however many
+partial intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is
+increased indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely
+according to any law, we have</p>
+
+<p class="center">Y <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &fnof;(x) &phi;(x) dx = {&fnof;(a) &minus; &fnof;(b)} <span class="ov">M</span> + &fnof;(b) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx</p>
+
+<p class="noind">when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values
+which <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">x</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx can have, when x is in the given integral. Now
+this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and therefore
+there is a value of x in the interval, for which it takes any
+particular value between the greatest and least values that it has.
+There is therefore a value &xi; between a and b, such that <span class="ov">M</span> = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx,
+hence</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &fnof;(x) &phi;(x) dx = {&fnof;(a) &minus; &fnof;(b)} <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx + &fnof;(b) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx</p>
+
+<p class="center">= &fnof;(a) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;</span> <span class="su1">a</span> &phi;(x) dx + &fnof;(b) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">&xi;</span> &phi;(x) dx.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity
+of &fnof;(x) or &phi;(x), the method of proof still holds good, provided these
+points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if
+either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of &fnof;(x), we write &fnof;(a + 0)
+or &fnof;(b &minus; 0), for &fnof;(a) or &fnof;(b), it being assumed that these limits exist.</p>
+
+<p><i>Functions, with Limited Variation.</i>&mdash;The condition that &fnof;(x), in the
+mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as x
+increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of the
+theorem. We can, however, show that a function &fnof;(x) which is finite
+and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of
+ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to
+diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases
+from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions
+&fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x), &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a to b,
+and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that one
+or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given
+function is discontinuous. Let &alpha;, &beta; be two consecutive points at
+which &fnof;(x) is discontinuous, consider any point x<span class="su">1</span>, such that &alpha; &#8806; x<span class="su">1</span> &#8806; &beta;,
+and suppose that at the points M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span> ... M<span class="su">r</span> between &alpha; and x<span class="su">1</span>,
+&fnof;(x) is a maximum, and at m<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">2</span> ... m<span class="su">r</span>, it is a minimum; we will
+suppose, for example, that the ascending order of values is &alpha;, M<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">1</span>,
+M<span class="su">2</span>, m<span class="su">2</span> ... M<span class="su">r</span>, m<span class="su">r</span>, x<span class="su">1</span>; it will make no essential difference in the
+argument if m<span class="su">1</span> comes before M<span class="su">1</span>, or if M<span class="su">r</span> immediately precedes x<span class="su">1</span>,
+M<span class="su">r&minus;1</span> being then the last minimum.</p>
+
+<p>Let</p>
+
+<p class="center">&psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [&fnof;(M<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; + 0)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">2</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ...
++ [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r&minus;1</span>)] + [&fnof;(x<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r</span>)];</p>
+
+<p class="noind">now let (x<span class="su">1</span>) increase until it reaches the value (M<span class="su">r+1</span>) at which &fnof;(x) is
+again a maximum, then let</p>
+
+<p class="center">&psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [&fnof;(M<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; + 0)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">2</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ...
++ [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r&minus;1</span>)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r+1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r</span>)];</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and suppose as x increases beyond the value M<span class="su">r+1</span>, &psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) remains
+constant until the next minimum m<span class="su">r+1</span> is reached, when it again
+becomes variable; we see that &psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) is essentially positive and
+never diminishes as x increases.</p>
+
+<p>Let</p>
+
+<p class="center">&chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [&fnof;(M<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; f(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">2</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ... + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r</span>)],</p>
+
+<p class="noind">then let x<span class="su">1</span> increase until it is beyond the next maximum M<span class="su">r+1</span>,
+and then let</p>
+
+<p class="center">&chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [&fnof;(M<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">2</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ...
++ [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r</span>) &minus; &fnof;(m<span class="su">r</span>)] + [&fnof;(M<span class="su">r+1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(x<span class="su">1</span>)]</p>
+
+<p class="noind">thus &chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and variable.
+We see that &psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) is continuous as x<span class="su">1</span> increases from &alpha; to &beta;,
+and that &psi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = &fnof;(x<span class="su">1</span>) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; + 0), and when x<span class="su">1</span> reaches &beta;, we have
+&psi;(&beta;) &minus; &chi;(x<span class="su">1</span>) = &fnof;(&beta; &minus; 0) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; + 0). Hence it is seen that between &alpha; and
+&beta;, &fnof;(x) = [&psi;(x) + &fnof;(&alpha; + 0)] &minus; &chi;(x), where &psi;(x) + &fnof;(&alpha; + 0), &chi;(x) are continuous
+and never diminish as x increases; the same reasoning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
+applies to every continuous portion of &fnof;(x), for which the functions
+&psi;(x), &chi;(x) are formed in the same manner; we now take &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x) = &psi;(x) +
+&fnof;(&alpha; + 0) + C, &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x) = &chi;(x) + C, where C is constant between consecutive
+discontinuities, but may have different values in the next interval
+between discontinuities; the C can be so chosen that neither &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x)
+nor &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x) diminishes as x increases through a value for which &fnof;(x) is
+discontinuous. We thus see that &fnof;(x) = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x) &minus; &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x), where &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x), &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x)
+never diminish as x increases from a to b, and are discontinuous only
+where &fnof;(x) is so. The function &fnof;(x) is a particular case of a class of
+functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name &ldquo;functions
+with limited variation&rdquo; (<i>fonctions à variation bornée</i>); in
+general such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of
+maxima and minima.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proof of the Convergence of Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</i>&mdash;It will now be
+assumed that a function &fnof;(x) arbitrarily given between the values
+&minus;&pi; and +&pi;, has the following properties:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed
+positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values
+of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or
+vice versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is
+usually expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima
+is finite.</p>
+
+<p>These limitations on the nature of the function are known as
+Dirichlet&rsquo;s conditions; it follows from them that the function is
+integrable throughout the interval.</p>
+
+<p>On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of
+Dirichlet&rsquo;s integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case
+of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from 0 to
+½ &pi;, since it has been shown that in the general case the difference
+of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas will
+be required:</p>
+
+<p>1. Since</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> {1 + 2cos 2z + 2cos 4z + ... + 2cos 2nz} dz =</td> <td>&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.</p>
+
+<p>2. If 0 &lt; &alpha; &lt; &beta; &#8806; &pi;/2,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz =</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&gamma;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> sin mz dz +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&gamma;</span> sin mz dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin &alpha;</td> <td class="denom">sin &beta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &alpha; &lt; &gamma; &lt; &beta;, hence</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> &lt;</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> &lt;</td> <td>4</td>
+<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">m</td>
+<td class="denom">sin &alpha;</td> <td class="denom">sin &beta;</td> <td class="denom">m sin &alpha;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">a precisely similar proof shows that <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin mz / z) dz <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; 4 / m&alpha;,
+hence the integrals <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin mz / sin z) dz, <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin mz / z) dz, converge to the limit
+zero, as m is indefinitely increased.</p>
+
+<p>3. If &alpha; &gt; 0, <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> cannot exceed ½ &pi;. For by the mean-value
+theorem <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; 2/&alpha; + 2/h,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">hence <span class="f150">|</span> Lh = &infin; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &#8806; 2/&alpha;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">in particular if &alpha; &#8807; &pi; <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &#8806; 2/&pi; &lt; &pi;/2.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Again d/d&alpha; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; = &minus; (sin &alpha;) / &alpha;, &alpha; &gt; 0,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">therefore <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; increases as &alpha; diminishes, when &theta; &lt; &alpha; &lt; &pi;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">but lim <span class="su">&alpha;=0</span><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; = &pi;/2, hence <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span> (sin &theta; / &theta;) d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; &pi;/2,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where &alpha; &lt; &pi;, and &lt; 2/&pi; where &alpha; &#8807; &pi;. It follows that</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&beta;</span> <span class="su1">&alpha;</span></td> <td>sin&theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &#8806; &pi;, provided 0 &#8806; &alpha; &lt; &beta;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&theta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">To find the limit of <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz, we observe that it may be
+written in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz + <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&mu;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> {F(z) &minus; F(0)}</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz + <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">&mu;</span> {F(z) &minus; F(0)}</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &mu; is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use
+lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz &minus;</td> <td>&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">F(0) = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&mu;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> {F(z) &minus; F(0)}</td> <td>z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">z</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+ {F(&mu; + 0) &minus; F(0)} <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;1</span> <span class="su2">&mu;</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz + [F (½ &pi; &minus; 0) &minus; F(0)] <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">&xi;1</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">when &xi;¹ lies between &mu; and ½ &pi;. When m is indefinitely increased,
+the two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of lemma (2).
+To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let G(z) =
+{F(z) &minus; F(0)} (z / sin z),  and observe that G(z) increases as z increases
+from 0 to &mu;, hence if we apply the mean value theorem</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&mu;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> G(&mu;)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> = <span class="f150">|</span> G(&mu;) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&mu;</span> <span class="su1">&xi;</span></td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> = <span class="f150">|</span> G(&mu;) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">m&mu;</span> <span class="su2">m&xi;</span></td> <td>sin&theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">d&theta; <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; &pi;G(&mu;),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z</td> <td class="denom">z</td> <td class="denom">&theta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where 0 &lt; &xi; &lt; &mu;, since G(z) has the limit zero when z = 0. If &epsilon; be an
+arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of &mu; may be so
+chosen that &pi;G(&mu;) &lt; ½ &epsilon;, and thus that <span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&mu;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> G(z) (sin mx / z) dz <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; ½ &epsilon;. When
+&mu; has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">½ &pi;</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz &minus;</td> <td>&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; &epsilon;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz &minus; (&pi;/2) F(0) has the limit zero.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(&minus;z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz is ½ {F(+0) + F(&minus;0)};</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td>
+<td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">hence the sum of n + 1 terms of the series</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x) dx +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma; <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">&minus;l</span> &fnof;(x¹) cos</td> <td>n&pi;(x &minus; x¹)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">converges to the value ½ {&fnof;(x + 0) + &fnof;(x &minus; 0)}, or to &fnof;(x) at a point
+where &fnof;(x) is continuous, provided &fnof;(x) satisfies Dirichlet&rsquo;s conditions
+for the interval from &minus;l to l.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proof that Fourier&rsquo;s Series is in General Uniformly Convergent</i>.&mdash;To
+prove that Fourier&rsquo;s Series converges uniformly to its sum
+for all values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods
+of the points of discontinuity of &fnof;(x) are excluded, we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| &int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz &minus;</td> <td>&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">|</span> &lt; &pi;G(&mu;) +</td> <td>4</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{F(&mu; + 0) &minus; F(0)} +</td> <td>4</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{F(½ &pi; &minus; 0) &minus; F(0)}</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">m sin &mu;</td> <td class="denom">m sin &xi;¹</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&lt;</td> <td>&pi;&mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(x + 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)} +</td> <td>4</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(x + 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)} +</td> <td>4</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(x + &pi;) &minus; &fnof;(x)}.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin &mu;</td> <td class="denom">m sin &mu;</td> <td class="denom">m sin &xi;¹</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(&minus;z), we have</p>
+
+<p class="center">|S<span class="su">2n+1</span>(x) &minus; &fnof;(x)| &lt; &mu; cosec &mu; [|&fnof;(x + 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)| + |&fnof;(x &minus; 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)|]
++ A|m cosec &mu;,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any
+interval (a, b) in which &fnof;(x) is continuous, a value &mu;<span class="su">1</span> of &mu; can be
+chosen such that, for every value of x in (a, b), |&fnof;(x + 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)|,
+|&fnof;(x &minus; 2&mu;) &minus; &fnof;(x)| are less than an arbitrarily prescribed positive
+number &epsilon;, provided &mu; = &mu;<span class="su">1</span>. Also a value &mu;<span class="su">2</span> of &mu; can be so chosen
+that &epsilon;&mu;<span class="su">2</span> cosec &mu;<span class="su">2</span> &lt; ½ &eta;, where &eta; is an arbitrarily assigned positive
+number. Take for &mu; the lesser of the numbers &mu;<span class="su">1</span>, &mu;<span class="su">2</span>, then |S<span class="su">2n+1</span> &minus; &fnof;(x)| &lt; &eta; + A|m cosec &mu;
+for every value of x in (a, b). It follows that,
+since &eta; and m are independent of x, |S<span class="su">2n+1</span> &minus; &fnof;(x)| &lt; 2&epsilon;, provided n is
+greater than some fixed value n<span class="su">1</span> dependent only on &epsilon;. Therefore
+S<span class="su">2n+1</span> converges to &fnof;(x) uniformly in the interval (a, b).</p>
+
+<p><i>Case of a Function with Infinities</i>.&mdash;The limitation that &fnof;(x) must
+be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the
+interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z)
+is indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is
+such that the limits of the two integrals <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">c±&epsilon;</span> <span class="su2">c</span> F(z) dz are both zero, as &epsilon;
+is indefinitely diminished, then
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz denotes the limit when &epsilon; = 0, &epsilon;¹ = 0 of
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">c-&epsilon;</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz +
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;/2</span> <span class="su2">c+&epsilon;¹</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz, both these limits existing; the
+first of these integrals has ½ &pi;F(+0) for its limiting value when m is indefinitely
+increased, and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem
+therefore holds if F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely
+integrable; this will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point
+C is of the form x(z)(z &minus; c)<span class="sp">&minus;&mu;</span> + &psi;(z), where &chi;(c), &psi;(c) are finite, and
+0 &lt; &mu; &lt; 1. It is thus seen that &fnof;(x) may have a finite number of
+infinities within the given interval, provided the function is integrable
+through any one of these points; the function is in that
+case still representable by Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier&rsquo;s Series</i>.&mdash;If
+&fnof;(x) is everywhere finite within the given interval &minus;&pi; to +&pi;, it
+can be shown that a<span class="su">n</span>, b<span class="su">n</span>, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in the
+series which represent the function, are such that na<span class="su">n</span>, nb<span class="su">n</span>, however
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For writing
+&fnof;(x) = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x) &minus; &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x), we have</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x) cos nxdx = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(&minus;&pi; + 0) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&xi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> cos nxdx + &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(&pi; &minus; 0) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&xi;</span>  cos nxdx</p>
+
+<p class="noind">hence</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x) cos nxdx = &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(&minus;&pi; + 0)</td> <td>sin n&xi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(&pi; &minus; 0)</td> <td>sin n&xi;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n</td> <td class="denom">n</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">with a similar expression, with &fnof;<span class="su">2</span>(x) for &fnof;<span class="su">1</span>(x), &xi; being between &pi;
+and &minus;&pi;; the result then follows at once, and is obtained similarly
+for the other coefficient.</p>
+
+<p>If &fnof;(x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form &phi;(x) / (x &minus; c)<span class="sp">K</span> near the point
+c, where 0 &lt; K &lt; 1, the integral
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(x)cos nxdx contains portions of the form <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&epsilon;+&epsilon;</span> <span class="su2">c</span> [&phi;(x) / (x &minus; c)<span class="sp">K</span>] cos nxdx
+<span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">c</span> <span class="su1">c&minus;&epsilon;</span> [&phi;(x) / (x &minus; c)<span class="sp">K</span>] cos nxdx; consider the first of these, and put x = c + u,
+it thus becomes <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&epsilon;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> [&phi;(c + u) / u<span class="sp">K</span>] cos n(c + u) du, which is of the form
+&phi;(c + &theta;&epsilon;) <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&epsilon;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> [cos n(c + u) / u<span class="sp">K</span>] du; now let nu = v, the integral becomes</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&phi;(c + &theta;&epsilon;) <span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>cos nc</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&theta;&epsilon;</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>cos v</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dv &minus;</td> <td>sin nc</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&theta;&epsilon;</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin v</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dv <span class="f150">}</span>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n<span class="sp">1&minus;K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td>
+<td class="denom">n<span class="sp">1&minus;K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">hence n<span class="sp">1&minus;K</span> <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is definitely increased,
+of the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&phi;(c) <span class="f150">{</span> cos nc <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>cos v</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dv &minus; sin nc <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&infin;</span> <span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>sin v</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dv <span class="f150">}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known
+value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer
+that n<span class="sp">1&minus;K</span> a<span class="su">n</span>, n<span class="sp">1&minus;K</span> b<span class="su">n</span> are less than fixed finite numbers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Differentiation of Fourier&rsquo;s Series</i>.&mdash;If we assume that the
+differential coefficient of a function &fnof;(x) represented by a Fourier&rsquo;s
+Series exists, that function &fnof;&rsquo;(x) is not necessarily representable by
+the series obtained by differentiating the terms of the Fourier&rsquo;s
+Series, such derived series being in fact not necessarily convergent.
+Stokes has obtained general formulae for finding the series which
+represent &fnof;&prime;(x), &fnof;&Prime;(x)&mdash;the successive differential coefficients of a
+limited function &fnof;(x). As an example of such formulae, consider
+the sine series (1); &fnof;(x) is represented by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma; sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">on integration by parts we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;(x) sin</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx =</td> <td>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> &fnof;(+0) ± &fnof;(l &minus; 0) + &Sigma; cos</td> <td>n&pi;a</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(&alpha; + 0) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; &minus; 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &fnof;&prime;(x) cos</td> <td>n&pi;x</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &alpha; represent the points where &fnof;(x) is discontinuous. Hence
+if f(x) is represented by the series &Sigma;a<span class="su">n</span> sin (n&pi;x / l), and &fnof;&prime;(x) by the
+series &Sigma;b<span class="su">n</span> cos (n&pi;x / l), we have the relation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">b<span class="su">n</span> =</td> <td>n&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">n</span> &minus;</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> &fnof;(+0) = &fnof;(l &minus; 0) + &Sigma; cos</td> <td>n&pi;&alpha;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(&alpha; + 0) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; &minus; 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and &fnof;(+0)
+&fnof;(l &minus; 0) are both zero, is the series which represents &fnof;&prime;(x) obtained
+at once by differentiating that which represents &fnof;(x). The form
+of the coefficient a<span class="su">n</span> discloses the discontinuities of the function and
+of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the integration
+by parts we find</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&alpha;<span class="su">n</span> =</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> &fnof;(+0) = &fnof;(l &minus; 0) + &Sigma; cos</td> <td>n&pi;&alpha;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;(&alpha; + 0) &minus; &fnof;(&alpha; &minus; 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n&pi;</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>2l</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> &fnof;&prime;(+0) = &fnof;&prime;(l &minus; 0) + &Sigma; cos</td> <td>n&pi;&beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{&fnof;&prime;(&beta; + 0) &minus; &fnof;&prime;(&beta; &minus; 0)} <span class="f150">]</span> + &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n²&pi;²</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &beta; are the points at which &fnof;&prime;(x) is discontinuous.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History and Literature of the theory</p>
+
+<p>The history of the theory of the representation of functions by
+series of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with
+the progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function
+of a real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function
+may possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infinitesimal
+calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in
+this connexion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>). The representation of functions by
+these series was first considered in the 18th century, in connexion
+with the problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to
+the possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747
+(<i>Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin</i>, vol. iii.) D&rsquo;Alembert showed that
+the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a differential
+equation of the form &delta;²y / &delta;t² = a² (&delta;²y / &delta;x²), where x is measured along the
+undisturbed length of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of
+length l fixed, the appropriate solution is y = &fnof;(at + x) &minus; &fnof;(at &minus; x), where
+&fnof; is a function such that &fnof;(x) = &fnof;(x + 2l); in another memoir in the
+same volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition.
+In the year 1748 (<i>Berlin Memoirs</i>, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing
+the problem, gave &fnof;(x) = &alpha; sin (&pi;x / l) + &beta; sin (2&pi;x / l) + ... as a particular
+solution, and maintained that every curve, whether regular or
+irregular, must be representable in this form. This was objected
+to by D&rsquo;Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground that
+irregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (<i>Berlin Memoirs</i>,
+vol. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on physical
+intuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753). The question
+was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in a
+memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (<i>Miscellanea
+Taurensia</i>, 1759; <i>&OElig;uvres</i>, vol. i.), who, while criticizing Euler&rsquo;s
+method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and then
+makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite fully
+carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli&rsquo;s Series.
+These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of
+a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a
+discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of
+several different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion
+of a broken function was not generally admitted. The first cases
+in which rational functions are expressed in sines and cosines were
+given by Euler (<i>Subsidium calculi sinuum</i>, Novi Comm. Petrop.,
+vol. v., 1754-1755), who obtained the formulae</p>
+
+<p class="center">½ &phi; = sin &phi; &minus; ½ sin 2&phi; + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> sin 3&phi; ...</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&pi;²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>&phi;²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cos &phi; &minus; ¼ cos 2&phi; + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span> cos 3&phi; ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">12</td> <td class="denom">4</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777,
+but not published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards
+used by Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions;
+he remarked that if &Phi; is expansible in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">A + B cos &phi; + C cos 2&phi; + ..., then A =</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &Phi; d&phi;, B =</td> <td>2</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">0</span> &Phi; cos &phi; d&phi;, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">&pi;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second period in the development of the theory commenced
+in 1807, when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory
+of Heat to the French Academy. His exposition of the present
+theory is contained in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of
+which his great treatise the <i>Théorie analytique de la chaleur</i>, published
+in 1822, is, in the main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself
+to consider the representation of a function given graphically,
+and was the first fully to grasp the idea that a single function may
+consist of detached portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He
+had an accurate conception of the convergence of a series, and
+although he did not give a formally complete proof that a function
+with discontinuities is representable by the series, he indicated in
+particular cases the method of procedure afterwards carried out by
+Dirichlet. As an exposition of principles, Fourier&rsquo;s work is still
+worthy of careful perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson&rsquo;s
+treatment of the subject, which has been adopted in English works
+(see the <i>Journal de l&rsquo;école polytechnique</i>, vol. xi., 1820, and vol.
+xii., 1823, and also his treatise, <i>Théorie de la chaleur</i>, 1835),
+depends upon the equality</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(&alpha;)</td> <td>1 &minus; h²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">d&alpha; =</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(&alpha;) d&alpha; +</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&Sigma; h<span class="sp">n</span> <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp2">&pi;</span> <span class="su1">&minus;&pi;</span> &fnof;(&alpha;) cos n(x &minus; &alpha;) d&alpha;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; 2h cos (x &minus; &alpha;) + h²</td> <td class="denom">2&pi;</td>
+<td class="denom">&pi;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where 0 &lt; h &lt; 1; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is
+evaluated when h = 1, and found to be ½ {&fnof;(x + 0) + &fnof;(x &minus; 0)}, the
+series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier&rsquo;s Series. The
+equality of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed
+to be convergent when h = 1, by a theorem of Abel&rsquo;s its sum is
+continuous with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a
+proof of the convergency for h = 1 is requisite for the validity of
+Poisson&rsquo;s proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency,
+his proof of the general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency
+cannot be removed except by a process of the same nature as that
+afterwards applied by Dirichlet. The definite integral has been
+carefully studied by Schwarz (see two memoirs in his collected
+works on the integration of the equation (&delta;²u / &delta;x²) + (&delta;²u / &delta;y²) = 0), who showed
+that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner
+in which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier&rsquo;s
+Series were also given by Cauchy (see his &ldquo;Mémoire sur les développements
+des fonctions en séries périodiques,&rdquo; <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Inst</i>., vol. vi.,
+also <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i>, vol. vii.); his method, which depends upon
+a use of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification,
+as valid by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer
+regarded as satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory investigation
+is due to Dirichlet; his first memoir appeared in <i>Crelle&rsquo;s
+Journal</i> for 1829, and the second, which is a model of clearness, in
+Dove&rsquo;s <i>Repertorium der Physik</i>. Dirichlet laid down certain definite
+sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which
+is expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value
+of the sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet&rsquo;s determination
+of the sum of the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized
+by Schläfli (see <i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journal</i>, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond
+(<i>Mathem. Annalen</i>, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a
+misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if x<span class="su">1</span> be
+the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach x<span class="su">1</span>,
+and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series
+takes any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought
+to make x = x<span class="su">1</span> first and afterwards n = &infin;, and no other way of
+going to the double limit is really admissible. Other papers by
+Dircksen (<i>Crelle</i>, vol. iv.) and Bessel (<i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i>, vol.
+xvi.), on similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance.
+Many of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet&rsquo;s have the object
+of freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed
+upon it in Dirichlet&rsquo;s proof, but no complete set of necessary and
+sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been obtained.
+Lipschitz (&ldquo;De explicatione per series trigonometricas,&rdquo;
+<i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journal</i>, vol. lxiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain condition,
+a function which has an infinite number of maxima and
+minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his
+condition is that at the point of discontinuity &beta;, |&fnof;(&beta; + &delta;) &minus; f(&beta;)| &lt; B&delta;<span class="sp">&alpha;</span>
+as &delta; converges to zero, B being a constant, and &alpha; a positive exponent.
+A somewhat wider condition is</p>
+
+<p class="center">{&fnof;(&beta; + &delta;) &minus; &fnof;(&beta;)} log &delta; = 0,<br />
+ &delta; = 0</p>
+
+<p class="noind">for which Lipschitz&rsquo;s results would hold. This last condition is
+adopted by Dini in his treatise (<i>Sopra la serie di Fourier</i>, &amp;c., Pisa,
+1880).</p>
+
+<p>The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publication
+by Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written
+in 1854, <i>Über die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische
+Reihe</i>. The first part of his memoir contains a historical
+account of the work of previous investigators; in the second part
+there is a discussion of the foundations of the Integral Calculus,
+and the third part is mainly devoted to a discussion of what can
+be inferred as to the nature of a function respecting the changes in
+its value for a continuous change in the variable, if the function is
+capable of representation by a trigonometrical series. Dirichlet
+and probably Riemann thought that all continuous functions were
+everywhere representable by the series; this view was refuted by Du
+Bois-Reymond (<i>Abh. der Bayer. Akad.</i> vol. xii. 2). It was shown
+by Riemann that the convergence or non-convergence of the series
+at a particular point x depends only upon the nature of the function
+in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood of the point x. The first to call
+attention to the importance of the theory of uniform convergence of
+series in connexion with Fourier&rsquo;s Series was Stokes, in his memoir
+&ldquo;On the Critical Values of the Sums of Periodic Series&rdquo; (<i>Camb. Phil.
+Trans.</i>, 1847; <i>Collected Papers</i>, vol. i.). As the method of determining
+the coefficients in a trigonometrical series is invalid unless the
+series converges in general uniformly, the question arose whether
+series with coefficients other than those of Fourier exist which
+represent arbitrary functions. Heine showed (<i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journal</i>,
+vol. lxxi., 1870, and in his treatise <i>Kugelfunctionen</i>, vol. i.) that
+Fourier&rsquo;s Series is in general uniformly convergent, and that if
+there is a uniformly convergent series which represents a function,
+it is the only one of the kind. G. Cantor then showed (<i>Crelle&rsquo;s
+Journal</i>, vols. lxxii. lxxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be
+not demanded, there can be but one convergent expansion for a
+function, and that it is that of Fourier. In the <i>Math. Ann.</i> vol.
+v., Cantor extended his investigation to functions having an infinite
+number of discontinuities. Important contributions to the
+theory of the series have been published by Du Bois-Reymond
+(<i>Abh. der Bayer. Akademie</i>, vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in
+Crelle&rsquo;s Journal, vols. lxxiv. lxxvi. lxxix.), by Kronecker (<i>Berliner
+Berichte</i>, 1885), by O. Hölder (<i>Berliner Berichte</i>, 1885), by Jordan
+(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1881, vol. xcii.), by Ascoli (<i>Math. Annal.</i>, 1873,
+and <i>Annali di matematica</i>, vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (<i>Atti della
+R. Acc. di Torino</i>, vol. x., 1875). Hamilton&rsquo;s memoir on &ldquo;Fluctuating
+Functions&rdquo; (<i>Trans. R.I.A.</i>, vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied
+with profit in this connexion. A memoir by Brodén (<i>Math. Annalen</i>,
+vol. lii.) contains a good investigation of some of the most recent
+results on the subject. The scope of Fourier&rsquo;s Series has been
+extended by Lebesgue, who introduced a conception of integration
+wider than that due to Riemann. Lebesgue&rsquo;s work on Fourier&rsquo;s
+Series will be found in his treatise, <i>Leçons sur les séries trigonométriques</i>
+(1906); also in a memoir, &ldquo;Sur les séries trigonométriques,&rdquo;
+<i>Annales sc. de l&rsquo;école normale supérieure</i>, series ii. vol. xx. (1903),
+and in a paper &ldquo;Sur la convergence des séries de Fourier,&rdquo; <i>Math.
+Annalen</i>, vol. lxiv. (1905).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The foregoing historical account has been mainly drawn
+from A. Sachse&rsquo;s work, &ldquo;Versuch einer Geschichte der
+Darstellung willkürlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigonometrische
+Reihen,&rdquo; published in <i>Schlömilch&rsquo;s Zeitschrift für Mathematik</i>,
+Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G.A. Gibson
+&ldquo;On the History of the Fourier Series&rdquo; (<i>Proc. Ed. Math. Soc.</i> vol.
+xi.). Reiff&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen</i> may also be consulted,
+and also the first part of Riemann&rsquo;s memoir referred to above.
+Besides Dini&rsquo;s treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment
+of the <span class="correction" title="amended from subejct">subject</span> from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann&rsquo;s
+treatise, <i>Über die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen
+fortschreitenden Entwickelungen</i>. Jordan&rsquo;s discussion of the subject
+in his <i>Cours d&rsquo;analyse</i> is worthy of attention: an account of functions
+with limited variation is given in vol. i.; see also a paper by Study
+in the <i>Math. Annalen</i>, vol. xlvii. On the second mean-value theorem
+papers by Bonnet (Brux. Mémoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, <i>Lionville&rsquo;s
+Journal</i>, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (<i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journal</i>, vol.
+lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (<i>Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik</i>, vol. xiv.,
+1869), by Meyer (<i>Math. Ann.</i>, vol. vi., 1872) and by Hölder (<i>Göttinger
+Anzeigen</i>, 1894) may be consulted; the most general form of the
+theorem has been given by Hobson (<i>Proc. London Math. Soc.</i>, Series
+II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform convergence of series,
+a memoir by W.F. Osgood (<i>Amer. Journal of Math.</i> xix.) may be with
+advantage consulted. On the theory of series in general, in relation
+to the functions which they can represent, a memoir by Baire
+(<i>Annali di matematica</i>, Series III. vol. iii.) is of great importance.
+Bromwich&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Infinite Series</i> (1908) contains much
+information on the general theory of series. Bôcher&rsquo;s &ldquo;Introduction
+to the Theory of Fourier&rsquo;s Series,&rdquo; <i>Annals of Math.</i>, Series
+II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw&rsquo;s <i>Introduction
+to the Theory of Fourier&rsquo;s Series and Integrals, and the
+Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat</i> (1906). A full account
+of the theory will be found in Hobson&rsquo;s treatise <i>On the Theory
+of Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier&rsquo;s Series</i>
+(1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. W. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURMIES<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span>, a town of northern France, in the department
+of Nord, on an affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes
+by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,308. It is one of the chief centres in
+France for wool combing and spinning, and produces a great
+variety of cloths. The glass-works of Fourmies date from
+1599, and were the first established in the north of France. Iron
+is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges and
+foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour
+troubles brought about military intervention and consequent
+bloodshed. A board of trade arbitration and a school of commerce
+and industry are among the public institutions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1683-1745), French orientalist, was
+born at Herbelai, near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683.
+He studied at the Collège Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the
+Collège Montaigu, where his attention was attracted to Oriental
+languages. Shortly after leaving the college he published a
+<i>Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben Esra sur
+l&rsquo;ecclésiast</i>e. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to
+assist a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar.
+Hoan-ji died in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont
+published <i>Meditationes Sinicae</i> and in 1742 <i>Grammatica Sinica</i>.
+He also wrote <i>Réflexions critiques sur les histoires des anciens
+peuples</i> (1735), and several dissertations printed in the <i>Mémoires</i>
+of the Academy of Inscriptions. He became professor of Arabic
+in the Collège de France in 1715. In 1713 he was elected a
+member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member
+of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that
+of Berlin. He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1746), was also a member
+of the Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac
+language in the Royal College, and was sent by the government
+to copy inscriptions in Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An account of Étienne Fourmont&rsquo;s life and a catalogue of his
+works will be found in the second edition (1747) of his <i>Réflexions
+critiques</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1801-1869),
+French geologist and metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on
+the 15th of May 1801. He was educated at the École des Mines
+at Paris, and after considerable experience as a mining engineer
+he was in 1834 appointed professor of geology at Lyons. He was
+a man of wide knowledge and extensive research, and wrote
+memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive
+rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the
+Western Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolinization
+and on metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects
+also he was an acknowledged authority; and he published
+observations on the order of sulphurability of metals (<i>loi de
+Fournet</i>). He died at Lyons on the 8th of January 1869. His
+chief publications were: <i>Études sur les dépôts métallifères</i> (Paris,
+1834); <i>Histoire de la dolomie</i> (Lyons, 1847); <i>De l&rsquo;extension
+des terrains houillers</i> (1855); <i>Géologie lyonnaise</i> (Lyons, 1861).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1712-1768), French engraver
+and typefounder, was born at Paris on the 15th of September
+1712. He was the son of a printer, and was brought up to his
+father&rsquo;s business. After studying drawing under the painter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+Colson, he practised for some time the art of wood-engraving,
+and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and casting
+of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry
+became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries.
+Not content with his practical achievements, he sought to
+stimulate public interest in his art by the production of various
+works on the subject. In 1737 he published his <i>Table des
+proportions qu&rsquo;il faut observer entre les caractères</i>, which was
+followed by several other technical treatises. In 1758 he assailed
+the title of Gutenberg to the honour awarded him as inventor
+of printing, claiming it for Schöffer, in his <i>Dissertation sur
+l&rsquo;origine et les progrès de l&rsquo;art de graver en bois</i>. This gave rise
+to a controversy in which Schöpflin and Baer were his opponents.
+Fournier&rsquo;s contributions to this debate were collected and reprinted
+under the title of <i>Traités historiques et critiques sur
+l&rsquo;origine de l&rsquo;imprimerie</i>. His principal work, however, was the
+<i>Manuel typographique</i>, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764,
+the first volume treating of engraving and type-founding, the
+second of printing, with examples of different alphabets. It
+was the author&rsquo;s design to complete the work in four volumes,
+but he did not live to execute it. He died at Paris on the 8th of
+October 1768.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURNIER L&rsquo;HÉRITIER, CLAUDE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1745-1825), French
+revolutionist, called &ldquo;l&rsquo;Américain,&rdquo; was born at Auzon (Haute-Loire)
+on the 21st of December 1745, the son of a poor weaver.
+He went to America to seek his fortune, and started at San
+Domingo an establishment for making <i>tafia</i> (an inferior quality
+of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to France
+he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and
+specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the
+organization of the popular armed force by means of which the
+most famous of the revolutionary <i>coups</i> were effected. His
+influence was principally manifested in the insurrections of the
+5th and 6th of October 1789, the 17th of July 1791, and the
+20th of June and the 10th of August 1792. He was on bad
+terms with the majority of the politicians, and particularly
+with Marat, and spent a great part of his time in prison, all the
+governments regarding him as an agitator and accusing him of
+inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time for trying
+to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from which
+he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from
+the 12th of December 1793 to the 21st of September 1794, and
+again from the 9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795.
+After the attempt on the First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise
+he was deported to Guiana, but was allowed to return to France
+in 1809. In 1811, while under surveillance at Auxerre, he was
+accused of having provoked an <i>émeute</i> against taxes known as
+the <i>droits réunis</i> (afterwards called <i>contributions indirectes</i>),
+and was imprisoned in the Château d&rsquo;If, where he remained till
+1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons Fournier
+was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force.
+After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed
+his last years in importuning the Restoration government for
+compensation for his lost property in San Domingo. He died
+in obscurity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details see preface to F.A. Aulard&rsquo;s edition of Fournier&rsquo;s
+<i>Mémoires secrets</i> (Paris, 1890), published by the Société de l&rsquo;histoire
+de la Révolution.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1836-1897),
+French politician, was born at Ribérac (Dordogne) on
+the 3rd of January 1836, and represented his native department
+in the National Assembly after the Franco-German War. There
+he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made him minister
+of public works in December 1872. He was minister of religion
+in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the
+Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As
+minister of education, religion and the fine arts in the reconstructed
+cabinet of the duc de Broglie he had used his administrative
+powers to further clerical ends, and as minister of the
+interior in Broglie&rsquo;s cabinet in 1877 he resumed the administrative
+methods of the Second Empire. With a well-known
+Bonapartist, Baron R.C.F. Reille, as his secretary, he replaced
+republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving
+a few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of
+that year he used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a
+majority for the Right, to support a clerical and reactionary
+programme. He accompanied Marshal MacMahon in his tour
+through southern France, and the presidential manifesto of
+September, stating that the president would rely solely on the
+Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally
+attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell,
+and a commission was appointed to inquire into their unconstitutional
+abuse of power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence
+of the revelations made in the report of the commission. In the
+Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave the lie direct to Fourtou&rsquo;s
+allegation that the republican party opposed every republican
+principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in consequence,
+but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to
+the chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year.
+Failing to secure re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered
+the popular chamber as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he
+took no further active part in politics. He died in Paris in 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works include <i>Histoire de Louis XVI</i> (1840); <i>Histoire de
+Saint Pie V</i> (1845); <i>Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (2 vols.,
+1859); <i>La Question italienne</i> (1860); <i>De la contre-révolution</i> (1876);
+and <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;un royaliste</i> (2 vols., 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOUSSA<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Fossa</span>, the native name of <i>Cryptoprocta ferox</i>, a
+somewhat cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar,
+where it is the largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice
+the size of a cat (5 ft. from nose to end of tail), with short close
+fur of nearly uniform pale brown. Little is known of its habits,
+except that it is nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off
+goats, and especially kids, and shows great ferocity when
+wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the natives.
+An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly
+fourteen years. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWEY<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (usually pronounced <i>Foy</i>), a seaport and market-town
+in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England,
+on the Great Western railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth.
+Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the west shore of the picturesque
+estuary of the river Fowey, close to the water&rsquo;s edge, and
+sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St Nicholas is said
+to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of a still older
+edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine tower and
+late Norman doorway. Within are a priest&rsquo;s chamber over the
+porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some
+curious monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the
+church, is a highly ornate Tudor building. A few ancient
+houses remain in the town. Deep-sea fishing is carried on;
+but the staple trade consists in the export of china clay and
+minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is easy
+of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state
+of the tide. St Catherine&rsquo;s Fort, dating from the days of Henry
+VIII. and now ruined, stands at the harbour&rsquo;s mouth, and
+once formed the main defence of the town. Opposite the town,
+and connected with it by Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan.
+Its main features are St Saviour&rsquo;s Chapel, with an ancient rood-stone,
+and the remains of Hall House, which was garrisoned
+during the civil wars of the 17th century.</p>
+
+<p>Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst
+Cornish ports from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the
+Tudors. The numerous references to the privateering exploits
+of its ships in the Patent and Close Rolls and the extraordinary
+number of them at the siege of Calais in 1346 alike testify to its
+importance. During this period the king&rsquo;s mandates were
+addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs, and no
+charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the
+reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common
+council consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these
+with a recorder elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey
+and Looe was summoned to a council at Westminster in 1340,
+but from that date until 1571, when it was entrusted with the
+privilege of returning two members, it had no parliamentary
+representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a
+few years previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as
+lord of the manor, obtained the right to hold a Monday market
+and two fairs on the feasts of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the
+charter of 1690 provision was made for a Saturday market and
+three fairs, on the 1st of May, 10th of September and Shrove
+Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWL<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (Dan. <i>Fugl</i>, Ger. <i>Vogel</i>), a term originally used in the
+sense that bird<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now is, but, except in composition,&mdash;as sea-fowl,
+wild-fowl and the like,&mdash;practically almost confined<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> at present
+to designate the otherwise nameless species which struts on our
+dunghills, gathers round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry
+yards&mdash;the type of the genus <i>Gallus</i> of ornithologists, of which
+four well-marked species are known. The <i>first</i> of these is the
+red jungle-fowl of the greater part of India, <i>G. ferrugineus</i>,&mdash;called
+by many writers <i>G. bankiva</i>,&mdash;which is undoubtedly the
+parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin, <i>Animals and
+Plants under Domestication</i>, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits northern
+India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay
+Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the
+Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of
+4000 ft., and its southern limits in the west of India proper are,
+according to Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south
+of the Nerbudda, and in the east near the left bank of the
+Godavery, or perhaps even farther, as he had heard of its being
+killed at Cummum. This species resembles in plumage what is
+commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the &ldquo;Black-breasted
+game&rdquo; breed, and this is said to be especially the case with
+examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples
+from India some differences are observable&mdash;the latter having
+the plumage less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white,
+and slate-coloured legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are
+crimson, like the comb and wattles, and the legs yellowish. If
+the Malayan birds be considered distinct, it is to them that the
+name <i>G. bankiva</i> properly applies. This species is said to be
+found in lofty forests and in dense thickets, as well as in ordinary
+bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near its haunts,
+it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in straggling
+parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives
+utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam,
+never prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds
+from January to July, according to the locality; and lays from
+8 to 12 creamy-white eggs, occasionally scraping together a few
+leaves or a little dry grass by way of a nest. The so-called <i>G.
+giganteus</i>, formerly taken by some ornithologists for a distinct
+species, is now regarded as a tame breed of <i>G. ferrugineus</i> or
+<i>bankiva</i>. The <i>second</i> good species is the grey jungle-fowl, <i>G.
+sonnerati</i>, whose range begins a little to the northward of the
+limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern part of the
+Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock
+has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a
+horny plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very
+peculiar, being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike
+that of <i>G. ferrugineus</i> and more like a cackle. The two species
+where their respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed
+in a wild state, and the present readily crosses in confinement
+with domestic poultry, but the hybrids are nearly always sterile.
+The <i>third</i> species is the Sinhalese jungle-fowl, <i>G. stanleyi</i> (the
+<i>G. lafayettii</i> of some authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also
+greatly resembles in plumage some domestic birds, but the cock
+is red beneath, and has a yellow comb with a red edge and
+purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a singularly
+different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird crosses
+readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be infertile.
+The <i>fourth</i> species, <i>G. varius</i> (the <i>G. furcatus</i> of some authors),
+inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This
+differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and
+in having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a
+single chin wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage
+is another easy mark of distinction. Hybrids between this
+species and domestic birds are often produced, but they are most
+commonly sterile. Some of them have been mistaken for distinct
+species, as those which have received the names of <i>G. aeneus</i>
+and <i>G. temmincki</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls
+were first domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent
+thereto, and it is the tradition of the Chinese that they received
+their poultry from the West about the year 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By the
+Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is forbidden, though the wild
+is allowed to be eaten&mdash;showing that its domestication was
+accomplished when they were written. The bird is not mentioned
+in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has <span class="grk" title="&rsquo;Alektôr">&#7944;&#955;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#969;&#961;</span>
+(cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient Egyptian
+monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the
+Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece
+through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between
+the 6th and 7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is sculptured on the Lycian
+marbles in the British Museum (<i>c.</i> 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and E. Blyth
+remarks (<i>Ibis</i>, 1867, p. 157) that it is there represented with the
+appearance of a true jungle-fowl, for none of the wild <i>Galli</i>
+have the upright bearing of the tame breed, but carry their
+tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of these
+breeds see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Bird</i> (cognate with <i>breed</i> and <i>brood</i>) was originally the young of
+any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament speaks of
+&ldquo;Wolf-birdis,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> Wolf-cubs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Like <i>Deer</i> (Dan. <i>Dyr</i>, Ger. <i>Tier</i>). <i>Beast</i>, too, with some men
+has almost attained as much specialization.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, CHARLES<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1792-1867), English architect, was
+born at Cullompton, Devon, on the 17th of May 1792. After
+serving an apprenticeship of five years at Exeter, he went to
+London in 1814, and entered the office of David Laing, where
+he remained till he commenced practice for himself. His first
+work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall
+Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the
+first premium for a design for the new London bridge, which,
+however, was ultimately built according to the design of another
+architect. Fowler&rsquo;s other designs for bridges include one constructed
+across the Dart at Totnes. He was also the architect
+for the markets of Covent Garden and Hungerford, the new
+market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and besides
+several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845),
+the London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax
+Chandlers&rsquo; Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years
+he was honorary secretary of the institute of British architects,
+and he was afterwards created vice-president. He retired from
+his profession in 1853, and died at Great Marlow, Bucks, on the
+26th of September 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, EDWARD<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1632-1714), English divine, was born
+in 1632 at Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity
+College, Cambridge. He was successively rector of Norhill,
+Bedfordshire (1656) and of All Hallows, Bread Street, London
+(1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of Gloucester, his friend
+Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in his favour.
+In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after four
+years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration
+of Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced
+the London clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated
+bishop of Gloucester and held the see until his death on the
+26th of August 1714. Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies,
+and his earliest book was a <i>Free Discourse</i> in defence of
+<i>The Practices of Certain Moderate Divines called Latitudinarians</i>
+(1670). <i>The Design of Christianity</i>, published by him in the
+following year, in which he laid stress on the moral design of
+revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his <i>How far Holiness
+is the Design of Christianity</i> (1671) and by Bunyan in his <i>Defence
+of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith</i> (1672), the latter describing
+the <i>Design</i> as &ldquo;a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and Quakerism,&rdquo;
+a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous
+pamphlet entitled <i>Dirt Wip&rsquo;d Off</i>. He also published, in 1693,
+<i>Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity
+is endeavoured to be explained</i>, challenging with some success the
+Socinian position.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, JOHN<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1826-1864), English inventor, was born
+at Melksham, Wilts, on the 11th of July 1826. He learned
+practical engineering at Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about
+1850 invented a mechanical system for the drainage of land.
+In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation, and in 1858
+the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of £500
+which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an
+economic substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he
+founded at Hunslet, Leeds, the firm of Fowler &amp; Co., manufacturers
+of agricultural machinery, traction engines, &amp;c. He
+died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the 4th of December 1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, SIR JOHN<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1817-1898), English civil engineer,
+was born on the 15th of July 1817 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield,
+where his father was a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen
+he became a pupil of John Towlerton Leather, the engineer of
+the Sheffield water-works. The latter&rsquo;s uncle, George Leather,
+was engineer of the Great Aire and Calder Navigation Company,
+of the Goole Docks, and other similar works, and Fowler passed
+occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired a
+thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of
+railway construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers
+into its service, and one of his first employments was to oppose
+the route of the Midland railway, chosen by the Stephensons,
+which left Sheffield on a branch line, and was therefore strongly
+resented by the inhabitants. The prestige of the Stephensons
+carried all before it, but in later life Sir John Fowler had the
+satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients justified, and
+Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into the
+office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway
+engineers of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges
+for the line from London to Brighton, and also in surveying for
+railways in Lancashire. In 1839 he went as representative of
+Mr Leather to take charge of the construction of the Stockton
+&amp; Hartlepool railway and remained as manager of the line after
+it was finished. In 1844 he began his independent career as an
+engineer, and from the first was largely employed, more particularly
+in laying out the small railway systems which eventually
+were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester, Sheffield
+&amp; Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a
+bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the
+Board of Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir)
+Lintorn Simmons. The engineering profession espoused Fowler&rsquo;s
+side in the controversy which followed, and as a result the verdict
+of the Board of Trade was modified. The episode was the
+beginning of a warm friendship between these distinguished
+representatives of civil and military engineering. Fowler was
+engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of
+underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly
+made not by tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and
+then covering in the permanent way; and he lived to be one of
+the engineers officially connected with the deep tunnelling &ldquo;tube&rdquo;
+system extensively adopted for electric railways in London.
+He was also engaged in the making of railways in Ireland, and
+in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on a commission to
+advise the government in respect of a proposal for a state-purchase
+of the Irish railway system. He also carried out
+considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and
+the reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers, the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair.
+He was strongly opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to
+France, and in 1872 he endeavoured to obtain the consent of
+parliament to a Channel ferry scheme, whereby trains were to be
+transported across the strait in large ferry steamers. The
+proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at Dover
+and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing
+the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman
+of a committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled
+to render, in his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian
+government, which was much embarrassed by impracticable
+proposals pressed on it by Garibaldi for a rectification of the
+course of the Tiber and other engineering works. He had
+several interviews with the Italian patriot, and persuaded him
+of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby obtaining for
+the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme.
+For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser
+in Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the
+Sudan, and also the reparation of the barrage. These and many
+other plans came to an end owing to financial reasons. But the
+maps and surveys for the railway were given to the war office,
+and proved most useful to Lord Wolseley in his Nile expedition.
+For his service Fowler was made K.C.M.G. (1885). He was
+created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of the Forth bridge,
+of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was joint
+engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November
+1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, WILLIAM<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born
+about the year 1560. He attended St Leonard&rsquo;s college, St
+Andrews, between 1574 and 1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris
+studying civil law. In 1581 he issued a pamphlet against John
+Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said, driven him from
+his country. He subsequently (about ?1590) became private
+secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of
+James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen
+went to England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant
+of 2000 acres in Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married
+Sir John Drummond, and was mother of the poet William
+Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of <i>The Triumphs
+of Petrarke</i>, Fowler styles himself &ldquo;P. of Hawick,&rdquo; which has
+been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is
+doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled
+<i>The Tarantula of Love</i>, and a translation (1587) from the Italian
+of the <i>Triumphs of Petrarke</i> are preserved in the library of the
+university of Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his
+nephew, William Drummond. Two other volumes of his manuscript
+notes, scrolls of poems, &amp;c., are preserved among the
+Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of Antiquaries
+of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler&rsquo;s verses were published
+in 1803 by John Leyden in his <i>Scottish Descriptive Poems</i>.
+Fowler contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.&rsquo;s <i>Furies</i>;
+and James, in return, commended, in verse, Fowler&rsquo;s <i>Triumphs</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOX, CHARLES JAMES<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1749-1806), British statesman and
+orator, was the third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and
+his wife. Lady Caroline Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles
+Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was born at 9 Conduit
+Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The father,
+who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him
+to choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wandsworth
+by a French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short
+time he asked to be sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At
+Eton he did no more work than was acceptable to him, but he
+had an inborn love of literature, and he laid the foundation of
+that knowledge of the classic languages which in after years was
+the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was controlled
+by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he
+checked his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his
+father trusted him to cure his defects.</p>
+
+<p>That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and
+magnanimous man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no
+one ever owed less to education or to family example. The
+relations of Lord Holland to his sons would be difficult to parallel.
+He not only treated them, and in particular Charles, as friends
+and companions in pleasure from the first, but he did his best
+to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he took Charles for
+a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most immoral
+society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble.
+The boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good
+fortune that he did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome
+course of ridicule by the other boys, and was flogged by Dr
+Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764 Charles proceeded to
+Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he read
+literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to
+mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathematics
+entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+of Sir G. Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was
+known to maintain that it was useless. His own account of his
+school and college training, given in a letter to the same correspondent
+(6th August 1767), is: &ldquo;I employed almost my
+whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical knowledge,
+but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand
+Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every
+part of useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how
+little advantage there is in being what at school and the university
+is called a good scholar: one receives a good deal of
+amusement from it, but that is all. At present I read nothing
+but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of, particularly of
+the poetry.... As for French, I am far from being so thorough
+a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I
+could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble,
+especially if I pass three or four months in France.&rdquo; The passage
+is characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature
+and his thoroughness. Fox&rsquo;s youth was disorderly, but it was
+never indolent. He was incapable of half doing anything which
+he did at all. He did perfect himself in French, and he showed
+no less determination to master mere sports. At a later period
+when he had grown fat he accounted for his skill in taking &ldquo;cut
+balls&rdquo; at tennis by saying that he was a very &ldquo;painstaking
+man.&rdquo; He was all his life a great and steady walker.</p>
+
+<p>The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a
+common subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford
+and joined his father on the continent during a tour in France
+and Italy. In 1768 Lord Holland bought the pocket borough
+of Midhurst for him, and he entered on his parliamentary career,
+and on London society, in 1769. Within the next few years Lord
+Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that was good, and
+whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son. The
+affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the
+passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy
+proved the ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses,
+and bet on them largely. On the racecourse he was successful,
+and it is another proof of his native thoroughness that he gained
+a reputation as a handicapper. It is said that he won more than
+he lost on the course. At the gambling table he was unfortunate,
+and there can be little question that he was fleeced both in
+London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social
+rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worthlessness
+he knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his
+losses and their consequences with an attractive gaiety. He
+called the room in which he did business with the Jew moneylenders
+his &ldquo;Jerusalem chamber.&rdquo; When his elder brother had
+a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that the boy was
+a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of the
+Jews. &ldquo;He had his jest, and they had his estate.&rdquo; In 1774
+Lord Holland had to find £140,000 to pay the gambling debts of
+his sons. For years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment,
+and during his later years, when he had given up gambling, he
+was supported by the contributions of wealthy friends, who in
+1793 formed a fund of £70,000 for his benefit.</p>
+
+<p>His public career did not supply him with a check on habits
+of dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He
+began, as was to be expected in his father&rsquo;s son, by supporting
+the court; and in 1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed
+a junior lord of the admiralty with Lord North. During the
+violent conflict over the Middlesex election (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilkes, John</a></span>)
+he took the unpopular side, and vehemently asserted the right
+of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes. In 1772 during
+the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver&mdash;a part of the &ldquo;Wilkes
+and liberty&rdquo; agitation&mdash;he and Lord North were attacked by
+a mob and rolled in the mud. But Fox&rsquo;s character was incompatible
+with ministerial service under King George III. The
+king, himself a man of orderly life, detested him as a gambler
+and a rake. And Fox was too independent to please a master
+who expected obedience. In February 1772 he threw up his
+place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on which
+the king&rsquo;s heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord
+of the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his
+sympathy with the American colonies, which were now beginning
+to resist the claims of the mother country to tax them, made
+him intolerable to the king and he was dismissed in February
+1774. The death of his father on the 1st of July of that year
+removed an influence which tended to keep him subordinate to
+the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into close
+alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability
+had won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had
+prepared to distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate
+cultivation of his voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill.
+His argumentative force was recognized at once, but the full scope
+of his powers was first shown on the 2nd of February 1775, when
+he spoke on the disputes with the colonies. The speech is
+unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it, told his friend
+Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, &ldquo;taking the
+vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for
+regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies
+dreaded.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His great political career dates from that day. It is unique
+among the careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was
+passed almost wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in
+1782 and 1783, and again for a few months before his death in
+1806, he was out of office. If he was absolutely sincere in the
+statement he made to his friend Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the
+3rd of February 1778, his life was all he could have wished.
+&ldquo;I am,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;certainly ambitious by nature, but I really
+have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have still
+as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because
+great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation
+I never can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making
+sacrifices that I never will make.&rdquo; His words show that he judged
+himself and read the future accurately. Yet it was certainly
+a cause of bitter disappointment to him that he had to stand by
+while the country was in his opinion not only misgoverned, but
+led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a political critic,
+which was great from the first and grew as he lived, most assuredly
+did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of the
+causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the
+purpose of obtaining practical success the most important,
+perhaps the only one of real importance, was his personal
+character. Lord John Russell (afterwards Earl Russell), his
+friendly biographer, has to confess that Fox might have joined in
+the confession of Mirabeau: &ldquo;The public cause suffers for the
+immoralities of my youth.&rdquo; His reputation as a rake and
+gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his
+career that when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was
+a general belief among the vulgar that he had been detected in
+actual theft. His perfect openness, the notoriety of his bankruptcies
+and of the seizure of his books and furniture in execution,
+kept him before the world as a model of dissipation. In 1776,
+when he was leading the resistance to Lord North&rsquo;s colonial
+policy, he &ldquo;neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish life. He
+was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it before
+two at noon.&rdquo; At the most important crisis of his life in 1783,
+he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not
+only to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has
+drawn a picture of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox&rsquo;s
+beloved and admiring nephew, speaking from his early recollections
+of his uncle, confesses has &ldquo;some justification.&rdquo; Coming
+from such an authority the certificate may be held to confirm the
+substantial accuracy of Walpole. &ldquo;Fox lodged in St James&rsquo;s
+Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a levée
+of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks&rsquo;s&mdash;all his
+disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite
+open and rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul
+linen nightgown and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic
+weeds and with Epicurean good humour did he dictate his politics,
+and in this school did the heir of the empire attend his lessons
+and imbibe them.&rdquo; That this cynic manner, and Epicurean
+speech, were only the outside of a manly and generous nature
+was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is now
+universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+who could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously
+displayed, Fox was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral
+and untrustworthy. Therefore when he came into collision with
+the will of the king he failed to secure the confidence of the nation
+which was his only support. Nor ought any critical admirer
+of Fox to deny that George III. was not wholly wrong when
+he said that the great orator &ldquo;was totally destitute of discretion
+and sound judgment.&rdquo; Fox made many mistakes, due in some
+cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be
+ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes
+is a very insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical
+statesman. He could have profited by the reaction which
+followed popular excitement but for his bad reputation and his
+want of discretion.</p>
+
+<p>During the eight years between his expulsion from office in
+1774 and the fall of Lord North&rsquo;s ministry in March 1782 he
+may indeed be said to have done one very great thing in politics.
+He planted the seed of the modern Liberal party as opposed to
+the pure Whigs. In political allegiance he became a member
+of the Rockingham party and worked in alliance with the marquis
+and with Burke, whose influence on him was great. In opposing
+the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in assailing
+the waste and corruption of Lord North&rsquo;s administration, as
+well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the
+Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption,
+and in favour of honest management of the public money,
+which was very strong between 1779 and 1782, he and they
+worked heartily together. It had a considerable effect, and
+prepared the way for the reforms begun by Burke and continued
+by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with
+originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement
+as final, or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House
+of Commons could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction
+that, if the House was to be made an efficient instrument for
+restraining the interference of the king and for securing good
+government, it must cease to be filled to a very large extent
+by the nominees of boroughmongers and the treasury. He became
+a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all ways
+he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been
+known as &ldquo;Liberal causes,&rdquo; the removal of all religious disabilities
+and tests, the suppression of private interests which
+hampered the public good, the abolition of the slave trade, and
+the emancipation of all classes and races of men from the strict
+control of authority.</p>
+
+<p>A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would
+entail the mention of every crisis of the American War of Independence
+and of every serious debate in parliament. Throughout
+the struggle Fox was uniformly opposed to the coercion of
+the colonies and was the untiring critic of Lord North. While
+the result must be held to prove that he was right, he prepared
+future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He
+was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim
+that an enemy should always be treated as if he may one day
+be a friend, and a friend as if he might become an enemy. On
+the 29th of November 1779 Fox was wounded in a duel with
+Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North&rsquo;s whom he had
+savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured
+invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal
+character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an
+amiable though pliable man, who remained in office against
+his own wish, in deference to the king who appealed to his
+loyalty. When the disasters of the American war had at last
+made a change of ministry necessary, and the king applied to
+the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord Shelburne, Fox
+made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of
+Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign.
+The result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox&rsquo;s
+own words, partly to the king and partly to the country&mdash;that
+is to say, partly of Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and
+partly of the king&rsquo;s friends, represented by Lord Shelburne,
+whose real function was to baffle the Whigs. Dissensions began
+from the first, and were peculiarly acute between Shelburne
+and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old division of duties
+by which the southern secretary had the correspondence with
+the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and the northern
+secretary with the others, had been abolished on the formation
+of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted
+to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the
+peace at Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some
+rather scandalous pensions, and Fox&rsquo;s acquiescence in this abuse
+after his recent agitation against Lord North&rsquo;s waste did him
+injury. When the marquess of Rockingham died on the 1st of
+July 1782, and the king offered the premiership to Shelburne,
+Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of the Rockingham
+Whigs.</p>
+
+<p>In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly
+consistent, but his next step was ruinous to himself and his
+party. On the 14th of February 1783 he formed a coalition
+with Lord North, based as they declared on &ldquo;mutual goodwill
+and confidence.&rdquo; Plausible excuses were made for the alliance,
+but to the country at large this union, formed with a man whom
+he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an unscrupulous
+conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the
+House of Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive
+Shelburne from office on the 24th of February. The king made
+a prolonged resistance to the pressure put on him to accept Fox
+and North as his ministers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pitt, William</a></span>). On the 2nd
+of April he was constrained to submit to the formation of a new
+ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime minister and
+Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new administration
+was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox increased its
+unpopularity both in the House and in the country by consenting
+against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the grant
+of a sum of £100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had
+the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on
+bad terms with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his
+acquiescence in the grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry,
+convinced the country that his zeal for economy was hypocritical.
+The introduction of the India Bill in November 1783 alarmed
+many vested interests, and offended the king by the provision
+which gave the patronage of India to a commission to be named
+by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The
+coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of
+most telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the
+growing unpopularity of his ministers, George III. gave it to
+be understood that he would not look upon any member of the
+House of Lords who voted for the India Bill as his friend. The
+bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of December,
+and next day the king dismissed his ministers.</p>
+
+<p>Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his
+life may be divided into four portions&mdash;his opposition to Pitt
+during the session of 1784; his parliamentary activity till his
+secession in 1797; his retirement till 1800; his return to
+activity and his short tenure of office before his death in 1806.
+During the first of these periods he deepened his unpopularity
+by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the crown, by claiming
+for the House of Commons the right to override not only the
+king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by
+resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from
+a statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He
+lost ground daily before the steady good judgment and unblemished
+character of Pitt. When parliament was dissolved
+at the end of the session of 1784, the country showed its sentiments
+by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox and North.
+Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book
+called <i>The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke</i>, a compilation of
+their abuse of one another in recent years.</p>
+
+<p>Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes
+than Admiral Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial
+candidate, Sir Cecil Wray. The election was marked by an
+amazing outflow of caricatures and squibs, by weeks of rioting
+in which Lord Hood&rsquo;s sailors fought pitched battles in St James&rsquo;s
+Street with Fox&rsquo;s hackney coachmen, and by the intrepid
+canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for
+Fox by kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what
+constituted a desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make
+a return, and the confirmation of Fox&rsquo;s election was delayed
+by the somewhat mean action of the ministry. He had, however,
+been chosen for Kirkwall, and could fight his cause in the House.
+In the end he recovered damages from the high bailiff. In his
+place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and sometimes
+opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers&rsquo; bill
+for the government of India was sound in principle, though the
+evils he foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for
+his opposition to Pitt&rsquo;s commercial policy towards Ireland.
+But as Fox on this occasion aided the vested interests of some
+English manufacturers he secured a certain revival of popularity.
+His support of Pitt&rsquo;s Reform Bill was qualified by a just dislike
+of the ministers&rsquo; proposal to treat the possession of the franchise
+by a constituency as a property and not as a trust. His unsuccessful
+opposition to the commercial treaty with France in
+1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed
+himself to the proposition that France was the natural enemy
+of Great Britain, a saying often quoted against him in coming
+years. It has been excused on the ground that when he said
+France he meant the aggressive house of Bourbon. A statesman
+whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric meaning
+cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788
+he travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the
+illness of the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of
+Wales to the regency as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt
+into declaring that he would &ldquo;unwhig the gentleman for the rest
+of his life.&rdquo; The friendship between him and the prince of
+Wales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George IV.</a></span>) was always injurious to Fox. In 1787
+he was misled by the prince&rsquo;s ambiguous assurances into denying
+the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had
+been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a
+year, but their alliance was renewed. During these years he
+was always in favour of whatever measures could be described
+as favourable to emancipation and to humanity. He actively
+promoted the impeachment of Warren Hastings, which had the
+support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the abolition of
+the slave trade (which he actually effected during his short
+tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of
+concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and
+in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together
+with almost all his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the
+states-general in 1789 as the downfall of a despotism hostile
+to Great Britain. But when the development of the Revolution
+caused a general reaction, he adhered stoutly to his opinion that
+the Revolution was essentially just and ought not to be condemned
+for its errors or even for its crimes. As a natural
+consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt&rsquo;s foreign policy,
+which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in
+the interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his unpopularity
+reached its height. He was left almost alone in
+parliament, and was denounced as the enemy of his country.
+On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful scene in the House
+of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship. In 1792
+there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt,
+which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with
+Burke took place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill,
+in which Fox displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the
+division of Upper from Lower Canada, and other provisions of
+the bill, which in the end proved so injurious as to be unworkable.
+In this year he carried the Libel Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke
+of Portland, and most of his party left him. In 1797 he withdrew
+from parliament, and only came forward in 1798 to reaffirm
+the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great Whig
+dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy
+council.</p>
+
+<p>The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life.
+In 1783 he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane,
+commonly known as Mrs Armstead or Armistead, an amiable
+and well-mannered woman to whom he was passionately
+attached. In company with her he established himself at St
+Anne&rsquo;s Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her
+privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters
+he spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends&mdash;Mr
+Coke of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he
+stayed every year, being one of them&mdash;would not invite her to
+their houses. It is hard to explain this solitary instance of
+shabby conduct in a thoroughly generous man towards a person
+to whom he was unalterably attached and who fully deserved his
+affection. Fox&rsquo;s time at St Anne&rsquo;s was largely spent in gardening,
+in the enjoyment of the country, and in correspondence on
+literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord Holland, and
+with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His letters
+show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened
+appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first
+favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in
+French, and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite
+authors were Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends
+against the stock criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with
+equal zeal and insight.</p>
+
+<p>Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of
+censure on ministers for declining Napoleon&rsquo;s overtures for a
+peace. The fall of Pitt&rsquo;s first ministry and the formation of the
+Addington cabinet, the peace of Amiens, and the establishment
+of Napoleon as first consul with all the powers of a military
+despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of resuming power in public
+life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over, and he could have
+no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful general who
+ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual
+aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his
+wife. An account of his journey was published in 1811 by his
+secretary, Mr Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence.
+It gives an attractive picture of Fox&rsquo;s good-humour, and of his
+enjoyment of the &ldquo;species of minor comedy which is constantly
+exhibited in common life.&rdquo; His main purpose in visiting Paris
+was to superintend the transcription of the correspondence of
+Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life of James II. The
+book was never finished, but the fragment he completed was
+published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand
+Carrel in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon.
+He saw a good deal of French society, and was himself much
+admired for his hearty defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish
+charge of encouraging plots for Napoleon&rsquo;s assassination. On
+his return he resumed his regular attendance in the House of
+Commons. The history of the renewal of the war, of the fall of
+Addington&rsquo;s ministry, and of the formation of Pitt&rsquo;s second
+administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt (<i>q.v.</i>)
+that it need not be repeated here.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in
+public life that the king could no longer hope to exclude him
+from office. The formation of a ministry was entrusted by the
+king to Lord Grenville, but when he named Fox as his proposed
+secretary of state for foreign affairs George III. accepted him
+without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a large extent
+to have died out. A long period of office might now have
+appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had
+he lived it may be considered as certain that the war with
+Napoleon would have been conducted with a vigour which was
+much wanting during the next few years. In domestic politics
+Fox had no time to do more than insist on the abolition of the
+slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to the king&rsquo;s
+invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the
+Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself
+Guillet de la Gevrillière, whom Fox at first &ldquo;did the honour to
+take for a spy,&rdquo; came to him with a scheme for the murder of
+Napoleon, he sent a warning on the 20th of February to Talleyrand.
+The incident gave him an opportunity for reopening
+negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and British
+envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the
+French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved
+not to treat apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+nor to consent to the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted
+upon, unless full compensation could be obtained for King
+Ferdinand. The later stages of the negotiation were not
+directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took over his work at
+the foreign office when his health began to fail in the summer
+of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only
+procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for
+the abolition of the slave trade on the 10th of June, he was forced
+to give up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of
+the duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September
+1806. His wife survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No
+children were born of the marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster
+Abbey by the side of Pitt.</p>
+
+<p>The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered
+very familiar by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The
+latter were no doubt deliberately exaggerated, and yet a comparison
+between the head of Fox in Sayer&rsquo;s plate &ldquo;Carlo Khan&rsquo;s
+triumphal entry into Leadenhall,&rdquo; and in Abbot&rsquo;s portrait, shows
+that the caricaturist did not depart from the original. Fox was
+twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young in a
+group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways,
+and once at full length. A half-length portrait by the German
+painter, Karl Anton Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery,
+where there is also a terra-cotta bust by Nollekens.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The materials for a life of Fox were first collected
+by his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged
+by Mr Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as
+<i>Memoirs and Correspondence of C.J. Fox</i> (London, 1853-1857). On
+them Lord John Russell based his <i>Life and Times of C.J. Fox</i>
+(London, 1859-1866); Sir G.O. Trevelyan&rsquo;s <i>Early History of C.J.
+Fox</i> (London. 1880) brings new evidence; <i>Charles James Fox, a
+Political Study</i>, by J.L. Le B. Hammond (London, 1903), is a series
+of studies written by an extreme admirer. His <i>Speeches</i> were
+collected and published in 1815. The newspaper articles (<i>e.g.</i> in
+<i>The Times</i>) published on the occasion of the centenary of his death
+contain interesting appreciations. See also Lloyd Sanders, <i>The
+Holland House Circle</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOX, EDWARD<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born
+about 1496 at Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very
+doubtful authority to have been related to Richard Fox (<i>q.v.</i>).
+From Eton he proceeded to King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and after
+graduating was made secretary to Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent
+with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement VII. a decretal
+commission for the trial and decision of the case between Henry
+VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was elected
+provost of King&rsquo;s College, and in August 1529 was the means of
+conveying to the king Cranmer&rsquo;s historic advice that he should
+apply to the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This
+introduction led eventually to Cranmer&rsquo;s promotion over Fox&rsquo;s
+head to the archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission
+to Paris in October 1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended
+Latimer at Cambridge and took an active part in persuading that
+university and Oxford to decide in the king&rsquo;s favour. He was
+sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at the French
+universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in negotiating a
+closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he
+was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity
+of Henry&rsquo;s marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his
+treatise <i>De vera differentia regiae potestatis et ecclesiae</i> (second
+ed. 1538, English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical preferments
+were now granted him, including the archdeaconry of
+Leicester (1531) and the bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-1536
+he was sent to Germany to discuss the basis of a political
+and theological understanding with the Lutheran princes and
+divines, and had several interviews with Luther, who could not
+be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s divorce. The
+principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of
+1536, which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles
+of the same year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his <i>Commentaries
+on the Gospels</i>, and Fox&rsquo;s Protestantism was also
+illustrated by his patronage of Alexander Aless, whom he defended
+before Convocation. Fox is credited with the authorship of
+several proverbial sayings, such as &ldquo;the surest way to peace is a
+constant preparedness for war&rdquo; and &ldquo;time and I will challenge
+any two in the world.&rdquo; The former at any rate is only a variation
+of the Latin <i>si vis pacem, para bellum</i>, and probably the latter is
+not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is usually
+ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the
+church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is
+perhaps that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s bishops,
+and was largely responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper&rsquo;s
+<i>Athenae Cantabrigienses</i>; <i>Dict. Nat. Biogr.</i>; R.W. Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Church
+History</i>; G. Mentz, <i>Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35925-h.htm or 35925-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/2/35925/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img628.jpg b/35925-h/images/img628.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99b6d35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img628.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img629a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img629a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..743ba5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img629a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img629b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img629b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e55982
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img629b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img630a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img630a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..108e0f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img630a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img630b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img630b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f45e5de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img630b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img630c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img630c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ada28ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img630c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img630d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img630d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91bf6c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img630d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5caa1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..677e20e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2561f47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31f6995
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f51129
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img631f.jpg b/35925-h/images/img631f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c43cc33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img631f.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img632a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img632a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b0d340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img632a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img632b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img632b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ccfe4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img632b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img632c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img632c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c8254c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img632c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img632d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img632d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db811db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img632d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img633a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img633a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..956d76f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img633a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img633b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img633b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f93d507
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img633b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img634a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img634a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35618a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img634a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img634b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img634b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a2b047b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img634b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img634c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img634c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bad229
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img634c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img635a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img635a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..103f713
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img635a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img635b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img635b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd9dfaa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img635b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img652.jpg b/35925-h/images/img652.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba90ce4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img652.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img654.jpg b/35925-h/images/img654.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2291795
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img654.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..583e364
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd27cdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c06223a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..babf010
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c56324c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664f.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c154ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664f.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img664g.jpg b/35925-h/images/img664g.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b96e87a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img664g.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img665a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img665a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21c4565
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img665a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img665b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img665b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..541b92a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img665b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img665c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img665c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cfc868
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img665c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img665d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img665d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d424476
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img665d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img666.jpg b/35925-h/images/img666.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f03c5dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img666.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img682a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img682a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee798b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img682a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img682b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img682b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b5b81e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img682b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img682c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img682c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..503357d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img682c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img683a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img683a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..825c6db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img683a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img683b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img683b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0005abb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img683b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img684a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img684a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ac96c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img684a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img684b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img684b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be15f89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img684b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img684c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img684c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0571d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img684c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img685a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img685a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6379f82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img685a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img685b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img685b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86dc682
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img685b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img685c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img685c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c93994
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img685c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img685d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img685d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4997186
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img685d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img686a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img686a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13745c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img686a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img686b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img686b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a45624
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img686b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img686c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img686c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07503ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img686c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img686d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img686d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2aa1c2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img686d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img686e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img686e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dab81e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img686e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img687a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img687a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c03d7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img687a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img687b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img687b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1b4d53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img687b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img687c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img687c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ff20a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img687c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img688a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img688a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0b84c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img688a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img688b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img688b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5493952
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img688b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img689a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img689a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a214db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img689a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img689b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img689b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99236e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img689b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img689c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img689c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6011185
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img689c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img690a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img690a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcf582a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img690a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img690b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img690b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ccf6f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img690b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img691a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img691a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a8a8b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img691a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img691b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img691b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2441fda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img691b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img691c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img691c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f1e31b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img691c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img692a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img692a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0a3e12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img692a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img692b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img692b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a4b48e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img692b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img692c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img692c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc417c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img692c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img692d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img692d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7bf35d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img692d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img693.jpg b/35925-h/images/img693.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23f4148
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img693.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img694.jpg b/35925-h/images/img694.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e681fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img694.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img694a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img694a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c60540d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img694a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img695a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img695a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a60156a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img695a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img695b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img695b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2adbdf0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img695b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img695c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img695c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3ab582
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img695c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img696.jpg b/35925-h/images/img696.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6874241
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img696.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img697a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img697a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21b1cfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img697a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img697b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img697b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94fb114
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img697b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img698.jpg b/35925-h/images/img698.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..456a5d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img698.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img699.jpg b/35925-h/images/img699.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aafce34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img699.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img700a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img700a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1a8b2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img700a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img700b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img700b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f00831
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img700b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img701a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img701a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..014de0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img701a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img701b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img701b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3506cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img701b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img701c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img701c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b8795a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img701c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img702a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img702a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4bb8241
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img702a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img702b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img702b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f5fe54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img702b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img703a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img703a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..854db21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img703a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img703b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img703b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92a431b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img703b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img704a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img704a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45cf39d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img704a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img704b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img704b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e0e386
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img704b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img705a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img705a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7a2c65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img705a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img705b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img705b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79a8442
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img705b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img705c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img705c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7887abd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img705c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img706a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img706a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbe5ad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img706a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img706b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img706b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8bd6208
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img706b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img707.jpg b/35925-h/images/img707.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fe9083
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img707.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img708.jpg b/35925-h/images/img708.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82d8242
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img708.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img709a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img709a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92a2e58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img709a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img709b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img709b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba400f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img709b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img710a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img710a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79b2acc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img710a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img710b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img710b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fb5a9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img710b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img710c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img710c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6600386
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img710c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img711.jpg b/35925-h/images/img711.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15cfb08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img711.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img712.jpg b/35925-h/images/img712.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..889e009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img712.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img714.jpg b/35925-h/images/img714.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9bbb69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img714.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img715.jpg b/35925-h/images/img715.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e8af7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img715.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img718a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img718a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d17ab0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img718a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img718b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img718b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c9e551
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img718b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img718c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img718c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e828b2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img718c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img718d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img718d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13e3337
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img718d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img719.jpg b/35925-h/images/img719.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09f11e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img719.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a502d20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c722166
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..674f72e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e6e303
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d7c13e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720f.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a508bcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720f.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img720g.jpg b/35925-h/images/img720g.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da86113
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img720g.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88ae480
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1d742f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d88da4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84855cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97881a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img721f.jpg b/35925-h/images/img721f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4f6f37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img721f.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img722a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img722a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0469916
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img722a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img722b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img722b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..087d5d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img722b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img722c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img722c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..899c690
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img722c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img722d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img722d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3430f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img722d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img722e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img722e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81f7cd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img722e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img740a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img740a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1c8500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img740a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img740b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img740b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e93bf0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img740b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img741a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img741a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22c616e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img741a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img741b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img741b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e6b4ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img741b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img741c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img741c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9abe5fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img741c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img741d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img741d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ba5473
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img741d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img742a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img742a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d7c22f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img742a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img742b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img742b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7222c30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img742b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img742c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img742c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa488ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img742c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img743a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img743a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b86131
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img743a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img743b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img743b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..028652f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img743b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img744a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img744a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f983da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img744a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img744b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img744b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d82e24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img744b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img744c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img744c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4abf9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img744c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img744d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img744d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a1f5b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img744d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img744e.jpg b/35925-h/images/img744e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..537b1a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img744e.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img745a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img745a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55bf103
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img745a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img745b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img745b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9a1313
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img745b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img745c.jpg b/35925-h/images/img745c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bb9303
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img745c.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img745d.jpg b/35925-h/images/img745d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4889b7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img745d.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img754a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img754a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66be649
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img754a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img754b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img754b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0e8a8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img754b.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img755a.jpg b/35925-h/images/img755a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..896e940
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img755a.jpg
diff --git a/35925-h/images/img755b.jpg b/35925-h/images/img755b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d37a2cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925-h/images/img755b.jpg
diff --git a/35925.txt b/35925.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3115a67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18989 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6
+       "Foraminifera" to "Fox, Edward"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2011 [EBook #35925]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [int] stands for the integral symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for
+      greek letters and [oo] for infinity.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FORESTS AND FORESTRY: "These trees will all be of
+      increasing importance." 'will' amended from 'wil'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORM : "All perception is necessarily conditioned by pure
+      'forms of sensibility,' i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived
+      is perceived as having spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE
+      AND TIME; KANT)." 'spacial' amended from 'special'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORMOSA: "The vegetation of the island is characterized by
+      tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense
+      forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (Laurus
+      Camphora), and the aloe are conspicuous." 'mountainous' amended
+      from 'moutainous'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORMOSA: "... in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the
+      east coast, where subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the
+      settlement was maintained for thirty-seven years." 'thirty' amended
+      from 'thrity'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM: "At Cassel Forster formed an
+      intimate friendship with the great anatomist Sommerring, and about
+      the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him a
+      leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently emancipated
+      himself." 'subsequently' amended from 'subequently'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "At the sieges of Tyre and
+      Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of
+      the ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the
+      walls." 'Nebuchadnezzar' amended from 'Nebuchadrezzar'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "The Germanic Confederation
+      reinforced Mainz with improved works, and reorganized entirely
+      Rastatt and Ulm." 'entirely' amended from 'enentirely'.
+
+    ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "For the fate of the fortress
+      must depend ultimately on the result of the operations of the
+      active armies." 'ultimately' amended from 'utlimately'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOSCOLO, UGO: "... found their final resting-place beside
+      the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of Michelangelo and
+      Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa Croce."
+      'Machiavelli' amended from 'Macchiavelli'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOSSANO: "It appears as a commune in 1237, but in 1251 had
+      to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to Filippo
+      d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy."
+      'Filippo' amended from 'Fillippo'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOURIER'S SERIES: "Besides Dini's treatise already referred
+      to, there is a lucid treatment of the subject from an elementary
+      point of view in C. Neumann's treatise, Uber die nach Kreis-,
+      Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden Entwickelungen."
+      'subject' amended from 'subejct'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE VI
+
+         Foraminifera to Fox, Edward
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FORAMINIFERA                     FORT LEE
+  FORBACH                          FORT MADISON
+  FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE        FORTROSE
+  FORBES, ARCHIBALD                FORT SCOTT
+  FORBES, DAVID                    FORT SMITH
+  FORBES, DUNCAN                   FORTUNA
+  FORBES, EDWARD                   FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS
+  FORBES, JAMES DAVID              FORTUNATUS
+  FORBES, SIR JOHN                 FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS CLEMENTIANUS
+  FORBES (town)                    FORTUNE, ROBERT
+  FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON       FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO
+  FORBIN, CLAUDE DE                FORT WAYNE
+  FORCELLINI, EGIDIO               FORT WILLIAM (Ontario, Canada)
+  FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG        FORT WILLIAM (Scotland)
+  FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM       FORT WORTH
+  FORCHHEIM                        FORTY
+  FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW              FORUM
+  FORD, JOHN                       FORUM APPII
+  FORD, RICHARD                    FORUM CLODII
+  FORD, THOMAS                     FORUM TRAIANI
+  FORDE, FRANCIS                   FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY
+  FORDHAM                          FOSCARI, FRANCESCO
+  FORDUN, JOHN OF                  FOSCOLO, UGO
+  FORECLOSURE                      FOSS, EDWARD
+  FOREIGN OFFICE                   FOSSANO
+  FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH        FOSSANUOVA
+  FORESHORE                        FOSSE WAY
+  FORESTALLING                     FOSSICK
+  FOREST LAWS                      FOSSOMBRONE
+  FORESTS AND FORESTRY             FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO
+  FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC             FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE
+  FORFAR                           FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS
+  FORFARSHIRE                      FOSTER, JOHN
+  FORFEITURE                       FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL
+  FORGERY                          FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET
+  FORGET-ME-NOT                    FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS
+  FORGING                          FOSTORIA
+  FORK                             FOTHERGILL, JOHN
+  FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS          FOTHERINGHAY
+  FORLI                            FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON
+  FORLIMPOPOLI                     FOUCHE, JOSEPH
+  FORLORN HOPE                     FOUCHER, SIMON
+  FORM                             FOUCQUET, JEAN
+  FORMALIN                         FOUGERES
+  FORMAN, ANDREW                   FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE
+  FORMAN, SIMON                    FOULD, ACHILLE
+  FORMERET                         FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT
+  FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL   FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS
+  FORMIA                           FOUNDATION
+  FORMIC ACID                      FOUNDATIONS
+  FORMOSA (territory of Argentine) FOUNDING
+  FORMOSA (Taiwan)                 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS
+  FORMOSUS                         FOUNTAIN
+  FORMULA                          FOUNTAINS ABBEY
+  FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO      FOUQUE, FERDINAND ANDRE
+  FORRES                           FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE
+  FORREST, EDWIN                   FOUQUET, NICOLAS
+  FORREST, SIR JOHN                FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN
+  FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD          FOURCHAMBAULT
+  FORSKAL, PETER                   FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS
+  FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG            FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE
+  FORST                            FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH
+  FORSTER, FRANCOIS                FOURIER'S SERIES
+  FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH     FOURMIES
+  FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM       FOURMONT, ETIENNE
+  FORSTER, JOHN                    FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER
+  FORSTER, JOHN COOPER             FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON
+  FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD          FOURNIER L'HERITIER, CLAUDE
+  FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR            FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE
+  FORTALEZA                        FOUSSA
+  FORT AUGUSTUS                    FOWEY
+  FORT DODGE                       FOWL
+  FORT EDWARD                      FOWLER, CHARLES
+  FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (lawyer)     FOWLER, EDWARD
+  FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (statesman)  FOWLER, JOHN
+  FORTEVIOT                        FOWLER, SIR JOHN
+  FORT GEORGE                      FOWLER, WILLIAM
+  FORTH                            FOX, CHARLES JAMES
+  FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT     FOX, EDWARD
+  FORTLAGE, KARL
+
+
+
+
+FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa, the name selected
+for this enormous class being that given by A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the
+shells characteristic of the majority of the species. He regarded them
+as minute Cephalopods, whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina).
+Later on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working on
+living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized by
+pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm) as organs of
+prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter in 1862 differentiated the
+group nearly in its present limits as "Reticularia"; and since then it
+has been rendered more natural by the removal of a number of simple
+forms (mostly freshwater) with branching but not reticulate pseudopods,
+to Filosa, a distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the
+restricted class of Rhizopoda.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1A.--_Lieberkuhnia_, with reticulate pseudopodia.]
+
+_Anatomy._--Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic bodies of
+_granular surface_, emitting processes which branch and _anastomose
+freely_, either from the whole surface or from one or more elongated
+processes ("stylopods"); nucleus one or more (not yet demonstrated in
+some little known simple forms), usually in genetic relation to granules
+or strands of matter of similar composition, the "chromidia" scattered
+through the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
+investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous (of
+compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely (in deep sea
+forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but _never latticed_;
+opening by one or more permanent apertures ("pylomes") or crevices
+between compacted sand-granules, often very complex; reproduction by
+fission (only in simplest naked forms), or by brood formation; in the
+latter case one mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform
+embryos, the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous
+gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the coupled cell
+("zygote") when mature in the shelled species gives rise to a very small
+primitive test-chamber or "microsphere." The adult microspheric animal
+gives rise to the amoebiform brood which have a larger primitive test
+("megalosphere"); and megalospheric forms appear to reproduce by the A
+type a series of similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally
+borne, to pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is
+consequently rare.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1B.--_Protomyxa aurantiaca_, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)
+
+  1, Adult, containing two diatom frustules, and three Tintinnid
+    ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate just caught by the expanded
+    reticulate pseudopodia.
+  2, Adult encysted and segmented.
+  3, Flagellate zoospore just freed from cyst.
+  4, Zoospore which has passed into the amoeboid state.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Allogromiidea._
+
+  1, _Diplophrys archeri_, Barker.
+    a, Nucleus.
+    b, Contractile vacuoles.
+    c, The yellow oil-like body. Moor pools, Ireland.
+
+  2, _Allogromia oviformis_, Duj.
+    a, The numerous nuclei; near these the elongated bodies represent
+    ingested diatoms. Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11, 12 belong to Rhizopoda
+    Filosa, and are included here to show the characteristic _filose_
+    pseudopodia in contrast with the reticulate spread of the others.
+
+  3, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_, Siddall (_Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci._,
+    1880).
+
+  Marine. The protoplasm is retracted at both ends into the tubular
+  case.
+    a. Nucleus.
+
+  5, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_; with pseudopodia fully expanded.
+
+  6-10, Varying appearance of the nucleus as it is carried along in the
+    streaming protoplasm within the tube.
+
+  11, _Amphitrema wrightianum_, Archer, showing membranous shell
+    encrusted with foreign particles. Moor pools, Ireland.
+
+  12, _Diaphorophodon mobile_, Archer.
+    a. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.]
+
+The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they are
+membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always very simple,
+the only complication being the doubling of the pylome in _Diplophrys_
+(fig. 2, 1), _Shepheardella_ (fig. 2, 3-5), _Amphitrema_ (fig. 2, 11),
+_Diaphorophodon_ (fig. 2, 12). The marine shells are, as we have seen,
+of cemented particles, or calcareous, glassy, and regularly perforated,
+or again calcareous, but porcellanous and rarely perforate. These
+characters have been used as a guide to classification; but some sandy
+forms have so large a proportion of calcareous cement that they might
+well be called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very
+constant in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
+genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the shell by
+silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean abysses, where
+calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making any difficulty.
+Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected process or neck of
+the embryonic chamber ("camptopyle") at least in the megalospheric
+forms, whereas when such a neck exists in other groups it is straight.
+The opening of the shell is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole
+where the lateral walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic
+ingrowth so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
+opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, 1); or
+replaced by a number of coarse pores ("ethmopyle") (fig. 3, 5a). Again,
+it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube ("stylopyle"), which in
+_Lagena_ (fig. 3, 9) may project outwards ("ectoselenial"), or inwards
+("entoselenial"). In most groups the stylopyle is straight; but in the
+majority of the porcellanous shells it is bent down on the side of the
+shell, and constitutes the "flexopyle" of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid
+term should be replaced by "camptopyle." The animal usually forms a
+simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
+"embryonic chamber" cannot grow further. In _Spirillina_ and
+_Ammodiscus_ there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell continues to
+grow as a spiral tube; in _Cornuspira_ (fig. 3, 1) there is a slight
+constriction indicating the junction of a small embryonic chamber with a
+camptopyle, but the rest of the shell is a simple flat spiral of several
+turns. In the majority at least one chamber follows the first, with its
+own pylome at the distal end. This second chamber may rest on the first,
+so that the part on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the
+front of the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
+state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the highest
+vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete "proper wall";
+while a "supplementary skeleton," a deposit of shelly matter, binds the
+chambers together into a compact whole. In all cases the protoplasm from
+the pylome may deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so
+as to produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.
+
+   1, _Cornuspira_.              11, _Cristellaria_.
+   2, _Spiroloculina_.           12, _Globigerina_.
+   3, _Triloculina_.             13, _Polymorphina_.
+   4, _Biloculina_.              14, _Textularia_.
+   5, _Peneroplis_.              15, _Discorbina_.
+   6, _Orbiculina_ (cyclical).   16, _Polystomella_.
+   7, _Orbiculina_ (young).      17, _Planorbulina_.
+   8, _Orbiculina_ (spiral).     18, _Rotalia_.
+   9, _Lagena_.                  19, _Nonionina_.
+  10, _Nodosaria_.]
+
+Compound or "polythalamic" shells derive their general form largely from
+the relations of successive chambers in size, shape and direction. This
+is well shown in the porcellanous _Miliolidae_. If we call the straight
+line uniting the two ends of a chamber the "polar axis," we find that
+successive chambers have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie
+on different meridians. In _Spiroloculina_ (fig. 3, 2) the divergence
+between the meridians is 180 deg., and the chambers are strongly
+incurved, so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly
+circular outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic
+in section, their transverse prolongations being termed "alary"
+outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under this
+condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180 deg. we have
+the form _Biloculina_ (fig. 3, 4), or with the alary extensions
+completely enveloping, _Uniloculina_; when the angle is 120 deg. we have
+_Triloculina_, or 144 deg., _Quinqueloculina_. Again in _Peneroplis_
+(figs. 3, 5, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which tends to
+straighten out with further growth and additional chambers. In some
+forms (_Spirolina_, fig. 22, 3) the chambers have a nearly circular
+transverse section, and the adult shell is thus crozier-shaped. In
+others (which may have the same sculpture, and are scarcely
+distinguishable as species) the chambers are short and wide, drawn out
+at right angles to the axis, but in the plane of the spiral, and the
+growing shell becomes fan-shaped or "flabelliform" (figs. 3, 5, 4, 2).
+This widening may go on till the outer chambers form the greater part of
+a circle, as in _Orbiculina_ (fig. 3, 6-8) where, moreover, each large
+chamber is subdivided by incomplete vertical bulkheads into a tier of
+chamberlets; each chamberlet has a distinct pylomic pore opening to the
+outside or to those of the next outer zone. In _Orbitolites_ (figs. 5,
+6) we have a centre on a somewhat Milioline type; and after a few
+chambers in spiral succession, complete circles of chambers are formed.
+In the larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal
+bulkheads divide the
+
+chamberlets into vertical tiers, each with its own pylomic pore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Modifications of _Peneroplis_. 1, _Dendritina_;
+2, _Eu-Peneroplis_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Shell of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
+primordial chamber a, and circumambient chamber b, surrounded by
+successive rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which
+open at the margin by pores.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Animal of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing
+primordial segment a, and circumambient segment b, surrounded by annuli
+of sub-segments connected by radial and circular stolon-processes.]
+
+The Cheilostomellidae (fig. 3, 13) reproduce among perforate vitreous
+genera what we have already seen in the _Miliolida_: _Orbitoides_ (fig.
+10, 2) and _Cycloclypeus_, among the Nummulite group, with a very finely
+perforate wall, recall the porcellanous _Orbiculina_ and _Orbitolites_.
+
+In flat spiral forms (figs. 22, 1, 7; 3, 2, 16, 19, &c.) all the
+chambers may be freely exposed; or the successive chambers be wider
+transversely than their predecessors and overlap by "alary extensions,"
+becoming "nautiloid"; in extreme cases only the last turn or whorl is
+seen (fig. 11). When the spiral axis is conical the shell may be
+"rotaloid," the larger lower chambers partially concealing the upper
+smaller ones (fig. 3, 12, 15, 17, 18); or they may leave, as in
+_Patellina_, a wide central conical cavity--which, in this genus, is
+finally occupied by later formed "supplementary" chambers. When the
+successive chambers are disposed around a longitudinal central axis they
+may be said to "alternate" like the leaves of a plant. If the
+arrangement is distichous we get such forms as _Polymorphina_,
+_Textularia_ and _Frondicularia_ (fig. 3, 13, 14), if tristichous,
+_Tritaxia_. Such an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the
+axis for at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped
+_Spiroplecta_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of _Rotalia beccarii_, showing the canal
+system, a, b, c, in the substance of the intermediate skeleton; d,
+tubulated chamber-wall.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Internal cast of _Polystomella craticulata_.
+
+  a, Retral processes, proceeding from the posterior margin of one of
+    the segments.
+  b, b^1, Smooth anterior margin of the same segment.
+  c, c^1, Stolons connecting successive segments and uniting themselves
+    with the diverging branches of the meridional canals.
+  d, d^1, d^2, Three turns of one of the spiral canals.
+  e, e^1, e^2, Three of the meridional canals.
+  f, f^1, f^2, Their diverging branches.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Operculina_ laid open, to show its internal
+structure.
+
+  a, Marginal cord seen in cross section at a'.
+  b, b, External walls of the chambers.
+  c, c, Cavities of the chambers.
+  c', c', Their alar prolongations.
+  d, d, Septa divided at d', d', and at d", so as to lay open the
+    interseptal canals, the general distribution of which is seen in the
+    septa e, e; the lines radiating from e, e point to the secondary
+    pores.
+  g, g, Non-tubular columns.]
+
+Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the characters of
+form for classificatory ends--dimorphism and multiformity.
+
+_Dimorphism._--The majority of foraminiferal shells show two types, the
+rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that of the more
+frequent. The chambers are called microsphere and megalosphere, the
+forms in which they occur microsphaeric and megalosphaeric forms,
+respectively. We shall study below their relation to the reproductive
+cycle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--1, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the
+Pyrenees, showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median
+plane; 2, vertical section of _Nummulite_; 3, _Orbitoides_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Vertical section of portion of _Nummulites_,
+showing the investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations
+of the later.
+
+  a, Marginal cord.
+  b, Chamber of outer whorl.
+  c, c, Whorl invested by a.
+  d, One of the chambers of the fourth whorl from the margin.
+  e, e', Marginal portions of the enclosed whorls.
+  f, Investing portion of the outer whorl.
+  g, g, Spaces left between the investing portions of successive whorls.
+  h, h, Sections of the partitions dividing these.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Internal surface of wall of two chambers, a, a,
+of _Nummulites_, showing the orifices of its minute tubuli.
+
+  b, b, The septa containing canals.
+  c, c, Extensions of these canals in the intermediate skeleton.
+  d, d, Larger pores.]
+
+_Multiformity._--Many of the Polythalamia show different types of
+chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted this phenomenon in
+such crozier forms as _Peneroplis_, as well as in discoid forms; it is
+very frequent. Thus the microspheric _Biloculina_ form the first few
+chambers in quinqueloculine succession. The microspheric forms attain to
+a greater size when adult than the megalospheric; and in _Orbitolites_
+the microsphere has a straight outlet, orthostyle, instead of the
+deflected camptostyle one, so general in porcellanous types; and the
+spiral succession is continued for more turns before reaching the
+fan-shaped and finally cyclic stage. _Globigerina_, whose chambers are
+nearly spherical, is sometimes seen to be enclosed in a spherical test,
+perforate, but without a pylome, and known as _Orbulina_; the chambered
+Globigerina-shell is attached at first inside the wall of the
+_Orbulina_, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate fate of the
+_Orbulina_ shell is unknown; but it obviously marks a turning-point in
+the life-cycle.
+
+  _Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction._--The protoplasm is not
+  differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser
+  in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial
+  ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms) from
+  which it is given off. In pelagic forms like _Globigerina_ the
+  external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
+  extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.), being differentiated
+  into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
+  (alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of
+  the pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R.
+  Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central capsule
+  of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be pushed too far.
+  The cytoplasm contains granules of various kinds, and the internal
+  protoplasm is sometimes pigmented. The Chrysomonad Flagellate,
+  _Zooxanthella_, so abundant in its resting state--the so-called
+  "yellow cells"--in the extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.)
+  also occurs in the outer protoplasm of many Foraminifera, not only
+  pelagic but also bottom-dwellers, such as _Orbitolites_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Internal cast of two chambers, a, a, of
+  _Nummulites_, the radial canals between them passing into b, marginal
+  plexus.]
+
+  The nucleus is single in the Nuda and Allogromidia and in the
+  megalospheric forms of higher Foraminifera; but microspheric forms
+  when adult contain many simple similar nuclei. The nucleus in every
+  case gives off granules and irregular masses ("chromidia") of similar
+  reactions, which play an important part in reproduction. During the
+  maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the cytoplasm
+  breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each of which is soon
+  provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely derived from the
+  parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia, or from both
+  these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are amoeboid; they
+  soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as megalospheres, the
+  original state of the megalospheric forms. In the adult megalosphere
+  the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced by hosts of minute
+  vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration of chromidia. Each
+  nucleus aggregates around it a proper zone of dense protoplasm; by two
+  successive mitotic divisions each mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and
+  splits up into four biflagellate, uninucleate zoospores. These are
+  pairing-cells or gametes, though they will not pair with members of
+  the same brood. In the zygote resulting from pairing two nuclei soon
+  fuse into one; but this again divides into two; an embryonic shell is
+  secreted, and this is the microspheric type, which is multinuclear
+  from the first. F. Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult
+  Foraminifera with the (vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and
+  the chromidial mass with the micronucleus, whose chief function is
+  reproductive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls,
+  a, a, of _Nummulites_. b, b, Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber; d,
+  d, non-tubulated columns.]
+
+  Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
+  probable that under most conditions they also give rise to
+  megalospheric young like themselves; and that the production of
+  zoospores, pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only
+  occasional, and possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the
+  researches of Schaudinn and J.J. Lister.
+
+  In several species (notably _Patellina_) plastogamy, the union of the
+  cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as a
+  prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate
+  amoebulae.
+
+  _Calcituba_, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
+  chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems, may fall
+  apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and break up into
+  small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest forms we know
+  little. In _Mikrogromia_ the cell undergoes fission within the test,
+  and on its completion the daughter-cells may emerge as biflagellate
+  zoospores.
+
+  The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In _Astrorhiza_ the
+  sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement; they
+  leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there are no
+  true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a calcareous
+  or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of distinct pylomes.
+  Many of the species reproduce the varieties of form found in
+  calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others not. Many of the
+  larger ones have their walls thickened internally and traversed by
+  complex passages; this structure is called _labyrinthic_ (fig. 19, g,
+  h). The shell of _Endothyra_, a form only known to us by its abundance
+  in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely composed of calcite
+  and is sometimes perforated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Cycloclypeus_.]
+
+  It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects
+  its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of
+  sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often so
+  laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes the
+  outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a deflected
+  stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous Arenacea, it
+  is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with the
+  Porcellanea.
+
+  _Classification._
+
+  I. NUDA.--Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save in the
+  resting encysted condition, sometimes forming colonial aggregates by
+  coalescence of pseudopods (_Myxodictyum_), or even plasmodia
+  (_Protomyxa_). Brood cells at first uniflagellate or amoeboid from
+  birth. Fresh-water and marine genera _Protogenes_ (Haeckel), _Biomyxa_
+  (Leidy), _Myxodictyum_ (Haeckel), _Protomyxa_ (Haeckel) (fig. 1B).
+
+  This group of very simple forms includes many of Haeckel's Monera,
+  defined as "cytodes," masses of protoplasm without a nucleus. A
+  nucleus (or nuclei) has, however, been demonstrated by improved
+  methods of staining in so many that it is probable that this
+  distinction will fall to the ground.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Heterostegina_.]
+
+  II. ALLOGROMIDIACEAE (figs. 1A, 2).--Protoplasmic body protected in
+  adult state by an imperforate test with one or two openings (pylomes)
+  for the exit of the stylopod; test simple, gelatinous, membranous,
+  sometimes incrusted with foreign bodies, never calcareous nor
+  arenaceous; reproduction by fission alone known. Fresh-water or marine
+  genera _Allogromia_ (Rhumbl.), _Myxotheca_ (Schaud.), _Lieberkuhnia_
+  (Cl. & L.) (fig. 1A), _Shepheardella_ (Siddall) (fig. 2, 3-10),
+  _Diplophrys_ (Barker), _Amphitrema_ (Arch.) (fig. 2, 11),
+  Diaphorophodon (Arch.) (fig. 2, 12), are possibly Filosa. This group
+  differs from the preceding in its simple test, but, like it, includes
+  many fresh-water species, which possess contractile vacuoles.
+
+  III. ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE.--Simple forms, rarely polythalamous (some
+  _Rhabdamminidae_), but often branching or radiate; test arenaceous,
+  loosely compacted and traversed by chinks for pseudopodia
+  (_Astrorhizidae_), or dense, and opening by one or more terminal
+  pylomes at ends of branches. Marine, 4 Fam. The test of some
+  _Astrorhizidae_ is so loose that it falls to pieces when taken out of
+  water. _Haliphysema_ is remarkable for its history in relation to the
+  "gastraea theory." _Pilulina_ has a neat globular shell of
+  sponge-spicules and fine sand. Genera, _Astrorhiza_ (Sandahl) (fig.
+  22), _Pilulina_ (Carptr.) (fig. 19), _Saccammina_ (Sars) (fig. 19),
+  _Rhabdammina_ (Sars), _Botellina_ (Carptr.), _Haliphysema_ (Bowerbank)
+  (fig. 22).
+
+  IV. LITUOLIDACEAE.--Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained, definite
+  and often polythalamic, recalling in structure calcareous forms.
+  _Lituola_ (Lamk.) (fig. 19), _Endothyra_ (Phil.), _Ammodiscus_
+  (Reuss), _Loftusia_ (Brady), _Haplophragmium_ (Reuss) (fig. 22),
+  _Thurammina_ (Brady) (fig. 22).
+
+  V. MILIOLIDACEAE.--Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost invariably
+  with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic chamber; _Cornuspira_
+  (Schultze) (fig. 3); _Miliola_ (Lamk.), including as subgenera
+  _Spiroloculina_ (d'Orb.) (figs. 3 and 22); _Triloculina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 3); _Biloculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 3); _Uniloculina_ (d'Orb.);
+  _Quinqueloculina_ (d'Orb.); _Peneroplis_ (Montfort) (figs. 22, 3; 3),
+  with form _Dendritina_ (fig. 4, 1); _Orbiculina_ (Lamk.) (fig. 3,
+  6-8); _Orbitolites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); _Vertebralina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 22); _Squamulina_ (Sch.) (fig. 22); _Calcituba_ (Schaudinn).
+
+  [Illustration: Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang's Zoologie.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Life Cycle of _Polystomella crispa_.
+
+    A, Young megalospheric individual.
+    B, Adult decalcified.
+    C, Later stage, resolving itself into two flagellate gametes.
+    D, Conjugation.
+    E, Microspheric individual produced from zygote.
+    F, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores which are growing
+      into new megalospheric individuals.
+    1, Principal nucleus, and _2_, subsidiary nuclei of megalospheric
+    form.
+    3, Nuclei.
+    4, Nuclei in multiple division.
+    5, Chromidia derived from 4.]
+
+  VI. TEXTULARIADACEAE.--Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the larger
+  forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks (distichous or
+  tristichous). _Textularia_ (Defrance) (fig. 21).
+
+  VII. CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE.--Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers doubling
+  forwards and backwards as in _Miliolidae_. _Cheilostomella_ (Reuss).
+
+  VIII. LAGENIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-or
+  polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped, with a
+  protruding or an inturned stylopyle; _Lagena_ (Walker & Boys) (fig. 4,
+  9); _Nodosaria_ (Lamk.) (figs. 23, 4; 4, 10); _Polymorphina_ (d'Orb.)
+  (fig. 4, 13); _Cristellaria_ (Lamk.) (fig. 4, 11); _Frondicularia_
+  (Def.) (fig. 23, 3).
+
+  IX. GLOBIGERINIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated; chambers
+  few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size; arranged in a trochoid or
+  nautiloid spiral. _Globigerina_ (Lamk.) (23, 6; 4, 12); _Hastigerina_
+  (Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, 5); _Orbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 8).
+
+  X. ROTALIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, finely perforate; walls thick,
+  often double, but without an intermediate party-layer traversed by
+  canals; form usually spiral or trochoid. _Discorbina_ (Parker & Jones)
+  (fig. 4, 15); _Planorbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); _Rotalia_ (Lamk.)
+  (figs. 23, 1, 2; 7, 21); _Calcarina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 10);
+  _Polytrema_ (Risso) (fig. 23, 9).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.--_Biloculina depressa_ d'Orb., transverse
+  sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)
+
+  a, Megalospheric shell X 50, showing uniform growth, biloculine
+  throughout. b, Microspheric shell X 90, showing multiform growth,
+  quinqueloculine at first, and then multiform.]
+
+  XI. NUMMULINIDACEAE.--As in Rotalidaceae, but with a thicker finely
+  perforated shell, often well developed, and a supplementary skeleton
+  traversed by branching canals as an additional party-wall between the
+  proper chamber-walls. _Nonionina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 19); _Fusulina_
+  (Fischer) (fig. 20); _Polystomella_ (Lamk.) (figs. 4, 16; 8);
+  _Operculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 9); _Heterostegina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 16);
+  _Cycloclypeus_ (Carptr.) (fig. 15); _Nummulites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 10,
+  11, 12, 13, 14).
+
+  "_Eozoon canadense_," described as a species of this order by J.W.
+  Dawson and Carpenter, has been pronounced by a series of enquirers,
+  most of whom started with a belief in its organic structure, to be
+  merely a complex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of
+  an admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
+  calcite.
+
+_Distribution in Vertical Space._--Owing to their lack of organs for
+active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or attached, with
+the exception of a few genera (very rich in species, however) which
+float near the surface of the ocean, constituting part of the pelagic
+plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are littoral or deep-sea, sometimes
+attached to other bodies or even burrowing in the tests of other
+Foraminifera; most of the fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting
+the layer of organic debris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of
+pools, ponds and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth
+cannot possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
+is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Arenaceous Foraminifera.
+
+  a, Exterior of _Saccammina_.
+  b, The same laid open.
+  c, Portion of test more highly magnified.
+  d, _Pilulina_.
+  e, Portion of test more highly magnified.
+  f, Nautiloid _Lituola_, exterior.
+  g, Chambered interior.
+  h, Portion of labyrinthic chamber wall, showing component sand-grains.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Section of _Fusulina_ Limestone.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend.
+a, b, c, d, _Textularia globulosa_; e, e, e, e, _Rotalia aspera_; f,
+_Textularia aculeata_; g, _Planularia hexas_; h, _Navicula_.]
+
+The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their shell is
+either thin or extended many times by long slender tapering spines, and
+the protoplasm outside has the same character as that of the Radiolaria
+(q.v.), being differentiated into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and
+traversed by reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
+into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods, here rather
+radiate than reticulate. Most genera and most species are cosmopolitan;
+but local differences are often marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore
+sands and the crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms
+decay without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
+Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand, both below
+and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring on Funafuti, enter
+largely into the constituents of coral rock. They may accumulate in the
+mud of the bottom to constitute Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these
+shells in the latter case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers
+accumulate on the spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a
+continuous shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during
+which process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is formed
+an ooze known as "Globigerina-ooze," being formed largely of that genus
+and its ally _Hastigerina_; below 3000 fathoms even the tests themselves
+are dissolved. Casts of their bodies in glauconite (a green ferrous
+silicate, whose composition has not yet been accurately determined) are,
+however, frequently left. Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably
+_Globigerina_, have been found in Lower Cambrian (e.g. Hollybush
+Sandstone), and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that
+age. It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone that
+sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon Foraminifera are
+more abundant as constituents, partial or principal of calcareous rocks,
+the genus _Endothyra_ being indeed almost confined to Carboniferous
+beds. The genus _Fusulina_ (fig. 20) and _Saccammina_ (fig. 19) give
+their names (from their respective abundance) to two limestones of the
+Carboniferous series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the
+Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations are
+chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to consist largely of
+foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like the north Atlantic
+globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk more littoral conditions
+prevailed, and we find such large-sized species as _Orbitoides_
+(vitreous) and _Orbitolites_ (porcellanous; figs. 5, 6), &c. In the
+Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of the Paris basin is mainly
+composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites occur in English beds and in the
+Paris basin; but the great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of
+limestone, occur farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the
+southern and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The
+peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone, as well
+as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous genus,
+"_Eozoon_," by Carpenter and Dawson, and abundantly illustrated in the
+9th edition of his encyclopaedia, is now universally regarded as of
+inorganic origin. "Looking at the almost universal diffusion of
+existing Foraminifera and the continuous accumulation of their shells
+over vast areas of the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than
+any other group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its
+solution in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth
+what is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the
+calcareous materials of the land above sea-level." (E.R. Lankester,
+"Protozoa," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Imperforata.
+
+  1, _Spiroloculina planulata_, Lamarck, showing five "coils";
+  porcellanous.
+
+  2, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to
+  show the seven nuclei n.
+
+  3, _Spirolina_ (_Peneroplis_); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell;
+  porcellanous.
+
+  4, _Vertebralina_, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding
+  one another in a straight line; porcellanous.
+
+  5, 6, _Thurammina papillata_, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so
+  as to show an inner chamber; recent. X 25.
+
+  7, _Haplophragmium canariensis_, a sandy form; recent.
+
+  8, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of _Haliphysema_.
+
+  9, _Squamulina laevis_, M. Schultze; X 40; a simple porcellanous
+  Miliolide.
+
+  10, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid
+  from the shell of _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_, Bow. n, Vesicular
+  nuclei, stained with haematoxylin. (After Lankester.)
+
+  11, _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_; X 25 diam.; living specimen, showing
+  the wine-glass-shaped shell built up of sand-grains and
+  sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm p, issuing from the mouth
+  of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting constituents.
+
+  12, Shell of _Astrorhiza limicola_, Sand.; X 3/2; showing the
+  branching of the test on some of the rays usually broken away in
+  preserved specimens (original).
+
+  13, Section of the shell of _Marsipella_, showing thick walls built of
+  sand-grains.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perforata.
+
+  1, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as
+  in small _Rotalia_.
+
+  2, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance
+  (shaded), as in large _Rotalia_.
+
+  3, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may
+  completely embrace their predecessors, as in _Frondicularia_.
+
+  4, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as
+  in _Nodosaria_.
+
+  5, _Hastigerina murrayi_, Wyv. Thomson, a, Bubbly (vacuolated)
+  protoplasm, enclosing b, the perforated _Globigerina_-like shell
+  (conf. central capsule of Radiolaria). From the peripheral protoplasm
+  project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of calcareous
+  matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active
+  protoplasm. Pelagic; drawn in the living state.
+
+  6, _Globigerina bulloides_, d'Orb., showing the punctiform
+  perforations of the shell and the main aperture.
+
+  7, Fragment of the shell of _Globigerina_, seen from within, and
+  highly magnified, a, Fine perforations in the inner shell substances;
+  b, outer (secondary) shell substance. Two coarser perforations are
+  seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.
+
+  8, _Orbulina universa_, d'Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent
+  radiating calcareous spines (hollow), and internally a small
+  _Globigerina_ shell. It is probably a developmental phase of
+  _Globigerina_, a, _Orbulina_ shell; b, _Globigerina_ shell.
+
+  9, _Polytrema miniaceum_, Lin.; X 12. Mediterranean. Example of a
+  branched adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.
+
+  10, _Calcarina spengleri_, Gmel.; X 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell
+  dissected so as to show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and
+  the copious secondary shell substance. a^2, a^3, a^4, Chambers of three
+  successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall (finely
+  tubulate) of each; b, b, b, b, perforate surfaces of the primary wall
+  of four tiers of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance
+  has been cleared away; c', c', secondary or intermediate shell
+  substance in section, showing coarse canals; d, section of secondary
+  shell substance at right angles to c'; e, tubercles of secondary shell
+  substance on the surface; f, f, club-like processes of secondary shell
+  substance.]
+
+_Historical._--The Foraminifera were discovered as we have seen by A.
+d'Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number of species, but it was to
+F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the recognition of their true zoological
+position and the characters of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and
+W.C. Williamson in England contributed largely to the study of the
+shell, the latter being the first to call attention to its multiform
+character in the development of a single species, and to utilize the
+method of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K.
+Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration, described an
+enormous number of forms in a series of papers, as well as in the
+monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera of the "Challenger"
+expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger brought out the fact of
+dimorphism in the group, which was later elucidated and incorporated in
+the full cytological study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J.
+Lister and F. Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, _The
+  Foraminifera_ (1902), and J.J. Lister, "The Foraminifera," in E.R.
+  Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_ (1903), in which full bibliographies
+  will be found. For a final resume of the long controversy on Eozoon,
+  see George P. Merrill in _Report of the U.S. National Museum_ (1906),
+  p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
+  G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in _Zeitschr. fur wissenschaftliche
+  Zoologie_, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in _Archiv fur
+  Protistenkunde_, iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is
+  based on the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited
+  work, and of F. Schaudinn, in _Arbeiten des kaiserlichen
+  Gesundheitsamts_, xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K.
+  Parker and T. Rymer Jones, _Introduction to the Study of the
+  Foraminifera_ (Ray Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, "Foraminifera," in
+  _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, _On the Recent Foraminifera
+  of Great Britain_ (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, "The
+  Foraminifera," in _Challenger Reports_, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in _Ann.
+  de la soc. royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique_, xxxvii.
+  (1902), p. 60; xxxix. (1904), p. 7.
+
+  _Appendix._--The XENOPHYOPHORIDAE are a small group of bottom-dwelling
+  Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous Foraminifera,
+  though observations in the living state show that the character of the
+  pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm is contained in
+  branching tubes, aggregated into masses of definite form, bounded by a
+  common wall of foreign bodies (sponge spicules, &c.) cemented into a
+  membrane. The cytoplasm contains granules of BaSO4 and pellets of
+  faecal matter. All that is known of reproduction is the resolution of
+  the pellets into uninucleate cells. (F.E. Schultze, _Wissenschaftliche
+  Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition_, vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.)
+       (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
+on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway from Metz to
+Saarbrucken, 5-1/2 m. S.W. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a
+Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic) church, a synagogue and a
+Progymnasium. Its industries include the manufacture of tiles,
+pasteboard wares and gardening implements, while there are coal mines in
+the vicinity. After the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren
+(6th of August 1870), in which the French under General Frossard were
+defeated by the Germans under General von Glumer, the town was occupied
+by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed to
+Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins of the castle of
+the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of Saarbrucken.
+
+  See Besler, _Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt
+  Forbach_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish divine, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He was the second son of John Henry
+Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a judge of the court of session, and grandson of
+Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh
+Academy, then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
+Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and, having
+chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed his studies
+with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836 he went to Madras and
+secured early promotion, but in consequence of ill-health he was obliged
+to return to England. He then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where
+in 1841 he obtained the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in
+1844. He was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known as
+Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with Newman,
+Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian appointment. In 1844
+he was ordained deacon and priest in the English Church, and held
+curacies at Aston, Rowant and St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally
+attracted to the Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering
+from long depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town
+of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed to the
+vicarage of St Saviour's, Leeds, a church founded to preach and
+illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called to succeed
+Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed the episcopal residence to
+Dundee, where he resided till his death, combining the pastoral charge
+of the congregation with the duties of the see. When he came to Dundee
+the churchmen were accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in
+a room over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built, and
+among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prosecuted in the
+church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded on his primary
+charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which he set forth his views
+on the Eucharist. He made a powerful defence of the charge, and was
+acquitted with "a censure and an admonition." Keble wrote in his
+defence, and was present at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good
+scholar, a scientific theologian and a devoted worker, and was much
+beloved. He died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.
+
+  Principal works: _A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed_ (1852); _An
+  Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (2 vols., 1867 and 1868);
+  _Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms_ (1847); _Commentary on
+  the Canticles_ (1853). See Mackey's _Bishop Forbes, a Memoir_.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), British war correspondent, the son of a
+Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on the 17th of April 1838,
+and was educated at Aberdeen University. Entering the Royal Dragoons as
+a private, he gained, while in the service, considerable practical
+experience of military life and affairs. Being invalided from his
+regiment, he settled in London, and became a journalist. When the
+Franco-German War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
+correspondent to the _Morning Advertiser_, and in this capacity he
+gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians for
+withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the _Daily News_, his
+brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew world-wide
+attention to his despatches. He was with the German army from the
+beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards witnessed the rise and fall
+of the Commune. Forbes afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he
+chronicled the outbreak of the second Carlist War; but his work here was
+interrupted by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a
+mission of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he
+returned to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the
+Republican and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the _Daily
+News_, he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India in
+1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of 1876, and was
+present at all the important engagements. In the Russo-Turkish campaign
+of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic successes at great personal
+risk. Attached to the Russian army, he witnessed most of the principal
+operations, and remained continuously in the field until attacked by
+fever. His letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
+Millet, were republished by the _Daily News_. On recovering from his
+fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness the British
+occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India, and in the winter
+accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad. He was present at the
+taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with several expeditions against the
+hill tribes. Burma was Forbes's next field of adventure, and at
+Mandalay, the capital, he had several interesting interviews with King
+Thibaw. He left Burma hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence
+of the disaster of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the
+invasion of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and his
+famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled to
+convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one of the
+finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes subsequently
+delivered many lectures on his war experiences to large audiences. His
+closing years were spent in literary work. He had some years before
+published a military novel entitled _Drawn from Life_, and a volume on
+his experiences of the war between France and Germany. These were now
+followed by numerous publications, including _Glimpses through the
+Cannon Smoke_ (1880); _Souvenirs of some Continents_ (1885); _William I.
+of Germany: a Biography_ (1888); _Havelock_, in the "English Men of
+Action" Series (1890); _Barracks, Bivouacs, and Battles_ (1891); _The
+Afghan Wars_, 1839-80 (1892); _Czar and Sultan_ (1895); _Memories and
+Studies of War and Peace_ (1895), in many respects autobiographic; and
+_Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_ (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, DAVID (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist and
+chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (q.v.), was born on the 6th of
+September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and received his early
+education there and at Brentwood in Essex. When a boy of fourteen he had
+already acquired a remarkable knowledge of chemistry. This subject he
+studied at the university of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he
+was appointed superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at
+Espedal in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of Evans
+& Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that capacity during the
+years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia and Peru. Besides reports for
+the Iron and Steel Institute, of which, during the last years of his
+life, he was foreign secretary, he wrote upwards of 50 papers on
+scientific subjects, among which are the following: "The Action of
+Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," _Rep. Brit.
+Assoc._, 1855, pt. ii. p. 62; "The Relations of the Silurian and
+Metamorphic Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; "The Causes
+producing Foliation in Rocks," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xi., 1855; "The
+Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian Limestones," _Phil.
+Mag._ xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; "The Geology of Bolivia and Southern
+Peru," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xvii. pp. 7-62, 1861; "The Mineralogy of
+Chile," _Phil. Mag._, 1865; "Researches in British Mineralogy," _Phil.
+Mag._, 1867-1868. His observations on the geology of South America were
+given in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
+much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on the resulting
+changes in rock-formations. He also contributed important articles on
+chemical geology to the _Chemical News_ and _Geological Magazine_ (1867
+and 1868). In England he was a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was
+elected F.R.S. in 1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.
+
+  See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol.
+  xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in _Geol. Mag._, 1877, p. 45.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, DUNCAN, OF CULLODEN (1685-1747), Scottish statesman, was born at
+Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness on the 10th of November 1685.
+After he had completed his studies at the universities of Edinburgh and
+Leiden, he was admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own
+talents and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid
+advancement, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
+Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In 1722 Forbes
+was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725 he succeeded Dundas of
+Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited the patrimonial estates on the
+death of his brother in 1734, and in 1737 he attained to the highest
+legal honours in Scotland, being made lord president of the court of
+session. As lord advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation
+and revenue of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
+and no less to render the government popular and respected in Scotland.
+In the proceedings which followed the memorable Porteous mob, for
+example, when the government brought in a bill for disgracing the lord
+provost of Edinburgh, for fining the corporation, and for abolishing
+the town-guard and city-gate, Forbes both spoke and voted against the
+measure as an unwarranted outrage on the national feeling. As lord
+president also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
+office was characterized by quick and impartial administration of the
+law.
+
+The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all his
+patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly and earnestly
+urged upon the government the expediency of embodying Highland
+regiments, putting them under the command of colonels whose loyalty
+could be relied upon, but officering them with the native chieftains and
+cadets of old families in the north. "If government," said he,
+"pre-engages the Highlanders in the manner I propose, they will not only
+serve well against the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good
+behaviour of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
+absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands." In 1739,
+with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730) six companies
+(locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed into the famous
+"Forty-second" regiment of the line. The credit given to the earl of
+Chatham in some histories for this movement is an error; it rests really
+with Forbes and his friend Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll
+(see the _Autobiography_ of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq.,
+1906).
+
+On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened to Inverness,
+and through his personal influence with the chiefs of Macdonald and
+Macleod, those two powerful western clans were prevented from taking the
+field for Charles Edward; the town itself also he kept loyal and well
+protected at the commencement of the struggle, and many of the
+neighbouring proprietors were won over by his persuasions. His
+correspondence with Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers,
+affords a fine illustration of his character, in which the firmness of
+loyal principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness and
+consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the apathy of
+the government interfered considerably with the success of his
+negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived too late, and though
+Forbes employed all his own means and what money he could borrow on his
+personal security, his resources were quite inadequate to the emergency.
+It is doubtful whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was
+doled out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be
+maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into disgrace
+in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate the impolitic
+severities inflicted upon his countrymen after their disastrous defeat
+at Culloden. The ingratitude of the government, and the many distressing
+circumstances connected with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind
+of Forbes. He never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and
+after a period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747.
+
+Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true Scotsman
+with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even erudite scholar
+without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without asceticism or
+intolerance. His country long felt his influence through her reviving
+arts and institutions; and the example of such a character in that
+coarse and venal age, and among a people distracted by faction,
+political strife, and national antipathies, while it was invaluable to
+his contemporaries in a man of high position, is entitled to the lasting
+gratitude and veneration of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure
+he cultivated with some success the study of philosophy, theology and
+biblical criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
+Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance,
+include--_A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important Discoveries in
+Philosophy and Theology_ (1732); _Some Thoughts concerning Religion,
+natural and revealed, and the Manner of Understanding Revelation_
+(1735); and _Reflections on Incredulity_ (2nd ed., 1750).
+
+  His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a memoir
+  of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill Burton, and
+  published along with a _Life of Lord Lovat_, in 1847. His statue by
+  Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, EDWARD (1815-1854), British naturalist, was born at Douglas, in
+the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February 1815. While still a child, when
+not engaged in reading, or in the writing of verses and drawing of
+caricatures, he occupied himself with the collecting of insects, shells,
+minerals, fossils, plants and other natural history objects. From his
+fifth to his eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance
+at any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole House
+Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of Man for London,
+where he studied drawing. In October, however, having given up all idea
+of making painting his profession, he returned home; and in the
+following month he matriculated as a student of medicine in the
+university of Edinburgh. His vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work
+on the natural history of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in
+Norway, the botanical results of which were published in Loudon's
+_Magazine of Natural History_ for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he
+devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the succeeding
+year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.
+
+Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical duties of a
+surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the idea of taking a
+medical degree, resolving to devote himself to science and literature.
+The winter of 1836-1837 found him at Paris, where he attended the
+lectures at the Jardin des Plantes on natural history, comparative
+anatomy, geology and mineralogy. Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to
+Algiers, and there obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater
+Mollusca, published in the _Annals of Natural History_, vol. ii. p. 250.
+In the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a student
+of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume, _Malacologia
+Monensis_, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca. During the summer
+of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and made extensive botanical
+collections. In the following autumn he read before the British
+Association at Newcastle a paper on the distribution of terrestrial
+Pulmonifera in Europe, and was commissioned to prepare a similar report
+with reference to the British Isles. In 1841 was published his _History
+of British Star-fishes_, embodying extensive observations and containing
+120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed by
+the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes, accompanied by
+his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta H.M. surveying ship
+"Beacon," to which he had been appointed naturalist by her commander
+Captain Graves. From that date until October 1842 he was employed in
+investigating the botany, zoology and geology of the Mediterranean
+region. The results of these researches were made known in his "Report
+on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the British
+Association in 1843," and in _Travels in Lycia_, published in
+conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt in 1847. In
+the former treatise he discussed the influence of climate and of the
+nature and depth of the sea bottom upon marine life, and divided the
+Aegean into eight biological zones; his conclusions with respect to
+bathymetrical distribution, however, have naturally been modified to a
+considerable extent by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.
+
+Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family misfortunes had now
+thrown upon his own resources, sought and obtained the curatorship of
+the museum of the Geological Society of London. To the duties of that
+post he added in 1843 those of the professorship of botany at King's
+College. In November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological
+Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Great
+Britain. Two years later he published in the _Memoirs of the Geological
+Survey_, i. 336, his important essay "On the Connexion between the
+distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and
+the Geological Changes which have affected their Area, especially during
+the epoch of the Northern Drift." It is therein pointed out that, in
+accordance with the theory of their origin from various specific
+centres, the plants of Great Britain may be divided into five
+well-marked groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of
+Spain, the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the
+Channel Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English,
+characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast; a group
+peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type; and, lastly, a
+general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arguments the conclusion is
+drawn that the greater part of the terrestrial animals and flowering
+plants of the British Islands migrated thitherward, over continuous
+land, at three distinct periods, before, during and after the glacial
+epoch. On this subject Forbes's brilliant generalizations are now
+regarded as only partially true (see C. Reid's _Origin of the British
+Flora_, 1899). In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of
+General Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his
+_Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae_ (Ray Society). The year
+1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the Geological Survey
+from Craig's Court to the museum in Jermyn Street, and the appointment
+of Forbes as professor of natural history to the Royal School of Mines
+just established in conjunction therewith. In 1852 was published the
+fourth and concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley's _History of
+British Mollusca_; also his _Monograph of the Echinodermata of the
+British Tertiaries_ (Palaeontographical Soc.).
+
+In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society of London,
+and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment of a long-cherished
+wish in his appointment to the professorship of natural history in the
+university of Edinburgh, vacant by the death of R. Jameson, his former
+teacher. Since his return from the East in 1842, the determination and
+arrangement of fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work,
+including the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded
+Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits of his
+earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that at length he
+was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of biological
+information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the summer session of 1854,
+and in September of that year he occupied the post of president of the
+geological section at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association.
+But he was taken ill just after he had commenced his winter's course of
+lectures in Edinburgh, and after not many days' illness he died at
+Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854.
+
+  See _Literary Gazette_ (November 25, 1854); _Edinburgh New
+  Philosophical Journal_ (New Ser.), (1855); _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._
+  (May 1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, _Memoir of Edward Forbes_ (1861),
+  in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes's writings. See also
+  _Literary Papers_, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following works
+  were issued posthumously: "On the Tertiary Fluviomarine Formation of
+  the Isle of Wight" (_Geol. Survey_), edited by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen
+  (1856); "The Natural History of the European Seas," edited and
+  continued by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen (1859).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868), Scottish physicist, was the fourth son
+of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo, and was born at
+Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1809. He entered the university of
+Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began to contribute papers to the
+_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_ anonymously under the signature
+"[Delta]." At the age of nineteen he became a fellow of the Royal
+Society of Edinburgh, and in 1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of
+London. A year later he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in
+Edinburgh University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in
+competition with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that
+office, which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself
+an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve the
+internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed
+successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United College of St
+Andrews, a position which he held until his death at Clifton on the 31st
+of December 1868.
+
+As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches on heat
+and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published in the _Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Ed._ four series of "Researches on Heat," in the course of which he
+described the polarization of heat by tourmaline, by transmission
+through a bundle of thin mica plates inclined to the transmitted ray,
+and by reflection from the multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates
+placed at the polarizing angle, and also its circular polarization by
+two internal reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the
+Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its
+Royal medal for a paper on the "Transparency of the Atmosphere and the
+Laws of Extinction of the Sun's Rays passing through it." In 1846 he
+began experiments on the temperature of the earth at different depths
+and in different soils near Edinburgh, which yielded determinations of
+the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa, sandstone and pure loose sand.
+Towards the end of his life he was occupied with experimental inquiries
+into the laws of the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of
+work was to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with
+increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the question of
+the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis Agassiz at the Glasgow
+meeting of the British Association, and in subsequent years he made
+several visits to Switzerland and also to Norway for the purpose of
+obtaining accurate data. His observations led him to the view that a
+glacier is an imperfect fluid or a viscous body which is urged down
+slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and
+involved him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to
+priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested in
+geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of the Pyrenees,
+on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardeche), on the geology of
+the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition to about 150 scientific
+papers, he wrote _Travels through the Alps of Savoy and Other Parts of
+the Pennine Chain, with Observations on the Phenomena of Glaciers_
+(1843); _Norway and its Glaciers_ (1853); _Occasional Papers on the
+Theory of Glaciers_ (1859); _A Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_
+(1855). He was also the author (1852) of the "Dissertation on the
+Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science," published in the 8th
+edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
+
+  See _Forbes's Life and Letters_, by Principal Shairp, Professor P.G.
+  Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); _Professor Forbes and his
+  Biographers_, by J. Tyndall (1873).
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787-1861), British physician, was born at Cuttlebrae,
+Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar school at Aberdeen, and
+afterwards entered Marischal College. After serving for nine years as a
+surgeon in the navy, he graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then
+began to practise in Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822.
+He took up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year
+was appointed physician to the royal household. He was knighted in 1853,
+and died on the 13th of November 1861 at Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir
+John Forbes was better known as an author and editor than as a practical
+physician. His works include the following:--_Original Cases ...
+illustrating the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis
+of Diseases of the Chest_ (1824); _Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism_
+(1845); _A Physician's Holiday_ (1st ed., 1849); _Memorandums made in
+Ireland in the Autumn of 1852_ (2 vols., 1853); _Sightseeing in Germany
+and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855_ (1856). He was joint editor with A.
+Tweedie and J. Conolly of _The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine_ (4
+vols., 1833-1835); and in 1836 he founded the _British and Foreign
+Medical Review_, which, after a period of prosperity, involved its
+editor in pecuniary loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in
+consequence of the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious
+to the profession.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES, a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the Lachlan river, and with a
+station on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance
+as a commercial centre is due to its advantageous position between the
+northern and southern markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills,
+breweries and wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding
+country produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.
+
+
+
+
+FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON (1853- ), English actor, was the son of John
+Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an art critic. He was educated at
+Charterhouse, and studied at the Royal Academy schools with a view to
+becoming a painter. But though he kept up his interest in that art, in
+1874 he turned to the theatre, making his first appearance in London as
+Chastelard, in _Mary, Queen of Scots_. He studied under Samuel Phelps,
+from whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played with
+the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary Anderson in both
+England and America, and also acted at different times with Sir Henry
+Irving. His refined and artistic style, and beautiful voice and
+elocution made him a marked man on the English stage, and in Pinero's
+_The Profligate_ at the Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare's management,
+he established his position as one of the most individual of London
+actors. In 1895 he started under his own management at the Lyceum with
+Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing _Romeo and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_
+and also some modern plays; his impersonation as Hamlet was especially
+fine, and his capacity as a romantic actor was shown to great advantage
+also in John Davidson's _For the Crown_ and in Maeterlinck's _Pelleas
+and Melisande_. In 1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with
+whom, as his leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in
+subsequent years _The Light that Failed_, Madeleine Lucette Riley's
+_Mice and Men_, and G. Bernard Shaw's _Caesar and Cleopatra_, Jerome K.
+Jerome's _Passing of the Third Floor Back_, &c. His brothers, Ian
+Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes (b. 1859), had also been
+well-known actors from about 1878 onwards.
+
+
+
+
+FORBIN, CLAUDE DE (1656-1733), French naval commander, was born in
+Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656. High-spirited and
+ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away from his home, and through the
+influence of an uncle entered the navy, serving his first campaign in
+1675. For a short time he quitted the navy and entered the army, but
+soon returned to his first choice. He made under D'Estrees the American
+campaign, and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions
+distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most remarkable
+episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During the administration
+of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that country, the project was formed
+of introducing the Christian religion and European civilization, and the
+king sent an embassy to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent
+out, Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the rank of
+major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin was induced to remain in
+the service of the Siamese king, and accepted, though with much
+reluctance, the posts of grand admiral, general of all the king's armies
+and governor of Bangkok. His position, however, was soon made untenable
+by the jealousy and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end
+of two years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards
+fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war with
+England, when they were both captured and taken to Plymouth. They
+succeeded in making their escape and were soon serving their country
+again. Forbin was wounded at the battle of La Hogue, and greatly
+distinguished himself at the battle of Lagos. He served under D'Estrees
+at the taking of Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702
+took a brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish
+Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk, and
+captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the English. In 1708 he
+was entrusted with the command of the squadron which was to convey the
+Pretender to Scotland; but so effectually were the coasts guarded by
+Byng that the expedition failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now
+beginning to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils
+of service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles.
+There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published in
+1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic and
+attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733.
+
+
+
+
+FORCELLINI, EGIDIO (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was born at Fener
+in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very poor family. He went
+to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied under Facciolati, and in due
+course attained to the priesthood. From 1724 to 1731 he held the office
+of rector of the seminary at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of
+father confessor in the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his
+life were mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768
+before the completion of the great work on which he had long co-operated
+with Facciolati. This was the vast _Latin Lexicon_ (see FACCIOLATI),
+which has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been
+published. He was engaged with his Herculean task for nearly 35 years,
+and the transcription of the manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight
+years more.
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG (1794-1865), Danish mineralogist and
+geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on the 24th of July 1794, and
+died at Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1865. After studying at Kiel
+and Copenhagen from 1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch
+in their mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable
+share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained his doctor's
+degree by a chemical treatise _De mangano_, and immediately after set
+out on a journey through England, Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. In
+1823 he was appointed lecturer at Copenhagen University on chemistry and
+mineralogy; in 1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established
+polytechnic school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of mineralogy
+in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the geological museum.
+From 1835 to 1837 he made many contributions to the geological survey of
+Denmark. On the death of H.C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as
+director of the polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of
+Sciences. In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various
+anthropological publications which gained a high reputation. As a public
+instructor Forchhammer held a high place and contributed potently to the
+progress of his favourite studies in his native country. He interested
+himself in such practical questions as the introduction of gas into
+Copenhagen, the establishment of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the
+boring of artesian wells.
+
+  Among his more important works are--_Loerebog i de enkelte Radicalers
+  Chemi_ (1842); _Danmarks geognostiske Forhold_ (1835); _Om de
+  Bornholmske Kulformationer_ (1836); _Dit myere Kridt i Danmark_
+  (1847); _Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske Forhold_
+  (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals, Danish,
+  English and German, will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers_ published by the Royal Society of London. One of the most
+  interesting and most recent is "On the Constitution of Sea Water at
+  Different Depths and in Different Latitudes," in the _Proceedings of
+  the Roy. Soc._ xii. (1862-1863).
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM (1801-1894), German classical archaeologist,
+was born at Husum in Schleswig on the 23rd of October 1801. He was
+educated at the Lubeck gymnasium and the university of Kiel, with which
+he was connected for nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he
+travelled in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was
+appointed professor of philology at Kiel and director of the
+archaeological museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn.
+He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a democrat in the
+best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873 represented the
+progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the German Reichstag. His
+published works deal chiefly with topography and ancient mythology. His
+travels had convinced him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of
+classical antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance
+with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a detailed
+examination of the topographical and climatic conditions of the chief
+localities of the ancient world. These principles are illustrated in his
+_Hellenika. Griechenland. Im Neuen das Alte_ (1837), which contains his
+theory of the origin and explanation of the Greek myths, which he never
+abandoned, in spite of the attacks to which it was subjected. According
+to him, the myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and
+aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring processes of
+nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in _Achill_ (1853), the
+Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements in that district.
+Other similar short treatises are: _Die Grundung Roms_ (1868);
+_Daduchos_ (1875), on the language of the myths and mythical buildings;
+_Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter Io_ (1880); _Prolegomena zur
+Mythologie als Wissenschaft und Lexikon der Mythensprache_ (1891).
+Amongst his topographical works mention may be made of: _Topographie von
+Athen_ (1841); _Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja_ (1850), a commentary
+on a map of the locality executed by T.A. Spratt (see _Journal of the
+Royal Geographical Society_, xii., 1842); _Topographia Thebarum
+Heptapylarum_ (1854); _Erklarung der Ilias_ (1884), on the basis of the
+topographical and physical peculiarities of the plain of Troy. His
+_Demokratenbuchlein_ (1849), in the main a discussion of the
+Aristotelian theory of the state, and _Die Athener und Sokrates_ (1837),
+in which, contrary to the almost universal opinion, he upheld the
+procedure of the Athenians as perfectly legal and their verdict as a
+perfectly just one, also deserve notice.
+
+  For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in
+  C. Bursian's _Biographisches Jahrbuch fur Altertumskunde_, xx. (1897);
+  also J. Sass in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and A. Hoeck and
+  L.C. Pertsch, _P.W. Forchhammer_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FORCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, near the
+confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E. of Bamberg. Pop.
+(1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic churches, including the Gothic
+Collegiate church and a Protestant church. Among the other public
+buildings are the progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the
+town include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and glue
+works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious chateau occupies the site
+of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed in 1246.
+
+Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence of the
+Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the 9th century.
+Consequently many diets were held here, and here also Conrad I. and
+Louis the Child were chosen German kings. The town was given by the
+emperor Henry II. in 1007 to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a
+short period during the 11th century, it remained in the possession of
+the bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August 1796 a
+battle took place near Forchheim between the French and the Austrians.
+The fortifications of the town were dismantled in 1838.
+
+  See Hubsch, _Chronik der Stadt Forchheim_ (Nuremberg, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1901), English sculptor, was born in London.
+He received some education as a painter in Antwerp and as a sculptor in
+Munich under Professor Wagmuller, but was mainly self-taught. His first
+contribution to the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and
+in portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success. His
+busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at their best.
+Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker (1894), Briton
+Riviere and Sir W.Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir
+Hubert von Herkomer and Sir John Millais (1897), and of A.J. Balfour are
+all striking likenesses, and are equalled by that in marble of Sir
+Frederick Bramwell (for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He
+gained the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected
+in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883 with "Henry
+Irving as Hamlet," now in the Guildhall art gallery. This seated statue,
+good as it is, was soon surpassed by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city
+museum, Birmingham) and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal
+memorial statue of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less
+successful. The standing statue of W.E. Gladstone (1894, for the City
+Liberal Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford's better portrait
+works. The colossal "General Charles Gordon," camel-mounted, for
+Chatham, "Lord Strathnairn," an equestrian group for Knightsbridge, and
+the "Maharajah of Mysore" (1900) comprise his larger works of the kind.
+A beautiful nude recumbent statue of Shelley (1892) upon a
+cleverly-designed base, which is not quite impeccable from the point of
+view of artistic taste, is at University College, Oxford, and a
+simplified version was presented by him to be set up on the shore of
+Viareggio, where the poet's body was washed up. Ford's ideal work has
+great charm and daintiness; his statue "Folly" (1886) was bought by the
+trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other statues or
+statuettes of a similar order: "Peace" (1890), which secured his
+election as an associate of the Royal Academy, "Echo" (1895), on which
+he was elected full member, "The Egyptian Singer" (1889), "Applause"
+(1893), "Glory to the Dead" (1901) and "Snowdrift" (1902). Ford's
+influence on the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of
+good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely popular,
+and when he died a monument was erected to his memory (C. Lucchesi,
+sculptor, J.W. Simpson, architect) in St John's Wood, near to where he
+dwelt.
+
+  See SCULPTURE; also M.H. Spielmann, _British Sculpture and Sculptors
+  of To-day_ (London, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+FORD, JOHN (1586-c. 1640), English dramatist, was baptized on the 17th
+of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came of a good family; his
+father was in the commission of the peace and his mother was a sister of
+Sir John Popham, successively attorney-general and lord chief justice.
+The name of John Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as
+matriculating at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to
+whom, with other members of the society of Gray's Inn, he dedicated his
+play of _The Lover's Melancholy_), the future dramatist entered the
+profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple in 1602; but
+he seems never to have been called to the bar. Four years afterwards he
+made his first appearance as an author with an elegy called _Fame's
+Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire deceased_, and dedicated to the
+widow of the earl (Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, "coronized," to use
+Ford's expression, by King James in 1603 for his services in Ireland)--a
+lady who would have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own
+tragedies of lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich.
+This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs and is
+composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as the author
+declares, written "unfee'd"; it shows that Ford sympathized, as
+Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done, with the "awkward fate" of
+the countess's brother, the earl of Essex. Who the "flint-hearted Lycia"
+may be, to whom the poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress,
+is unknown; indeed, the record of Ford's private life is little better
+than a blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and
+epilogues of his various plays, he seems to have enjoyed the patronage
+of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, "himself a muse" after a
+fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the ex-queen of
+Bohemia. Ford's tract of _Honor Triumphant, or the Peeres Challenge_
+(printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare Society with the _Line of
+Life_, in 1843), and the simultaneously published verses _The Monarches
+Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes Welcome into England_, exhibit him as
+occasionally meeting the festive demands of court and nobility; and a
+kind of moral essay by him, entitled _A Line of Life_ (printed 1620),
+which contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome
+praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford's plays
+(_The Broken Heart_, iii. 4) contains an implied protest against the
+absolute system of government generally accepted by the dramatists of
+the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations with his brother-authors
+little is known; it was natural that he should exchange complimentary
+verses with James Shirley, and that he should join in the chorus of
+laments over the death of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice
+an epigram in honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in
+one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:
+
+  "Thou cheat'st us, Ford; mak'st one seem two by art:
+   What is Love's Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?"
+
+It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he gratified
+the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed in _The Time Poets_
+(_Choice Drollery_, 1656) by withdrawing from business and from literary
+life in London, to his native place; but nothing is known as to the date
+of his death. His career as a dramatist very probably began by
+collaboration with other authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote _The Fairy
+Knight_ and _The Bristowe Merchant_ (licensed in 1624, but both
+unpublished), with John Webster _A late Murther of the Sonne upon the
+Mother_ (licensed in 1624). A play entitled _An ill Beginning has a good
+End_, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attributed to Ford, was
+(if his) his earliest acted play; whether _Sir Thomas Overbury's Life
+and untimely Death_ (1615) was a play is extremely doubtful; some lines
+of indignant regret by Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He
+is also said to have written, at dates unknown, _The London Merchant_
+(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher's _Knight
+of the Burning Pestle_) and _The Royal Combat_; a tragedy by him,
+_Beauty in a Trance_, was entered in the Stationers' Register in 1653,
+but never printed. These three (or four) plays were among those
+destroyed by Warburton's cook. _The Queen, or the Excellency of the
+Sea_, a play of inverted passion, containing some fine sensuous lines,
+printed in 1653 by Alexander Singhe for private performance, has been
+recently edited by W. Bang (_Materialien zur Kunde d. alteren engl.
+Dramas_, 13, Louvain, 1906), and is by him on internal evidence
+confidently claimed as Ford's. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the
+dates span little more than a decade--the earliest, _The Lover's
+Melancholy_, having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest,
+_The Lady's Trial_, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639.
+
+When writing _The Lover's Melancholy_, it would seem that Ford had not
+yet become fully aware of the bent of his own dramatic genius, although
+he was already master of his powers of poetic expression. He was
+attracted towards domestic tragedy by an irresistible desire to sound
+the depths of abnormal conflicts between passion and circumstances, to
+romantic comedy by a strong though not widely varied imaginative
+faculty, and by a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic
+humour. In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristically
+expressive of his peculiar strength, _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ (acted c.
+1626) and _The Broken Heart_ (acted c. 1629), both printed in 1633 with
+the anagram of his name _Fide Honor_, he had found horrible situations
+which required dramatic explanation by intensely powerful motives. Ford
+by no means stood alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal
+subjects; but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and
+yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression which
+renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable, or converts the
+horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford's genius there was real
+refinement, except when the "supra-sensually sensual" impulse or the
+humbler self-delusion referred to came into play. In a third tragedy,
+_Love's Sacrifice_ (acted c. 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on
+similar materials; but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the
+interest of his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility--doing
+homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult. In
+_Perkin Warbeck_ (printed 1634; probably acted a year later) he chose an
+historical subject of great dramatic promise and psychological interest,
+and sought to emulate the glory of the great series of Shakespeare's
+national histories. The effort is one of the most laudable, as it was by
+no means one of the least successful, in the dramatic literature of this
+period. _The Fancies Chaste and Noble_ (acted before 1636, printed
+1638), though it includes scenes of real force and feeling, is
+dramatically a failure, of which the main idea is almost provokingly
+slight and feeble; and _The Lady's Trial_ (acted 1638, printed 1639) is
+only redeemed from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness
+of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very different kinds,
+in which Ford co-operated with other writers, the mask of _The Sun's
+Darling_ (acted 1624, printed 1657), hardly to be placed in the first
+rank of early compositions, and _The Witch of Edmonton_ (printed 1658,
+but probably acted about 1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer
+with Dekker and Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of
+the English or any other stage.
+
+  A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the plays
+  enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a stinging
+  epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that _The Lover's Melancholy_ was
+  stolen by Ford from Shakespeare's papers. Undoubtedly, the madness of
+  the hero of this play of Ford's occasionally recalls Hamlet, while the
+  heroine is one of the many, and at the same time one of the most
+  pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of them is a copy, as Friar
+  Bonaventura in Ford's second play may be said to be a copy of Friar
+  Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he disagreeably exaggerates, or as
+  D'Avolos in _Love's Sacrifice_ is clearly modelled on Iago. The plot
+  of _The Lover's Melancholy_, which is ineffective because it leaves no
+  room for suspense in the mind of the reader, seems original; in the
+  dialogue, on the other hand, a justly famous passage in Act i. (the
+  beautiful version of the story of the nightingale's death) is
+  translated from Strada; while the scheme of the tedious interlude
+  exhibiting the various forms of madness is avowedly taken, together
+  with sundry comments, from Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_. Already
+  in this play Ford exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the
+  despondent misery of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last
+  scene, in which his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart.
+  A situation--hazardous in spite of its comic substratum--between
+  Thaumasta and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford
+  points out, with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy,
+  notwithstanding, or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the
+  author.
+
+  _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ has been justly recognized as a tragedy of
+  extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on Ford, has
+  rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and has at the same
+  time indicated wherein consists its poison. He dwells with great force
+  upon the different treatment applied by Ford to the characters of the
+  two miserable lovers--brother and sister. "The sin once committed,
+  there is no more wavering or flinching possible to him, who has fought
+  so hard against the demoniac possession; while she who resigned body
+  and soul to the tempter, almost at a word, remains liable to the
+  influences of religion and remorse." This different treatment shows
+  the feeling of the poet--the feeling for which he seeks to evoke our
+  inmost sympathy--to oscillate between the belief that an awful crime
+  brings with it its awful punishment (and it is sickening to observe
+  how the argument by which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her
+  evil courses mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution),
+  and the notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible,
+  and therefore in a sense self-justified, in so dominant a passion. The
+  key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of
+  the first scene--
+
+    "All this I'll do, to free me from the rod
+     Of vengeance; _else I'll swear my fate's my god_."
+
+  Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one
+  side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs,
+  in the dying words of "the student struck blind and mad by passion"--
+
+             "O, I bleed fast!
+    Death, thou'rt a guest long look'd for; I embrace
+    Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes!
+    Where'er I go, let me enjoy this grace
+    Freely to view my Annabella's face."
+
+  It has been observed by J.A. Symonds that "English poets have given us
+  the right key to the Italian temperament.... The love of Giovanni and
+  Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative than sensual." It is
+  difficult to allow the appositeness of this special illustration; on
+  the other hand, Ford has even in this case shown his art of depicting
+  sensual passion without grossness of expression; for the exception in
+  Annabella's language to Soranzo seems to have a special intention, and
+  is true to the pressure of the situation and the revulsion produced by
+  it in a naturally weak and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to
+  speak, of the play is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the
+  underplot with Hippolita.
+
+  _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ was translated into French by Maurice
+  Maeterlinck under the title of _Annabella_, and represented at the
+  Theatre de l'Oeuvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version an
+  eloquent appreciation of Ford's genius, especially in his portraits of
+  women, whose fate it is to live "dans les tenebres, les craintes et
+  les larmes."
+
+  Like this tragedy, _The Broken Heart_ was probably founded upon some
+  Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter instance
+  there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject, the play
+  commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of many
+  excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford's dramatic genius. The
+  complicated plot is constructed with greater skill than is usual with
+  this dramatist, and the pathos of particular situations, and of the
+  entire character of Penthea--a woman doomed to hopeless misery, but
+  capable of seeking to obtain for her brother a happiness which his
+  cruelty has condemned her to forego--has an intensity and a depth
+  which are all Ford's own. Even the lesser characters are more pleasing
+  than usual, and some beautiful lyrics are interspersed in the play.
+
+  Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only _The Chronicle Historie
+  of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth_, appears to call for special
+  attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment that
+  it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shakespeare's
+  national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken into consideration
+  in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James Gairdner's essay appended
+  to his _Life and Reign of Richard III._, there are still credulous
+  persons left to think and assert that Perkin was not an impostor, they
+  will derive little satisfaction from Ford's play, which with really
+  surprising skill avoids the slightest indication as to the poet's own
+  belief on the subject. That this tragedy should have been reprinted in
+  1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the public, as is often the
+  case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather than to the development of
+  the action. The dramatic capabilities of the subject are, however,
+  great, and it afterwards attracted Schiller, who, however, seems to
+  have abandoned it in favour of the similar theme of the Russian
+  Demetrius. Had Shakespeare treated it, he would hardly have contented
+  himself with investing the hero with the nobility given by Ford to
+  this personage of his play,--for it is hardly possible to speak of a
+  personage as a _character_ when the clue to his conduct is
+  intentionally withheld. Nor could Shakespeare have failed to bring out
+  with greater variety and distinctness the dramatic features in Henry
+  VII., whom Ford depicts with sufficient distinctness to give some
+  degree of individuality to the figure, but still with a tenderness of
+  touch which would have been much to the credit of the dramatist's
+  skill had he been writing in the Tudor age. The play is, however,
+  founded on Bacon's Life, of which the text is used by Ford with
+  admirable discretion, and on Thomas Gainsford's _True and Wonderful
+  History of Perkin Warbeck_ (1618). The minor characters of the honest
+  old Huntley, whom the Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter's
+  hand upon Warbeck, and of her lover the faithful "Dalyell," are most
+  effectively drawn; even "the men of judgment," the adventurers who
+  surround the chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman
+  among them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is,
+  as befits a "Chronicle History," so clear and straightforward as to
+  make it easy as well as interesting to read.
+
+  _The Witch of Edmonton_ was attributed by its publisher to William
+  Rowley, Dekker, Ford, "&c.," but the body of the play has been
+  generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The subject
+  of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported witch,
+  Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne agrees with
+  Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the first act; and
+  he is most assuredly right in considering that "there is no more
+  admirable exposition of a play on the English stage." Supposing Dekker
+  to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing with the unfortunate
+  old woman whom persecution as a witch actually drives to become one,
+  and Ford for the domestic tragedy of the bigamist murderer, it cannot
+  be denied that both divisions of the subject are effectively treated,
+  while the more important part of the task fell to the share of Ford.
+  Yet it may be doubted whether any such division can be safely assumed;
+  and it may suffice to repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught
+  with more effective simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely
+  double lesson of the folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of
+  crime.
+
+  With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of _The Sun's Darling_; or, as
+  seems most probable, they founded this production upon _Phaeton_, an
+  earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author. Gifford holds that
+  Dekker's hand is perpetually traceable in the first three acts of _The
+  Sun's Darling_, and through the whole of its comic part, but that the
+  last two acts are mainly Ford's. If so, he is the author of the rather
+  forced occasional tribute on the accession of King Charles I., of
+  which the last act largely consists. This mask, which furnished
+  abundant opportunities for the decorators, musicians and dancers, in
+  showing forth how the seasons and their delights are successively
+  exhausted by a "wanton darling," Raybright the grandchild of the Sun,
+  is said to have been very popular. It is at the same time commonplace
+  enough in conception; but there is much that is charming in the
+  descriptions, Jonson and Lyly being respectively laid under
+  contribution in the course of the dialogue, and in one of the
+  incidental lyrics.
+
+Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the intensity of his
+passion, in particular scenes and passages where the character, the
+author and the reader are alike lost in the situation and in the
+sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is a supreme dramatic gift. But
+his plays--with the exception of _The Witch of Edmonton_, in which he
+doubtless had a prominent share--too often disturb the mind like a bad
+dream which ends as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme
+dramatic defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most
+reason to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford's;
+nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in _The Broken
+Heart_, "is formed of books and school-traditions," which has a right to
+protest against the final effect of the most powerful creations of his
+genius. There is a morality which both
+
+        "Keeps the soul in tune,
+  At whose sweet music all our actions dance,"
+
+and is able to physic
+
+      "The sickness of a mind
+  Broken with griefs."
+
+Of that morality--or of that deference to the binding power within man
+and the ruling power above him--tragedy is the truest expounder, even
+when it illustrates by contrasts; but the tragic poet who merely places
+the problem before us, and bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty,
+is not to be reckoned among the great masters of a divine art.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with notes
+  and introduction, revised with additions to both text and notes by
+  Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the _Dramatic Works of Massinger
+  and Ford_ appeared in 1840, with an introduction by Hartley Coleridge.
+  _The Best Plays of Ford_ were edited for the "Mermaid Series" in 1888,
+  with an introduction by W.H. Havelock Ellis, and reissued in 1903.
+  A.C. Swinburne's "Essay on Ford" is reprinted among his _Essays and
+  Studies_ (1875). _Perkin Warbeck_ and _'Tis Pity_ were translated into
+  German by F. Bodenstedt in 1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in
+  1904. The probable sources of the various plays are discussed in Emil
+  Koeppel's _Quellenstudien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip
+  Massinger's und John Ford's_ (1897).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858), English author of one of the earliest and
+best of travellers' _Handbooks_, was the eldest son of Sir Richard Ford,
+who in 1789 was member of parliament for East Grinstead, and for many
+years afterwards chief police magistrate of London. His mother was the
+daughter and heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in
+art. He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833 he
+travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra and at
+Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions to the
+_Quarterly Review_) was a pamphlet, _An Historical Inquiry into the
+Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain_ (Murray, 1837), in reply to
+one called the _Policy of England towards Spain_, issued under the
+patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the winter of 1839-1840 in Italy,
+where he added largely to his collection of majolica; and soon after his
+return he began, at John Murray's invitation, to write his _Handbook for
+Travellers in Spain_, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died
+on the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of
+pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir A.
+Molesworth.
+
+
+
+
+FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 1580), English musician, of whose life little more
+is known than that he was attached to the court of Prince Henry, son of
+James I. His works also are few, but they are sufficient to show the
+high stage of efficiency and musical knowledge which the English school
+had attained at the beginning of the 17th century. They consist of
+canons and other concerted pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute
+accompaniment. The chief collection of his works is entitled _Musike of
+Sundrie Kinds set forth in Two Books_, &c. (1607), and the histories of
+music by Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with
+Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare's sonnets, Ford is the chief
+representative of the school which preceded Henry Lawes.
+
+
+
+
+FORDE, FRANCIS (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in the army
+list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1746. This regiment was the first
+of the king's service to serve in India (hence its motto _Primus in
+Indis_), and Forde was on duty there when in 1755 he became major, at
+the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to become his rival, was promoted
+captain. At the express invitation of Clive, Forde resigned his king's
+commission to take the post of second in command of the E.I. Company's
+troops in Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French
+of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley rabble of an army
+which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into the field, Forde pushed
+ahead through difficult country and came upon the enemy entrenched at
+Condore. For four days the two armies faced one another; on the fifth
+both commanders resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In
+spite of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in the
+end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first to last a
+brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself with this; on the
+same evening he stormed the French camp, and his pursuit was checked
+only by the guns of Masulipatam itself. The place was quickly invested
+on the land side, but difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of
+men. For fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last
+avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at midnight on
+the 25th of January 1759. The Company's troops lost one-third of their
+number, but the storm was a brilliant and astounding success. Forde
+received less than no reward. The Company refused to confirm his
+lieut.-colonel's commission, and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote,
+his old subaltern in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist
+Clive, and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable to
+Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A year later he at
+last received his commission, but was still opposed by a faction of the
+directors which supported Coote. Clive himself warmly supported Forde in
+these quarrels. In 1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was
+sent out with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian
+administration. Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of
+Good Hope on the 27th of December.
+
+  Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be found in
+  Malleson's _Decisive Battles of India_.
+
+
+
+
+FORDHAM, formerly a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., and
+now a part of New York City. It lies on the mainland, along the eastern
+bank of the Harlem river, E. of the northern end of Manhattan Island. It
+is the seat of Fordham University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as
+St John's College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus. In
+1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University, and now
+includes St John's College high school and grammar school, St John's
+College, the Fordham University medical school (all in Fordham), and the
+Fordham University law school (42 Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908
+the university had 96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the
+high school) 236 students, of whom 105 were in St John's College, 31 in
+the medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still stands
+the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to 1849 and in which
+he wrote "Annabel Lee," "Ulalume," &c.
+
+The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer (a Dutchman,
+who called himself "John Archer" after coming to America), who in that
+year received permission from Francis Lovelace, colonial governor of New
+York, to settle sixteen families on the mainland close by a
+fording-place of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters
+the Harlem river. Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians
+the tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the Harlem
+river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and extending from
+the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High Bridge. In 1671 Governor
+Lovelace erected this tract into the manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was
+included with Morrisania in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with
+part of the township of Yonkers was erected into the township of
+Kingsbridge, which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and in
+1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+FORDUN, JOHN OF (d. c. 1384), Scottish chronicler. The statement
+generally made that the chronicler was born at Fordoun (Kincardineshire)
+has not been supported by any direct evidence. It is certain that he was
+a secular priest, and that he composed his history in the latter part of
+the 14th century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the
+cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest attempt to
+write a continuous history of Scotland. We are informed that Fordun's
+patriotic zeal was roused by the removal or destruction of many national
+records by Edward III. and that he travelled in England and Ireland,
+collecting material for his history. This work is divided into five
+books. The first three are almost entirely fabulous, and form the
+groundwork on which Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical
+fictions, which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his _Critical Essay_ (i.
+pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed with fable,
+contain much valuable information, and become more authentic the more
+nearly they approach the author's own time. The 5th book concludes with
+the death of King David I. in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun
+wrote part of another book, and collected materials for bringing down
+the history to a later period. These materials were used by a
+continuator who wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who is
+identified with Walter Bower (q.v.), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm.
+The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down the narrative
+to the death of King James I. in 1437. According to the custom of the
+time, the continuator did not hesitate to interpolate Fordun's portion
+of the work with additions of his own, and the whole history thus
+compiled is known as the _Scotichronicon_.
+
+  The first printed edition of Fordun's work was that of Thomas Gale in
+  his _Scriptores quindecim_ (vol. iii.), which was published in 1691.
+  This was followed by Thomas Hearne's (5 vols.) edition in 1722. The
+  whole work, including Bower's continuation, was published by Walter
+  Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872 Fordun's chronicle, in
+  the original Latin and in an English translation, was edited by
+  William F. Skene in _The Historians of Scotland_. The preface to this
+  edition collects all the biographical details and gives full
+  bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.
+
+
+
+
+FORECLOSURE, in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment by order of the
+court of a mortgagor's equity of redemption. In the law of equity the
+object of every mortgage transaction is eventually the repayment of a
+debt, the mortgaged property being incidental by way of security.
+Therefore, although the day named for repayment of the loan has passed
+and the mortgagor's estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to
+mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a reconveyance
+of the mortgaged property on payment of the principal, interest and
+costs. This right of the mortgagor to relief is termed his "equity of
+redemption." But the right must be exercised within a reasonable time,
+otherwise he will be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the
+mortgagee's possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such
+foreclosure is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action is
+brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the chancery division
+of the High Court in England, claiming that an account may be taken of
+the principal and interest due to the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor
+may be directed to pay the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by
+the court and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of
+redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in foreclosure
+actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed L500, or where the
+mortgage is for more than L500, but less than that sum has been actually
+advanced. In a Welsh mortgage there is no right to foreclosure. (See
+also MORTGAGE.)
+
+
+
+
+FOREIGN OFFICE, that department of the executive of the United Kingdom
+which is concerned with foreign affairs. The head of the Foreign Office
+is termed principal secretary of state for foreign affairs and his
+office dates from 1782. Between that date and the Revolution there had
+been only two secretaries of state, whose duties were divided by a
+geographical division of the globe into northern and southern
+departments. The duties of the secretary of the northern department of
+Europe comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while the
+secretary of the southern department of Europe communicated with France,
+Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, and also looked after Irish
+and colonial business, and carried out the work of the Home Office. In
+1782 the duties of these two secretaries were revised, the northern
+department becoming the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign
+affairs is the official agent of the crown in all communications between
+Great Britain and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either
+through the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or
+through representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all
+treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects
+residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they may
+sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two
+under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other a
+permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries (civil
+servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department and a staff of
+clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office are the African, American,
+commercial and sanitary, consular, eastern (Europe), far eastern,
+western (Europe), parliamentary, financial, librarian and keeper of the
+papers, treaties and registry. In the case of important despatches and
+correspondence, these, with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the
+permanent under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the
+sovereign and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet.
+The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is L5000 per annum,
+that of the permanent under-secretary L2000, the parliamentary
+under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, L1500, and the
+other assistant under-secretaries L1200.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part ii.
+
+
+
+
+FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two chalk headlands on the Kent coast of
+England, overlooking the Strait of Dover, the North Foreland forming the
+eastern projection of the Isle of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m.
+N.E. of Dover. Both present bold cliffs to the sea, and command
+beautiful views over the strait. On the North Foreland (51 deg. 22-1/2'
+N., 1 deg. 27' E.) there is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51
+deg. 8-1/2' N., 1 deg. 23' E.) there are two. There is also a Foreland
+on the north coast of Devonshire, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine
+projection of the highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol
+Channel, and forming the most northerly point of the county.
+
+
+
+
+FORESHORE, that part of the seashore which lies between high- and
+low-water mark at ordinary tides. In the United Kingdom it is ordinarily
+and prima facie vested in the crown, except where it may be vested in a
+subject by ancient grant or charter from the crown, or by prescription.
+Although numerous decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima
+facie title of the crown, S.A. Moore in his _History of the Foreshore_
+contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather than of
+the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving an express
+grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence of user from which a
+grant may be presumed. The chief acts showing title to foreshore are,
+taking wreck or royal fish, right of fishing, mining, digging and taking
+sand, seaweed, &c., embanking and enclosing. There is a public right of
+user in that part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the
+purpose of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over
+lands adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that, in
+order to make the right available, there must be a highway or other
+public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it has been held that
+the public have no legal right to trespass on land above high-water mark
+for the purpose of bathing in the sea, though if they can get to it they
+may bathe there (_Blundell_ v. _Catteral_, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. 268). There
+is no right in the public to take sand, shells or seaweed from the
+shore, nor, except in certain places by local custom, have fishermen the
+right to use the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their
+boats, or for drying their nets or similar purposes.
+
+  See S.A. Moore, _History of the Foreshore and the Law relating
+  thereto_ (1888); Coulson and Forbes, _Law of Waters_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FORESTALLING, in English criminal law, the offence of buying
+merchandise, victual, &c., coming to market, or making any bargain for
+buying the same, before they shall be in the market ready to be sold, or
+making any motion for enhancing the price, or dissuading any person from
+coming to market or forbearing to bring any of the things to market, &c.
+See ENGROSSING.
+
+
+
+
+FOREST LAWS, the general term for the old English restriction laws,
+dealing with forests. One of the most cherished prerogatives of the king
+of England, at the time when his power was at the highest, was that of
+converting any portion of the country into a forest in which he might
+enjoy the pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the
+king and the people testify to the extent to which this prerogative
+became a public grievance, and the charter by which its exercise was
+bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance part of the greatest
+constitutional code imposed by his barons upon King John. At common law
+it appears to have been the right of the king to make a forest where he
+pleased, provided that certain legal formalities were observed. The king
+having a continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the
+peace and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many
+privileges this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation
+wheresoever he would appoint.[1] Land once afforested became subject to
+a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the formalities required to
+constitute a valid afforestment, have been carefully ascertained by the
+Anglo-Norman lawyers. "A forest," says Manwood, "is a certain territory
+of woody grounds and fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and
+fowls of forest, chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe
+protection of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of
+ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable marks, meres
+and boundaries, either known by matter of record or by prescription; and
+also replenished with wild beasts of venery or chase, and with great
+coverts of vert, for the succour of the said beasts there to abide: for
+the preservation and continuance of which said place, together with the
+vert and venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges
+belonging to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a
+forest and to no other place."[2] And the same author distinguishes a
+forest, as "the highest franchise of princely pleasure," from the
+inferior franchises of chase, park and warren--named in the order of
+their importance. The forest embraces all these, and it is distinguished
+by having laws and courts of its own, according to which offenders are
+justiceable. An offender in a chase is to be punished by the common law;
+an offender in a forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a
+park, only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished
+according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege extended.
+Thus beasts of forest (the "five wild beasts of venery") were the hart,
+the hind, the hare, the boar and the wolf. The beasts of chase were also
+five, viz. the buck, the doe, the fox, the marten and the roe. The
+beasts and fowls of warren were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and
+the partridge.
+
+The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court of
+attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of attachments
+(called also the wood-mote) is held every forty days for the foresters
+to bring in their attachments concerning any hurt done to vert or
+venison (_in viridi et venatione_) in the forest, and for the verderers
+to receive and mark the same, but no conviction takes place. The
+swainmote, held three times in the year, is the court to which all the
+freeholders within the forest owe suit and service, and of which the
+verderers are the judges. In this court all offences against the forest
+laws may be tried, but no judgment or punishment follows. This is
+reserved for the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls
+of offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the
+swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the court of
+the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, "is commonly a man of greater
+dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests; and therefore where
+justice-seats are to be held some other persons whom the king shall
+appoint are associated with him, who together are to determine _omnia
+placita forestae_." There were two chief justices for the forests
+_intra_ and _ultra Trentam_ respectively. The necessary officers of a
+forest are a steward, verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and
+woodwards. The verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by
+the freeholders in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to
+view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark them on
+his rolls. A forester was "an officer sworn to preserve the vert and
+venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild beasts within his
+bailiwick." The regarders were of the nature of visitors: their duty was
+to make a regard (_visitatio nemorum_) every third year, to inquire of
+all offences, and of the concealment of such offences by any officer of
+the forest. The business of the agister was to look after the pasturage
+of the forest, and to receive the payments for the same by persons
+entitled to pasture their cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and
+the payment were called "agistment." The woodward was the officer who
+had the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the court
+of attachment.
+
+The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite territory
+within which the code of the forest law prevailed to the exclusion of
+the common law. The ownership of the soil might be in any one, but the
+rights of the proprietor were limited by the laws made for the
+protection of the king's wild beasts. These laws, enforced by fines
+often arbitrary and excessive, were a great grievance to the unfortunate
+owners of land within or in the neighbourhood of the forest. The
+offence of "purpresture" may be cited as an example. This was an
+encroachment on the forest rights, by building a house within the
+forest, and it made no difference whether the land belonged to the
+builder or not. In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at
+discretion. And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into
+arable land, he was guilty of the offence known as "assarting," whether
+the covert belonged to himself or not.
+
+The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings, and their
+extension to private estates by the process of afforestment, were among
+the grievances which united the barons and people against the king in
+the reign of John. The Great Charter of King John contains clauses
+relating to the forest laws, but no separate charter of the forest. The
+first charter of the forest is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. "As
+an important piece of legislation," said Stubbs,[3] "it must be compared
+with the forest assize of 1184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of
+the charter of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are
+remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the accession of
+Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations have been made under
+Richard and John. These latter are at once disafforested; but those of
+Henry II. only so far as they had been carried out to the injury of the
+landowners and outside of the royal demesne." Land which had thus been
+once forest land and was afterwards disafforested was known as
+_purlieu_--derived by Manwood from the French _pur_ and _lieu_, i.e. "a
+place exempt from the forest." The forest laws still applied in a
+modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforestment
+existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other persons the
+land was forest still, and the king's wild beasts were to "have free
+recourse therein and safe return to the forest, without any hurt or
+destruction other than by the owners of the lands in the purlieu where
+they shall be found, and that only to hunt and chase them back again
+towards the forest without any forestalling" (Manwood, _On the Forest
+Laws_--article "Purlieu").
+
+The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted to by
+Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament, and the
+royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were hyperbolically
+said to include the whole county. The 4th earl of Southampton was nearly
+ruined by a decision that stripped him of his estate near the New
+Forest. The boundaries of Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to
+60, and enormous fines imposed on the trespassers,--Lord Salisbury being
+assessed in L20,000, Lord Westmoreland in L19,000, Sir Christopher
+Hatton in L12,000 (Hallam's _Constitutional History of England_, c.
+viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640) the royal forests were
+determined for ever according to their boundaries in the twentieth year
+of James, all subsequent enlargements being annulled.
+
+The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete disuse.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Coke, 4 _Inst._, 300.
+
+  [2] Manwood's _Treatise of the Forest Laws_ (4th edition, 1717).
+
+  [3] _Documents Illustrative of English History_, p. 338.
+
+
+
+
+FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Although most people know what a forest (Lat.
+_foris_, "out of doors") is, a definition of it which suits all cases is
+by no means easy to give. Manwood, in his treatise of the _Lawes of the
+Forest_ (1598), defines a forest as "a certain territory of woody
+grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of
+forest, chase and warren, to rest and abide in, in the safe protection
+of the king, for his princely delight and pleasure." This primitive
+definition has, in modern times, when the economic aspect of forests
+came more into the foreground, given place to others, so that forest
+may, in a general way, now be described as "an area which is for the
+most part set aside for the production of timber and other forest
+produce, or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or
+to protect the locality against injurious influences."
+
+As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that the greater
+part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time, covered with
+forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped
+according to climate, soil and configuration of the several localities.
+When the old trees reached their limit of life, they disappeared, and
+younger trees took their place. The conditions for an uninterrupted
+regeneration of the forest were favourable, and the result was vigorous
+production by the creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man,
+and by degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
+under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
+interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic animals;
+men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks. Subsequently
+similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were employed to prepare
+the land for agricultural purposes. More recently enormous areas of
+forests were destroyed by reckless cutting and subsequent firing in the
+extraction of timber for economic purposes.
+
+It will readily be understood that the distribution and character of the
+now remaining forests must differ enormously (see PLANTS:
+_Distribution_). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
+dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
+land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of a
+number of different species intermixed; but in some cases certain
+species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining the upper hand,
+thus forming more or less pure forests of one species only. The number
+of species differs very much. In many tropical forests hundreds of
+species may be found on a comparatively small area, in other cases the
+number is limited. Burma has several thousand species of trees and
+shrubs, Sind has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about
+forty species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
+Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
+Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
+effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it may be said
+that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, wherever the climate
+is not modified by considerable elevation, contain broad-leaved species,
+palms, bamboos, &c. Here most of the best and hardest timbers are found,
+such as teak, mahogany and ebony. The northern countries are rich in
+conifers. Taking a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will
+be found that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of
+dense hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
+Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak, olive,
+chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech, birch and
+certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany silver fir and
+spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central Germany, and the
+countries around the Baltic contain forests consisting chiefly of Scotch
+pine, spruce and birch, to which, in Siberia, larch must be added, while
+the lower parts of the ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder
+and poplar. In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
+vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it changes
+into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen broad-leaved
+species with pines on sandy soils. On going north in the Atlantic
+region, the forest becomes temperate, containing deciduous broad-leaved
+trees and pines, until Canada is reached, where larches, spruces and
+firs occupy the ground. Around the great lakes on sandy soils the
+broad-leaved forest gives way to pines. On proceeding west from the
+Atlantic region the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this
+into the prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
+forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation above
+the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In Japan a tropical
+vegetation is found in the south, comprising palms, figs, ebony,
+mangrove and others. This is followed on proceeding north by subtropical
+forests containing evergreen oaks, _Podocarpus_, tree-ferns, and, at
+higher elevations, _Cryptomeria_ and _Chamaecyparis_. Then follow
+deciduous broad-leaved forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches.
+In India the character of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall
+and elevation. Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of
+Guttiferae, Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
+bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious rainfall
+deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal (_Shorea robusta_) and
+a great variety of other valuable trees. Under a still smaller rainfall
+the vegetation becomes sparse, containing acacias, _Dalbergia sissoo_
+and Tamarix. Where the rainfall is very light or _nil_, desert appears.
+In the Himalayas, subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the
+forests containing, according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks,
+chestnuts, magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia,
+again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some two
+hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles. Some of the
+eucalypts attain an enormous height.
+
+_Utility of Forests._--In the economy of man and of nature forests are
+of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through the produce
+which they yield, and the latter through the influence which they
+exercise upon climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the
+soil, the healthiness and beauty of a country and allied subjects. The
+_indirect_ utility will be dealt with first. A piece of land bare of
+vegetation is, throughout the year, exposed to the full effect of sun
+and air currents, and the climatic conditions which are produced by
+these agencies. If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a
+growth of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
+it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the effect of sun
+and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of air. These modifying
+agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns of the trees intercept the rays
+of the sun and the falling rain; they obstruct the movement of air
+currents, and reduce radiation at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and
+fruits, augmented by certain plants which grow in the shade of the
+trees, form a layer of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against
+rapid changes of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of
+water in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all
+directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies have
+been observed from ancient times, and widely differing views have been
+taken of them. Of late years, however, more careful observations have
+been made at so-called parallel stations, that is to say, one station in
+the middle of a forest, and another outside at some distance from its
+edge, but otherwise exposed to the same general conditions. In this way,
+the following results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the
+temperature of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the
+climate more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the
+air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the precipitation
+of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their effect in low lands
+is _nil_ or very small; in hilly countries it is probably greater, but
+definite results have not yet been obtained owing to the difficulty of
+separating the effect of forests from that of other factors. (4) They
+help to regulate the water supply, produce a more sustained feeding of
+springs, tend to reduce violent floods, and render the flow of water in
+rivers more continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation,
+erosion, landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands
+and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity of
+air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds, and
+afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They may, under
+certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a country, and help in
+its defence. (8) They increase the beauty of a country, and produce a
+healthy aesthetic influence upon the people.
+
+The _direct_ utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, the
+capital which they represent, and the work which they provide. The
+principal produce of forests consists of timber and firewood. Both are
+necessaries for the daily life of the people. Apart from a limited
+number of broad-leaved species, the conifers have become the most
+important timber trees in the economy of man. They are found in greatest
+quantities in the countries around the Baltic and in North America. In
+modern times iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent,
+replaced timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood;
+nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain so. This
+is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized nations. Whereas
+the population of Great Britain and Ireland, during the period
+1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports of timber, during the
+same period, increased by 45%; in other words, every head of population
+in 1900 used more timber than twenty years earlier. Germany produced in
+1880 about as much timber as she required; in 1899 she imported
+4,600,000 tons, valued at L14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly
+increasing, although the yield capacity of her own forests is much
+higher now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes
+which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the wood pulp
+annually imported into Britain consumes at least 2,000,000 tons of
+timber. A fabric closely resembling silk is now made of spruce wood. The
+variety of other, or minor, produce yielded by forests is very great,
+and much of it is essential for the well-being of the people and for
+various industries. The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in
+countries subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
+not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood taken
+from the forests. As regards industries, attention need only be drawn to
+such articles as commercial fibre, tanning materials, dye-stuffs, lac,
+turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha, &c. Great Britain and Ireland
+alone import every year such materials to the value of L12,000,000, half
+of this being represented by rubber.
+
+The _capital_ employed in forests consists chiefly of the value of the
+soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily, of much
+greater value than the former wherever a sustained annual yield of
+timber is expected from a forest. In the case of a Scotch pine forest,
+for instance, the value of the growing stock is, under the
+above-mentioned condition, from three to five times that of the soil.
+The rate of interest yielded by capital invested in forests differs, of
+course, considerably according to circumstances, but on the whole it
+may, under proper management, be placed equal to that yielded by
+agricultural land; it is lower than the agricultural rate on the better
+classes of land, but higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter
+are specially indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the
+production of agricultural crops. Forests require _labour_ in a great
+variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation, tending
+and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) industries which
+depend on forests for their prime material. The labour indicated under
+the first head differs considerably according to circumstances, but its
+amount is smaller than that required if the land is used for
+agriculture. Hence forests provide additional labour only if they are
+established on surplus lands. Owing to the bulky nature of forest
+produce its transport forms a business of considerable magnitude, the
+amount of labour being perhaps equal to half that employed under the
+first head. The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
+working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this respect
+attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and around High Wycombe
+in Buckinghamshire, where more than 20,000 workmen are employed in
+converting the beech, grown on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs
+and tools of many patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are
+not available under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany
+the people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total
+population; those employed on transport of forest produce 1.1%;
+labourers employed on the various wood industries, 8.6%; or a total of
+12%. An important feature of the work connected with forests and their
+produce is that a great part of it can be made to fit in with the
+requirements of agriculture; that is to say, it can be done at seasons
+when field crops do not require attention. Thus the rural labourers or
+small farmers can earn some money at times when they have nothing else
+to do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
+obtainable.
+
+Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
+particular country depends on its special conditions, such as (1) the
+position of a country, its communications, and the control which it
+exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) the quantity and
+quality of substitutes for forest produce available in the country; (3)
+the value of land and labour, and the returns which land yields if used
+for other purposes; (4) the density of population; (5) the amount of
+capital available for investment; (6) the climate and configuration,
+especially the geographical position, whether inland or on the border
+of the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
+forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
+question must be answered according to the special circumstances of each
+case.
+
+The subjoined table shows the forests of various European states:--
+
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  |                  |             | Percentage | Percentage |   Forest   |
+  |                  |   Area of   |  of Total  | of Forest  |  Area per  |
+  |    Countries.    | Forests, in |   Area of  |   Area     |  Head of   |
+  |                  |    Acres.   |   Country  | belonging  | Population,|
+  |                  |             |    under   |  to the    |  in Acres. |
+  |                  |             |   Forest.  |   State.   |            |
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | Sweden           |  49,000,000 |     48     |     33     |    9.5     |
+  | Norway           |  17,000,000 |     21     |     28     |    7.6     |
+  | Russia, including|             |            |            |            |
+  |   Finland        | 518,000,000 |     40     |     61     |    5.9     |
+  | Bosnia and       |             |            |            |            |
+  |   Herzegovina    |   6,400,000 |     50     |     78     |    4.0     |
+  | Bulgaria         |   7,600,000 |     30     |     30     |    2.3     |
+  | Turkey           |  11,200,000 |     20     |     . .    |    1.7     |
+  | Servia           |   3,900,000 |     32     |     37     |    1.5     |
+  | Rumania          |   6,400,000 |     18     |     40     |    1.3     |
+  | Spain            |  21,200,000 |     17     |     84     |    1.2     |
+  | Hungary          |  22,500,000 |     28     |     15     |    1.2     |
+  | Austria          |  24,000,000 |     32     |      7     |     .9     |
+  | Greece           |   2,000,000 |     13     |     80     |     .85    |
+  | Luxemburg        |     200,000 |     30     |     . .    |     .82    |
+  | Switzerland      |   2,100,000 |     20     |      5     |     .7     |
+  | Germany          |  35,000,000 |     26     |     34     |     .6     |
+  | France           |  24,000,000 |     18     |     12     |     .6     |
+  | Italy            |  10,400,000 |     15     |      4     |     .3     |
+  | Denmark          |     600,000 |      6     |     24     |     .25    |
+  | Belgium          |   1,300,000 |     18     |      5     |     .2     |
+  | Portugal         |     770,000 |      3.5   |      8     |     .15    |
+  | Holland          |     560,000 |      7     |      ?     |     .1     |
+  | Great Britain    |   3,000,000 |      4     |      3     |     .07    |
+  +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+These data exhibit considerable differences, since the percentage of the
+forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area per head of population
+from .07 to 9.5 acres. Russia, Sweden and Norway may as yet have more
+forest than they require for their own population. On the other hand,
+Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even
+Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area to meet
+their own requirements; at the same time, they are all sea-bound
+countries, and importation is easy, while most of them are under the
+influence of moist sea winds, which reduces to a subordinate position
+the importance of forests for climatic reasons.
+
+Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country is the state
+of ownership--whether they belong to the state, corporations or to
+private persons. Where, apart from the financial aspect and the supply
+of work, forests are not required for the sake of their indirect
+effects, and where importation from other countries is easy and assured,
+the government of the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to
+maintain or acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and
+especially where the cost of transport over long distances becomes
+prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure the
+maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under forest. This
+can be done either by maintaining or constituting a suitable area of
+state forests, or by exercising a certain amount of control over
+corporation and even private forests. Such measures are more called for
+in continental countries than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved
+by the above statistics.
+
+_Supply of Timber--Imports and Exports._--The following table shows the
+net imports and exports of European countries (average data, calculated
+from the returns of recent years).
+
+The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia, Sweden,
+Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others either have only
+enough for their own consumption, or import timber. Great Britain and
+Ireland import now upwards of 10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about
+4,600,000 tons, and Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France,
+Portugal, Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia
+Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports hardwoods,
+and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal import considerable
+quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia exports hardwoods and some
+Kauri pine from New Zealand, but imports larger quantities of light pine
+and fir timber. British India and Siam export teak and small quantities
+of fancy woods. The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and
+import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will not much
+longer be a genuine exporting country, since they import already almost
+as much timber from Canada as they export. Canada exports considerable
+quantities of timber. The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000
+sq. m., equal to 38% of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest
+for every inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area
+can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous forest
+wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly all other
+countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies in the several
+provinces would only determine to stop the present fearful waste caused
+by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular system of management. As
+matters stand, the supplies of the most valuable timber of Canada, the
+white or Weymouth pine (_Pinus strobus_), are nearly exhausted, the
+great stores of spruce in the eastern provinces are being rapidly
+destroyed, and the forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have
+been attacked for export to the United States and to other countries.
+
+  _Net Imports and Exports of European Countries._
+
+  +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                  |  Quantities in Tons.  |  Value in L Sterling. |
+  |    Countries.    +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                  |  Imports. |  Exports. |  Imports. |  Exports. |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | United Kingdom   |10,004,000 |    . .    |26,540,000 |    . .    |
+  | Germany          | 4,600,000 |    . .    |14,820,000 |    . .    |
+  | Belgium          | 1,300,000 |    . .    | 5,040,000 |    . .    |
+  | France           | 1,230,000 |    . .    | 3,950,000 |    . .    |
+  | Italy            |   620,000 |    . .    | 2,100,000 |    . .    |
+  | Spain            |   470,000 |    . .    | 1,500,000 |    . .    |
+  | Denmark          |   470,000 |    . .    | 1,250,000 |    . .    |
+  | Switzerland      |   204,000 |    . .    |   480,000 |    . .    |
+  | Holland          |   180,000 |    . .    |   720,000 |    . .    |
+  | Servia           |   110,000 |    . .    |   160,000 |    . .    |
+  | Portugal         |    60,000 |    . .    |   200,000 |    . .    |
+  | Greece           |    35,000 |    . .    |   130,000 |    . .    |
+  | Rumania          |    . .    |   400,000 |    . .    |   840,000 |
+  | Norway           |    . .    | 1,300,000 |    . .    | 2,200,000 |
+  | Austria-Hungary  |           |           |           |           |
+  |   with Bosnia and|           |           |           |           |
+  |   Herzegovina    |    . .    | 3,996,000 |    . .    |11,400,000 |
+  | Sweden           |    . .    | 4,460,000 |    . .    | 7,930,000 |
+  | Russia with      |           |           |           |           |
+  |   Finland        |    . .    | 6,890,000 |    . .    |10,440,000 |
+  |                  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |      Total       |19,283,000 |17,046,000 |56,890,000 |32,810,000 |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Net Imports      | 2,237,000 |           |           |24,080,000 |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  These net imports are received from non-European countries. They
+  consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany, eucalypts
+  and others.
+
+Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it may be said
+that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available, but the only
+countries which are able to supply coniferous timber for export on a
+considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria and Canada. As
+these countries have practically to supply the rest of the world, and as
+the management of their forests is far from satisfactory, the question
+of supplying light pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of
+life of the wood industries, must become a very serious matter before
+many years have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are
+everywhere visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to
+over-state the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for
+instance, that 87% of all the timber imported into Great Britain
+consists of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing
+countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries little or
+no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this statement does
+not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which contain upwards of
+12,000,000 acres of waste land, and 12,500,000 acres of mountain and
+heath land used for light grazing. One-fourth of that area, if put under
+forest, would produce all the timber now imported which can be grown in
+Britain, that is to say, about 95% of the total.
+
+The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within the greater
+part of the British empire:--
+
+  _Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire._
+
+  +-----------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
+  |                       |    Annual Average   |   Annual Average    |
+  |      Countries.       |  during the Years   |  during the Years   |
+  |                       |      1884-1888.     |      1900-1903.     |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                       |   Net    |   Net    |   Net    |   Net    |
+  |                       | Imports. | Exports. | Imports. | Exports. |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                       |     L    |     L    |     L    |    L     |
+  |United Kingdom         |15,000,000|   . .    |26,540,000|   . .    |
+  |Australasia            | 1,284,000|   . .    |   568,000|   . .    |
+  |Africa                 |  72,000  |   . .    |   737,000|   . .    |
+  |West Indies,           |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Honduras and Guiana  |    . .   |   207,000|   . .    |    71,000|
+  |India, Ceylon and      |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Mauritius            |    . .   |   528,000|   . .    |   580,000|
+  |Dominion of Canada     |    . .   | 4,025,000|   . .    | 4,789,000|
+  |                       +----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |    Total              |16,356,000| 4,760,000|27,845,000| 5,440,000|
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |Net Imports            |11,596,000|   . .    |22,405,000|   . .    |
+  |Total increase in      |          |          |          |          |
+  |  16 years             |    . .   |   . .    |10,809,000|   . .    |
+  |Average annual increase|          |          |          |          |
+  |  of net imports       |    . .   |   . .    |   675,562|   . .    |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+_Forest Management._--In early times there was practically no forest
+management. As long as the forests occupied considerable areas, their
+produce was looked upon as the free gift of nature, like air and water;
+men took it, used it, and even destroyed it without let or hindrance.
+With the gradual increase of population and the consequent reduction of
+the forest area, proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the
+ownership of certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against
+outsiders. Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in
+protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws. By
+degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient, and that
+steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment, as well as to
+limit the removal of timber to what the forests were capable of
+producing permanently. The teaching of natural science and of political
+economy was brought to bear upon the subject, so that now forestry has
+become a special science. This is recognized in many countries, amongst
+which Germany stands first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark
+and Belgium. Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British
+India, and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good Hope
+and Japan. The United States of America have also turned their attention
+to the subject. Most of the British colonies are, in this respect, as
+yet in a backward state, and the matter has still to be fought out in
+Great Britain and Ireland, though many writers have urged the importance
+of the question upon the public and the government. There can be no
+doubt that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a
+rational and systematic treatment of their forests.
+
+For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under the
+country headings; in this article only some of the more important
+countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of their forestry is
+important. A few notes on Germany and France will be given, because in
+these countries forest management has been brought to highest
+perfection; Italy is mentioned, because she has allowed her forests to
+be destroyed; and a short description of forestry in the United Kingdom
+and in India follows. A separate section is devoted to the United
+States.
+
+_Germany_ is in general well-wooded. The winters being long and severe,
+an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential as a sufficient supply
+of food. This necessity has led, along with a passion for the chase, to
+the preservation of forests, and to the establishment of an admirable
+system of forest cultivation, almost as carefully conducted as field
+tillage. The Black Forest stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy
+of Baden and part of the kingdom of Wurttemberg, from the Neckar to
+Basel and the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the
+Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled with
+birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with. Until
+comparatively recent times large quantities of timber derived from these
+forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland and also shipped to
+England. Now the greater part of it is used locally for construction, or
+it is converted into paper pulp. In the grand-duchy of Hesse the
+Odenwald range of mountains, stretching between the Main and the Neckar,
+contains the chief supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are
+the large wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald.
+
+In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel, on the
+borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging the Upper Moselle,
+but they do not furnish such stately trees as the Black Forest and the
+Odenwald. The Spessart, near Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the
+most extensive forests of middle Germany, containing large masses of
+fine oak and beech, with plantations of coniferous trees, such as
+spruce, Scotch pine and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest
+tracts, such as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the
+Kranzberg near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom.
+North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thuringian
+Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are covered
+with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.
+
+Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia the
+department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister at Berlin,
+while each province, or part of a province, has an Oberforstmeister,
+under whom a number of Oberforsters administrate the state and communal
+forests. These, again, are assisted by a lower class of officials called
+Forsters. The Oberforsters throughout Germany are educated at special
+schools of forestry, of which in 1909 the following nine existed:
+
+In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Munden.
+
+In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.
+
+In Saxony: at Tharand.
+
+In Wurttemberg: at Tubingen.
+
+In Baden: at Carlsruhe.
+
+In Hesse: at Giessen.
+
+In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.
+
+The schools at Munich, Tubingen and Giessen form part of the
+universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached to the
+technical high school; the others are academies for the study of
+forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them all to the
+universities. The subordinate staff are trained for their work in
+so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large number exist. In this
+way the German forests have been brought to a high degree of
+productiveness, but the material derived from them falls far short of
+the requirements, although the forests occupy 26% of the total area of
+the country; hence the net imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000
+tons a year, and they are steadily rising.
+
+_France._--The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The cork oak
+is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The beech, ash, elm,
+maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all important trees, while
+the silver fir and spruce form magnificent forests in the Vosges and
+Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and maritime pines are cultivated in the
+south and south-west. About one-seventh of the entire territory is still
+covered with wood.
+
+Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of the 16th
+century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforcement of
+restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of state forests was
+enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous work on forest trees.
+Reckless destruction of the forests, however, was in progress, and the
+Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus to the work of devastation. The
+usual results have followed in the frequency and destructiveness of
+floods, which have washed away the soil from the hillsides and valleys
+of many districts, especially in the south, and the frequent
+inundations of the last fifty years are no doubt caused by the
+deforesting of the sources of the Rhone and Saone. Laws were passed in
+1860 and 1864, providing for the reforesting, "_reboisement_," of the
+slopes of mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as
+state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the
+departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer of 1875,
+when much injury was done by floods in the south of France, the Durance,
+formerly the most dangerous in this respect of French rivers, gave
+little cause for anxiety, as it is round the head waters of this river
+that the chief plantations have been formed. While tracts formerly
+covered with wood have been replanted, plantations have been formed on
+the shifting sands or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of
+_Pinus pinaster_, 150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the
+mouth of the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since
+1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has transformed
+low marshy grounds into productive soil extending over an area of about
+two million acres. The forests thus created provide annually some
+600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh coal mines.
+
+The state forest department is administered by the director-general, who
+has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board of administration,
+charged with the working of the forests, questions of rights and law,
+finance and plantation works.
+
+The department is supplied with officers from the forest school at
+Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when M. Lorentz, who had
+studied forestry in Germany, was appointed its first director.
+
+_Italy._--The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates that
+within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern Europe, and
+the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern latitudes. By the
+republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa forestal legislation was
+attempted at various periods from the 15th century downwards. These
+efforts were not successful, as the governments were lax in enforcing
+the laws. In 1789 Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling
+without licence, and later orders were published by his successors in
+the pontifical states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached
+nearly down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como
+contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same may also
+be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna there is still a
+large forest of stone pine, _Pinus pinea_, though it has been much
+reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned with planted trees, the
+olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia is rich in woods, which cover
+one-fifth of the area, and contain a large amount of oak, _Quercus
+suber, robur_ and _cerris_. In Sicily the forests have long been felled,
+save the zone at the base of Mount Etna.
+
+The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent; at the end of
+the 17th century the effects of denudation were first felt in the
+destructive force given to mountain torrents by the deforesting of the
+Apennines. The work of devastation continued until a comparatively
+recent time.
+
+In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany, 30 m. from
+Florence, was purchased by government for the purposes of a forest
+academy, which was opened in 1869. As only 4% of the total forest area
+belongs to the state, it is doubtful whether much good can now be done.
+
+_Great Britain and Ireland._--The British Isles were formerly much more
+extensively wooded than at present. The rapid increase of population led
+to the disforesting of woodland; the climate required the maintenance of
+household fires during a great part of the year, and the increasing
+demand for arable land and the extension of manufacturing industries
+combined to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest
+is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual
+supply of timber which is imported with facility from America, northern
+Europe and the numerous British colonies.
+
+Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands, with its
+abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from such extremes of heat
+and cold as are prevalent in continental Europe, a great variety of
+trees are successfully cultivated. In England and Ireland oak and beech
+are on the whole the most plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts;
+in the south of Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common,
+while the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous
+vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests now exist,
+woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees, coppice and
+hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country, constituting a
+mass of wood of considerable importance, giving a clothed appearance in
+many parts, and affording illustrations of skilled arboriculture not to
+be found in any other country.
+
+The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park, 14,000 acres;
+the New Forest, &c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres; and the Dean Forest in
+Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total extent of crown forests is
+about 125,000 acres. A large proportion of the crown forests, having
+been formed with the object of supplying timber for the navy, consists
+of oak. The largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire,
+Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the
+earl of Mansfield's near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl's larch
+plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a large
+extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, belonging to the
+earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Invercauld, the native pine
+attains a great size, and there are also large tracts of indigenous
+birch in various districts. Ireland was at one time richly clothed with
+wood; this is proved by the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs
+which occupy a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes
+above alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled
+state of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.
+
+The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large imports
+of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to the present time
+because (1) the rate at which foreign timber has been laid down in
+Britain is very low, thus keeping down the price of home-grown timber;
+(2) foreign timber is preferred to home-grown material, because it is in
+many cases of superior quality, while the latter comes into the market
+in an irregular and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the
+waste lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown that
+the lowest point was reached about the year 1888, in consequence of the
+remarkable development of means of communication, that prices then
+remained fairly stationary for some years, and that about 1894 a slow
+but steady rise set in, showing during the years 1894-1904 an increase
+of about 20% all round. This was due to the gradual approach of the
+coming crisis in the supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be
+shown that even with present prices the growing of timber can be made to
+pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic manner.
+Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so as to produce a
+better class of timber, and the forests must be managed according to
+well-arranged working plans, which provide for a regular and sustained
+out-turn of timber year by year, so as to develop a healthy and steady
+market for locally-grown material. Unfortunately the private proprietors
+of the waste lands are in many cases not in a financial position to
+plant. Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the
+proprietor must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived from
+the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In these
+circumstances the state may well be expected to help in one or all of
+the following ways: (1) The equipment of forest schools, where economic
+forestry, as elaborated by research, is taught; (2) the management of
+the crown forests on economic principles, so as to serve as patterns to
+private proprietors; (3) advances should be made to landed proprietors
+who desire to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the
+case of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state might
+acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country, such as congested
+districts, and convert them into forests. Action in these directions
+would soon lead to substantial benefits. The income of landed
+proprietors would rise, a considerable sum of money now sent abroad
+would remain in the country, and forest industries would spring up, thus
+helping to counteract the ever-increasing flow of people from the
+country into the large towns, where only too many must join the army of
+the unemployed. Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres of
+land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns. In
+Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized, and it is
+well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Commissioners whether the
+lands remaining on their hands, when buying and breaking up large
+estates, should not be converted into state forests. Such a measure
+might become a useful auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish
+land question. No doubt success depends upon the probable financial
+results. There are at present no British statistics to prove such
+success; hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the
+results have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial
+point of view, is comparable with England. That country has 432,085
+acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth are stocked with
+broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with conifers. Some of the
+forests are situated on low lands, but the bulk of the area is found in
+the hilly parts of the country up to an elevation of 3000 ft. above the
+sea. The average price realized of late years per cubic foot of wood
+amounts to 5d., and yet to such perfection has the management been
+brought by a well-trained staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after
+meeting all expenses, comes to 21s. an acre all round. There can be no
+doubt that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even
+better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered that
+foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at any rate,
+the price per cubic foot rise considerably.
+
+These things have been recognized to some extent, and a movement has
+been set on foot to improve matters. The Commissioners of Woods and a
+number of private proprietors had rational working plans prepared for
+their forests, and instruction in forestry has been developed. There is
+now a well-equipped school of forestry connected with the university of
+Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction in
+forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham College of
+Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places. The Commissioners of
+Woods have purchased an estate of 12,500 acres in Scotland, which will
+be converted into a crown forest, so as to serve as an example. The
+experience thus gained will prove valuable should action ever be taken
+on the lines suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion,
+Reclamation of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last
+subject in 1909.
+
+_India._--The history of forest administration in India is exceedingly
+instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of the British
+Empire, because it places before the reader an account of the gradual
+destruction of the greater part of the natural forests, a process
+through which most other British colonies are now passing, and then it
+shows how India emerged triumphantly from the self-inflicted calamity.
+As far as information goes, India was, in the early times, for the most
+part covered with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country
+along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving from
+pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process went on
+for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest destruction became
+more rapid than ever, owing to the increase of population, extension of
+cultivation, the multiplication of herds of cattle, and the universal
+firing of the forests to produce fresh crops of grass. Then railways
+came, and with their extension the forests suffered anew, partly on
+account of the increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on
+account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their routes.
+Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of public works was
+brought to notice, it was recognized that a grievous mistake had been
+made in allowing the forests to be recklessly destroyed. Already in the
+early part of the 19th century sporadic efforts were made to protect the
+forests in various parts of the country, and these continued
+intermittently; but the first organized steps were taken about the year
+1855, when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time
+conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma. Soon
+afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an organized state
+department, presided over by the inspector-general of forests, was
+established. Since then the Indian Forest Department has steadily grown,
+so that it has now become of considerable importance for the welfare of
+the people, as well as for the Indian exchequer.
+
+The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position and
+extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly of that portion
+which still belonged to the state. Then a special forest law was passed,
+which was superseded in 1878 by an improved act, providing for the legal
+formation of permanent state forests; the determination, regulation,
+and, if necessary, commutation of forest rights; the protection of the
+forests against unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the
+protection of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of
+forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers,
+and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers who
+administered the department in its infancy were mostly botanists and
+military officers. Some of these became excellent foresters. In order to
+provide a technically trained staff arrangements were made in 1866 by
+Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first inspector-general of forests, for the
+training of young Englishmen at the French Forest School at Nancy and at
+similar institutions in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated
+at Nancy, and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized
+in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's Hill.
+In 1905 the school was transferred to the university of Oxford. The
+imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909 of--officers not
+specially trained before entering the department, 17; officers trained
+in France and Germany, 23; officers trained at Cooper's Hill, 143--total
+184.
+
+In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United Provinces, for
+the training of natives of India as executive officers on the provincial
+staff. Since then a similar school, though on a smaller scale, has been
+established at Tharrawaddy in Burma. About 500 officers of this class
+have been appointed. In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates,
+foresters and forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school
+at Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest College.
+
+The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According to the
+latest available returns, the areas taken under the management of the
+department are--reserved state forests, or permanent forest estates,
+91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.; or a total of
+232,941 sq. m., equal to 24% of the area over which they are scattered.
+At present, therefore, the average charge of each member of the
+controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.; that of each executive officer,
+446 sq. m.; and that of each protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the
+intention to increase the executive and protective staff considerably,
+in the same degree as the management of the forests becomes more
+detailed. Of the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch,
+established in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq.
+m. From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic
+management into the forests, based upon working plans, but, as the
+management had been provincialized, there was no central or continuous
+control. This was remedied in 1884, when a central Working Plans Office,
+under the inspector-general of forests, was established. This officer
+has since then controlled the preparation and execution of the plans, a
+procedure which has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to
+about 38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable
+lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance which is
+not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle of a sustained
+yield. While the danger of overworking the forests is thus being
+gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is increased by suitable
+silvicultural treatment and by fire protection. Formerly most of the
+important forests were annually or periodically devastated by jungle
+fires, sometimes lighted accidentally, in other cases purposely. Now
+38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually protected against fire by the
+efforts of the department, and it is the intention gradually to extend
+protection to all permanent state forests. Grazing of cattle is of
+great importance in India; at the same time it is liable to interfere
+seriously with the reproduction of the forests. To meet both
+requirements careful and minute arrangements have been made, according
+to which at present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m.
+are closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while
+176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle. The areas
+closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in years of drought
+and scarcity. During famine years they are either opened to grazing, or
+grass is cut in them and transported to districts where the cattle are
+in danger of starvation. The service rendered in this way by a wise
+forest administration should not be underrated, since one of the most
+serious calamities of a famine--the want of cattle to cultivate the
+land--is thus, if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During
+1907 the government of India established a Research Institute, with six
+members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture, forest
+botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans, and chemistry
+in connexion with forest produce and production. The institute is likely
+to lead to further substantial progress in the management of the
+forests.
+
+The financial results of forest administration in India for the years
+1865 to 1905 show the progress made:
+
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+  |           | Mean Annual  |  Percentage of  |
+  |  Period.  | Net Revenue. | Annual Increase |
+  |           |              |  during Period. |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+  |           |   Rupees.    |                 |
+  |           |              |                 |
+  | 1865-1870 |  1,372,733   |       . .       |
+  | 1870-1875 |  1,783,248   |       30        |
+  | 1875-1880 |  2,224,687   |       25        |
+  | 1880-1885 |  3,385,745   |       52        |
+  | 1885-1890 |  5,066,671   |       50        |
+  | 1890-1895 |  7,370,572   |       44        |
+  | 1895-1900 |  7,923,484   |        7        |
+  | 1900-1905 |  9,004,367   |       12        |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+
+
+The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period 1880-1885. The
+revenue since 1886 has been considerably increased by the annexation of
+Upper Burma.
+
+Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are given free
+of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the country. Thus, in
+1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce
+given free or at reduced rates was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a
+total net benefit derived from the state forests during that year of Rs.
+14,562,755, or in round figures one million pounds sterling. The
+out-turn during the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber
+and fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of other
+forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total gross revenue of
+24 million rupees.
+
+These results are highly creditable to the government of India, which
+has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest management
+into the British empire, thus setting an example which has been followed
+more or less by various colonies. Even the movement in the United
+Kingdom during late years is due to it. Apart from India, substantial
+progress has been made in Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements
+and the Federated Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward
+in this respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in
+Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is threatened
+by destruction.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following works of special interest may be mentioned:
+  W. Schlich, _A Manual of Forestry_ (London) (vols. i., ii. and iii. by
+  W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W.R. Fisher; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1906,
+  of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv., 1907; 2nd
+  ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, _Forest Law_ (London, 1893);
+  Brown, _The Forester_ (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London, 1905);
+  Broilliard, _Le Traitement des bois_ (Paris, 1894); Huffel, _Economie
+  forestiere_ (Paris, 1904-1907); Lorey, _Handbuch der
+  Forstwissenschaft_ (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tubingen, 1903); Rossmassler,
+  _Der Wald_.     (W. Sch.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+_The Forest Regions._--The great treeless region east of the Rocky
+Mountains separates the wooded area of the United States into two grand
+divisions, which may be called the Eastern and the Western forests. The
+Eastern forest is characterized by the predominance, on the whole, of
+broad-leafed trees, the comparative uniformity of its general types over
+wide areas, and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western
+forest conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species
+often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the forest is
+frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the transitions from one
+type to another are often exceedingly abrupt. Both divisions are
+botanically and commercially rich in species.
+
+The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three members:
+
+1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large volume of
+standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its virgin condition,
+from fire. The characteristic trees are maples, birches and beech
+(_Fagus atropunicea_), among the hardwoods and white pine (_Pinus
+strobus_), spruce (_Picea rubens_ and _Picea mariana_) and hemlock
+(_Tsuga canadensis_) among conifers.
+
+2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the Northern, and
+more frequently burned over. Among its characteristic trees are the
+longleaf (_Pinus palustris_) and other pines, oaks, gums, bald cypress
+(_Taxodium distichum_) and white cedar (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_).
+
+3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively little from
+adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern forests except in the
+absence of conifers. Among its trees are the chestnut (_Castanea
+dentata_), hickories, ashes and other hardwoods already mentioned.
+
+The Western division has two members:
+
+1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its trees and
+the vast accumulations of merchantable timber. Among its characteristic
+species are the redwood (_Sequoia sempervirens_) and the big tree (_S.
+Washingtoniana_), the Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), sugar pine
+(_Pinus lambertiana_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), giant
+arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_) and Sitka spruce (_Picea sitchensis_).
+
+2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species are the
+western yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Engelmann spruce (_Picea
+engelmanni_) and lodgepole pine (_Pinus murrayana_). This forest is
+frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less extent,
+especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from fire. Subarid
+in character, except to the north and at high elevations, the vast
+mining interests of the region and its treeless surroundings give this
+forest an economic value out of proportion to the quantities of timber
+it contains.
+
+This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first of
+the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the situation of the
+national forests hereafter mentioned.
+
+The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the commercial
+though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast, which occur along
+the streams and on the lower slopes of the mountains and consist chiefly
+of western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Sitka spruce (_Picea
+sitchensis_), yellow cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and giant
+arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_), usually of large size and uninjured by
+fire; and the vast interior forests, swept by severe fires, and
+consisting chiefly of white and black spruces (_Picea canadensis_ and
+_nigra_), paper birch (_Betula papyrifera_) and aspen (_Populus
+tremuloides_), all of small size but of great importance in connexion
+with mining. Northern Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are
+entirely barren.
+
+[Illustration: Forest Regions of the United States
+
+_The unshaded areas are treeless, except along the Streams_]
+
+_The National Forest Policy._--The forest policy of the United States
+may be said to have had its origin in 1799 in the enactment of a law
+which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for the use of the
+navy, or of land upon which such timber was growing. It is true that
+laws were in force under the early governments of Massachusetts, New
+Jersey and other colonies, providing for the care and protection of
+forest interests in various ways, but these laws were distinctly
+survivals of tendencies acquired in Europe, and for the most part of
+little use. It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous
+shortage in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest
+policy was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from 1817
+to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment, but
+without permanent influence towards the preservation of the live oak
+(_Quercus virginiana_ Mill.), which was the object in view. A long
+period of inaction followed these early measures. In 1831 the
+solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility for the care
+and protection of the public timber lands, and in 1855 this duty was
+transferred to the commissioner of the general land office in the
+Department of the Interior. The effect of these changes upon forest
+protection was unimportant. When, however, at the close of the Civil War
+railway building in the United States took on an unparalleled activity,
+the destruction of forests by fire and the axe increased in a
+corresponding ratio, and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by
+several of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government,
+but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial from
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science, authorized the
+appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough) under the commissioner
+of agriculture, to collect and distribute information upon forest
+matters. His office became in 1880 the division of forestry in what is
+now the United States Department of Agriculture.
+
+As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public interest in
+tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed and later amended and
+repealed the timber culture acts, which granted homesteads on the
+treeless public lands to settlers who planted one-fourth of their
+entries with trees. Though these measures were not successful in
+themselves they directed attention towards forestry. The act which
+repealed them in 1891 contained a clause which lies at the foundation of
+the present forest policy of the United States. By it the president was
+authorized to set aside "any part of the public lands wholly or in part
+covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not,
+as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation,
+declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof."
+Some eighteen million acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the
+time when, in 1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the
+secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report upon "the
+inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest lands of the
+United States." Upon the recommendation of a commission named by the
+Academy, President Cleveland established more than twenty-one million
+acres of new reserves on the 22nd of February 1897. His action was
+widely misunderstood and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in
+forest questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the
+United States since that time could never have been made.
+
+Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland reserves the
+present national forest policy took definite shape. Under this policy
+the national government holds and manages, in the common interest of all
+users of the forests or its products, such portions of the public lands
+as have been set aside by presidential proclamation in accordance with
+the act of 1891. These lands are held against private acquisition under
+the Homestead Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter
+mentioned), the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the
+United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain, but not
+against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws. They are
+selected from lands believed to be more valuable for forest purposes
+than for agriculture, and are managed with the purpose of securing from
+them the best and largest possible returns, present and future, whether
+in the form of water for irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for
+stock, or of any other beneficial product. The aggregate area of the
+reserves, or national forests, has been steadily increased until they
+now include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.
+
+The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by the
+commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to the secretary
+of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of June 4, 1897, which was
+largely shaped by the work of the commission. Until this act was passed
+the national forests had been in theory closed against any form of use;
+nor had the possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use
+received much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such a
+state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion would
+have forced the opening to use of the resources thus arbitrarily locked
+up, and in the absence of any administrative system providing for
+conservative use, the national forests would inevitably have been
+abolished, and the whole policy of government forest holdings would have
+ceased. The act of June 4, 1897 was therefore of the first importance.
+This act conferred upon the secretary of the interior general powers for
+the proper management of the national forests through the general land
+office of his department. It provided for the designation and sale of
+dead, mature and large timber; authorized the secretary to permit free
+use of timber in small quantities by settlers, miners and residents;
+empowered him to "make such rules and regulations and establish such
+service as will insure the objects of such reservations, namely, to
+regulate their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon
+from destruction"; and made violation of the act or of such rules and
+regulations a misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish
+forest reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the
+forest, securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a
+continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of
+the United States. Lands found, upon due examination, to be more
+valuable for other purposes than for forest uses might be eliminated
+from any reservation, and all mineral lands within the reservations were
+left open to private appropriation under the mineral laws. The rights of
+settlers and claimants were safeguarded, and civil and criminal
+jurisdiction, except so far as the punishment of offences against the
+United States in the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the
+States.
+
+While the administration of the national forests was entrusted to the
+general land office, the same act assigned the surveying and mapping of
+them to the United States Geological Survey, which has published
+descriptions and maps of some of the more important.
+
+No attempt was made in the general land office to develop a technical
+forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of passage of the act,
+less than ten trained foresters in the United States, no means of
+training more, and very little conception of what forestry actually
+meant. The purpose of the administration was therefore mainly protection
+against trespass and fire, particularly the latter. Regulations were
+made giving effect to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth
+above, but in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely
+be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the use of
+the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly developing in another
+branch of the government service an organization qualified for actual
+forest management.
+
+One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the division of
+forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased to be merely a bureau
+of information, and became an active agency for introducing the actual
+practice of forestry among private owners and for conducting the
+investigations upon which a sound American forest practice could be
+based. The work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted
+a powerful educational influence upon the country at large. The division
+extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the Bureau of Forestry. It
+drew into its employment for a time nearly all the men who were
+preparing themselves in increasing numbers (at first abroad, then in the
+newly-founded schools in the United States) for the profession of
+forestry, and was soon recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively
+on technical questions connected with the administration of the national
+forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior for
+the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans were
+accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The general land
+office, however, was not ready to attempt active forest management.
+Though some timber was sold and the grazing of stock regulated to some
+extent, the main object of the land office administration continued to
+be protection against fire. Many of the regulations which it made could
+not be enforced.
+
+The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government forest work
+among three separate agencies grew more and more apparent, until, on the
+1st of February 1905, control of the 63,000,000 acres of forest reserves
+which up to that time had been set aside was transferred from the
+general land office to the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its
+new duties the designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.
+
+[Illustration: National Forests and National Parks of the United States.]
+
+Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were that forest
+supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far as possible, from
+qualified citizens of the state or territory in which each forest was
+situated, and that all money received from the sale of any products or
+the use of any land or resources of the national forests should be
+covered into the treasury and constitute a special fund for their
+protection, administration, improvement and extension. Five days later a
+statute gave forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the
+3rd of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had
+opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worthless land
+by private owners within the forests for an equal area of valuable
+timber lands outside.
+
+The law has been modified since by the change of the old name "Forest
+Reserves" to "National Forests." The act of June 11, 1906, opened to
+homestead entry lands within national forests found by examination to be
+chiefly valuable for agriculture. The administration and improvement of
+the national forests are now provided for directly by congressional
+appropriation. The power to create national forests conferred on the
+president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the states of
+Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Colorado, but for no
+others.
+
+The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all the resources
+of the national forests. Mature timber was sold wherever there was a
+demand for it and the permanent welfare of the forests and protection of
+the streams permitted, but always so as to prevent waste, guard against
+fire, protect young growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were
+adopted which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay,
+secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and eliminated
+unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard the interests of the
+government and provide for the maintenance of good technical standards.
+The conduct of local business was entrusted to local officers. Large
+transactions with general policies were controlled from Washington, but
+with careful provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with
+the work in the field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the
+public were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created
+capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the complex
+business of making useful a forest property of vast extent, scattered
+through sixteen different states of an aggregate area of over 1,500,000
+sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000.
+
+The growth since the 1st of July 1897 of the area of the national
+forests, of the expenditures of the government for forestry, and of the
+receipts from the national forests, is shown by the statement which
+follows. Though the act of June 4, 1897, became effective immediately
+upon its passage, the fiscal year 1899 was the first of actual
+administration, because the first for which Congress made the
+appropriation necessary to carry out the law.
+
+  _Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal
+  Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration, and
+  Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909._
+
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+  |         |     Area of     |                    |              |                  |                  |                 |
+  | Fiscal  | National Forests|Division of Forestry|   General    |  Receipts from   |  Receipts from   |Expenditures upon|
+  | Year.[1]| at Close of Year|(Bureau of Forestry,| Land Office. | National Forests.| National Forests,|National Forests,|
+  |         |   (June 30).    |  Forest Service).  |              |                  |     per Acre.    |    per Acre.    |
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+  |         |      Acres.     |         $          |       $      |          $       |         $        |        $        |
+  |  1898   |    40,866,184   |      20,000.00     |     . .      |        . .       |       . .        |       . .       |
+  |  1899   |    46,168,439   |      28,520.00     | 175,000.00   |       7,534.83   |     0.00016      |     0.0038      |
+  |  1900   |    46,515,039   |      48,520.00     | 210,000.00   |      36,754.02   |      .00078      |      .0045      |
+  |  1901   |    46,324,479   |      88,520.00     | 325,000.00   |      29,250.88   |      .00063      |      .0070      |
+  |  1902   |    51,896,357   |     185,440.00     | 300,000.00   |      25,431.87   |      .00049      |      .0060      |
+  |  1903   |    62,211,240   |     291,860.00     | 304,135.00   |      45,838.08   |      .00074      |      .0054      |
+  |  1904   |    62,611,449   |     350,000.00     | 375,000.00   |      58,436.19   |      .00093      |      .0072      |
+  |  1905   |    85,693,422   |     632,232.36[2]  | 217,907.64[2]|      73,276.15   |      .00085      |      .0059      |
+  |  1906   |   106,994,018   |   1,191,400.21     |     . .      |     767,219.96   |      .00717      |      .0089      |
+  |  1907   |   150,832,665   |   1,800,595.20     |     . .      |   1,571,059.44   |      .01041      |      .0097      |
+  |  1909   |   167,677,749   |   2,948,153.08     |     . .      |   1,807,276.66   |      .00931      |      .0151      |
+  +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+
+Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber. In the
+fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less than half the
+receipts. The following statement concerning the timber sales of the
+fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring out the change that followed
+the transfer of control to the forest service in the midst of the fiscal
+year 1905:--
+
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+  | Fiscal |   Amount of   |  Amount of  | Receipts from |
+  | Year.  |  Timber Sold. | Timber Cut. | Timber Sales. |
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+  |        |     Bd.-ft.   |   Bd.-ft.   |       $       |
+  |  1904  |   112,773,710 |  58,435,000 |   58,436.19   |
+  |  1905  |   113,661,508 |  68,475,000 |   73,270.15   |
+  |  1906  |   328,230,326 | 138,665,000 |  245,013.49   |
+  |  1907  | 1,044,855,000 | 194,872,000 |  686,813.12   |
+  +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+
+
+These figures show (1) a large excess each year in the amount of timber
+sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much timber sold at
+the end of the four-year period as at the beginning and three times as
+much cut; and (3) a much higher price obtained per thousand board-feet
+at the end of the period than at the beginning. Each of these matters
+calls for comment. The sales are of stumpage only; the government does
+no logging on its own account.
+
+1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for, because many
+of the sales extend over several years. With increasing sales the amount
+sold each year for future removal has exceeded the amount to be removed
+during that year under sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a
+term of years are made because the national forests contain much
+overmature timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too
+inaccessible to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent speculation the
+time allowed for cutting is never more than five years, and cutting must
+begin at once and be continued steadily.
+
+2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much forest is ripe
+for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by trained men makes it
+safe to cut more freely. The increase is marked both in small and in
+large sales, but a score of sales for less than $5000 are made against
+one for more. The total cut is still far below the annual increment of
+the forests. As the demand grows restrictions must increase in order to
+husband the present supply until the next crop matures.
+
+3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures to have
+risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars per thousand
+board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one year are not exclusively
+for the timber cut in that year, since payments are made in advance. In
+the year 1907 the average price obtained was something less than $2.50
+per thousand. It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen
+greatly, although conditions new to the American lumbermen are imposed.
+Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of young growth
+in felling and logging, and the piling of brush, to be subsequently
+burned by the forest officers if burning is necessary, are among these
+conditions. Timber to be cut must first be marked by the forest
+officers. Sales of more than $100 in value are made only after public
+advertisement.
+
+Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been introduced. The
+vast area of the national forests, the comparatively sparse population
+of the West, the rough and broken character of the forests themselves,
+and the newness of the problems which their management presents, make
+the general application of intensive methods for the present
+impracticable. Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is
+most used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate
+diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed. The
+tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and effective
+application of the selection principle, as a better trained field force
+is developed and as market conditions improve.
+
+One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by fires on the
+national forests. During the unusually dry season of 1905 there were
+only eight fires of any importance, and the area burned over amounted
+only to about .16 of 1% of the total area. In 1900 about .12 of 1% was
+burned. This was accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the
+public, and by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush
+on cut-over areas.
+
+Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from the
+national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is one of the
+most important industries of the West. Formerly cattle and sheep grazed
+freely on all parts of the public domain. In the early days of the
+national forests the wisdom of permitting any grazing at all upon them
+was sharply questioned. Unrestricted grazing had led to friction between
+individuals, the deterioration of much of the range through
+overstocking, and serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The
+forests of the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain
+many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high mountain
+meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and other forage plants
+which they produce in great quantity can be used without detriment to
+the forests themselves, and with great benefit to the stock industry,
+which often can find summer pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern
+California grazing is now permitted on all national forests unless the
+watersheds furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and
+leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and the part
+of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed. Planted areas and
+cut-over areas are closed to stock until the young growth is safe from
+harm, and goats are allowed only in the brushland of the foothills.
+
+The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of forest
+growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes, improved range,
+better stock, stable conditions in the stock industry, and the best use
+of the range in the interest of progress and development. The first
+right to graze stock on the forests is given to residents, small owners
+and those who have used the range before. Thus the crowding out of the
+weaker by the stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has
+been stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate
+charge for the use of the national forest range. The following statement
+shows the amount of stock grazed on the national forests 1904-09, and
+the receipts for the grazing charge:--
+
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+  | Year.|    Number of     |   Number of    |   Receipts.   |
+  |      |Cattle and Horses.|Sheep and Goats.|               |
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+  |      |                  |                |       $       |
+  | 1904 |      610,091     |   1,806,722    |      . .      |
+  | 1905 |      692,124     |   1,709,987    |      . .      |
+  | 1906 |    1,015,148     |   5,763,100    |   514,692.87  |
+  | 1907 |    1,200,158     |   6,657,083    |   863,920.32  |
+  | 1909 |    1,581,404     |   7,819,594    | 1,032,185.70  |
+  +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+
+
+A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting on the
+national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices and incomplete
+utilization of forest products, clear cutting with subsequent planting
+is not practicable. There are, however, many million acres of denuded
+land within the national forests which require planting. Such planting
+is still confined chiefly to watersheds which supply cities and towns
+with water. The first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since
+then similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado, Utah,
+Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the Black Hills national
+forest, where large areas of cut-over and burned-over land are entirely
+without seed trees, and in the sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908
+about 2,000,000 seedlings had been planted, on over 2000 acres--a small
+beginning, but the work was entirely new and presented many hard
+problems.
+
+The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated at seven
+stations, located in southern California, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico
+(2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is raised for local planting and for
+shipment elsewhere. These nurseries are small. Their annual productive
+capacity is between 8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is
+practically an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large
+variety of species are grown and various methods are tried.
+
+The organization of the administrative work of the national forests is
+by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total number of
+forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres (on April 7,
+1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the U.S. with 167,672,467
+acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626 and one in Porto Rico with
+65,950 acres). In charge of each forest is a forest supervisor. Under
+the supervisors are forest rangers and forest guards, whose duties
+include patrol, marking timber and scaling logs, enforcing the
+regulations and conducting some of the minor business arising from the
+use of the forests. Guards are temporary employes; rangers are employed
+by the year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions
+from the central office at Washington. In this office there are four
+branches--operation, grazing, silviculture and products--each of which
+directs that part of the work which belongs to it, dealing directly with
+the supervisor. For inspection purposes, however, the forests are
+separated into six districts, in each of which is located a chief
+inspector with a corps of assistants. The inspectors are without
+administrative authority, but assist by their counsel the supervisors,
+and through inspection reports keep the Washington office informed of
+the condition of all lines of administrative work in progress.
+Administrative officers alternate frequently between field and office
+duties.
+
+The number of forest officers in the several grades on the 1st of
+January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106 forest
+supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest rangers and 283
+forest guards. The total number of employes of the forest service on the
+same date, including the clerical force, was 2034.
+
+Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest service
+conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive educational
+work, and co-operates with private owners who contemplate forest
+management upon their own tracts. This last work is undertaken because
+of the need of bringing forestry into practice, the lack of trained
+foresters outside of the employ of the government, and the lack of
+information as to how to apply forestry and what returns may be
+obtained. Co-operation takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on
+occasion, of the making of working plans. The educational work of the
+service is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which
+is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry to
+the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests. The
+investigations which the service conducts extend from studies of the
+natural distribution and classification of American forests and of their
+varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber production and
+laboratory researches which bear upon the economical utilization of
+forest products. As examples of these researches may be mentioned tests
+of the strength of timber, studies of the preservative treatment of wood
+for various uses, wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood
+chemistry.
+
+_Forest Instruction._--Most of the men now in the forest service
+received their training in the United States. There are several
+professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which was
+opened as a department of Yale University in September 1900, offers a
+two-years' graduate course with abundant field work, and also conducts a
+summer school of forestry, especially adapted to the training of forest
+rangers and special students, at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university
+of Michigan and Harvard University also offer a two-years' graduate
+course in forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently
+established a four-years' undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore
+Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools, offers
+a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number of the
+agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among these are
+Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington and Mississippi
+agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and Iowa State College.
+Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special mention as a college which has
+done valuable work in teaching forestry without attempting to turn out
+professional foresters.
+
+_Forestry among the States._--Among the states forestry has hardly
+reached the stage of practical application on the ground. New York holds
+1,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commission to care for its
+forest preserve, and to protect the forest land throughout the state
+from fire. The constitution of the state, however, prohibits the cutting
+of timber on state land, and thus confines the work entirely to
+protection of the forest and to the planting of waste areas.
+Pennsylvania is at present showing the most efficient activity in
+working out a forest policy. It has state forests of 820,000 acres, a
+good fire law more and more satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries
+for growing planting material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings
+were set out. It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on
+the state forests, and it has just established a state professional
+school of forestry.
+
+Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers, six
+have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation with the
+forest service, and there is scarcely one which is not actively
+interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent damage from
+forest fires, have been enacted by practically all the states, but
+their enforcement has unfortunately been lax. Public sentiment, however,
+is making rapid progress. Among the best laws are those of Maine, New
+Hampshire, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York
+law, for example, provides for the appointment of one or more
+fire-wardens in each town of the counties in which damage by fire is
+especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns are
+_ex-officio_ fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general supervision
+of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose services is paid
+by the state, receive compensation only for the time actually employed
+in fighting fires. They may command the service of any citizen to assist
+them. Setting fire to woods or waste lands belonging to the state or to
+another, if such fire results in loss, is punishable by a fine not
+exceeding $250 or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and
+damages are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond
+question the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the
+measures taken against it are of vital importance.
+
+The following table shows the amount of forest land held by the
+different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:--
+
+  _Area of State Forest Reservations, 1907._
+
+  Connecticut       1,360 acres
+  Hawaii          117,532   "
+  Indiana           2,000   "
+  Maryland          3,540   "
+  Michigan         39,000   "
+  Minnesota        42,800   "
+  New Jersey        2,474   "
+  New York      1,439,998   "
+  Pennsylvania    820,000   "
+  Wisconsin       254,072   "
+
+_Forestry on Private Lands._--The practice of forestry among private
+owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances was that of Jared
+Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic cutting of timber land to
+supply charcoal for an iron furnace at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The
+successful planting of waste lands with timber trees in Massachusetts
+dates from about ten years later. But such examples were comparatively
+rare until recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber
+with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more common
+than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially frequent. It
+was begun among lumbermen by the late E.S. Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who
+made a practice of restricting the cut of spruce from his forests to
+trees 10, 12 or sometimes even 14 in. in diameter, with the result that
+much of his land yielded, during his life, a second crop as plentiful as
+the first. Many owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but
+until very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry on a
+large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks during the
+summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W.S. Webb and Hon. W.C. Whitney, of a
+combined area of over 100,000 acres, under the superintendence of the
+then Division of Forestry. In these forests spruce, maple, beech and
+birch predominate, but the spruce alone is at present of the first
+commercial importance. The treatment is a form of the selection system.
+Under it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in
+thirty-five years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work had
+been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great satisfaction to
+the owners and the lumbering contractors, as well as to the decided
+benefit of the forest. The lumbering is regulated by the following
+rules, and competent inspectors are employed to see that they are
+rightly carried out: (1) No trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2)
+All trees marked shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the
+woods, and none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All
+merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the small
+end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more than 6 in. higher
+than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall be used for bridges,
+corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose except building camps, dams
+or booms, unless it is absolutely necessary on account of lack of other
+timber. (7) All merchantable spruce used for skidways must be cut into
+logs and hauled out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage
+to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must discharge
+the men who did it.
+
+These two instances of forestry have been most useful and effective
+among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in the north-east. Among
+those which have followed their example are the Berlin Mills Paper
+Company in northern New Hampshire, the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in
+northern Michigan, and the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New
+York, all of which have employed professional foresters.
+
+The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the estate of
+George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N.C. This was the first case of
+systematic forestry under regular working plans in the United States. It
+was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres, and has since been extended until
+it now covers about 100,000 acres. A professional forester with a corps
+of trained rangers under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania
+Railroad has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants
+and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.
+
+The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private owners
+is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908 670 wood lots and
+timber tracts had been examined by agents of the forest service, of
+which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in extent, and planting plans had
+been made for 436 owners covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert
+advice is also given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the
+state foresters.
+
+_American Practice._--The conditions under which forestry is practised
+in Europe and in America differ so widely that rules which are received
+as axiomatic in the one must often be rejected in the other. Among these
+conditions in America are the highly developed and specialized methods
+and machinery of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation
+and consequent greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number of
+small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of low-grade wood
+in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest properties, cut-over as
+well as virgin, notably in the north-western pineries, and the firmly
+established habits of lumbermen, are factors of great importance. From
+these and other considerations it follows that such generally accepted
+essentials of European methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield,
+a permanent force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the
+like, are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at the
+present day in private forestry. Methods of forest management, to find
+acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible to existing
+methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity, the observance of
+which will yet secure the safety of the forest, must open the way for
+more refined methods in the future. For the present a periodic or
+irregular yield, temporary means of transport, constantly changing
+crews, and an almost total ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of
+the most important trees--all combine to enforce the simplest
+silvicultural treatment and the utmost concentration of purpose on the
+two main objects of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue
+and the perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed
+in practice by complete success.
+
+The forests with which the American forester deals are rich in species,
+usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction, and, over a large
+part of their range, greatly dependent for their composition and general
+character upon the action of forest fires. Of the commercially valuable
+trees there may be said to be, in round numbers, a hundred out of a
+total forest flora of about 500 species, but many trees not yet of
+importance in the lumber trade will become so hereafter, as has already
+happened in many cases. The attention of the forester must usually be
+concentrated upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and
+never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems which
+must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are fortunately
+less complicated than the presence of so many kinds of trees in forests
+of such diverse types would naturally seem to indicate.
+
+The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which the
+American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest fires have
+had more to do with the character and distribution of forests in America
+than any other factor except rainfall. With an annual range over
+thousands of square miles, in many portions of the United States they
+occur regularly year after year on the same ground. Trees whose thick
+bark or abundant seeding gives them peculiar powers of resistance,
+frequently owe their exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the
+action of fire. On the economic side fire is equally influential. The
+probability, or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first
+cut, commonly determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree
+standing. Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the
+introduction of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another
+of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut, and
+afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot afford to hold.
+This evil, which only the progress of public sentiment can control, is
+especially prevalent in certain portions of the white pine belt.
+
+_Forest Associations._--Public sentiment in favour of the protection of
+forests is now widespread and increasingly effective throughout the
+United States. As the general understanding of the objects and methods
+of forestry becomes clearer, the tendency, formerly very marked, to
+confound ornamental tree planting and botanical matters with forestry
+proper is rapidly growing less. At the same time, the number and
+activity of associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with
+notable rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the
+United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters, is
+composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American Forestry
+Association is the oldest and largest. It has been influential in
+preparing the ground work of popular interest in forestry, and
+especially in advocating and securing the adoption of the federal forest
+reservation policy, the most important step yet taken by the national
+government. It publishes as its organ a monthly magazine called
+_Forestry and Irrigation_. The Pennsylvania Forestry Association has
+been instrumental in placing that state in the forefront of forest
+progress. Its organ is a bi-monthly publication called _Forest Leaves_.
+Other states which have associations or societies of special influence
+in forest matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado,
+New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted in Nebraska in
+1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers who had settled on the
+treeless prairies, has been taken up as a means of interesting school
+children in the planting of trees, and has spread until it is now
+observed in every state and territory. It continues to serve an
+admirable purpose.
+
+_Lumbering._--According to the census report for 1905 the capital
+invested in logging operations in the United States was $90,454,596, the
+number of employes engaged 146,596, and their wages $66,990,000;
+sawmills represented an invested capital of $381,621,000, and employed
+223,674 persons, whose wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills
+represented a capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons
+whose wages were $66,434,000.
+
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              | Equivalent|Estimated|Estimated|Total Wood|
+  |     Product.      |         Output 1906.         |    Wood   |  Woods  |  Mill   |  Volume  |
+  |                   |                              |  Volume.  |Waste.[3]|Waste.[4]| Consumed.|
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              |  Million  | Million | Million | Million  |
+  |                   |                              |  cub. ft. | cub. ft.| cub. ft.| cub. ft. |
+  | Lumber--          |                              |           |         |         |          |
+  |   Conifers        |   30,200,000 thousand bd. ft.|   2517    |  1173   |  2170   |   5860   |
+  |   Hardwoods       |    7,300,000     "      "    |    612    |   577   |   461   |   1650   |
+  | Shingles          |   11,900,000     "      "    |    107    |    54   |   109   |    270   |
+  | Pulpwood          |    2,900,000 cords           |    261    |    79   |   . .   |    340   |
+  | Wood distillation |    1,200,000   "             |    108    |    12   |   . .   |    120   |
+  | Heading           |  146,000,000 sets            |     32    |    33   |    45   |    110   |
+  | Staves--          |                              |           |         |         |          |
+  |   Tight cooperage |  267,000,000                 |     22    |    36   |    32   |     90   |
+  |   Slack cooperage |1,097,000,000                 |     27    |    22   |    21   |     70   |
+  | Poles             |    3,500,000                 |     35    |    15   |   . .   |     50   |
+  | Veneer            |      300,000 thousand bd. ft.|     50    |    30   |   . .   |     80   |
+  | Round mine timbers|  165,000,000 cub. ft.        |    165    |    35   |   . .   |    200   |
+  | Hewn cross ties   |   77,500,000                 |    207    |   503   |   . .   |    710   |
+  |                   |                              +-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |                   |                              |   4143    |  2569   |  2838   |   9550   |
+  +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+
+
+All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are
+controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar unit of
+measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-foot, is generally
+defined as a board one foot long, one foot wide and one inch thick, but
+in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in. of manufactured lumber in
+any form. To purchase logs by this measure one must first know about
+what each log will yield in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or
+table is used, which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and
+lengths in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for
+nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable waste in
+slabs and sawdust costing him nothing.
+
+The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for certain
+purposes in the United States in 1906.
+
+In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is used each
+year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and the total annual
+consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft.
+
+The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the rank of the
+important timber trees with reference to the amount of timber cut, and a
+shifting of the important centres of production. Among coniferous trees,
+white pine has yielded successively to yellow pine and Douglas fir,
+while the scene of greatest activity has shifted from the Northern
+forest to the Southern, and from there is rapidly shifting to the
+Pacific Coast. The total cut of coniferous lumber has increased
+steadily, but that of the hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was
+15% less than in 1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming
+more and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed
+from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region.
+
+_Conifers._--The coniferous supply of the country is derived from four
+forest regions: (1) The Northern forest; (2) the Southern forest; (3)
+the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky Mountain forest.
+
+1. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coniferous
+lumber production in the United States. The principal timber tree of
+this region is the white pine, usually known in Europe as the Weymouth
+pine. It has an average height when mature of 110 ft., with a diameter a
+little less than 3 ft., but the virgin timber is approaching exhaustion.
+White pine was one of the first trees to be cut extensively in the
+United States, and Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre
+of production. In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was
+144 million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock 11 million.
+Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce had risen
+to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a million feet.
+Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed from the north woods to
+the Lake States, and for many years this region was the scene of the
+most vigorous lumbering activity in the world. The following figures
+show the cut for the Lake States from 1873 to 1906. It is certain that
+the remarkable decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show
+will continue still farther.
+
+  1873  3,993,780,000  |  1890  8,597,659,352
+  1874  3,751,306,000  |  1891  7,879,948,349
+  1875  3,968,553,000  |  1892  8,594,222,802
+  1876  3,879,046,000  |  1893  7,326,263,782
+  1877  3,595,333,496  |  1894  6,821,516,412
+  1878  3,629,472,759  |  1895  7,050,669,235
+  1879  4,806,943,000  |  1896  5,725,763,035
+  1880  5,651,295,000  |  1897  6,233,454,000
+  1881  6,768,856,749  |  1898  6,155,300,000
+  1882  7,552,150,744  |  1899  6,056,508,000
+  1883  7,624,789,786  |  1900  5,485,261,000
+  1884  7,935,033,054  |  1901  5,336,000,000
+  1885  7,053,094,555  |  1902  5,294,000,000
+  1886  7,425,368,443  |  1903  4,792,000,000
+  1887  7,757,916,784  |  1904  4,220,000,000
+  1888  8,388,716,460  |  1905  3,777,000,000
+  1889  8,183,050,755  |  1906  3,032,000,000
+
+Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees of the
+Northern forest is the hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_). It is used chiefly
+for construction purposes and furnishes a comparatively low grade of
+lumber.
+
+The spruce (_Picea rubens_) is used chiefly for lumber, but it is in
+large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper pulp. For the
+latter purpose hemlock, poplar (_Populus tremuloides_ and _P.
+grandidentata_) and several other woods are also employed, but on a
+smaller scale. The total consumption of wood for paper in the United
+States for 1906 was 3,660,000 cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of
+this, however, 720,000 cords were imported from Canada.
+
+2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow pine. This is
+the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban
+pines. Of these the longleaf pine (_Pinus palustris_ Mill.), called
+pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important. Its timber is probably
+superior in strength and durability to that of any other member of the
+genus _Pinus_, and in addition to its value as a timber tree it is the
+source of naval stores in the United States. The average size of the
+mature longleaf pine is 90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter.
+Shortleaf (_Pinus echinata_) and loblolly (_P. taeda_) are other
+important members of this group. Their wood very closely resembles that
+of the longleaf pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The
+trees are also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however,
+of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was
+11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its maximum,
+but is certainly near it.
+
+Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest is the bald
+cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), which grows in the swamps. The cut in
+1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of 69% over 1899.
+
+3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the Pacific
+Coast. The Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), also known as Douglas
+spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost tree in Oregon and
+Washington, and the redwood in California. When mature the Douglas fir
+averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft. in diameter, and the redwood 225
+ft. in height and 8 ft. in diameter. Other important trees of the
+Pacific Coast are sugar pine (_Pinus lambertiana_), western red cedar
+(_Thuja plicata_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), Sitka spruce
+(_Picea sitchensis_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) and western
+yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_). These trees will all be of increasing
+importance.
+
+Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of powerful
+machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous weights. This is
+especially true in California, where the logs of redwood and of the big
+tree (_Sequoia Washingtoniana_) are often more than 10 ft. in diameter.
+Logging is usually done by wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The
+journey to the mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great
+size, built on piles over tide water and so arranged that their product
+is delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored
+alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their way over
+land to the markets of the central and eastern states and into foreign
+markets. Among the lumber-producing states, Washington has in seven
+years jumped from fifth place to first, and its output has increased
+from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in 1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906.
+Oregon and California have increased their output from 734,000,000 each
+in 1899 to 1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of
+the total output of these three states (7,259,000,000 ft.) 4,880,000,000
+ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.
+
+4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest are the
+western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas fir and the
+Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely variable in size and
+value, reaches in this region average dimensions of perhaps 80 ft. in
+height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and
+the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by 2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses
+chiefly absorb the annual timber product, which is considerable in
+quantity, and of vast importance to the local population. The lumber
+output of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very rapidly
+both in the north and in the south-west. One of the largest mills in the
+United States is in Idaho.
+
+The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous
+species during the years 1899-1906:
+
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |       |       |       | Per Cent Increase|
+  |     Kind.    | 1899. | 1904. | 1906. | (+) or Decrease  |
+  |              |       |       |       |  (-) since 1899. |
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |Million|Million|Million|                  |
+  |              |  ft.  |   ft. |  ft.  |                  |
+  | Yellow Pine  | 9,659 |11,533 |11,661 |     +  20.7      |
+  | Douglas Fir  | 1,737 | 2,928 | 4,970 |     + 186.2      |
+  | White Pine   | 7,742 | 5,333 | 4,584 |     -  40.8      |
+  | Hemlock      | 3,421 | 3,269 | 3,537 |     +   3.4      |
+  | Spruce       | 1,448 | 1,304 | 1,645 |     +  13.6      |
+  | Western Pine |   944 | 1,279 | 1,387 |     +  46.9      |
+  | Cypress      |   496 |   750 |   839 |     +  69.3      |
+  | Redwood      |   360 |   519 |   683 |     +  83.2      |
+  | Cedar        |   233 |   223 |   358 |     +  53.7      |
+  |              +-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+  |              |26,040 | 27,138|29,664 |     +  14        |
+  +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+
+
+_Hardwoods._--The hardwood supply of the country is derived almost
+entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and comes from each of
+the three great Eastern forest regions.
+
+The following table shows the cut of the important species of hardwoods
+for 1899 and 1906:
+
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |              |           |           |    Per Cent     |
+  |     Kind.    |   1899.   |   1906.   |   Increase (+)  |
+  |              |           |           | or Decrease (-).|
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |              | Thousand  | Thousand  |                 |
+  |              |  Feet.    |  Feet.    |                 |
+  | Oak          | 4,438,027 | 2,820,393 |    -  36.5      |
+  | Maple        |   633,466 |   882,878 |    +  39.4      |
+  | Poplar       | 1,115,242 |   693,076 |    -  37.9      |
+  | Red gum      |   285,417 |   453,678 |    +  59.0      |
+  | Chestnut     |   206,688 |   407,379 |    +  97.1      |
+  | Basswood     |   308,069 |   376,838 |    +  22.3      |
+  | Birch        |   132,601 |   370,432 |    + 179.4      |
+  | Cottonwood   |   415,124 |   263,996 |    -  36.4      |
+  | Beech        |       (a) |   275,661 |                 |
+  | Elm          |   456,731 |   224,795 |    -  50.8      |
+  | Ash          |   269,120 |   214,460 |    -  20.8      |
+  | Hickory      |    96,636 |   148,212 |    +  53.4      |
+  | Tupelo       |       (a) |    47,882 |                 |
+  | Walnut       |    38,681 |    48,174 |    +  24.5      |
+  | Sycamore     |    29,715 |       (a) |                 |
+  | All other    |   208,504 |    87,637 |    -  58.0      |
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  |    Total     | 8,634,021 | 7,315,491 |    -  15.3      |
+  +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
+  a Not separately reported.
+
+Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output, has fallen off
+36.5%. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second among the hardwoods, has
+fallen off 38% and now occupies third place; and elm, the great stand-by
+in slack cooperage, has fallen 50.8%. On the other hand less valuable
+species like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59% respectively.
+
+The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods grow
+naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern United
+States where the population has always been the densest, and as a
+consequence of this, a large proportion of the original hardwood land
+has been cleared up and put under cultivation. The hardwood supply of
+the future must be obtained chiefly from the Appalachian region, where
+the conditions are less favourable to agriculture.
+
+In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hardwoods are used
+each year for railroad ties, telephone and other poles, piles, fence
+posts and fuel, and there is a great amount of waste in the course of
+lumbering and manufacture.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sargent, _Silva of North America_ (Boston, 1891-1897),
+  _Manual of Trees of North America_ (Boston, 1903); Lemmon, _Handbook
+  of West American Cone-Bearers_ (San Francisco, 1895); Bruncken, _North
+  American Forests and Forestry_ (New York, 1900); Fernow, _Economics of
+  Forestry_ (New York, 1902); Pinchot, _The Adirondack Spruce_ (New
+  York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, _The White Pine_ (New York, 1896).
+  See also the various publications of the U.S. forest service,
+  including especially the following general works: _Forest Influences_;
+  _Primer of Forestry_; the _Timber Supply of the United States_; the
+  _Waning Hardwood Supply_; _Forest Products of the United States in
+  1906_; _Exports and Imports of Forest Products in 1906_; _Federal and
+  State Forest Laws_; _Regulations and Instructions for the Use of the
+  National Forests_; _The Use of the National Forests_; also part v. of
+  the _Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports of the United
+  States Geological Survey_, and vol. ix. of the _10th Census Report on
+  the Forests of North America_; and _Reports_ of the State Forestry
+  Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
+  Ohio, &c., and of the State Geological Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland
+  and North Carolina.     (G. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its
+    designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus, the
+    fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1, 1897-June 30, 1898.
+
+  [2] Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1,
+    1905.
+
+  [3] Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does
+    not include defective trees left or trees used for road purposes.
+
+  [4] Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings.
+
+
+
+
+FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC (1804-1872), marshal of France, was born at Paris
+on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the army from St Cyr in 1824. He
+took part in the earlier Algerian campaigns, and became captain in 1835.
+Four years later he was given command of a battalion of _chasseurs a
+pied_ and in 1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac
+made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the _coup
+d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III. made him a
+general of division shortly afterwards. He held a superior command in
+the Crimean War, and in the Italian campaign of 1859 distinguished
+himself very greatly in the action of Montebello (20th May). In 1862
+Forey was placed in command of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico,
+with the fullest civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful
+campaign by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his
+reward the marshal's baton. From December 1863 to 1867 he held high
+commands in France, but in the latter year he was struck with paralysis
+and had to retire. Marshal Forey died at Paris on the 20th of June 1872.
+
+
+
+
+FORFAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of the county
+of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117. It lies at the east end of
+the Loch of Forfar in the valley of Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of
+Dundee by road and 21-1/4 m. by the Caledonian railway. It is also
+situated on the same company's main line to Aberdeen and sends off a
+branch to Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house, the
+county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and others), the
+town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free library), the
+infirmary, poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded by Peter Reid, a
+merchant in the burgh who also gave the public park. The burgh unites
+with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin and Inverbervie (the Montrose group of
+burghs) in returning one member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1-1/4
+m. long by 1/4 m. wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and
+perch. On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood a
+castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret, queen of
+Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen and jute manufactures,
+but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-making and iron-founding are also
+carried on.
+
+Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for the first
+parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old castle, which
+stood on a mound on the northern side of the town. The parliaments of
+William the Lion, Alexander II. and Robert II. also assembled within its
+walls. The town, which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt
+down about the middle of the 13th century. Edward I. captured the
+castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized it,
+put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site being now
+marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of James VI. the weekly
+market was held on Sunday, but after the union of the crowns parliament
+enacted that it should be held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I.
+during the Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of
+regard for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played
+a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a crown
+commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable creatures, some
+of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the same year one John Ford for
+his services as a witch-finder was admitted a burgess along with Lord
+Kinghorne. The witches' bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking
+whilst being led to execution, is still preserved in the county hall.
+One mile to the E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of
+Robert Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation it
+was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episcopalians, until
+they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.
+
+
+
+
+FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
+shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by Perthshire, S. by the Firth of
+Tay and E. by the North Sea. It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873.7
+sq. m. The island of Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.
+
+Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and may be
+divided physically into four well-marked sections. In the most northerly
+of these many of the rugged masses of the Grampians are found; this belt
+is succeeded by Strathmore, or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from
+6 to 8 m. broad, which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and
+runs south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of
+Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated heights,
+which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the Firth. The
+mountains are all in the northern division and belong to the Binchinnin
+group (sometimes rather inexactly called the Braes of Angus) of the
+Grampian ranges. Among the highest masses, most of which lie on or near
+the confines of the bordering counties, are Glas Maol(3502 ft.), on the
+summit of which the shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet,
+Cairn-na-Glasha (3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag
+Leacach (3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105), Mount
+Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of 2000 ft. are
+numerous. The Sidlaw Hills--the greater part of which, however, belongs
+to Perthshire--are much less lofty and of less striking appearance. They
+have a breadth of from 3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county
+being Craigowl Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill
+(1242). None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any
+importance. The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards, then
+turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a course of 45
+m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth, Ericht and Lunan,
+and on the left the Newton, Melgam and Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the
+fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.), so named from the fact that when the
+stream is in flood the spray rises in a dense cloud like smoke (_reek_).
+Near old Airlie Castle are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie.
+The North Esk, formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at
+Invermark, after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea 3
+m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West Water and
+Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives the title of earl
+of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family. The South Esk rises in
+the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and not far from its source forms the
+Falls of Bachnagairn; after flowing towards the south-east, it bends
+eastwards near Tannadice and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the
+length of its course being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen
+on the right and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of
+Southesk to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the
+two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt Loch Lee (1
+m. long by 1/4 m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape and about 3/4 m.
+across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies Dundee with drinking
+water. The glens of the Forfarshire Grampians are remarkable for their
+beauty, and several of them for the wealth of their botanical specimens.
+The largest and finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of
+Forter Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie's
+shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance to which
+stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie; Glen Esk and
+Glen Prosen.
+
+  _Geology._--A great earth fracture traverses this county from near
+  Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between Cortachy and
+  the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old Red Sandstone, but
+  north-east of that place it forms the junction line of Silurian and
+  Old Red; and in a general way we may say that on the N.W. side of the
+  fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks are found, while the remainder
+  of the county is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone. On the margin of
+  the disturbance the Silurian rocks are little-altered grey and green
+  clay slates with bands of pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we
+  find the same rocks metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with
+  pebbly quartzites. Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock
+  and Mount Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone
+  extends from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire; here
+  some 20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being
+  formed of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in
+  the sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower
+  beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably
+  the remains of an old vent through which some of the contemporaneous
+  lavas, &c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been subjected to
+  a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast. The principal
+  direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal fold occupies
+  Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose the northern extension
+  of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold. Two fish-bearing beds occur
+  in the county; from the lower one many large _Eurypterids_ have been
+  obtained. The well-known paving flags of Arbroath belong to the lower
+  part of the formation. The Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in
+  one spot about a mile north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the
+  ice travelled south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw
+  Hills; abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in
+  the form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great
+  transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a
+  mile in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are
+  found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and 25
+  ft. above the present sea-level.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--On the whole the climate is healthy and
+favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature for the year
+is 47.3 deg. F., for January 38 deg. and for July 59 deg. The average
+annual rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably drier than the
+uplands. In the low-lying districts of the south the harvest is nearly
+as early as it is in the rest of Scotland, but in the north it is often
+late. The principal wheat districts are Strathmore and the neighbourhood
+of Dundee and Arbroath; and the yield is well up to the best Scottish
+average. Barley, an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats,
+however, though still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes
+are mostly grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips also
+are largely raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste land, has
+been turned into sheep walks and deer forests. The black-faced sheep are
+the most common in the mountainous country; cross-bred sheep in the
+lowlands. Though it is their native county (where they date from 1808),
+polled Angus are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of
+Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle are
+imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of the towns
+there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised successfully, Clydesdales
+being the commonest breed, but the small native garrons are now little
+used. Pigs also are reared. Save perhaps in the case of the crofts, or
+very small holdings of less than 10 acres, farm management is fully
+abreast of the times.
+
+_Other Industries._--The staple industries are the jute and flax
+manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but they flourish also
+at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at Dundee, Arbroath and
+Montrose. The manufactures of jams, confectionery, leather, machinery,
+soap and chemicals, are all of great and growing value. Sandstone
+quarries employ many hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose
+is the centre, are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at
+the mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit.
+
+Two railway companies serve the county. The North British, entering from
+the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast north-eastwards, sending
+off at Montrose a branch to Bervie. The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to
+Forfar, whence it diverges due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes
+its north-easterly course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from
+Perth by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from
+Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth Junction via
+Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it touch with Montrose.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 277,735 in 1891, and
+284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English, and 13 Gaelic only.
+The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901, 22,398), Brechin (8941),
+Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie (5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar
+(11,397), Kirriemuir (4096), Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427).
+Forfarshire returns one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and
+there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar,
+the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In addition to
+numerous board schools there are secondary schools at Dundee, Montrose,
+Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir, and technical schools at
+Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the elementary schools earn grants for
+higher education. The county council and the Dundee and Arbroath town
+councils expend the "residue" grant in subsidizing science and art and
+technical schools and classes, including University College, the textile
+school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the workshop
+schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath, besides cookery,
+dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and veterinary science classes
+at different places.
+
+_History._--In the time of the Romans the country now known as
+Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation there are
+evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses. Traces of Roman
+camps and stone forts are common, and there are vitrified forts at
+Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of Laws near Monifieth and at other
+points. Spearheads, battle-axes, sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian
+bronze pins, and other antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm
+and stress before the land settled down into order, towards which the
+Church was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was
+frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is supposed to
+have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (A.D. 84); the Northumbrian
+King Egfrith and the Pictish king Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685,
+the former being slain; conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno
+and other spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the
+parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and Scots had
+a bitter encounter. In later times the principal historical events,
+whether of peace or war, were more immediately connected with burghs
+than with the county as a whole. There is some doubt whether the county
+was named Angus, its title for several centuries, after a legendary
+Scottish prince or from the hill of Angus to the east of the church of
+Aberlemno. It was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a
+hereditary sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter
+of 1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the 1st earl of
+Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in her own right.
+On the death of the 1st and only duke of Douglas, who was also 13th earl
+of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged in the dukedom of Hamilton.
+Precisely when the shire became known by the name of the county town has
+not been ascertained, but probably the usage dates from the 16th
+century. Among old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle
+at the mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck; the
+stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of Finhaven; the
+two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of Melgund Castle, which are
+fairly complete; the small castle of Newtyle, and the old square tower
+and gateway of the castle of Craig.
+
+  See A. Jervise, _Memorials of Angus and Mearns_ (Edinburgh, 1895);
+  _Land of the Lindsays_ (Edinburgh, 1882); _Epitaphs and Inscriptions_
+  (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, _Lives of the_ _Lindsays_
+  (London, 1835); Sir W. Fraser, _History of the Carnegies_ (Edinburgh,
+  1867); A.H. Millar, _Historical Castles and Mansions_ (Paisley, 1890);
+  G. Hay, _History of Arbroath_ (Arbroath, 1876); D.D. Black, _History
+  of Brechin_ (Edinburgh, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+FORFEITURE (from "forfeit," originally an offence, and hence a fine
+exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the O. Fr. _forfait_,
+from the late Lat. _foris factum_, a trespass, that which is done
+_foris_, outside), in English law, the term applied (1) to loss or
+liability to the loss of property in consequence of an offence or breach
+of contract; (2) to the property of which the party is deprived.
+
+Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indictment for treason
+or felony was followed not only by forfeiture of the life of the
+offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and goods. In the case of
+treason all the traitor's lands of whomsoever holden were forfeited to
+the king; in the case of felony (including _felo-de-se_, or suicide),
+the felon's lands escheated (_exceciderunt_) to his immediate lord,
+subject to the king's right to waste them for a year and a day. This
+rule did not apply to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The
+goods of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of
+the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures
+was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the king's
+justices throughout England; and from time to time conflicts arose from
+attempts by these justices to extend the law of treason--under which the
+king levied all the forfeitures--at the expense of felony, in which the
+lord of the felon benefited by the escheats. As regards theft, the
+king's rights overrode those of the owner of the stolen property, until,
+in the reign of Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the
+goods to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys's
+_Diary_, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration of the
+working of the old law. We find that on the suicide of his
+brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally and
+obtained a grant of the brother-in-law's estate in favour of his widow
+and children should the inquest find a verdict of _felo-de-se_. It was
+common practice for persons anticipating conviction for treason or
+felony to assign all their property to others to avoid the forfeiture;
+and in some instances the accused refused to plead to the indictment and
+endured the _peine forte et dure_, until death supervened, to avoid
+these consequences of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures
+arising within particular areas were frequently granted by charter to
+corporations or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such
+charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448. All
+forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and attainder for
+treason and felony were abolished as from the 4th of July 1870, except
+forfeitures consequent upon the now disused process of outlawry, and the
+forfeitures included in the penalties of praemunire.
+
+The term "forfeit" is also applied to penalties imposed by statute for
+acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor felonious. In such
+statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of the crown unless the statute
+indicates another destination; and unless a particular method of
+enforcing the forfeiture is indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the
+crown and has priority as such. The words "forfeit and pay" are often
+used in imposing a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where
+they are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict the
+offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.
+
+Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels, e.g. of
+a British merchant-ship when her character as such is fraudulently
+dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76), or of goods smuggled
+in contravention of the customs acts or books introduced in violation of
+the copyright acts. Recognisances are said to be forfeited when the
+conditions are broken and an order of court is made for their
+enforcement as a crown debt against the persons bound by them.
+
+The term "forfeiture" is now most commonly used with reference to real
+property, i.e. with reference to the rights of lords of the manor or
+lessors to determine the estate or interest of a copyholder or lessee
+for breach of the customary or contractual terms of tenure. It is also
+applied to express the deprivation of a limited owner of settled
+property, real or personal, for breach of the conditions by which his
+rights are limited; e.g. by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or
+alienate his interest. As a general rule, the courts "lean against
+forfeitures" of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the
+superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them. By
+legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant relief upon
+terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of certain classes of
+covenant, e.g. to pay rent or to insure.
+
+
+
+
+FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin _fabricare_, to
+construct), in English law, "the fraudulent making or alteration of a
+writing to the prejudice of another man's right," or "the false making,
+or making _malo animo_, of any written instrument for the purpose of
+fraud or deceit." This definition, it will be seen, comprehends all
+fraudulent tampering with documents. "Not only the fabrication and false
+making of the whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion,
+alteration or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true
+instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount to
+forgery,--and this though it be afterwards executed by another person
+ignorant of the deceit" (Russell on _Crimes and Misdemeanours_, vol.
+ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale in a lease, so that it appears to
+be a lease of the manor of Sale instead of the manor of Dale, is a
+forgery. And when a country banker's note was made payable at the house
+of a banker in London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the
+name of such London banker to that of another London banker with whom
+the country banker had subsequently made his notes payable. As to the
+fraud, "an intent to defraud is presumed to exist if it appears that at
+the time when the false document was made there was in existence a
+specific person, ascertained or unascertained, capable of being
+defrauded thereby; and this presumption is not rebutted by proof that
+the offender took or intended to take measures to prevent such person
+from being defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he
+had a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document"
+(Stephen's _Digest of the Criminal Law_). Thus when a man makes a false
+acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it, intending to take
+it up and actually taking it up before it is presented for payment, he
+is guilty of forgery. Even if it be proved as a matter of fact that no
+person could be defrauded (as when A forges a cheque in B's name on a
+bank from which B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will
+be presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had withdrawn his
+account, the absence of fraudulent intention would be inferred. A
+general intention to cheat the public is not the kind of fraud necessary
+to constitute forgery. Thus if a quack forges a diploma of the college
+of surgeons, in order to make people believe that he is a member of that
+body, he is not guilty of forgery.
+
+The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to time dealt
+with in an enormous number of statutes. It was first made a statutory
+offence in 1562, and was punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory,
+having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the
+forfeiture of land and perpetual imprisonment. It was made capital,
+without benefit of clergy in 1634. The most notable cases of those who
+have suffered the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W.
+Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield's name on a bond, and Henry
+Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for
+the appropriation by means of forged instruments of money entrusted to
+the bank, in 1824. "Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his
+_Criminal Code_, has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain
+provisions against the offence" (Sir J.T. Coleridge's notes to
+Blackstone). Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the
+legislature against forgery, and says that "through the number of these
+general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible to be
+conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether in the name of
+a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital crime." These acts
+were consolidated in 1830. The later statutes, fixing penalties from
+penal servitude for life downwards, were consolidated by the Forgery Act
+1861. It would take too much space to enumerate all the varieties of the
+offence with their appropriate punishments. The following condensed
+summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen's _Digest of the
+Criminal Law_:
+
+  1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum
+  are--
+
+  (a) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c.
+
+  (b) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills,
+  bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c.
+
+  (c) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque.
+
+  (d) Forgeries of registers of birth, &c., or of copies thereof and
+  others.
+
+  2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years' penal servitude are--
+
+  (a) Forgeries of debentures.
+
+  (b) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &c.
+
+  (c) Forgeries of instruments purporting to be made by the accountant
+  general and other officers of the court of chancery, &c.
+
+  (d) Drawing bill of exchange, &c., on account of another, per
+  procuration or otherwise, without authority.
+
+  (e) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing it to
+  be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c.
+
+  3. Forgeries punishable with seven years' penal servitude:--Forgeries
+  of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates, and of
+  documents to be used in evidence, &c.
+
+By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of trade marks is
+an offence punishable on conviction by indictment with imprisonment not
+exceeding two years or to fine, or both, and on conviction by summary
+proceedings with imprisonment not exceeding four months or with a fine.
+
+The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the Forged
+Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local authorities to make
+compensation by a cash payment out of their funds for any loss arising
+from a transfer of their stocks, shares or securities through a forged
+transfer.
+
+_United States._--Forgery is made a crime by statute in most if not all
+the states, in addition to being a common law cheat. These statutes have
+much enlarged the common definition of this crime. It is also made a
+crime by a Federal statute (U.S. Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes
+forgery of national banknotes, letters patent, public bid, record,
+signature of a judge, land warrants, powers of attorney, ships' papers
+or custom-house documents, certificates of naturalization, &c.; the
+punishment is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with
+or without hard labour.
+
+In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts of several
+banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to produce one additional
+note or instrument with intent to pass all as genuine, is a forgery of
+each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch. 38, S 108). The alleged instrument
+must be apparently capable of defrauding (_Goodman_ v. _People_ [1907],
+228, Ill. 154).
+
+In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of credit
+issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by any other
+officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank bill of any bank, is
+punishable by imprisonment for life or any term of years (Rev. Laws
+1902, ch. 209, SS 4 and 5).
+
+In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting,
+alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument (Penal Code,
+S 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who with intent to defraud
+sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip, share certificate, is
+guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely making any instrument which
+purports to be issued by a corporation bearing a pretended signature of
+a person falsely indicated as an officer of the company, is forgery just
+as if such person were in truth such officer (id. S 519). Counterfeiting
+railroad tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that
+the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id. S 511). So
+also is the forging a fictitious name (_People_ v. _Browne_ [1907], 103
+N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the first degree may be
+twenty years, in the second degree ten years, in the third degree five
+years.
+
+In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, uttering or
+publishing any written instrument other than bank bills, cheques or
+drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonment "by separate or
+solitary confinement at labour for a term not exceeding ten years" (L.
+1860, March 31); forging bank bills, &c., for a term not exceeding five
+years. Defacing, removing, or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating
+in any river is punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two
+years or a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered
+mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment by
+solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.).
+
+In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the body of and
+signature to an instrument which may be the subject of forgery (1906;
+_State_ v. _Bradley_, 116 Tenn. 711).
+
+In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, S 24, authorizes licensees
+to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written prescription of a
+legally qualified physician stating that it "is given and necessary for
+medicinal use." It was held that a prescription containing no such
+statement was invalid and the alteration thereof was not forgery (1906;
+_State_ v. _McManus_, 78 St. 433).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen,
+  _Digest of Criminal Law_; _History of Criminal Law_; L.O. Pike,
+  _History of Crime in England_, 1873-1876; Russell, _On Crimes_;
+  Archbold, _Criminal Pleadings_.
+
+
+
+
+FORGET-ME-NOT, or SCORPION-GRASS (Ger. _Vergissmeinnicht_, Fr.
+_gremillet_, _scorpionne_), the name popularly applied to the small
+annual or perennial herbs forming the genus _Myosotis_ of the natural
+order _Boraginaceae_, so called from the Greek [Greek: mys], a mouse,
+and [Greek: ous], an ear, on account of the shape of the leaves. The
+genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North America and Australia,
+and is characterized by oblong or linear stem-leaves, flowers in
+terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue, pink or white flowers, a
+five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver- or funnel-shaped corolla, having
+its mouth closed by five short scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets.
+The common or true forget-me-not, _M. palustris_, is a perennial plant
+growing to a height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem
+clothed with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat
+shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla rotate,
+broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow centre. The
+divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third the length of the
+corolla, whereas in the other British species of _Myosotis_ it is deeply
+cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite with poets, and the symbol of
+constancy, is a frequent ornament of brooks, rivers and ditches, and,
+according to an old German tradition, received its name from the last
+words of a knight who was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower
+for his lady. It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and,
+as it flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for garden
+borders; a variety, _M. strigulosa_, is more hairy and erect, and its
+flowers are smaller. In _M. versicolor_ the flowers are yellow when
+first open and change generally to a dull blue; sometimes they are
+permanently yellowish-white. Of the species in cultivation, _M.
+dissitiflora_, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome abundant sky-blue
+flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it
+does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
+renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, or _M.
+alpestris_, 2 to 3 in., intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring
+shady situations and gritty soil; _M. azorica_ (a native of the Azores)
+with purple, ultimately blue flowers about half an inch across, has a
+similar habit but larger flowers; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or
+white, used for spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
+
+
+
+
+FORGING, the craft of the smith, or "blacksmith," exercised on malleable
+iron and steel, in the production of works of constructive utility and
+of ornament. It differs from founding (q.v.) in the fact that the metal
+is never melted. It is essentially a moulding process, the iron or steel
+being worked at a full red, or white, heat when it is in a plastic and
+more or less pasty condition. Consequently the tools used are in the
+main counterparts of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All
+the operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones: (1)
+Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section ("fullering"
+and "swaging"); (2) enlargement of a smaller to a larger portion
+("upsetting"); (3) bending, or turning round to any angle of curvature;
+(4) uniting one piece of metal to another ("welding"); (5) the formation
+of holes by punching; and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include
+all the operations that are done at the anvil. In none of these
+processes, the last excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool
+involved, and therefore there is no violence done to the fibre of the
+malleable metal. Nor have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except
+the cutting-off tools or "setts." The essential fact of the flow of the
+metal, which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost
+sight of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must be
+exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best
+calculated to secure maximum strength.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+
+    Fullering and swaging.
+
+  Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material
+  between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or
+  finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape, nearly
+  hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be reduced from larger to
+  smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a fuller or round-faced stake, set
+  in the anvil, or, in some cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows
+  are dealt upon that portion of the face which lies exactly opposite
+  with a fullering tool A, grasped by a rather loosely-fitting handle
+  and struck on its head by a sledge. The position of the piece of work
+  is quickly changed at brief intervals in order to bring successive
+  portions under the action of the swages until the reduction is
+  completed; the upper face, and if a bottom fuller is used the under
+  face also, is thus left corrugated slightly. These corrugations are
+  then removed either by a flatter, if the surfaces are plane (fig. 2),
+  or by hollow swages, if the cross section is circular (fig. 3). Spring
+  swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead of separate "top and
+  bottom tools." Frequently swaging is practised at once, without the
+  preliminary detail of fullering. It is adopted when the amount of
+  reduction is slight, and also when a steam hammer or other type of
+  power hammer is available. This process of drawing down or fullering
+  is, when practicable, adopted in preference to either upsetting or
+  welding, because it is open to no objection, and involves no risk of
+  damage to the material, while it improves the metal by consolidating
+  its fibres. But its limitations in anvil work lie in the tediousness
+  of the operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in
+  diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar. Then
+  there are other alternatives.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+
+    Upsetting.
+
+  If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of its
+  length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of great
+  length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part to be enlarged is
+  heated, the parts adjacent remaining cold, and an end is hammered, or
+  else lifted and dropped heavily on the anvil or on an iron plate, with
+  the result that the heated portion becomes both shortened and enlarged
+  (figs. 5 and 6). This process is only suitable for relatively short
+  lengths, and has the disadvantage that the fibres of wrought iron are
+  liable to open, and so cause weakening of the upset portion. But
+  steel, which has no direction of fibre, can be upset without injury;
+  this method is therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power
+  presses to an equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to
+  upsetting is generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section,
+  or to encircle the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then
+  to impart any shape desired to the ring in swages.
+
+
+    Bending.
+
+  Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise of
+  leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is always,
+  when practicable, preferable to cutting out a curved or angular shape
+  with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of the fibre in iron is
+  preserved by bending, and the risk of an imperfect weld is avoided.
+  Hence it is a simple and safe process which is constantly being
+  performed at the anvil. An objection to sharp bends, or those having a
+  small radius, is that the fibres become extended on the outer radius,
+  the cross section being at the same time reduced below that of the bar
+  itself. This is met by imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to
+  the part to be bent, sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction
+  due to extension of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the
+  corners of dip cranks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+    Welding.
+
+  The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting
+  autogeneously while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable.
+  When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to be united,
+  welding is the only method practicable at the anvil. It is also
+  generally the best to adopt when union has to be made between pieces
+  at right angles, or when a piece on which much work has to be done is
+  required at the end of a long plain bar, as in the tension rods of
+  cranes and other structures with eyes. The art of welding depends
+  chiefly on having perfectly clean joint faces, free from scale, so
+  that metal can unite to metal; union would be prevented by the
+  presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is essential to have a
+  temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to overheat the metal.
+  A dazzling white, at which small particles of metal begin to drop off,
+  is suitable for iron, but steel must not be made so hot. A very few
+  hammer blows suffice to effect the actual union; if the joint be
+  faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering will weld it. The forms of
+  weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and 9), the butt (fig. 10), the
+  V (fig. 11) and the glut, one form of which is shown in fig. 12; the
+  illustrations are of bars prepared for welding. These forms give the
+  smith a suitable choice for different conditions. A convexity is
+  imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the expulsion of slag
+  and dirt during the closing of the joint; these undesirable matters
+  become entangled between concave faces. The ends are upset or enlarged
+  in order to leave enough metal to be dressed down flush, by swaging or
+  by flattering. The proportional lengths of the joint faces shown are
+  those which conform to good practice. The fluxes used for welding are
+  numerous. Sand alone is generally dusted on wrought iron, but steel
+  requires borax applied on the joint while in the fire, and also dusted
+  on the joint at the anvil and on the face of the latter itself.
+  Electric welding is largely taking the place of the hand process, but
+  machines are required to maintain the parts in contact during the
+  passage of the current. Butt joints are employed, and a large quantity
+  of power is absorbed, but the output is immensely greater than that of
+  hand-made welds.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+    Punching.
+
+  When holes are not very large they are formed by punching, but large
+  holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round and welding it,
+  so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes are often punched simply as a
+  preliminary stage in the formation of a larger hole by a process of
+  drifting. A piece of work to be punched is supported either on the
+  anvil or on a ring of metal termed a bolster, laid on the anvil,
+  through which the burr, when severed, falls. But in making small holes
+  through a thick mass, no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways
+  and forming an enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron
+  stanchions that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has
+  to be punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under
+  power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time.
+
+
+    Cutting-off.
+
+  The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or cold
+  metal. In the first case the chisels used, "hot setts," have keener
+  cutting angles than those employed for the second, termed "cold
+  setts." One sett is held in a hole in the anvil face, the "anvil
+  chisel," the other is handled and struck with a sledge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron
+possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many forgings
+therefore must be made differently according as they are in iron or in
+steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed to run transversely
+to the axis of greatest tensile or bending stress, but must be in line
+therewith. For this reason many forgings, of which a common eye or loop
+(fig. 13) is a typical example, that would be stamped from a solid piece
+if made in steel, must be bent round from bar and welded if in wrought
+iron. Further, welding which is practically uniformly trustworthy in
+wrought iron, is distrusted in steel. The difference is due to the very
+fibrous character of iron, the welding of which gives much less anxiety
+to the smith than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently made
+without any flux, those in steel never. Though mention has only been
+made of iron and steel, other alloys are forged, as those of aluminium,
+delta metal, &c. But the essential operations are alike, the differences
+being in temperature at which the forging is done and nature of the
+fluxes used for welding. For hardening and tempering, an important
+section of smith's work, see ANNEALING.
+
+_Die Forging._--The smith operating by hand uses the above methods only.
+There is, however, a large and increasing volume of forgings produced in
+other ways, and comprehended under the general terms, "die forging" or
+"drop forging."
+
+Little proof is needed to show that the various operations done at the
+anvil might be performed in a more expeditious way by the aid of
+power-operated appliances; for the elementary processes of reducing, and
+enlarging, bending, punching, &c., are extremely simple, and the most
+elaborate forged work involves only a repetition of these. The fact that
+the material used is entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is
+most favourable to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white
+hot mass of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a
+few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be stamped in
+steel dies under a coining press. But much detail is involved in the
+translation of the principle into practice. The parallel between coining
+dies and forging dies does not go far. The blank for the coin is
+prepared to such exact dimensions that no surplus material is left over
+by the striking of the coin, which is struck while cold. But the blank
+used in die forging is generally a shapeless piece, taken without any
+preliminary preparation, a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may
+be square or round irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be
+square, or round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the
+welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of the
+impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die, the metal yields
+like lead, and flows and fills the dies.
+
+Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding a forging.
+A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the concavity of the
+forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow over between the
+joints, prevent the dies from being closed on the forging. There are two
+methods adopted for removing this "fin," or "flash" as it is termed, one
+being that of suppression, applicable to circular work, the other that
+of stripping, applied to almost all other cases.
+
+  The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the
+  dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few
+  blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when
+  formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section is
+  being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.
+
+  Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has been
+  formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced right
+  through with an opening of the same shape and area as the forging, and
+  then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer. The forging is thus
+  knocked through the die, leaving the severed or stripped fin behind.
+  The forging is then returned to the dies and again treated, and the
+  stripping may be repeated twice, or even oftener, before the forging
+  can be completed.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+  Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate the bottom dies of a set for forging in a
+  particular form of eye, the top dies being of exactly the same shape.
+  The first operation takes place in fig. 15, in which a bar of metal is
+  reduced to a globular and cylindrical form, being constantly rotated
+  meanwhile. The shank portion is then drawn down in the parallel recess
+  to the left. The shape of the eye is completed in fig. 16, and the
+  shank in the recess to the left of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is
+  stamped between top and bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is
+  formed by punching, the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the
+  centre for the hole to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is
+  located by a conical projection in the top die.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained
+  here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive
+  application.
+
+  An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a
+  quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in dies
+  within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the cost of
+  the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the
+  question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of
+  dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required. From
+  this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings,
+  ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over
+  the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which are
+  produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimensions
+  than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage when
+  forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer's
+  machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there.
+  Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at
+  all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in
+  consequence of their slight inaccuracies.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies much
+  of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when thousands
+  of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a hundred, or
+  even to a dozen, similar forgings. In such cases economy is secured by
+  using dies of a very cheap character; or, by employing such dies as
+  supplementary to anvil work for effecting neat finish to more precise
+  dimensions than can be ensured at the anvil. In the first case use is
+  made of dies of cast iron moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of
+  having their matrices laboriously cut in steel with drills, chisels
+  and milling tools. In the second, preliminary drawing down is done
+  under the steam hammer, and bending and welding at the anvil, or under
+  the steam hammer, until the forgings are brought approximately to
+  their final shape and dimensions. Then they are reheated and inserted
+  in the dies, when a few blows under the steam or drop hammer suffice
+  to impart a neat and accurate finish.
+
+  The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large
+  dimensions. The system is most successful for the smallest forgings
+  and dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of
+  cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers as
+  are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles
+  manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings, in
+  which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is
+  utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped from steel
+  plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute by far the
+  largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are massive, and a
+  single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press employed bends the
+  steel plate between the dies to shape at once. Fairly massive forgings
+  are also produced in these presses.
+
+  Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the
+  skilled smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only
+  craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the shops.
+  The men who attend to the machines are not smiths, but unskilled
+  helpers.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FORK (Lat. _furca_), an implement formed of two or more prongs at the
+end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type of which is the
+table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and horticulture the fork
+is used for pitching hay, and other green crops, manure, &c.; commonly
+this has two prongs, "tines"; for digging, breaking up surface soil,
+preparing for hand weeding and for planting the three-pronged fork is
+used. The word is also applied to many objects which are characterized
+by branching ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs,
+which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to give a
+standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams of a river, or the
+junction where a tributary runs into the main river; and in the human
+body, to that part where the legs branch off from the trunk.
+
+The _furca_, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form of the
+letter [Lambda], was used by the Romans as an instrument of punishment.
+It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal, and his hands were
+fastened to it, condemned slaves were compelled to carry it about with
+them, and those sentenced to be flogged would be tied to it;
+crucifixions were sometimes carried out on a similar shaped instrument.
+From the great defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the
+Caudine Forks (_Furculae Caudinae_), a narrow gorge, where the
+vanquished were compelled to pass under the yoke (_jugum_), as a sign of
+submission, the expression "to pass through or under the forks" has been
+loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The "forks" in any
+allusion to this defeat should refer to the topographical name and not
+to the _jugum_, which consisted of two upright spears with a third
+placed transversely as a cross-bar.
+
+
+
+
+FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1749-1818), German musician, was born on the
+22nd of February 1749 at Meeder in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler,
+and as a practical musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved
+some eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly upon
+his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical science
+and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J.S. Bach, whose music
+he did much to popularize. His library, which was accumulated with care
+and discrimination at a time when rare books were cheap, forms a
+valuable portion of the royal library in Berlin and also of the library
+of the Koniglicher Institut fur Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the
+university church of Gottingen, obtained the degree of doctor of
+philosophy, and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He
+died at Gottingen on the 20th of March 1818. The following is a list of
+his principal works: _Uber die Theorie der Musik_ (Gottingen, 1777);
+_Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek_ (Gotha, 1778); _Allgemeine Geschichte
+der Musik_ (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most important work. He also
+wrote a _Dictionary of Musical Literature_, which is full of valuable
+material. To his musical compositions, which are numerous, little
+interest is to-day to be attached. But it is worth noting that he wrote
+variations on the English national anthem "God save the king" for the
+clavichord, and that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which
+appeared at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he
+conceived they ought to be written.
+
+
+
+
+FORLI (anc. _Forum Livii_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Forli, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, 108
+ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town); 43,321 (commune). Forli
+is situated on the railway between Bologna and Rimini. It is connected
+by steam tramways with Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the
+Apennines with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the
+principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good carved and
+inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The facade has been
+considerably altered, but the campanile, erected in 1178-1180, still
+exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built of brickwork, and is
+one of the finest of Lombard campanili. The pictures in this church are
+the work of Marco Palmezzano (1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the
+municipal picture gallery also contain works by him. The latter has
+other interesting pictures, including a fresco representing an
+apprentice with pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work
+in Forli of Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style
+was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and who was the
+master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza chapel in SS. Biagio e
+Girolamo are from the former's designs, though executed by the latter.
+The church also contains the fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The
+cathedral (Santa Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The
+Palazzo del Podesta, now a private house, is a brick building of the
+15th century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about
+1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio Biondo,
+the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient Rome
+(1388-1463), was a native of Forli.
+
+Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia, hardly
+anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forli in league with
+Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of the province of Romagna
+resided there. In 1275 Forli defeated Bologna with great loss. Martin
+IV. sent an army to besiege it in 1282, which was driven out after
+severe fighting in the streets; but the town soon afterwards
+surrendered. In the 14th and 15th centuries it was under the government
+of the Ordelaffi; and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a
+determined resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario.
+Forli finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORLIMPOPOLI (anc. _Forum Popillii_), a village of Emilia, Italy, in the
+province of Forli, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail, 105 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (commune). The ancient Forum
+Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia, was destroyed by Grimuald in
+672. Whether its site is occupied by the present town is not certain;
+the former should perhaps be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E.,
+where were found most of the inscriptions of which the place of
+discovery is certain. Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal
+Albornoz in 1360, and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed
+the well-preserved medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four
+circular towers at the corners.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORLORN HOPE (through Dutch _verloren hoop_, from Ger. _verlorene Haufe_
+= "lost troop"; _Haufe_, "heap," being equivalent in the 17th century to
+"body of troops"; the French equivalent is _enfants perdus_), a
+military term (sometimes shortened to "forlorn"), used in the 16th and
+17th centuries for a body of troops thrown out in front of the line of
+battle to engage the hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of
+skirmishers, though they were always solid closed bodies. These troops
+ran great risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines
+of battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or
+ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to facilitate
+the attacks of their own main body by striking the first blow against or
+meeting the first shock of the fresh and unshaken enemy. In the
+following century (18th), when lines of masses were no longer employed,
+a thin line of skirmishers alone preceded the three-deep line of battle,
+but the term "forlorn hope" continued to be used for picked bodies of
+men entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming
+party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense "forlorn hope" is
+often used at the present time. The misunderstanding of the word "hope"
+has led to various applications of "forlorn hope," such as to an
+enterprise offering little chance of success, or, further still from the
+original meaning, to the faint or desperate hope of such success.
+
+
+
+
+FORM (Lat. _forma_), in general, the external shape, appearance,
+configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of which
+it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent arguments,--the
+_matter_ may be good, while the style, grammar, arrangement,--the
+_form_--is bad. The term, with its adjective "formal" and the derived
+nouns "formality" and "formalism," is hence contemptuously used for that
+which is superficial, unessential, hypocritical: chap. xxiii. of
+Matthew's gospel is a classical instance of the distinction between the
+formalism of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be
+compared the popular phrases "good form" and "bad form" applied to
+behaviour in society: so "format" (from the French) is technically used
+of the shape and size, e.g. of a book (octavo, quarto, &c.) or of a
+cigarette. The word "form" is also applied to certain definite objects:
+in printing a body of type secured in a chase for printing at one
+impression ("form" or "forme"); a bench without a back, such as is used
+in schools (perhaps to be compared with O. Fr. _s'asseoir en forme_, to
+sit in a row); a mould or shape on or in which an object is
+manufactured; the lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of
+regulated order comes the application of the term to a class in a school
+("sixth form," "fifth form," &c.); this sense has been explained without
+sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same class
+sitting on a single form (bench).
+
+The word has been used technically in philosophy with various shades of
+meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic [Greek: idea],
+[Greek: eidos], the permanent reality which makes a thing what it is, in
+contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject to change.
+Whether Plato understood these forms as actually existent apart from all
+the particular examples, or as being of the nature of immutable physical
+laws, is matter of discussion. For practical purposes Aristotle was the
+first to distinguish between matter ([Greek: hyle]) and form ([Greek:
+eidos]). To Aristotle matter is the undifferentiated primal element: it
+is rather that from which things develop ([Greek: hypokeimenon], [Greek:
+dynamis]) than a thing in itself ([Greek: energeia]). The development of
+particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation,
+the acquiring of particular _forms_ of which the knowable universe
+consists (cf. CAUSATION for the Aristotelian "formal cause"). The
+perfection of the form of a thing is its entelechy ([Greek:
+entelecheia]) in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of
+function (_De anima_, ii. 2, [Greek: he men hyle dynamis to de eidos
+entelecheia]). Thus the entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of
+the differentiation process is to be sought in a "prime mover" ([Greek:
+proton kinoun]), i.e. pure form entirely separate ([Greek: choriston])
+from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own
+activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in
+matter ([Greek: hos eromenon], [Greek: ou kinoumenon]). The Aristotelian
+conception of form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases
+unintelligently, adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its
+origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely
+foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of
+Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its "subsistent
+forms" (_formae separatae_) from the material with its "inherent forms"
+which exist only in combination with matter. Bacon, returning to the
+physical standpoint, maintained that all true research must be devoted
+to the discovery of the real nature or essence of things. His induction
+searches for the true "form" of light, heat and so forth, analysing the
+external "form" given in perception into simpler "forms" and their
+"differences." Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot
+things, and discover that which is present in all, excluding all those
+qualities which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples
+investigated: the "form" of heat is the residuum common to all. Kant
+transferred the term from the objective to the subjective sphere. All
+perception is necessarily conditioned by pure "forms of sensibility,"
+i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived is perceived as having
+spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE AND TIME; KANT). These forms
+are not obtained by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they
+strictly speaking innate: they are obtained "by the very action of the
+mind from the co-ordination of its sensation."
+
+
+
+
+FORMALIN, or FORMALDEHYDE, CH2O or H.CHO, the first member of the series
+of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is most readily prepared by passing
+the vapour of methyl alcohol, mixed with air, over heated copper or
+platinum. In order to collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed
+and absorbed, either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained,
+although only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium
+formate. At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing a
+pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant, a 40%
+solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol, sold as _formalin_,
+being employed as a deodorant, fungicide and preservative. It is not
+possible to obtain the aldehyde in a pure condition, since it readily
+polymerizes. It is a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to
+form _hexamethylene tetramine_, (CH2)6N4, and easily "condenses" in the
+presence of many bases to produce compounds which apparently belong to
+the sugars (q.v.). It renders glue or gelatin insoluble in water, and is
+used in the coal-tar colour industry in the manufacture of
+para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines. Several polymers have been
+described. _Para-formaldehyde_, or trioxymethylene, obtained by
+concentrating solutions of formaldehyde _in vacuo_, is a white
+crystalline solid, which sublimes at about 100 deg. C. and melts at a
+somewhat higher temperature, changing back into the original form. It is
+insoluble in cold water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed
+to separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform
+(Korber, _Pharm. Zeit._, 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach and H.
+Barschall (_Chem. Zentr._, 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three polymers by
+acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions of formaldehyde,
+and a fourth by heating one of the forms so obtained. The strength of
+solutions of formaldehyde may be ascertained by the addition of excess
+of standard ammonia to the aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine
+being formed), the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration
+with standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the oxidation of
+methane at high temperatures, see W.A. Bone (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1902,
+81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde also appears to be a
+reduction product of carbon dioxide (see _Annual Reports of the Chemical
+Society_).
+
+
+
+
+FORMAN, ANDREW (c. 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was educated at
+the university of St Andrews and entered the service of King James IV.
+about 1489. He soon earned the favour of this king, who treated him with
+great generosity and who on several occasions sent him on important
+embassies to the English, the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he
+became bishop of Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his
+appointment as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised to
+make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his own land
+Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant archbishopric of St
+Andrews and was made papal legate in Scotland, but it was some time
+before he secured possession of the see owing to the attempts of Henry
+VIII. to subject Scotland to England and to the efforts of his rivals,
+Gavin Douglas, the poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and
+their supporters. Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many
+benefices, the holding of which had made him unpopular, and through the
+good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of Albany, obtained the
+coveted archbishopric and the primacy of Scotland. Afterwards he was one
+of the vice-regents of the kingdom and he died on the 11th of March
+1521. As archbishop he issued a series of constitutions which are
+printed in J. Robertson's _Concilia Scotiae_ (1866). Mr Andrew Lang
+(_History of Scotland_, vol. i.) describes Forman as "the Wolsey of
+Scotland, and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden."
+
+  See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of _The
+  Archbishops of St Andrews_, by J. Herkless and R.K. Hannay (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FORMAN, SIMON (1552-1611), English physician and astrologer, was born in
+1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton, Wiltshire. At the age of
+fourteen he became apprentice to a druggist at Salisbury, but at the end
+of four years he exchanged this profession for that of a schoolmaster.
+Shortly afterwards he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied
+chiefly medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in
+Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane, London,
+but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account underwent more than
+one term of imprisonment. Ultimately, however, he obtained a diploma
+from Cambridge university, and established himself as a physician and
+astrologer at Lambeth, where he was consulted, especially as a
+physician, by many persons of rank, among others by the notorious
+countess of Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a
+boat on the 12th of September 1611.
+
+  A list of Forman's works on astrology is given in Bliss's edition of
+  the _Athenae Oxonienses_; many of his MS. works are contained in the
+  Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth Library. _A
+  Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public Library, Plymouth_,
+  was published in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+FORMERET, a French architectural term for the wall-rib carrying the web
+or filling-in of a vault (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL (1711-1797), Franco-German author, was
+born of French parentage at Berlin on the 31st of May 1711. He was
+educated for the ministry, and at the age of twenty became pastor of the
+French church at Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of
+a congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor
+of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739 professor of
+philosophy. On the organization of the academy of Berlin in 1744 he was
+named a member, and in 1748 became its perpetual secretary. He died at
+Berlin on the 7th of March 1797. His principal works are _La Belle
+Wolfienne_ (1741-1750, 6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view
+of enforcing the precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; _Bibliotheque
+critique, ou memoires pour servir a l'histoire litteraire ancienne et
+moderne_ (1746); _Le Philosophe chretien_ (1750); _L'Emile chretien_
+(1764), intended as an answer to the _Emile_ of Rousseau; and _Souvenirs
+d'un citoyen_ (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense number of
+contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the Berlin Academy.
+
+
+
+
+FORMIA (anc. _Formiae_, called Mola di Gaeta until recent times), a town
+of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 48 m.
+W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 (town); 8452 (commune). It is situated
+at the N.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views.
+It lay on the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by
+wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property here and along
+the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are numerous remains of ancient
+villas along the coast and on the slopes above it. The so-called villa
+of Cicero contains two well-preserved _nymphaea_ with Doric
+architecture. Its site is now occupied by the villa Caposele, once a
+summer residence of the kings of Naples. There are many other modern
+villas, and the sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly
+behind the town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens.
+The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is also
+covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned by a large
+tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is a large villa with
+substructions in "Cyclopean" work. The ancient Formiae was, according to
+the legend, the home of the Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony
+([Greek: Hormiaidia to euormon], Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a
+Volscian town, and, like Fundi, received the _civitas sine suffragio_
+from Rome in 338 (or 332 B.C.) because the passage through its territory
+had always been secure. This was strategically important for the Romans,
+as the military road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312
+B.C., still easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the
+high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked,
+between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 B.C., with Fundi, it received the full
+citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under the control of
+a _praefectus_ sent from Rome, though it retained its three aediles.
+Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero possessed a favourite villa here,
+and was murdered in its vicinity in 43 B.C., but neither the villa nor
+the tomb can be identified with any certainty. It was devastated by
+Sextus Pompeius, and became a colony, with _duoviri_ as chief
+magistrates, under Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was
+dependent upon it.
+
+  See T. Ashby, "Dessins inedits de Carlo Labruzzi," in _Melanges de
+  l'ecole francaise de Rome_ (1903), 410 seq.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORMIC ACID, H2CO2 or H.COOH, the first member of the series of
+aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula CnH_(2n)O2. It is
+distinguished from the other members of the series by certain
+characteristic properties; for example, it shows an aldehydic character
+in reducing silver salts to metallic silver, and it does not form an
+acid chloride or an acid anhydride. Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an
+acid character, a property not possessed by the nitriles of the other
+members of the series; and, by the abstraction of the elements of water
+from the acid, carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no
+parallel in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is,
+as shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much stronger
+acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs naturally in red ants
+(Lat. _formica_), in stinging nettles, in some mineral waters, in animal
+secretions and in muscle. It may be prepared artificially by the
+oxidation of methyl alcohol and of formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of
+oxalic acid (J. Gay-Lussac, _Ann. chim. phys._, 1831 [2] 46, p. 218),
+but best by heating oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of
+100-110 deg. C. (M. Berthelot, _Ann._, 1856, 98, p. 139). In this
+reaction a glycerol ester is formed as an intermediate product, and
+undergoes decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same
+time.
+
+    C3H5(OH)3 + H2C2O4 = C3H5(OH)2.OCHO+CO2 + H2O
+    C3H5(OH)2O.CHO + H2O = C3H5(OH)3 + H2CO2.
+
+  Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid or its
+  salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means of
+  hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with alcoholic
+  potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_,
+  vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition being shown by
+  chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, _Ann._, 1832, 1, p. 198).
+  Formates are also produced by the action of moist carbon monoxide on
+  soda lime at 190-220 deg. C. (V. Merz and J. Tibicira, _Ber._, 1880,
+  13, p. 23; A. Geuther, _Ann._, 1880, 202, p. 317), or by the action of
+  moist carbon dioxide on potassium (H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, _Ann._,
+  1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissan (_Comptes rend._, 1902, 134, p. 261)
+  prepared potassium formate by passing a current of carbon monoxide or
+  carbon dioxide over heated potassium hydride,
+
+    KH + CO2 = KHCO2 and KH + 2CO = KHCO2 + C.
+
+  A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either by
+  neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being then
+  dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous oxalic acid
+  (Lorin, _Bull. soc. chim._, 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper salt
+  may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130 deg. C. L.
+  Maquenne (_Bull. soc. chim._, 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial
+  acid, _in vacuo_, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75 deg. C.
+
+  Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystallizes
+  at 0 deg. C., melts at 8.6 deg. C. and boils at 100.8 deg. C. Its
+  specific gravity is 1.22 (20 deg./4 deg.). It is miscible in all
+  proportions with water, alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust,
+  the acid decomposes into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and
+  potassium salts, when heated to 400 deg. C., give oxalates and
+  carbonates of the alkali metals, but the magnesium, calcium and
+  barium salts yield carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with
+  concentrated sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon
+  monoxide; when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic
+  acid and finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as
+  _formates_, and are mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead
+  being the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily
+  decomposed. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates,
+  with simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt,
+  when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives
+  aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the metal,
+  with liberation of carbon dioxide and formation of free formic acid;
+  and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some formamide, HCONH2.
+  The esters of the acid may be obtained by distilling a mixture of the
+  sodium or potassium salts and the corresponding alcohol with
+  hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.
+
+  _Formamide_, HCONH2, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with
+  ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140 deg. C.,
+
+    2HCO.ONH4 + CO(NH2)2 = 2HCONH2 + (NH4)2CO3;
+
+  by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at 230
+  deg. C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of potassium
+  cyanate (H. Basarow, _Ber._, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid which
+  boils _in vacuo_ at 150 deg., but at 192-195 deg. C. under ordinary
+  atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon monoxide
+  and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the formation of
+  mercuric formamide, (HCONH)2Hg.
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic, bounded N. by
+Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by the Chaco Territory, and W. by
+Salta, with the Pilcomayo and Bermejo forming its northern and southern
+boundaries. Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping
+gently to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very
+little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and Paraguay
+rivers, where attempts have been made to form settlements. The
+unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes of wild Indians. The
+climate is hot, the summer temperature rising to a maximum of 104 deg. F.
+Timber-cutting is the principal occupation of the settlers, though
+stock-raising and agriculture engage some attention in the settlements
+on the Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small
+settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in 1900. The
+settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, which it was
+estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The nomadic Indians are
+estimated at 8000.
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSA (called _Taiwan_ by the Chinese, and following them by the
+Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in
+1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean, between the Southern and
+the Eastern China Sea, separated from the Chinese mainland by the
+Formosa Strait, which has a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part.
+The island is 225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line
+measuring 731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.--being thus nearly the same
+size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands forming the
+Japanese empire proper--and extends from 20 deg. 56' to 25 deg. 15' N.
+and from 120 deg. to 122 deg. E. It forms part of the long line of
+islands which are interposed as a protective barrier between the Asiatic
+coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause of the immunity from
+typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China from Amoy to the Yellow Sea.
+Along the western coast is a low plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme
+width; on the east coast there is a rich plain called Giran, and there
+are also some fertile valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan,
+extending up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan,
+between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes; but the
+rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin forest. In the
+plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial clay, covered in the
+valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The scenery of Formosa is
+frequently of majestic beauty, and to this it is indebted for its
+European name, happily bestowed by the early Spanish navigators.
+
+On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased to be Japan's
+highest mountain, and took the third place on the list. Mount Morrison
+(14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed Niitaka-yama (New High
+Mountain), stands first, and Mount Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they
+give the name of Setzu-zan (Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount
+Morrison stands nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic,
+but consists of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr
+Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to a height of
+6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval forests of palms,
+banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns, interlacing creepers and
+dense thickets of rattan or stretches of grass higher than a man's
+stature. The next interval of 1000 ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and
+chamoecyparis; then follow pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad
+plateau, and then alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top,
+which consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount Morrison,
+being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous object. Mount
+Sylvia lies in 24 deg. 30' N. lat. There are many other mountains of
+considerable elevation. In the north is Getsurobi-zan (4101 ft.); and on
+either side of Setzu-zan, with which they form a range running due east
+and west across the island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan
+(7027 ft.). Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan
+(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins a chain of
+three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928), and Niitaka-yama.
+These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and
+Niitaka-yama, stand almost exactly under 121 deg. E. long., in the very
+centre of the island. But the backbone of the island lies east of them,
+extending S. from Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other
+peaks and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and still
+lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan (3752
+ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and Kado-zan (9055
+ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan (4985 ft.). These, it
+will be observed, are all Japanese names, and the heights have been
+determined by Japanese observers. In addition to these remarkable inland
+mountains, Formosa's eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the
+bases of the hills on the seaside taking the form of almost
+perpendicular walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks
+of steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous
+character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to the
+sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has many
+streams, but the only two of any considerable length are the Kotansui,
+which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth at Toko after a course of
+some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters
+the sea at a point 57 m. farther north after a course of 90 m.
+
+The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the driest and
+best months are October, November and December; in the south, December,
+January, February and March. The sea immediately south of Formosa is the
+birthplace of innumerable typhoons, but the high mountains of the island
+protect it partially against the extreme violence of the wind.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation of the island is characterized by
+tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense
+forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (_Laurus
+Camphora_), and the aloe are conspicuous. Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no
+fewer than 65 different kinds of timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu;
+and his specimens are now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree
+which supplies the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not
+uncommon, and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are
+especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers, more
+especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European greenhouses
+have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and other ornamental
+plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance. In the lowlands of the
+western portion, the Chinese have introduced a large number of
+cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice is grown in such quantities as
+to procure for Formosa, in former days, the title of the "granary of
+China"; and the sweet potato, taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are
+also cultivated. Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute,
+hemp, oil and rattans are all articles of export.
+
+The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but at least
+three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys (probably
+_Macacus speciosus_), squirrels, and flying squirrels are fairly
+common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent. A poisonous but
+beautiful green snake is often mentioned by travellers. Pheasants,
+ducks, geese and snipe are abundant, and Dr C. Collingwood in his
+_Naturalist's Rambles in the China Seas_ mentions _Ardea prasinosceles_
+and other species of herons, several species of fly-catchers,
+kingfishers, shrikes and larks, the black drongo, the _Cotyle sinensis_
+and the _Prinia sonitans_. Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The
+horse is hardly known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is
+regularly bridled and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers
+and neighbouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial
+mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant
+coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the _Kurosiwo_ current,
+the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an important article of
+diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines along the coast--a species
+of _Cyrena_, a species of _Tapes_, _Cytheraea petechiana_ and _Modiola
+teres_ being most abundant.
+
+_Population._--The population of Formosa, according to a census in 1904,
+is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows: aborigines 104,334,
+Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770. The inhabitants of Formosa may be
+divided into four classes: the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as
+there has not been much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of
+whom immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the dialect of
+that district, while others were Hakkas from the vicinity of Swatow; the
+subjugated aborigines, who largely intermingled with the Chinese; and
+the uncivilized aborigines of the eastern region who refuse to recognize
+authority and carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized
+aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs, were
+called Pe-pa-hwan (_Anglice_ Pepo-hoans), while their wilder brethren
+bear the name of Chin-hwan or "green savages," otherwise Sheng-fan or
+"wild savages." They appear to belong to the Malay stock, and their
+language bears out the supposition. They are broken up into almost
+countless tribes and clans, many of which number only a few hundred
+individuals, and their language consequently presents a variety of
+dialects, of which no classification has yet been effected: in the
+district of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission
+distinguished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The
+people themselves are described as of "middle height, broad-chested and
+muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet, the eyes large, the
+forehead round, and not narrow or receding in many instances, the nose
+broad, the mouth large and disfigured with betel." The custom of
+tattooing is universal. In the north of the island at least, the dead
+are buried in a sitting posture under the bed on which they have
+expired. Petty wars are extremely common, not only along the Chinese
+frontiers, but between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the
+slain are carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young
+men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they may be
+inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had least intercourse
+with the Chinese show a considerable amount of skill in the arts of
+civilization. The use of Manchester prints and other European goods is
+fairly general; and the women, who make a fine native cloth from hemp,
+introduce coloured threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce
+ornamental devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.
+
+The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku), which is on
+the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about 118,000, including
+5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have two ports; one, Tamsui, at the
+mouth of the river Tamsui-yei, 10 m. distant on the north-west coast,
+the other Kelung (called by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east
+shore, with which it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The
+foreign settlement at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is
+called Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient Pekiang)
+is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful. There are
+coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui (called Tansui by the Japanese)
+is usually termed Hobe by foreigners. It is the site of the first
+foreign settlement, has a population of about 7000, but cannot be made a
+good harbour without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there
+is no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23 deg. N. lat.), a
+port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the sugar
+trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats, and a hotbed of
+malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese and 200 Japanese. At a
+distance of some 2-1/2 m. inland is the former capital of Formosa, the
+walled city of Tainan, which has a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300
+Japanese, and a few British merchants and missionaries. Connected with
+Anping by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port.
+It has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides of a
+large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous Chinese town
+called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages on the east coast are
+Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do not call for special notice.
+Forty-seven m. east of the extreme south coast there is a little island
+called Botel-tobago (Japanese, Koto-sho), which rises to a height of
+1914 ft. and is inhabited by a tribe whose customs differ essentially
+from those of the natives on the main island.
+
+_Administration and Commerce._--The island is treated as an outlying
+territory; it has not been brought within the full purview of the
+Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered by a
+governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the forces, by a
+bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural governors, below
+whom are the heads of twenty territorial divisions called _cho_; its
+finances are not included in the general budget of the Japanese empire;
+it is garrisoned by a mixed brigade taken from the home divisions; and
+its currency is on a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which
+the Japanese had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese
+settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether, as is
+done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public opinion. But,
+influenced by medical views and by the almost insuperable difficulty of
+enforcing any drastic import veto in the face of Formosa's large
+communications by junk with China, the Japanese finally adopted the
+middle course of licensing the preparation and sale of the drug, and
+limiting its use to persons in receipt of medical sanction. Under the
+administration of the Japanese the island has been largely developed.
+Among other industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400
+oz. of gold representing a value of L168,626 were obtained from the
+mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large quantities near
+Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north of the island.
+
+An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned, the four
+main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan; (2) from Tainan to
+Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from Shoka to Kelung; these four
+forming, in effect, a main trunk road running from the south-west to the
+north-east, its course being along the foot of the mountains that border
+the western coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to
+traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line of 259
+m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also are projected,
+but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of capital constitutes a
+fatal obstacle to rapid development.
+
+There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the total
+business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the staple exports. The
+greater part of the former goes to Amoy for re-shipment to the west, but
+it is believed that if harbour improvements were effected at Tamsui so
+as to render it accessible for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be
+made thence direct to New York. The camphor trade being a government
+monopoly, the quantity exported is under strict control.
+
+_History._--The island of Formosa must have been known from a very early
+date to the Chinese who were established in the Pescadores. The
+inhabitants are mentioned in the official works of the Yuan dynasty as
+_Tung-fan_ or eastern barbarians; and under the Ming dynasty the island
+begins to appear as Kilung. In the beginning of the 16th century it
+began to be known to the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the
+latter at least made some attempts at establishing settlements or
+missions. The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the
+island; in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where
+subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was maintained
+for thirty-seven years. On the expulsion of the Ming dynasty in China, a
+number of their defeated adherents came over to Formosa, and under a
+leader called in European accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the
+Dutch and taking possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the
+Chinese of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the island then
+began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close of the 17th
+century a long era of conflict ensued between the Chinese and the
+aborigines. A more debased population than the peoples thus struggling
+for supremacy could scarcely be conceived. The aborigines, _Sheng-fan_,
+or "wild savages," deserved the appellation in some respects, for they
+lived by the chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the
+Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no right except
+that of might. The former were not implacably cruel or vindictive. They
+merely clung to their homesteads, and harboured a natural resentment
+against the raiders who had dispossessed them. Their disposition was to
+leave the Chinese in unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the
+most valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be
+found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they ventured too
+far in search of these products, fell into ambushes of hill-men who
+neither gave nor sought quarter, and who regarded a Chinese skull as a
+specially attractive article of household furniture. A violent rebellion
+is mentioned in 1788, put down only after the loss, it is said, of
+100,000 men by disease and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels
+of silver. Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it
+is true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of
+administrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening of
+partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a section of
+the _Sheng-fan_, who thenceforth became known as Pe-pa-hwan
+(_Pepohoan_).
+
+In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly known to
+Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place on its coasts, and
+the dangers that the crews had to run from the cannibal propensities of
+the aborigines, and the almost equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese.
+Among the most notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig "Ann,"
+with fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed at
+Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened to European
+commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable for a port of trade,
+and the harbour of Tamsui was selected instead. From 1859 both
+Protestant and Presbyterian missions were established in the island. An
+attack made on those at Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation
+of Fort Zelandia and Anping by British forces; but this action was
+disapproved by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from the
+Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the Japanese for the
+purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder of a shipwrecked crew
+who had been put to death by one of the semi-savage tribes on the
+southern coast, the Chinese government being either unable or unwilling
+to punish the culprits. A war was averted through the good offices of
+the British minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment
+of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the island
+during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872 there is recorded a
+proverb among the official classes, "every three years an outbreak,
+every five a rebellion"; but subsequent to 1877 some improvement was
+manifested, and public works were pushed forward by the Chinese
+authorities. In 1884, in the course of belligerent proceedings arising
+out of the Tongking dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were
+bombarded by the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for
+some months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town of
+Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained by the
+French fleet during the winter and spring of 1884-1885. The troops were
+withdrawn on the conclusion of peace in June 1885.
+
+In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki at
+the close of the Japanese war. The resident Chinese officials, however,
+refused to recognize the cession, declared a republic, and prepared to
+offer resistance. It is even said they offered to transfer the
+sovereignty to Great Britain if that power would accept it. A formal
+transfer to Japan was made in June of the same year in pursuance of the
+treaty, the ceremony taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the
+Chinese commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were thus
+left to take possession as best they could, and some four months elapsed
+before they effected a landing on the south of the island. Takau was
+bombarded and captured on the 15th of October, and the resistance
+collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious Black Flag general, and the
+back-bone of the resistance, sought refuge in flight. The general state
+of the island when the Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of
+Giran on the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by
+semi-barbarous folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,
+and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous
+feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and murderous violence. By
+many of these Chinese settlers the Japanese conquerors, when they came
+to occupy the island, were regarded in precisely the same light as the
+Chinese themselves had been regarded from time immemorial by the
+aborigines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving
+secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties of the
+Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of the country,
+which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find almost inaccessible
+refuge, but also by the unwillingness of experienced officials to
+abandon their home posts for the purpose of taking service in the new
+territory.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. Imbault-Huart, _L'Ile Formose, histoire et
+  description_ (Paris, 1893), 4^o; J.D. Clark, _Formosa_ (Shanghai,
+  1896); W.A. Pickering, _Pioneering in Formosa_ (London, 1898); George
+  Candidius, _A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the Indies_
+  ..., vol. i.; Churchill's _Collection of Voyages_ (1744); Robert
+  Swinhoe, _Notes on the Island of Formosa_, read before the British
+  Association (1863); W. Campbell, "Aboriginal Savages of Formosa,"
+  _Ocean Highways_ (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, _Description de l'ile de
+  Formose, mem. rel. a l'Asie_ (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes, _Notes of a Six
+  Years' Residence in Formosa_ (London, 1881); Y. Takekoshi, _Japanese
+  Rule in Formosa_ (transl. by G. Braithwaite) (London, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen V. (or VI.). He
+first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, he was sent on an
+embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards sided with a faction
+against John VIII., he was excommunicated, and compelled to take an oath
+never to return to Rome or again to assume his priestly functions. From
+this oath he was, however, absolved by Marinus, the successor of John
+VIII., and restored to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in
+891 he was chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a
+struggle against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a
+powerful party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,
+king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus himself
+shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances and to
+consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had
+already been consecrated by Stephen V., and died in 894. In the
+following year Arnulf succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned
+him emperor. But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf
+was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.
+Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April 896. The
+discords in which he had been involved continued after his death. The
+validity of his acts was contested on the pretext that, having been
+originally bishop of Porto, he could not be a legitimate pope. The
+fundamental factor in these dissensions was the rivalry between the
+princes of Spoleto and the Carolingian house, represented by the king of
+Germany. The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., and
+treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal throne; but
+Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at a council presided
+over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus was declared valid and all
+his acts confirmed.     (L. D.*)
+
+
+
+
+FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of _forma_, shape, pattern, &c., especially
+used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a stereotyped form of
+words to be used on stated occasions, for specific purposes, ceremonies,
+&c. In the sciences, the word usually denotes a symbolical statement of
+certain facts; for example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition
+of a substance (see CHEMISTRY); a botanical formula gives the
+differentia of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement
+and number of the teeth of an animal.
+
+
+
+
+FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756-1799), Spanish satirist and scholar,
+was born at Merida (Badajoz) on the 23rd of February 1756, studied at
+the university of Salamanca, and was called to the bar at Madrid in
+1783. During the next few years--under the pseudonyms of "Tome Cecial,"
+"Pablo Segarra," "Don Antonio Varas," "Bartolo," "Pablo Ignocausto," "El
+Bachiller Reganadientes," and "Silvio Liberio"--Forner was engaged in a
+series of polemics with Garcia de la Huerta, Iriarte and other writers;
+the violence of his attacks was so extreme that he was finally forbidden
+to publish any controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal
+post at Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where he
+died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner's brutality is almost unexampled,
+and his satirical writings give a false impression of his powers. His
+_Oracion apologetica por la Espana y su merito literario_ (1787) is an
+excellent example of learned advocacy, far superior to similar efforts
+made by Denina and Antonio Cavanilles; and his posthumous _Exequias de
+la lengua castellana_ (printed in the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_,
+vol. lxiii.) testifies to his scholarship and taste.
+
+
+
+
+FORRES (Gaelic, _far uis_, "near water"), a royal and police burgh of
+Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901) 4317. It is situated on
+the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town and is crossed by a suspension
+bridge about a mile to the W., 11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland
+railway, and 6 m. by road from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one
+of the most ancient towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald
+(892-900), son of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of
+poisoning, and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said
+to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name to
+Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in 1297 by the
+adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal residence from 1189 to
+1371 and was occupied occasionally by William the Lion, Alexander II.
+and David II. It was burned down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The
+ruins on the hill, however, are those of a later edifice and are
+surmounted by a granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of
+Surgeon James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his life
+tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The public
+buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious house on the site
+of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum, containing among other
+exhibits several valuable fossils, and named after Dr Hugh Falconer
+(1808-1865), the distinguished palaeontologist and botanist, a native of
+the town; the mechanics' institute; the agricultural and market hall;
+Leanchoil hospital and Anderson's Institution for poor boys. The cross,
+in Decorated Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on
+the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite public
+resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which was erected
+in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern slopes a well-known
+hydropathic. An excellent golf-course extends from Kinloss to Findhorn.
+The industries comprise the manufacture of chemicals and artificial
+manures, granite polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making,
+carriage-building and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable
+trade in cattle.
+
+Sueno's Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured
+monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town. Its
+origin and character have given rise to endless surmises. It is carved
+with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and captives on one
+side, and on the other with a cross and Runic ornamentation. One theory
+is that it is a relic of the early Christian church, symbolizing the
+battle of life and the triumph of good over evil. According to an older
+tradition it was named after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who
+won a victory on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it
+commemorates the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene's view
+is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of
+Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied stone is called
+the Witches' Stone, because it marks the place near Forres where Macbeth
+is said to have encountered the weird sisters.
+
+Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs,
+the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness. The town is
+amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest rainfall in the
+county.
+
+Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of Altyre,
+the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther south is Relugas
+House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, romantically
+situated on a height near the confluence of the Divie and the Findhorn.
+Not far away stand the ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left
+bank of the Findhorn, 3-1/2 m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle,
+partly ancient and partly modern. The Brodies--the old name of their
+estate was Brothie, from the Irish _broth_, a ditch, in allusion to the
+trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of the house--were
+a family of great consequence at the period of the Covenant. Alexander
+Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth laird, was one of the commissioners
+who went to the Hague to treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a
+Scottish lord of session and an English judge. He and his son were
+regarded as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south
+is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands the earl
+of Moray's mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies the site of the
+castle which was built by Thomas Randolph, the first earl. Attached to
+it is the great hall, capable of accommodating 1000 men, with an open
+roof of fine dark oak, the only remaining portion of the castle that was
+erected by Archibald Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a
+council in it in 1562. Earl Randolph's chair, not unlike the coronation
+chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands some 2-1/2
+m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by David I., and
+remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its suppression at the
+Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from 1526 to 1540, was its greatest
+abbot. His hobby was gardening, and it is believed that many of the 123
+varieties of pears and 146 varieties of apples for which the district is
+famous were due to his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the
+abbey for a short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in
+1562.
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, EDWIN (1806-1872), American actor, was born at Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of Scottish and German descent.
+He made his first stage appearance on the 27th of November 1820, at the
+Walnut Street theatre, in Home's _Douglas_. In 1826 he had a great
+success in New York as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the
+_Gladiator_ in 1836, but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English
+audience, and his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly
+afterwards--when he stood up in a private box and hissed him,--was fatal
+to his popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted in
+the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine, daughter
+of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce suit in 1852 was a
+_cause celebre_ which hurt his reputation and soured his temper. His
+last appearance was as Richelieu in Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th
+of December 1872. He had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left
+by will to found a home for aged actors.
+
+  See Lawrence Barrett's _Edwin Forrest_ (Boston, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, SIR JOHN (1847- ), West Australian statesman and explorer, son
+of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia, was born near Bunbury,
+on the 22nd of August 1847, and educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he
+became connected with the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in
+1869 led an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D.
+Leichardt, penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as
+123 deg. E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to Adelaide,
+along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother Alexander Forrest
+(born 1849), he explored eastwards from Champion Bay, following as far
+as possible the 26th parallel, and striking the telegraph line between
+Adelaide and Port Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in
+about five months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine
+achievement (see AUSTRALIA: _Exploration_). John Forrest also surveyed
+in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers Ashburton and Lady
+Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district. In 1876 he was made deputy
+surveyor-general, receiving the thanks of the colony for his services
+and a grant of 5000 acres of land; for a few months at the end of 1878
+he acted as commissioner of crown lands and surveyor-general, being
+given the full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the
+colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government, Sir John
+Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G. in 1901) became its
+first premier, and he held that position till in 1901 he joined the
+Commonwealth government, first as minister for defence, later as
+minister for home affairs and postmaster-general, resigning the office
+of federal treasurer in July 1907. His influence in West Australia was
+one of an almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his
+personality and his success in enforcing his views (see WESTERN
+AUSTRALIA: _History_). In 1897 he was made a member of the Privy
+Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret Hamersley. He
+published _Explorations in Australia_ (1876) and _Notes on Western
+Australia_ (1884-1887).
+
+
+
+
+FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-1877), Confederate cavalry general in the
+American Civil War, was born near Chapel Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of
+July 1821. Before his father's death in 1837 the family had removed to
+Mississippi, and for some years thereafter it was supported principally
+by Nathan, who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal
+education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling of his
+war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very fair success,
+and is said to have possessed considerable ability as a mathematician.
+He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in Mississippi, and a slave
+dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until 1859, when he took to cotton
+planting in north-western Mississippi, where he acquired considerable
+wealth. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a
+private, raised a cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and
+in February 1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and
+refusing, like Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of
+the Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with all
+the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel and regimental
+commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction, receiving a severe
+wound. Shortly after this he was promoted brigadier-general (July 1862).
+At the head of a mounted brigade he took a brilliant part in General
+Bragg's autumn campaign, and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was
+continually active in raiding the hostile lines of communication. These
+raids have been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole
+their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time, and apart
+from the question of their utility, Forrest's raids were uniformly bold
+and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the history of the
+cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan, he was the finest
+cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the most remarkable of his
+actions was his capture, near Rome, Georgia, after five days of marching
+and fighting, of an entire cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight
+(April 1863). He was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September,
+after which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the
+army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest was made
+a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of 1863-1864 he was as
+active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he raided as far north as
+Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864 he assaulted and captured Fort
+Pillow, in Tennessee on the Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a
+large part of the garrison and according to survivors many were
+massacred after the fort had surrendered. The "Massacre of Fort Pillow"
+has been the subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting
+testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself had
+no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated a
+superior Federal force at Brice's Cross Roads, Miss., and throughout the
+year, though the greatest efforts were made by the Federals to crush
+him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and Alabama with almost
+unvarying success. He was once more with the main Confederate army of
+the West in the last disastrous campaign of Nashville, and fought
+stubborn rearguard actions to cover the retreat of the broken
+Confederates. In February 1865 he was made a lieut.-general, but the
+struggle was almost at an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the
+ablest of the Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few
+Confederates, now under Forrest's command, and stormed Selma, Alabama,
+on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his whole
+command, under the agreement between General Richard Taylor and General
+E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May. After the war he lived in
+Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation in 1867, and for some years was
+president of the Selma, Marion and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis,
+Tennessee, on the 29th of October 1877.
+
+The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions of his
+technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his arm of the
+service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He never commanded a
+large force of all arms. He was uneducated, and had neither experience
+of nor training for the strategical handling of great armies. Yet his
+personality and his natural soldierly gifts were such that General
+Sherman considered him "the most remarkable man the Civil War produced
+on either side." Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose
+greatness lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that
+Forrest, had he had the advantage of a thorough military training,
+"would have been the great central figure of the war."
+
+  See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FORSKAL, PETER (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was born
+in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Gottingen, where he published a
+dissertation entitled _Dubia de principiis philosophiae recentioris_
+(1756). Thence he returned to his native country, which, however, he had
+to leave after the publication of a pamphlet entitled _Pensees sur la
+liberte civile_ (1759). By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V.
+of Denmark, who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an
+expedition to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at Jerim
+in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763.
+
+  His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the care of
+  editing his MSS., and published in 1775 _Descriptiones animalium,
+  avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium, quae in itin.
+  Orient. observavit Petrus Forskal_. In the same year appeared also his
+  account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower Egypt, under the
+  title of _Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica_.
+
+
+
+
+FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG (1843-1901), Swedish historian and political
+writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished mathematician, was
+born at Gefle, where his father was professor, on 14th January 1843. At
+the age of sixteen he became a student in Upsala University, where he
+distinguished himself, and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of
+doctor, he was appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty,
+however, Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity,
+was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post after
+another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was appointed head of
+the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to the department of inland
+revenue, of which he continued to be president until the time of his
+death. In addition to the responsibilities which these offices devolved
+upon him, Forssell was constantly called to serve on royal commissions,
+and his political influence was immense. In spite of all these public
+duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence, Forssell
+also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of his historical
+writings the most important were: _The Administrative and Economical
+History of Sweden after Gustavus I._ (1869-1875) and _Sweden in 1571_
+(1872). He was also for several years, in company with the poet Wirsen,
+editor of the _Swedish Literary Review_. He published two volumes of
+_Studies and_ _Criticisms_ (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death
+of the historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat
+on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great, and he
+understood so little the economy of strength, that he unquestionably
+overtaxed his vital force. His death, however, which occurred with great
+suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901 while he was staying at San
+Bernardino in Switzerland, was wholly unexpected. There was little of
+the typical Swedish urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was
+somewhat dry and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life
+administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain want of
+sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were distinct, and held
+with great firmness; for example, he was a free-trader, and his
+consistent opposition to what he called "the new system" had a
+considerable effect on Swedish policy. He was not exactly an attractive
+man, but he was a capable, upright and efficient public servant. In 1867
+he married Miss Zulamith Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known
+pomologist of Upsala; she survived him, with two sons and two daughters.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FORST (originally FORSTA or FORSTE), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old
+Lutheran church; there are two schools and two hospitals in the town.
+The chief industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,
+dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on. Founded
+in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke of Saxe-Merseburg,
+becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740. It was ceded to Prussia in
+1815.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, FRANCOIS (1790-1872), French engraver, was born at Locle in
+Neufchatel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In 1805 he was apprenticed to an
+engraver in Paris, and he also studied painting and engraving
+simultaneously in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. His preference was
+ultimately fixed on the latter art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the
+first "grand prix de gravure," the king of Prussia, who was then with
+the allies in Paris, bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500
+francs for two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in
+Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works of Raphael.
+In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy. He died at Paris on the
+27th of June 1872. Forster occupied the first position among the French
+engravers of his time, and was equally successful in historical pieces
+and in portraits. Among his works may be mentioned--The Three Graces,
+and _La Vierge de la legende_, after Raphael; _La Vierge au bas-relief_,
+after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros; St
+Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Durer and Henry IV., after Porbus;
+Wellington, after Gerard; and Queen Victoria, after Winterhalter.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German historian and poet, was
+the second son of Karl Christoph Forster (1751-1811), and consequently a
+brother of the painter, Ernest Joachim Forster (1800-1885). Born at
+Munchengosserstadt on the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he
+received his early education at Altenburg, and after a course of
+theology at Jena, devoted some time to archaeology and the history of
+art. At the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the
+army, quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs added
+to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the war he was
+appointed professor at the school of engineering and artillery in
+Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings he was dismissed from
+this office in 1817. He then became connected with various journals
+until about 1829, when he received an appointment at the royal museum in
+Berlin, with the title of court councillor (_Hofrat_). He was the
+founder and secretary of the _Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein_ in Berlin,
+and died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Forster's principal
+works are: _Beitrage zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1816);
+_Grundzuge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates_ (Berlin, 1818); _Der
+Feldmarschall Blucher und seine Umgebungen_ (Leipzig, 1820); _Friedrich
+der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist_ (Berlin, 1822); _Albrecht
+von Wallenstein_ (Potsdam, 1834); _Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von
+Preussen_ (Potsdam, 1834-1835); _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im 18.
+Jahrhundert_ (Potsdam, 1836-1839); _Leben und Taten Friedrichs des
+Grossen_ (Meissen, 1840-1841); _Wallensteins Prozess_ (Leipzig, 1844);
+and _Preussens Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste
+preussische Geschichte_, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three
+concluding volumes of this work contain the history of the war of
+liberation of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel's works,
+adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote a number
+of poems and an historical drama, _Gustav Adolf_ (Berlin, 1832).
+
+  Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as
+  _Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzahlungen und Legenden_ (Berlin, 1838). The
+  beginning of an autobiography of Forster, edited by H. Kletke, has
+  been published under the title, _Kunst und Leben_ (Berlin, 1873).
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794), German traveller and author, was
+born at Nassenhuben, a small village near Danzig, on the 27th of
+November 1754. His father, Johann Reinhold Forster, a man of great
+scientific attainments but an intractable temper, was at that time
+pastor of the place; the family are said to have been of Scottish
+extraction. In 1765 the elder Forster was commissioned by the empress
+Catherine to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov,
+which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian language and
+the elements of a scientific education. After a few years the father
+quarrelled with the Russian government, and went to England, where he
+obtained a professorship of natural history and the modern languages at
+the famous non-conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon
+compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years he and his
+son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in London--a
+practical education, however, exceedingly useful to the younger Forster,
+who became a thorough master of English, and acquired many of the ideas
+which chiefly influenced his subsequent life. At length the turning
+point in his career came in the shape of an invitation for him and his
+father to accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world.
+Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth Forster's
+peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voyage (_A Voyage round the
+World_, London, 1777; in German, Berlin, 1778-1780), is almost the first
+example of the glowing yet faithful description of natural phenomena
+which has since made a knowledge of them the common property of the
+educated world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for
+some time by differences with the admiralty, during which Forster
+proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment for his father as
+professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise that it was conferred
+upon himself. The elder Forster, however, was soon provided for
+elsewhere, being appointed professor of natural history at Halle. At
+Cassel Forster formed an intimate friendship with the great anatomist
+Sommerring, and about the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who
+gave him a leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently
+emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus at
+Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Gottingen, where he became
+betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the illustrious philologist,
+a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited to be Forster's wife. To
+be able to marry he accepted (1784) a professorship at the university of
+Wilna, which he did not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of
+Polish circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife's
+letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he
+resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition
+projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment of this
+undertaking became librarian to the elector of Mainz. He actively
+promoted the incorporation of the left bank of the Rhine with France and
+in 1793 went to Paris to carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however,
+the Germans seized Mainz, and Forster--already disheartened by the turn
+of events in France--was cut off from all return. Domestic sorrows were
+added to his political troubles and he died suddenly at Paris on the
+10th of January 1794.
+
+Forster's masterpiece is his _Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant,
+Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich_ (1791-1794), one of the
+ablest books of travel of the 18th century. His style is clear and
+vivid; his method of describing what he sees extraordinarily plastic;
+above all, he has the art of presenting objects to us from their most
+interesting and attractive side. The same qualities are also more or
+less conspicuous in his minor writings. By his translation (from the
+English) of the _Sakuntala_ of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German
+interest in Indian literature.
+
+  Forster's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843.
+  The _Ansichten vom Rhein_, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best
+  edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published
+  (Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster's _Kleine Schriften_, which
+  originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence was
+  published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his _Briefwechsel mit
+  Sommerring_ by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See J. Moleschott, _G.
+  Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks_ (1854; 3rd ed., 1874); K. Klein,
+  _G. Forster in Mainz_ (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann, _G. Forster_
+  (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876), English biographer and critic, was born on
+the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father, who was a Unitarian and
+belonged to the junior branch of a good Northumberland family, was a
+cattle-dealer. After being well grounded in classics and mathematics at
+the grammar school of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to
+Cambridge, but after only a month's residence he removed to London,
+where he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the
+Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary pursuits.
+He contributed to _The True Sun, The Morning Chronicle_ and to _The
+Examiner_, for which he acted as literary and dramatic critic; and the
+influence of his powerful individuality soon made itself felt. His
+_Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1836-1839) appeared partly
+in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with
+a _Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History_. Its merits
+obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became a prominent figure in
+that distinguished circle of literary men which included Bulwer,
+Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor, Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is
+said to have been for some time engaged to Letitia Landon, but the
+engagement was broken off, and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In
+1843 he was called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.
+For some years he edited the _Foreign Quarterly Review_; in 1846, on the
+retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some months of the
+_Daily News_; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the _Examiner_. From 1836
+onwards he contributed to the _Edinburgh Quarterly_ and _Foreign
+Quarterly_ Reviews a variety of articles, some of which were republished
+in two volumes of _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1858). In 1848
+appeared his admirable _Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith_ (revised in
+1854). Continuing his researches into English history under the early
+Stuarts, he published in 1860 the _Arrest of the Five Members by Charles
+I.--A Chapter of English History rewritten_, and _The Debates on the
+Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English Freedom_.
+These were followed by his _Sir John Eliot: a Biography_ (1864),
+elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the _Lives of Eminent
+British Statesmen_. In 1868 appeared his _Life of Landor_, and, on the
+death of his friend Alexander Dyce, Forster undertook the publication of
+his third edition of Shakespeare. For several years he had been
+collecting materials for a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies
+in this direction to write his standard _Life of Charles Dickens_. He
+had long been intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that
+John Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared in
+1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the close of 1875
+the first volume of his _Life of Swift_ was published; and he had made
+some progress in the preparation of the second at the time of his death
+on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855 Forster had been appointed
+secretary to the lunacy commission, and from 1861 to 1872 he held the
+office of a commissioner in lunacy. His valuable collection of
+manuscripts, including the original copies of Charles Dickens's novels,
+together with his books and pictures, was bequeathed to South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+  An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the
+  official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886), British surgeon, was born in 1823 in
+Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather before him had been
+local medical practitioners. He entered Guy's hospital in 1841, was
+appointed demonstrator of anatomy in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and
+surgeon, 1870. He became a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844,
+fellow in 1849 and president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold
+operator. In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in
+England for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known
+papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,
+intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and colloid
+cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book on _Surgical
+Diseases of Children_ in 1860, founded on his experience as surgeon to
+the hospital for children and women in Waterloo Road. He died suddenly
+in London on the 2nd of March 1886.
+
+
+
+
+FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886), British statesman, was born of Quaker
+parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire on the 11th of July 1818. He was
+educated at the Friends' school at Tottenham, where his father's family
+had long been settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He
+declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming in due time
+a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford, Yorkshire (from which
+after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale), he soon made himself
+known as a practical philanthropist. In 1846-1847 he accompanied his
+father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the
+famine in Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression
+on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's _Life of
+William Penn_, defending the Quaker statesman against Macaulay's
+criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of the famous
+Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a Quaker, and her husband was formally
+excommunicated for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to
+announce the sentence "shook hands and stayed to luncheon." Forster
+thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England, for which,
+indeed, he was in later life charged with having too great a partiality.
+There were no children of the marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother,
+William Arnold, died in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted
+them as their own.
+
+One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909), the
+well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament, who eventually became
+a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he was secretary to the admiralty
+(1900-1903), and then secretary of state for war (1903-1905), and was
+the author of numerous educational books published by Cassell & Co., of
+which firm he was a director.
+
+W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public affairs by
+speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture before the Leeds
+Philosophical Institution on "How we Tax India." In 1859 he stood as
+Liberal candidate for Leeds, but was beaten. But he was highly esteemed
+in the West Riding, and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford.
+In 1865 (unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again
+returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the
+American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary for the
+colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then that he first became a
+prominent advocate of imperial federation. In 1866 his attitude on
+parliamentary reform attracted a good deal of attention. His speeches
+were full of knowledge of the real condition of the people, and
+contained something like an original programme of Radical legislation.
+"We have other things to do," he said, "besides extending the franchise.
+We want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid of
+pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class which is
+more to be dreaded than the holders of a L7 franchise--I mean the
+dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see whether we cannot
+make for the agricultural labourer some better hope than the workhouse
+in his old age. We want to have Old England as well taught as New
+England." In these words he heralded the education campaign which
+occupied the country for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform
+Bill had passed, the necessity of "inducing our masters to learn their
+letters" (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr Forster and Mr
+Cardwell, as private members in opposition, brought in Education Bills
+in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when the Liberal party returned to
+office, Mr Forster was appointed vice-president of the council, with the
+duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The
+Elementary Education Bill (see EDUCATION) was introduced on the 17th of
+February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. The
+Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education League had
+already formulated in the provinces the two opposing theories, the
+former standing for the preservation of denominational interests, the
+latter advocating secular rate-aided education as the only means of
+protecting Nonconformity against the Church. The Dissenters were by no
+means satisfied with Forster's "conscience clause" as contained in the
+bill, and they regarded him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own
+side; while they resented the "25th clause," permitting school boards to
+pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the
+rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th of March,
+when the second reading came on, the controversy had assumed threatening
+proportions; and Mr Dixon, the Liberal member for Birmingham and
+chairman of the Education League, moved an amendment, the effect of
+which was to prohibit all religious education in board schools. The
+government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the
+amendment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the
+Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed. Extremists
+on both sides abused Forster, but the government had a difficult set of
+circumstances to deal with, and he acted like a prudent statesman in
+contenting himself with what he could get. An ideal bill was
+impracticable; it is to Forster's enduring credit that the bill of 1870,
+imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of
+national education in England without running absolutely counter to the
+most cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal agencies
+already in existence.
+
+Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act of 1872, but
+for several years afterwards his life was uneventful. In 1874 he was
+again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting attacks, and he took
+his full share of the work of the Opposition Front Bench. In 1875, when
+Mr Gladstone "retired," he was strongly supported for the leadership of
+the Liberal party, but declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington.
+In the same year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen
+University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming large, he
+visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches on the subject
+were marked by studious moderation, distasteful to extremists on both
+sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office in 1880 he was made chief
+secretary for Ireland, with Lord Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried
+the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see
+it thrown out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the
+agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy autumn and
+winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion in grappling with the
+situation in Ireland (see IRELAND) were indefatigable, his labour was
+enormous, and the personal risks he ran were many; but he enjoyed the
+Irish character in spite of all obstacles, and inspired genuine
+admiration in all his coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he
+introduced a new Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the
+growth of the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it
+to be "the most painful duty" he had ever had to perform, and one which
+would have prevented his accepting his office if he had known that it
+would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its provisions being one
+enabling the Irish government to arrest without trial persons
+"reasonably suspected" of crime and conspiracy. The Irish party used
+every opportunity in and out of parliament for resenting this act, and
+Forster was kept constantly on the move between Dublin and London,
+conducting his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in
+the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and anxiety to
+meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing with such antagonists,
+and the strain was intense and continuous. He was nicknamed "Buckshot"
+by the Nationalist press, on the supposition that he had ordered its use
+by the police when firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell
+was arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed. From that
+time Forster's life was in constant danger, and he had to be escorted by
+mounted police when he drove in Dublin. Early in March 1882 he visited
+some of the worst districts in Ireland, and addressed the crowd at
+Tullamore on the subject of outrages, denouncing the people for their
+want of courage in not assisting the government, but adding, "whether
+you do or not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages,
+and stop them we will." Forster's pluck in speaking out like this was
+fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the revelations
+connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the dangers he had
+confronted were properly realized, and it became known that several
+plans to murder him had only been frustrated by the merest accidents. On
+the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone announced that the government intended to
+release Mr Parnell and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both
+Lord Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and the
+following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was,
+with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It was characteristic of the
+man that Forster at once offered to go back to Dublin temporarily as
+chief secretary, but the offer was declined. His position naturally
+attracted universal attention towards him, particularly during the
+debates which ensued in parliament on the "Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr
+Gladstone's influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of
+the damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and Forster's
+pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans to accuse him of
+a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the next session that he
+delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in the debate on the address,
+denouncing him for his connexion with the Land League, and quoting
+against him the violent speeches of his supporters and the articles of
+his newspaper organs. It was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's
+charging him, not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or
+murder, but with conniving at them, ejaculated "It's a lie"; and,
+replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving
+Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration.
+Though, during the few remaining years of his life, Forster's political
+record covered various interesting subjects, his connexion with these
+stormy times in Ireland throws them all into shadow. He died on the 6th
+of April 1886, on the eve of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to
+which he was stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other
+questions on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian
+Liberalism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor
+was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the Birmingham
+programme. When the Redistribution Act divided Bradford into three
+constituencies, Forster was returned for the central division, but he
+never took his seat in the new parliament.
+
+Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative of the
+English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic, independent,
+incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed not only with great
+sympathy with progress, but also with a full faculty for resistance to
+mere democraticism. He was tall (the Yorkshiremen called him "Long
+Forster") and strongly though stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes
+and straightforward manners and methods, was a typical North-country
+figure. His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and
+force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing to the
+government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum, spoke of Mr
+Gladstone as able "to persuade most people of most things, and himself
+of almost anything," and though the phrase was much resented by Mr
+Gladstone's _entourage_, the truth that underlay it may be taken as
+representing the very converse of his own character. His personal
+difficulties with some of his colleagues, both in regard to the
+Education Act of 1870 and his Irish administration, must be properly
+understood if a complete comprehension of his political career is to be
+obtained. For an account of them we need only refer to the _Life of the
+Right Hon. W.E. Forster_, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born
+at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class honours in classics at
+Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Gottingen (under Ritschl) and at New
+College, Hampstead, and entered the Congregational ministry. Having held
+pastorates at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he
+became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, in 1901. In
+1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching at Yale
+University, published as _Positive Preaching and Modern Mind_. Among his
+other publications may be mentioned _Religion in Recent Art_, and
+articles in the _Contemporary Review_, _Hibbert Journal_, and _London
+Quarterly_. He was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and
+Wales in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+FORTALEZA (usually called CEARA by foreigners), a city and port of
+Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceara, on a crescent-shaped
+indentation of the coast-line immediately W. of Cape Mucuripe or
+Mocoripe, 7-1/2 m. from the mouth of the Ceara river, in lat. 3 deg. 42'
+S., long. 38 deg. 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, including a
+large rural district, 40,902. The city stands on an open sandy plain
+overlooking the sea, and is regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved,
+gas-lighted streets and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the
+climate the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.
+The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong sea
+winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of yellow-fever,
+small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered to be healthy. A
+small branch of the Ceara river, called the Pajehu, traverses the city
+and divides it into two parts, that on its right bank being locally
+known as Outeiro. Fortaleza is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854,
+but it has no cathedral, one of its ten churches being used for that
+purpose. Its public buildings include the government house, legislative
+chambers, bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high
+school), Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the
+insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1-3/4 m. from the
+railway station in the city, with which it is connected by rail. The
+port is the principal outlet for the products of the state, but its
+anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most dangerous on the
+northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are compelled to anchor well out
+from shore and discharge into lighters. Port improvements designed by
+the eminent engineer Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for
+many years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturite railway,
+built by the national government partly to give employment to starving
+refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects the city and its
+port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends to Senador Pompeu,
+178 m. distant. The exports include sugar, coffee, rubber, cotton, rum,
+rice, beans, fruits, hides and skins.
+
+Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort established
+at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took the name of Villa
+do Forte da Assumpca, but it was generally spoken of as Fortaleza. In
+1810 it became the capital of Ceara, and in 1823 it was raised to the
+dignity of a city under the title of Fortaleza da Nova Braganca.
+
+
+
+
+FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 706.
+It is delightfully situated at the south-western extremity of Loch Ness,
+about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the rivers Oich and Tarff and the
+Caledonian Canal. A branch line connects with Spean Bridge on the West
+Highland railway via Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was
+built in 1716 for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and
+was enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the Jacobites
+in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden, when it received
+its present name in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the
+victorious general. The fort was used as a sanatorium until 1857, when
+it was bought by the 12th Lord Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to
+the English order of Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its
+site a pile of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey
+and school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the
+higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and gentry.
+The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery, hospice and
+scriptorium--the four forming a quadrangle connected by beautiful
+cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were many Catholic Scots and English
+peers and gentlemen whose arms are emblazoned on the windows of the
+spacious refectory hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft.
+high.
+
+
+
+
+FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county, Iowa, U.S.A.,
+on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W. from Des Moines. Pop.
+(1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state census) 14,369, (2269 being
+foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is served by the Illinois Central, the
+Chicago Great Western, the Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort
+Dodge, Des Moines & Southern railways, the last an electric interurban
+line. Eureka Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and
+attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering bluffs.
+The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western railway steel
+bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country. Fort Dodge is the
+seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908), a commercial and
+business school, with preparatory, normal and classical departments, and
+courses in oratory and music; among its other institutions are St Paul's
+school (Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus
+Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of Lourdes convent
+and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and Reynold's Park are the city's
+principal parks. Immediately surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming
+country. To the E. of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area
+of about 50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United
+States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries and
+deposits of clay in the vicinity--the clay being, for the most part,
+obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products of the
+surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable
+importance. It has various manufactures, including gypsum, plaster,
+oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery, foundry and machine-shop
+products, and shoes. In 1905 the value of all the factory products was
+$3,025,659, an increase of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was
+erected on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in
+1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to Fort Dodge
+in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867), who was a
+lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War of 1812, served
+with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted Volunteers in the
+Black Hawk War, resigned from the military service in March 1833, was
+governor of Wisconsin Territory from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848,
+and was a delegate from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to
+1845, and a United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort
+was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out. It was chartered
+as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds near Fort Dodge was taken in
+1868 the block of gypsum from which was modelled the "Cardiff Giant," a
+rudely-fashioned human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga
+county, New York, where it was "discovered" late in 1869. It was then
+exhibited in various parts of the country as a "petrified man." The hoax
+was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C. Marsh of Yale; and George
+Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed to the fraud, his object having been
+to discredit belief in the "giants" of Genesis vi. 4. (See "The Cardiff
+Giant: the True Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in
+the _Century Magazine_, vol. xlii., 1902.)
+
+
+
+
+FORT EDWARD, a village of Washington county, New York, U.S.A., in the
+township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, 56 m. by rail N. of
+Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of whom 385 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of the township, including the village
+(1900), 5216; (1905), 5300; (1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the
+foot of a steep hill, is at the junction of the main line and the Glens
+Falls branch of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by
+electric line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting Lake
+Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here. The river
+furnishes good water-power, which is used in the manufacture of paper
+and wood pulp, the leading industry. Shirts and pottery (flower pots,
+jars and drain tile) are manufactured also. The village is the seat of
+the Fort Edward Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls,
+which was founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village
+owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their way to
+Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this place, the head of
+navigation for small boats on the Hudson, to Lake George or Lake
+Champlain, and hence it was known as the Great Carrying Place. Governor
+(afterwards Sir) Francis Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against
+Canada, built here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years
+afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a settlement and
+protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius, but this was destroyed by
+the French and Indians in 1745. In 1755, a third fort was built by
+General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774), as preliminary to the expedition
+against Crown Point under General William Johnson, and was named Fort
+Lyman; in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward, Duke
+of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was the headquarters of
+General Philip Schuyler while he and his troops were blocking the march
+of General Burgoyne's army from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of
+Burgoyne's forces was distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort
+Edward Hill, on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band
+whose assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered
+Jane McCrea (c. 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting friends
+in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day to the British
+camp and there to be married to David Jones, a loyalist serving as a
+lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible that she was shot
+accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian escorts, but her death did
+much to rouse local sentiment against Burgoyne and his Indian allies,
+and caused many volunteers to join the American army resisting
+Burgoyne's invasion. A monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea
+Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where
+she was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward. Fort
+Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the township of
+Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated in 1852.
+
+  See R.O. Bascom, _The Fort Edward Book_ (Fort Edward, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476), English lawyer, the second son of
+Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in Devonshire, was born at
+Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire. He was educated at Exeter
+College, Oxford. During the reign of Henry VI. he was three times
+appointed one of the governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a
+king's sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the
+king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for his wisdom,
+gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great favour with
+the king, who is said to have given him some substantial proofs of
+esteem and regard. He held his office during the remainder of the reign
+of Henry VI., to whom he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served
+that unfortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of
+treason in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently
+fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, who
+appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor of England. In
+1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret and her court in their exile
+on the Continent, and returned with them afterwards to England. During
+their wanderings abroad the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the
+young prince Edward his celebrated work _De laudibus legum Angliae_. On
+the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission to Edward
+IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated Westminster, October
+13, 1471. He died at an advanced age, but the exact date of his death
+has not been ascertained.
+
+  Fortescue's masterly vindication of the laws of England, though
+  received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom it
+  was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of Henry
+  VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was subsequently
+  many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned work by Fortescue,
+  written in English, was published in 1714, under the title of _The
+  Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_. In the Cotton
+  library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title of which it
+  is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many passages show
+  plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV. A revised edition
+  of this work, with a very valuable historical and biographical
+  introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer, under the
+  title _The Governance of England_. All of Fortescue's minor writings
+  appear in _The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected and
+  Arranged_, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his
+  descendant, Lord Clermont.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Plummer's Introduction to _The Governance of England_;
+  _Life_ in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdner's _Paston Letters_; Foss's
+  _Lives of the Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English statesman, was the eldest
+son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539), and of his second wife,
+Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or Rede of Borstall in
+Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded.[1] He was
+restored in blood and to his estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551.
+Through his father's mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he
+was a second cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early
+a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct the
+Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign. On the accession
+of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great wardrobe. He was
+returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford, in 1586 for Buckingham
+borough, in 1588 and 1597 for Buckingham county, and in 1601 for
+Middlesex. In 1589 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a
+member of the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November
+1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative
+employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought large estates
+in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up much state and a large
+household. He took a prominent part in public business, was a member of
+the court of the star chamber and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on
+various important commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer
+explained the queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in
+parliament. On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain
+restrictions should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably to
+limit the appointment of Scotchmen to office,[2] but his advice was not
+followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of the
+exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he retained his
+two other offices and entertained James several times at Henden and
+Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for Buckinghamshire, was defeated by
+Sir Francis Goodwin, whose election, however, was declared void by the
+lord chancellor on the ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he
+lay, and Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This
+incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor's
+jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament, which was
+repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the king. The matter after
+much debate was ended by a compromise, which, while leaving the
+principle unsettled, set aside the elections of both candidates and
+provided for the issue of a new writ. Fortescue was then in February
+1606 returned for Middlesex, which he represented till his death on the
+23rd of December 1607. He was buried in Mursley church in
+Buckinghamshire, where a monument was erected to his memory. His long
+public career was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and
+country with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments
+too were considerable--Camden styles him "vir integer, Graece,
+Latineque apprime eruditus,"[3] and his scholarship is also praised by
+Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured gifts of
+books and manuscripts to the latter's library. Fortescue married (1)
+Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme, by whom, besides a
+daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and Sir William; and (2) Alice,
+daughter of Christopher Smyth of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he
+had one daughter. His descent in the male line became extinct with the
+death of Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_; Lord
+  Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues_; _Hist. Notices of
+  the Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme_, by A. Napier, p. 390; D.
+  Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), p. 556; _Add. MSS._ 12497 f. 143
+  ("Sir John Fortescue's meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir
+  Julius Caesar]"); _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS._;
+  Spedding's _Life of Bacon_; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for
+  Bucks, _Records of Bucks_, vol. i. p. 86.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death on
+    the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of
+    Fortescue_, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself,
+    he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533
+    (Bucks. Architect. and Archaeolog. Soc. _Records of Bucks_, i. p.
+    89).
+
+  [2] David Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), 556.
+
+  [3] _Annales_, 613.
+
+
+
+
+FORTEVIOT, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on the Water of
+May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6-3/4 m. S.W. of Perth. Pop. of
+parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote antiquity, having been a
+capital of the Picts, when the district was known as Fortrenn, and
+afterwards of the Scots. The army led by Edward Baliol camped here
+before the battle of Dupplin (1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl
+of Mar, was slain along with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of
+Findo-Gask adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road,
+station and outpost, besides the "auld hoose" of Gask in which the
+Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one of her most
+popular songs. The new house in which she died dates from 1801.
+
+
+
+
+FORT GEORGE, a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland. It lies 12
+m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small branch line
+connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield junction. It
+occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme end of the southern
+shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the Firth of Inverness), which
+is here only 1 m. wide. There is communication by ferry with Fortrose on
+the opposite coast of the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly
+after the plan of one of Vauban's works, and named in honour of George
+II. Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much impressed
+with it and thought it would, when finished, be "the most considerable
+fortress and best situated in Great Britain." It covers 16 acres and
+contains accommodation for nearly 2200 men. It is the depot of the
+Seaforth Highlanders, and a military training-ground of some size and
+importance because the surrounding country gives ample facilities for
+exercise and manoeuvres. General Wade's road is maintained in good
+order. Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of
+detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put forward.
+About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown, in growing
+repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort and Inverness stands
+Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl of Moray.
+
+
+
+
+FORTH, a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river is formed by
+two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan
+as it is called after it leaves Loch Ard, both rising in the north-east
+of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire, and uniting 1 m. west of Aberfoyle. From
+this point till it receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a
+Perthshire stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between
+the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the
+Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1-1/2 m. due west of
+Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the shires of Stirling
+and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely tortuous character of its course
+between Gartmore and Alloa--the famous "links of the Forth,"--the actual
+length of the river is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct
+line (30 m.) between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the
+firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general
+direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the south, and
+the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie, Teith, Allan and
+Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan and Bannock. The alluvial
+plain extending from Gartmore to the county town is called the Carse of
+Stirling. The places of interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen,
+Stirling, Cambuskenneth, Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the
+Highland line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable
+beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip and
+Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa, and there
+are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for South Alloa) and
+Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 4-1/2 m. above Stirling, where
+the river is navigable at high water by vessels of 100 tons. There is,
+however, a brisk shipping trade at Alloa, where the dock accommodates
+vessels of at least 300 tons.
+
+The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea, that is, to
+an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May, from the East
+Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Haddingtonshire--a distance of
+48 m. Thus, according to some calculations, the Forth measures from
+source to sea 114 m. The width of the firth varies from 1/2 m. at
+Kincardine and 1-1/2 m. at Queensferry to 6-1/2 m. at Leith and 17-1/2
+m. at the mouth. The chief affluents are, on the south, the Carron,
+Avon, Almond, Leith, Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven,
+Kiel and Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth,
+Bo'ness, Granton and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and Kirkcaldy;
+but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very numerous on both
+coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge (see Bridges) in 1890 the
+ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland have greatly diminished in
+importance. The fisheries are still considerable, though the oyster
+trade is dwindling. The larger islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of
+an abbey, Inchkeith, with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle
+of May, with a lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret's Hope, with the
+naval base of Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to the west
+of the Forth Bridge.
+
+The Forth was the _Bodotria_ of Tacitus and the Scots Water of the
+chroniclers of the 11th and 12th centuries; while Bede (d. 735) knew the
+firth as _Sinus orientalis_ (the Eastern Gulf), and Nennius (fl. 796) as
+_Mare Friesicum_ (the Frisian Sea).
+
+
+
+
+FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. "Fortification" is the military art of
+strengthening positions against attack. The word (Lat. _fortis_, strong,
+and _facere_, to make) implies the creation of defences. Thus the boy
+who from the top of a mound defies his comrades, or shelters from their
+snowballs behind a fence, is merely taking advantage of ground; but if
+he puts up a hurdle on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified
+his position.
+
+Fortification consists of two elements, viz. _protection_ and
+_obstacle_. The protection shields the defender from the enemy's
+missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close quarters,
+and delays him under fire.
+
+_Protection_ may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct
+protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough to stop
+the enemy's missiles. The value of this is reduced in proportion as the
+defender has to expose himself to return the enemy's fire, or to resist
+his attempts to destroy the defences. Indirect protection is given by
+_distance_, as for instance by a high wall placed on a cliff so that the
+defender on the top of the wall is out of reach of the enemy's missiles
+if these are of short range, such as arrows. This kind of defence was
+very popular in the middle ages. In the present day the same object is
+attained by pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town
+they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town as long as
+he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect protection of great
+importance is concealment.
+
+The _obstacle_ may consist of anything which will impede the enemy's
+advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters. In the earliest
+forms of fortification the protecting wall was also the obstacle, or it
+may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement, a swamp, a thorn hedge, a
+spiked palisade, or some temporary expedient, such as crows' feet or
+chevaux de frise. The two elements must of course be arranged in
+combination. The besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their
+protected position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at
+leisure. But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of
+modern firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the
+obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.
+
+Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the enemy's methods
+of attack and the weapons he uses. The obstacle, on the other hand,
+should be of such a nature as to bring out the best effects of the
+defender's weapons. It follows from this that a well-armed force
+operating against a badly-armed uncivilized enemy may use with advantage
+very simple old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with
+it altogether if the obstacle is a good one.
+
+When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of protection is
+very great. In fact, it may be said that in proportion as missile
+weapons have grown more effective, the importance of protection and the
+difficulty of providing it have increased, while the necessity for a
+monumental physical obstacle has decreased.
+
+The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in appreciating
+and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem, such as the weapons
+in use, nature of the ground, materials available, temper of assailants
+and defenders, strategical possibilities, expenditure to be incurred,
+and so forth. Few of these conditions are in themselves difficult to
+understand, but they are so many and their reactions are so complex that
+a real familiarity with all of them is essential to successful work. The
+keynote of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first
+point usually lost sight of by the makers of "systems," especially by
+those who during a long period of peace have time to give play to their
+imaginations.
+
+Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely _permanent
+fortification_ and _field fortification_. Permanent fortifications are
+erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of
+constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials.
+Field fortifications are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps
+assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable, and with
+materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood
+and light timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as
+_semi-permanent fortification_. This is employed when in the course of a
+campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best
+imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample
+resources and skilled civilian labour being available.
+
+The _objects of fortification_ are various. The vast enceintes of
+Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war they might give
+shelter to the whole population of the country except the field army,
+with their flocks and herds and household stuff. The same idea may be
+seen to-day in the walls of such cities as Kano. In the middle ages
+feudal lords built castles for security against the attacks of their
+neighbours, and also to watch over towns or bridges or fords from which
+they drew revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely
+for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property. The
+feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-founding was
+fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the 17th and 18th
+centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm of fortified towns,
+large and small, played a great part in delaying the march of victorious
+armies.
+
+In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for such
+purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts. Fortresses are
+used either to protect points of vital importance, such as capital
+cities, military depots and dockyards, or at strategic points such as
+railway junctions. Combinations of fortresses are also used for more
+general strategic purposes, as will be explained later.
+
+
+I. HISTORY
+
+
+  Ancient methods.
+
+The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn _hedge_, a type
+which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive conditions. Thus,
+Alexander found the villages of the Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges,
+and the same arrangements may be seen to-day among the least civilized
+tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is the _bank_ of
+earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments of sods or
+hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the hedge, as, besides
+being a better obstacle against assault, it gives the defenders an
+advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight. Such banks formed the
+defences of the German towns in Caesar's time, and they were constructed
+with a high degree of skill. Timber being plentiful, the parapets were
+built of alternate layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter
+were built in at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were
+thus very difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being
+set on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree
+trunks or hurdle-work.
+
+After the bank the most important step in advance for a nation
+progressing in the arts was the _wall_, of masonry, sun-dried brick or
+mud. The history of the development of the wall and of the methods of
+attacking it is the history of fortification for several thousand years.
+
+The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security against
+escalade. The second-was thickness, so that the defenders might have a
+platform on the top which would give them space to circulate freely and
+to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick enough at the top for purposes
+of defence, would be very expensive if built of solid masonry; therefore
+the plan was early introduced of building two walls with a filling of
+earth or rubble between them. The face of the outer wall would be
+carried up a few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give
+protection against arrows and other projectiles.
+
+The next forward step for the defence was the construction of _towers_
+at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking fire along the
+front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison in case of a
+successful escalade, and from them the platform could be enfiladed.
+
+The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main requirements
+were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus the finest examples of
+the system known to history are also amongst the earliest. One of these
+was Nineveh, built more than 2000 years B.C. The object of its huge
+perimeter, more than 50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft.
+high and 30 ft. thick; and there were 1500 towers.
+
+After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was made for
+a very long time, from a constructional point of view. Many centuries
+indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of man evolved engines and
+methods of attack fit to cope with such colossal obstacles.
+
+The earliest form of attack was of course _escalade_, either by ladders
+or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable materials. When the
+increasing height of walls made escalade too difficult, other means of
+attack had to be invented. Probably the first of these were the _ram_,
+for battering down the walls, and _mining_. The latter might have two
+objects: (a) to drive an underground gallery below the wall from the
+besiegers' position into the fortress, or (b) to destroy the wall itself
+by undermining.
+
+The use of missile _engines_ for throwing heavy projectiles probably
+came later. They are mentioned in the preparations made for the defence
+of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the 8th century B.C. They are
+not mentioned in connexion with the siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre
+and Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of the
+ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.
+
+
+  Classical times.
+
+The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary for a
+systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for the Greeks
+practically to create this science. Taking it up in the 5th century B.C.
+they soon, under Philip of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high
+degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods which were
+afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexander's siegecraft was extremely
+practical. His successors endeavoured to improve on it by increasing the
+size of their missile and other engines, which, however, were so
+cumbrous that they were of little use. When the Romans a little later
+took up the science they returned to the practical methods of Alexander,
+and by the time of Caesar's wars had become past-masters of it. The
+highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder was
+probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire. The beginning
+of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period at which to take a
+survey of the arts of fortification and siegecraft as practised by the
+ancients.
+
+
+    Conditions at opening of the Christian era.
+
+  In fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea. The
+  towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the best
+  resistance to the ram. The wall was usually reinforced by a ditch,
+  which had three advantages: it increased the height of the obstacle,
+  made the bringing up of the engines of attack more difficult, and
+  supplied material for the filling of the wall. In special cases, as at
+  Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled and trebled.
+  Citadels were also built on a large scale.
+
+  The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town was on
+  high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep slopes
+  falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point was a
+  castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed in
+  accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where the
+  enemy's approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking towers
+  stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers were made
+  high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the river, it was
+  defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades defended by
+  towers were built out from either bank above and below the bridge,
+  between which chains or booms could be stretched to bar the passage.
+
+  The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus when
+  a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills, the
+  enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in the
+  intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger, but
+  would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence from the
+  hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two strong
+  masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with earth and
+  stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable, the outside
+  of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the parapet walk
+  perhaps being but a little above the level of the town. Palisades were
+  used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the gates.
+
+  There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of Roman
+  warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work of attack
+  and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were specially apt. No
+  modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed to rely on machinery,
+  steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope to emulate the feats of the
+  legionaries. In earthworks they excelled; and in such work as building
+  and moving about colossal wooden towers under war conditions, they
+  accomplished things at which nowadays we can only wonder.
+
+  The attack was carried on mainly by the use of "engines," under which
+  head were included all mechanical means of attack--towers, missile
+  engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different kinds,
+  "tortoises" (see below), &c. Mining, too, was freely resorted to, also
+  approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced by the Greeks.
+
+  The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a
+  gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the
+  destruction of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large
+  chambers under the foundations. These were supported while the
+  excavation was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the
+  chambers were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall
+  collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by countermines.
+  With these they would undermine and destroy the besiegers' galleries,
+  or would break into them and drive out the workers, either by force of
+  arms or by filling the galleries with smoke.
+
+  Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two kinds. For
+  dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the wall, steel-pointed
+  heads were used; when this was done, another head, shaped like a ram's
+  head, was substituted for battering down the filling of the wall.
+
+  For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but the
+  most important means of attack against a high wall were the movable
+  towers of wood. These were built so high that from their tops the
+  parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and stones; and
+  drawbridges were let down from them, by which a storming party could
+  reach the top of the wall. The height of the towers was from 70 to 150
+  ft. They were moved on wheels of solid oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in
+  diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground floor contained one or two
+  rams. The upper floors, of which there might be as many as fifteen,
+  were furnished with missile engines of a smaller kind. The archers
+  occupied the top floor. There also were placed reservoirs of water to
+  extinguish fire. These were filled by force pumps and fitted with hose
+  made of the intestines of cattle. Drawbridges, either hanging or
+  worked on rollers, were placed at the proper height to give access to
+  the top of the wall, or to a breach, as might be required. Apollodorus
+  proposed to place a couple of rams in the upper part of the tower to
+  destroy the crenellations of the wall.
+
+  The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong
+  timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the
+  defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers,
+  plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order to
+  gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In that
+  case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles,
+  described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed on
+  account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and their
+  frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort, with brick
+  walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one of the
+  towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subsequently
+  raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which
+  projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy
+  mats made of ships' cables. The mats protected the men working at the
+  walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually raised by the
+  use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy beams and planks,
+  over which were laid bricks and clay, and the whole was covered with
+  mats and hides to prevent the bricks from being dislodged. This
+  structure was completed without the loss of a man, and could only have
+  been built by the Romans, whose soldiers were all skilled workmen.
+
+  Although these towers were provided with bridges by which storming
+  parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object was usually
+  to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from the walls and
+  towers. Under this protection breaching operations could be carried
+  on. The approaches to the wall were usually made under shelter of
+  galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed on wheels and
+  moved into position as required. When the wall was reached, a shelter
+  of stronger construction, known as a "rat," was placed in position
+  against it. Under this a ram was swung or worked on rollers; or the
+  rat might be used as a shelter for miners or for workmen cutting away
+  the face of the wall. The great rat at Marseilles, which extended from
+  the tower already described to the base of the tower of the city, was
+  60 ft. long, and built largely of great beams 2 ft. square, connected
+  by iron pins and bands. It was unusually narrow, the ground sills of
+  the side walls being only 4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to
+  keep down the weight of the structure, which, massive as it was, had
+  to be movable. The sloping roof and sides of timber were protected,
+  like those of the tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool
+  mattresses. Huge stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from
+  the wall upon this rat without effect, and under its cover the
+  soldiers loosened and removed the foundations of the tower until it
+  fell down.
+
+  In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures, it
+  was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of
+  the ground. For this purpose an "approach tortoise" was often used.
+  This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery and the
+  rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an open front
+  with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up for filling the
+  ditch was distributed.
+
+  The missile engines threw stones up to 600 lb. weight, heavy darts
+  from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege of
+  Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 lb. The ranges varied, according
+  to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds. for direct fire
+  and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jerusalem Titus
+  employed three hundred catapults of different sizes and forty
+  balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 lb. weight. At
+  Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium catapults, 23 large and
+  52 small balistae, and a great number of scorpions and other small
+  missile engines.
+
+  Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers were
+  used in great variety.
+
+  In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in the
+  construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes. A kind
+  of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used to hoist a
+  cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall. A long spar with
+  a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from a lofty frame,
+  served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and overhanging
+  galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow in replying with
+  similar devices. Fenders were let down from the wall to soften the
+  blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught and held by cranes.
+  Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the rats and overturn them.
+  Archimedes used the same idea in the defence of Syracuse for lifting
+  and sinking the Roman galleys. Wooden towers were built on the walls
+  to overtop the towers of the besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire
+  were employed. The tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or
+  a portion of it, at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with
+  reflectors, is supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With
+  a reflector having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small
+  mirrors each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and
+  wood was set on fire at 160 ft.
+
+  The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long since
+  reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the
+  destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized defences
+  were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger, and the
+  attack was stronger than the defence.
+
+
+  Middle ages.
+
+Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the twin sciences of
+fortification and siegecraft long enough for the Crusaders to learn from
+them what had been lost in the West. Byzantium, however, always a
+storehouse of military science, while conserving a knowledge of the
+ancient methods and the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas
+to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the Byzantines favoured
+multiplied enceintes or several concentric lines of defence. This of
+course is always a tendency of decadent nations.
+
+In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and the
+Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the defences of
+Carcassonne, Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century. Viollet-le-Duc's
+description and illustrations of the defences of Carcassonne will give a
+very good idea of the methods then in use:--
+
+  "The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is still
+  preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those described
+  by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated than the
+  ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks. The curtain
+  walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces of small cubical
+  masonry alternating with courses of brick; the middle portion being
+  filled, not with earth but with rubble run with lime. The towers were
+  raised above these curtains, and their communication with the latter
+  might be cut off, so as to make of each tower a small independent
+  fort; externally these towers are cylindrical, and on the side of the
+  town square; they rest, also towards the country, upon a cubical base
+  or foundation. We subjoin (fig. 1) the plan of one of these towers
+  with the curtains adjoining. A is the plan of the ground-level; B the
+  plan of the first storey at the level of the parapet. We see, at C and
+  D, the two excavations formed in front of the gates of the tower to
+  intercept, when the drawbridges were raised, all communication between
+  the town or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower.
+  From the first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or
+  battlemented portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed
+  interiorly against the side of the flat wall. The external
+  ground-level was much lower than that of the tower, and also beneath
+  the ground-level of the town, from which it was reached by a
+  descending flight of from ten to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower
+  and its two curtains on the side of the town; the bridges of
+  communication are supposed to have been removed. The battlemented
+  portion at the top is covered with a roof, and open on the side of the
+  town in order to permit the defenders of the tower to see what was
+  going on therein, and also to allow of their hoisting up stones and
+  other projectiles by means of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same
+  tower on the side towards the country; we have added a postern, the
+  sill of which is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate
+  the use of a scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is
+  defended, as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or
+  postern being provided with a work of this kind."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Plan of one of the Towers at Carcassonne.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.]
+
+Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost disappeared. Its
+perfect development was only possible for an army like that of the
+Romans. The Huns and Goths knew nothing of it, and the efforts of
+Charlemagne and others of the Frankish kings to restore the art were
+hampered by the fact that their warriors despised handicrafts and
+understood nothing but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages
+the towns of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences,
+which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the sieges of
+that period dragged themselves out through long years, and if ultimately
+successful were so as a rule only through blockade and famine. It was
+not until the 11th century that siegecraft was revived in the West on
+the ancient lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, outside view.]
+
+
+  Castles.
+
+By this time a new departure of great importance had been made in the
+seigneurial castle (q.v.), which restored for some centuries a definite
+superiority to the defence. Built primarily as strongholds for local
+magnates or for small bodies of warriors dominating a conquered country,
+the conditions which called them into existence offered several marked
+advantages. The defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town,
+and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be expected that a
+town would develop itself in the manner most suitable for defence; nor
+indeed that any position large enough for a town could be found that
+would be naturally strong all round. But the site of a castle could be
+chosen purely for its natural strength, without regard, except as a
+secondary consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and
+as its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position
+entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened that the
+existence of such a position was the _raison d'etre_ of the castle. A
+small hill with steep sides might well be unapproachable in every
+direction by such cumbrous structures as towers and rats, while the
+height of the hill, added to the height of the walls, would be too much
+for the besiegers' missiles. If the sides of the hill were precipitous
+and rocky, mining became impossible, and the site was perfect for
+defence. A castle built under such conditions was practically
+impregnable; and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in
+the 11th and 12th centuries. They could only be reduced by blockade, and
+a blockade of long duration was very difficult in the feudal age.
+
+A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the Chateau Gaillard,
+built by Richard Coeur-de-Lion in 1196. This great castle, with ditches
+and escarpments cut out of the solid rock, and extensive outworks, was
+completed in one year. In the article CASTLE will be found the plan of
+the main work, which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon
+(or keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle,
+giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature in
+advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of the
+machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which at that time
+was usually given by wooden hoardings. After the death of Richard,
+Philip Augustus besieged the chateau, and carried it after a blockade of
+seven months and a regular attack of one month. In this attack the tower
+at A was first mined, after which the whole of that outwork was
+abandoned by the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by
+surprise; and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the
+pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers prevented
+the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter of the donjon, and
+they had to lay down their arms.
+
+Chateau Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general of his time,
+exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of the designs of
+the 12th century. It is easy to understand how at each step gained by
+the besiegers the very difficulties which had been placed in the way of
+their further advance prevented the garrison from reinforcing strongly
+the points attacked.
+
+In the 13th century many influences were at work in the development of
+castellar fortification. The experience of such sieges as that of
+Chateau Gaillard, and still more that gained in the Crusades, the larger
+garrisons at the disposal of the great feudal lords, and the importance
+of the interests which they had to protect in their towns, led to a
+freer style of design. We must also take note of an essential difference
+between the forms of attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the
+medieval chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers,
+preferred in siege works the certain if laborious methods of breaching
+and mining. The latter, who considered all manual labour beneath them
+and whose only ideal of warfare was personal combat, affected the tower
+and its bridge, giving access to the top of the wall rather than the rat
+and battering-ram. They were also fond of surprises, which the bad
+discipline of the time favoured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Donjon, Chateau Gaillard.]
+
+We find, therefore, important progress in enlarging the area of defence
+and in improving arrangements for flanking. The size and height of all
+works were increased. The keep of Coucy Castle, built in 1220, was 200
+ft. high. Montargis Castle, also built about this time, had a central
+donjon and a large open enclosure, within which the whole garrison could
+move freely, to reinforce quickly any threatened point. The effect of
+flanking fire was increased by giving more projection to the towers,
+whose sides were in some cases made at right angles to the curtain
+walls.
+
+We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long after
+medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication of defences, to
+guard against surprise and localize successful assaults. Great attention
+was paid to the "step by step" defence. Flanking towers were cut off
+from their walls and arranged for separate resistance. Complicated
+entrances with traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence
+was from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the lower
+storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring. Machicouli
+galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either by stone walls
+built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings built in war time,
+for which the walls were prepared beforehand by recesses left in the
+masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were protected by shutters. Great care
+and much ingenuity were expended on details of all kinds.
+
+Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence had made
+provision for countermining, by building chambers and galleries at the
+base of the towers and walls. Further protection for the towers against
+the pioneer attack was given by carrying out the masonry in front of the
+tower in a kind of projecting horn. This was found later to have the
+further advantages of doing away with the dead ground in front of the
+tower unseen from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and
+therefore the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is
+seen in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ of
+the idea of the bastion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.]
+
+  The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the 13th
+  century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of the best
+  work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-le-Duc)
+  show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a bird's-eye
+  view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick black line shows
+  the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then the moat. It will be
+  noted that the wall of the lists as well as the main wall is defended
+  by towers. There are only two gates. That on the east is defended by
+  two great towers and a semicircular barbican. The gate of the castle,
+  on the west, has a most complicated approach defended by a labyrinth
+  of gates and flanking walls, which cannot be shown on this small
+  scale, and beyond these is a huge circular barbican in several
+  storeys, capable of holding 1500 men. On the side of the town the
+  castle is protected by a wide moat, and the entrance is masked by
+  another large semicircular barbican. An interesting feature of the
+  general arrangement is the importance which the lists have assumed.
+  The slight wooden barricade of older times has developed into a wall
+  with towers; and the effect is that the besieger, if he gains a
+  footing in the lists, has a very narrow space in which to work the
+  engines of attack. The castle, after the Roman fashion, adjoins the
+  outer wall of the town, so that there may be a possibility of
+  communicating with a relieving force from outside after the town has
+  fallen. There were also several posterns, small openings made in the
+  wall at some height above the ground, for use with rope ladders.
+
+The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients. Mining was
+the most effective form of attack, and the approach to the walls was
+covered by engines throwing great stones against the hoardings of the
+parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were sheltered behind light mantlets
+moved on wheels. Barrels of burning pitch and other incendiary
+projectiles were thrown as before; and at one siege we read of the
+carcasses of dead horses and barrels of sewage being thrown into the
+town to breed pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a
+capitulation.
+
+With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As Professor
+C.W.C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical application of the three
+powers of tension, torsion and counterpoise (in the missile engines) had
+its limits. If these engines were enlarged they grew too costly and
+unwieldy. If they were multiplied it was impossible on account of their
+short range and great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on
+a single portion of the wall.
+
+
+  Introduction of gunpowder.
+
+It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a small
+space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the first two
+centuries after the introduction of gunpowder. The number of existing
+fortifications that had to be modified was infinite, so also was the
+number of attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers had not yet
+begun to publish descriptions of their "systems"; also the new names and
+terms which came into use with the new works were spread over Europe by
+engineers of different countries, and adopted into new languages without
+much accuracy.
+
+Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any effect on
+the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw so very light a
+projectile that they had no effect on masonry and were more useful for
+the defence than the attack. Later, larger pieces were made, which acted
+practically as mortars, throwing stone balls with high elevation, and
+barrels of burning composition. In the middle of the 15th century the
+art of cannon-founding was much developed by the brothers Bureau in
+France. They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened the
+guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely defeated by
+the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450 Charles VII. was
+furnished with so powerful a siege train that he captured the whole of
+the castles in Normandy from the English in one year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.]
+
+But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII.
+with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The astonishing rapidity
+with which castles and fortified towns fell before him proved the
+uselessness of the old defences. It became necessary to create a new
+system of defences, and, says Cosseron de Villenoisy, "thanks to the
+mental activity of the Renaissance and the warlike conditions prevailing
+everywhere, the time could not have been more favourable." There is no
+doubt that the engineers of Italy as a body were responsible for the
+first advance in fortification. There, where vital and mental energy
+were at boiling-point, and where the first striking demonstration of the
+new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such as Leonardo
+da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied themselves over the
+problem of defence.
+
+It has been claimed that Albert Durer was the first writer on modern
+fortification. This was not so; Durer's work was published in 1527, and
+more than one Italian engineer, certainly Martini of Siena and San
+Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machiavelli, writing between 1512 and
+1527, had offered some most valuable criticisms and general principles.
+Durer, moreover, had little influence on the progress of fortification;
+though we may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the
+"polygonal" system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Durer's
+work was to some extent a connecting link between the old fortification
+and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the old towers; and he
+provided both them and the curtains with vaulted chambers for guns
+(casemates) in several tiers, so as to command both the ditch and the
+ground beyond it. His projects were too massive and costly for
+execution, but his name is associated with the first practical gun
+casemates.
+
+Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the design of
+fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened the influence of
+the castles. First, their owners were slow to adopt the new ideas and
+abandon their high strong walls for low extended parapets, and,
+secondly, they had not the men necessary for long lines of defence. At
+the same time the corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active
+part in warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large
+numbers.
+
+When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry from a distance
+two results followed: it was necessary to modify the masonry defences so
+as to make them less vulnerable, and to improve the means of employing
+the guns of the defence. For both these purposes the older castles with
+their restricted area were little suited, and we must now trace the
+development of the fortified towns.
+
+
+    The bulwark.
+
+  Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appearance
+  of the new weapons was the bulwark (_boulevard, baluardo_ or
+  _bollwerk_). This was an outwork usually semicircular in plan, built
+  of earth consolidated with timber and revetted with hurdles. Such
+  works were placed as a shield in front of the gates, which could be
+  destroyed even by the early light cannon-balls; and they offered at
+  the same time advanced positions for the guns of the defence. They
+  were found so useful for gun positions for flanking fire that later
+  they were placed in front of towers or at intervals along the walls
+  for that purpose.
+
+  This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now to
+  consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected both the
+  construction and trace of the walls.
+
+
+    The wall.
+
+  The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls
+  should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened.
+  One method of doing this in the case of old works was by placing
+  bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the lists or outer walls,
+  being surrounded by moats, were already partially screened and
+  suitable for conversion into the main defence; and as with improved
+  flanking defence great height was no longer essential, the tops of the
+  walls were in some cases cut down. In new works it was natural to sink
+  the wall in a ditch, the earth from which was useful for making
+  ramparts.
+
+  As regards resistance to the effect of shot, it was found that thin
+  masonry walls with rubble filling behind them were very easily
+  destroyed. A bank of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of
+  the shot, but once a breach was made the earth came down, making a
+  slope easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood,
+  timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank, and
+  answered very well (fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counterforts.
+  The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built _inward_ from
+  the wall into the rampart instead of _outward_ (fig. 8). Their effect
+  was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more difficult of
+  ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening the wall was an
+  arched gallery built behind it under the rampart (fig. 9). This
+  construction was in harmony with the idea, already familiar, of a
+  passage in the wall from which countermines could be started; but it
+  has the obvious weakness that the destruction of the face wall takes
+  away one of the supports of the arch. The best arrangement, which is
+  ascribed to Albert Durer, was the "counter-arched revetment." This
+  consisted of a series of arches built between the counterforts, with
+  their axes at right angles to the face of the wall. Their advantage
+  was that, while supporting the wall and taking all the weight of the
+  rampart, they formed an obstacle after the destruction of the wall
+  more difficult to surmount than the wall itself and very hard to
+  destroy. The counter-arches might be in one, two or three tiers,
+  according to the height of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter
+  without the earth of the rampart and showing also a countermine
+  gallery).
+
+
+    The rampart.
+
+  A more important question, however, than the improvement of the
+  passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active defence
+  by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room for the
+  working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question of
+  modifying the existing defences at as little cost as possible. With
+  this object the roofs of towers were removed and platforms for guns
+  substituted, but this only gave room for one or two guns. Also the
+  loopholes in the lower storeys of towers were converted into
+  embrasures to give a grazing fire over the ditch; this became the
+  commonest method of strengthening old works for cannon, but was of
+  little use as the resulting field of fire was so small. In some cases
+  the towers were made larger, with a semicircular front and side walls
+  at right angles to the curtain. Such towers built at Langres early in
+  the 16th century had walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery defence
+  with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Durer in theory, and
+  the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the best examples of
+  this. The Italian engineers also showed much ingenuity in arranging
+  for the defence of ditches with masonry caponiers. These were
+  developed from external buttresses, and equally with the casemated
+  flanking towers of Durer contained the germs of the idea of
+  "polygonal" defence.
+
+  The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted, was
+  the rampart; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall,
+  which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
+  plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.
+
+
+    The ditch.
+
+  The _ditch_, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and
+  medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic.
+  Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying earth for a
+  rampart and allowing the wall to be sunk for concealment, it was found
+  also to have a definite use as an obstacle. Hitherto the wall had
+  sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being useful mainly to prevent
+  the besieger from bringing up his engines of attack.
+
+  When the wall (or escarp) was lowered, the obstacle offered by the
+  ditch was increased by revetting the far side of it with a
+  _counterscarp_. Beyond the counterscarp wall some of the earth
+  excavated from the ditch was piled up to increase the protection given
+  to the escarp wall. This earth was sloped down gently on the outer
+  side to meet the natural surface of the ground in such a manner as to
+  be swept by the fire from the ramparts and was called the _glacis_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  Now, however, a new difficulty arose. In all times a chief element in
+  a successful defence has consisted in action by the besieged outside
+  the walls. The old ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on
+  the far side leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a
+  convenient place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble
+  without being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their
+  attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented sorties
+  from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the introduction of
+  the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of it, behind the
+  glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty was met by
+  widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft., in which there
+  was room for troops to assemble. This was known as the _covered way_.
+
+  With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of modern
+  fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+  The trace.
+
+Up to the gunpowder period the _trace_ of fortifications, that is, the
+plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very simple. It was
+merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted to the site and provided
+with towers at suitable intervals. The foot of the wall could be seen
+and defended everywhere, from the tops of the towers and the machicoulis
+galleries. The introduction of ramparts and artillery made this more
+difficult in two ways. The rampart, interposed between the defenders and
+the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical defence. Also with the
+inferior gun-carriages of the time very little depression could be given
+to the guns, and thus the top of the enceinte wall, with or without a
+rampart, was not a suitable position for guns intended to flank the
+ditch in their immediate neighbourhood. The problem of the "trace"
+therefore at the beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line
+of defence so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the
+besieged, both to oppose the besiegers' breaching batteries and later to
+defend the breaches. At the outset the latter role was the more
+important.
+
+In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this problem we
+must remember that for economical reasons they had to make the best use
+they could of the existing walls. At first for flanking purposes
+casemates on the ditch level were used, the old flanking towers being
+enlarged for the purpose. Masonry galleries were constructed across the
+ditch, containing casemates which could fire to either side, and after
+this casemates were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of
+the fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that the
+flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be dependent on
+outworks, and that greater freedom was required for guns than was
+consistent with casemate defence. The _bulwark_ (which in its earliest
+shape suggests that it was in some sort the offspring of the barbican,
+placed to protect an entrance) gave plenty of space for guns, but was
+too detached for security. The enlarged tower, as an integral part of
+the lines, gave security, and its walls at right angles to the curtain
+gave direct flanking fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The
+blending of the two ideas produced the _bastion_, an element of
+fortification which dominated the science for three hundred years, and
+so impressed itself on the imagination that to this day any strong
+advanced position in a defensive line is called by that name by
+unscientific writers. The word had been in use for a long time in
+connexion with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes,
+the earliest forms being _bastille_, _bastide_, _bastillon_, and in its
+origin it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the
+construction than to its defensive intention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Bastion at Troyes.]
+
+  The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces and
+  flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers often
+  acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion were more
+  or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a contemporary MS. by
+  Viollet-le-Duc, shows a bastion added to the old wall of Troyes about
+  1528. On the other hand, in fig. 14 (taken from an English MS. of
+  1559, which again is based on the Italian work of Zanchi published in
+  1554), we find _a a_ spoken of as "bulwarks" and _b b_ as
+  "bastilions." The triangular works between the bastilions are
+  described as "ramparts," intended to protect the curtains from
+  breaching fire. (We may also notice in this design the broad ditch,
+  the counterscarp with narrow covered way, and loopholes indicating
+  counterscarp galleries.)
+
+Towards the end of the 16th century the term "bulwark" began to be
+reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance in front of the
+main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it thus reverted to its
+original defensive intention. The term "bastion" henceforth denoted an
+artillery position connected by flanks to the main wall; and the
+question of the arrangement of these flanks was one of the main
+preoccupations of engineers. Flanks retired, casemated or open, or
+sometimes in several tiers were proposed in infinite variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual
+modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on account
+of the expense involved, the era of theoretical "systems" had begun,
+based on the mutual relations of flank and face. These can be grouped
+under three heads as follows:--
+
+  1. The _cremaillere_ or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
+  each other in regular order (fig. 15).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+  2. The _tenaille_ trace: Flanks back to back between the faces (fig.
+  16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the _star_
+  trace (fig. 17).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  3. The _bastioned_ trace: Flanks facing each other and connected by
+  curtains (fig. 18).
+
+In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless
+casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete. Guns on
+the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and therefore there
+are "dead" angles in the ditch. In the bastioned trace there is no
+"dead" ground, provided the flanks are so far apart that a shot from the
+rampart of a flank can reach the ditch at the centre of the curtain.
+
+
+  The bastioned trace.
+
+Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who objected to
+casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of salvation. They were
+soon in the majority; perhaps because the symmetry and completeness of
+the idea captivated the imagination. At all events the bastioned trace,
+once fairly developed, held the field in one form or another practically
+without a rival until near the end of the 18th century. The Italian
+engineers, who were supreme throughout most of the 16th century, started
+it; the French, who took the lead in the following century, developed
+it, and officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century,
+when the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary
+importance.
+
+  It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple
+  of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component parts
+  of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its outworks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round the
+  place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.
+
+  ABC is an _exterior angle_ or angle of the polygon.
+
+  BC is an _exterior side_.
+
+  _zz_ is an _interior side_.
+
+  _abcdefghijk_ is the trace of the _enceinte_.
+
+  _bcdef_ is a _bastion_.
+
+  _zdef_ is a _demi-bastion_.
+
+  _de_ is a _face_ of the bastion.
+
+  _ef_ is a _flank_ of the bastion.
+
+  _fg_ is the _curtain_.
+
+  _bf_ is the _gorge_.
+
+  (Two demi-bastions with the connecting curtain make the bastioned
+  front, _defghi_.)
+
+  _zd_ bisecting the _exterior angle_ ABC is the _capital_ of the
+  bastion.
+
+  _xy_ is the _perpendicular_, the proportionate length of which to the
+  exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element of
+  the trace.
+
+  _ef_C is the angle of _defence_.
+
+  BC_f_ is the _diminished angle_.
+
+  _cde_ is the _flanked angle_ or _salient angle_ of the bastion.
+
+  _e_ is the _shoulder_ of the bastion.
+
+  _def_ is the _angle of the shoulder_.
+
+  _efg_ is the _angle of the flank_.
+
+  The line of the escarp is called the _magistral line_ since it
+  regulates the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without
+  much detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of
+  the parapet, are often the only ones shown,--the crest of the parapet,
+  as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being
+  usually emphasized by a thick black line.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+  Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an
+  imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the
+  different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the
+  explanation of its figuring and lettering.
+
+  1. _Flat bastion:_ Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines of
+  defence were too long for musketry range.
+
+  2. _Demi-bastion:_ Used generally on the bank of a river.
+
+  3. _Tenaille bastion:_ Used when the flanked angle is too acute; that
+  is, less than 70 deg.
+
+  4. _Redans:_ Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet of
+  the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.
+
+  A, B. _Ravelins._
+
+  C. _Demi-lunes:_ So called from the shape of the gorge. They differ
+  from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions instead of
+  the curtains.
+
+  D. _Counter-guards:_ Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then going
+  out of fashion.
+
+  E. _Simple tenaille._
+
+  F. _Double tenaille_ (see L and M).
+
+  (If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown
+  alternatively, it is called a _swallow-tail_. If the double tenaille
+  is reduced as at G, it is called a _bonnet de pretre_. Such works
+  were rarely used.)
+
+  H. _Hornwork:_ Much used for gates, &c.
+
+  I. _Crown-work._
+
+  K. _Crowned hornwork._
+
+  L. M. New forms of _tenaille_: (N.B.--These are the forms which
+  ultimately retained the name.)
+
+  N. New form of work called a _demi-lune lunettee_, the ravelin N being
+  protected by two counterguards, O.
+
+  P. _Re-entering places of arms._
+
+  Q. _Traverses._
+
+  R. _Salient places of arms._
+
+  S. _Places of arms_ without _traverses_.
+
+  T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.
+
+  X. A _double bastion_ or _cavalier_.
+
+  Y. A _retrenchment_ with a ditch, of the breach Z.
+
+  &. _Traverses_ to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from
+  enfilade.
+
+Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find in the early
+examples of the use of the bastion that there is no attempt made to
+defend its faces by flanking fire, the curtains being considered the
+only weak points of the enceinte. Accordingly, the flanks are arranged
+at right angles to the curtain, and the prolongation of the faces
+sometimes falls near the middle of it. When it was found that the faces
+needed protection, the first attempts to give it were made by erecting
+_cavaliers_, or raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in
+the bastions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in
+Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we have
+faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces long enough to
+contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able to defend both curtain
+and faces. The weak points of this trace, due to its being arranged on a
+small pentagon, are that the terreplein or interior space of the
+bastions is rather cramped, and the salient angles too acute.
+
+
+  The 16th century.
+
+In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589 we find a
+distinct advance. Speckle's actual constructions in fortification are of
+no great importance; but he was a great traveller and observer, and in
+his work, published just before his death, he has evidently assimilated,
+and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put forward up
+to that time.
+
+Two specimens from Speckle's work are well worth studying as connecting
+links between the 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+  Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no
+  outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a battery
+  in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large, but the
+  faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the flanks.
+  To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers in the
+  middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank should be
+  noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of which is
+  arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great saliency of the
+  bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement is simple and
+  strong.
+
+  In the second example, known as Speckle's "reinforced trace" (fig.
+  23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century. The
+  ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are in
+  prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle's other favourite
+  ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own
+  particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering place
+  of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries did not find
+  favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily destroyed by
+  the besiegers' batteries crowning the salients of the covered way.
+
+  Speckle's book is of great importance as embodying the best work of
+  the period. His own ideas are large and simple, but rather in advance
+  of the powers of the artillery of his day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 22.]
+
+
+  The 17th century.
+
+At the beginning of the 17th century we find the Italian engineers
+following Paciotto in developing the complete bastioned trace; but they
+got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything to
+symmetry and system. The era of geometrical fortification (or, as Sir
+George Clarke has called it, "drawing-board" fortification) had already
+begun with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in
+finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical
+bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the oval, club,
+heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one of the first to
+think of prolonging the resistance of a place by means of outworks such
+as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that Busca was the first to discuss
+the proportions and functions of all the component parts of a front; and
+Floriani, about 1630, was the last of the important Italians. The
+characteristics of a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at
+this time were, according to the same authority, that the works were
+well adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed,
+while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German schools will be
+referred to later.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Speckle's Reinforced Trace.]
+
+The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting the
+principles already established to actual sites. In the first half of the
+century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as having contributed
+valuable studies to the advancement of the science. In putting forward
+their designs they discussed very fully such practical questions as the
+length of the line of defence, whether this should be governed by the
+range of artillery or musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in
+them of orillons, casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions,
+&c.
+
+It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which is one of the
+most important periods in the history of fortification, chiefly because
+it was illuminated by the work of Vauban. It was at this time also that
+a prodigious output of purely theoretical fortification began, which
+went on till the French Revolution. Many of the "systems" published at
+this time were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge of the
+subject, some of them priests who were engaged in educating the sons of
+the upper classes, and who had to teach the elements of fortification
+among other things. They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable
+for their clearness of style; and with their industry and ingenuity the
+elaboration of existing methods was a very congenial task. Most of these
+essays took the form of multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an
+impossible scale, and they culminated in such fantastic extravagances as
+the system of Rhana, published in 1769 (fig. 24). These proposals,
+however, were of no practical importance.
+
+
+  Vauban.
+
+The work of the real masters who knew more than they published can
+always be recognized by its comparative simplicity. The greatest of
+these was Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (q.v.). Born in 1633, and
+busied from his eighteenth year till his death in 1707 in war or
+preparations for war, he earned alike by his genius, his experience, his
+industry and his personal character the chief place among modern
+military engineers. His experience alone puts him in a category apart
+from others. Of this it is enough to say that he took part in
+forty-eight sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer without
+a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than 160 places.
+Vauban's genius was essentially practical, and he was no believer in
+systems. He would say, "One does not fortify by systems but by common
+sense." Of new ideas in fortification he introduced practically none,
+but he improved and modified existing ideas with consummate skill in
+actual construction. His most original work was in the attack (see
+below), which he reduced to a scientific method most certain in its
+results. It is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should
+be chiefly known to us by three so-called "systems," known as his
+"first," "second" and "third." How far he was from following a system is
+shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight fronts constructed
+by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of which are quite alike and most
+of which vary very considerably to suit local conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+Vauban's "first system," as variously described by other writers even in
+his own time, is pieced together from some of the early examples of his
+work. The "second system" is the "tower bastion" defence of Belfort and
+Landau (1684-1688), obviously suggested by a design of Castriotto's one
+hundred years earlier; and the "third system" is the front of
+Neu-Breisach (1698), which is merely Landau slightly improved. In other
+works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower bastion idea.
+
+It will be convenient to take the "first system," as reproduced in the
+Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25) as typical
+of much of Vauban's work. It may be observed that he sometimes uses the
+straight flank, and sometimes the curved flank with orillon. Parapets in
+several tiers are never used, nor cavaliers. The ravelin is almost
+always used. It is small, having little artillery power and giving no
+protection to the shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and
+occasionally a keep.
+
+The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a shield to
+the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by him. Fig. 25
+shows two forms. In both the parapet of the tenaille had to be kept low,
+so that the flanks might defend a breach at the shoulder of the opposite
+bastion, with artillery fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the
+escarp. Traverses are used for the first time on the covered way to
+guard against enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which
+Vauban attached considerable importance, is large.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Vauban's First System.]
+
+  For the construction of the trace an average length of about 400 yds.
+  (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the site) may be
+  taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except for polygons of
+  less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the bastions
+  two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords of arcs
+  struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described with
+  the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and
+  cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of the
+  ravelin; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon the
+  faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The main ditch
+  has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the
+  counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions.
+  The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout.
+
+  As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command of 25
+  ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft.
+  over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The parapets
+  are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works he used
+  demi-revetments.
+
+Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the so-called
+"third system." It is worth introducing, simply as showing that even a
+mind like Vauban's could not resist in old age the tendency to duplicate
+defences. Here the main bastions and tenaille are detached from the
+enceinte. The line of the enceinte is broken with flanks and further
+flanked by the towers. The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section
+through the face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm,
+and a hedge as an additional obstacle.
+
+
+  18th and 19th centuries.
+
+After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable additions
+to the system were few. Among his successors in the early part of the
+18th century Cormontaingne (q.v.) has the greatest reputation, though
+his experience and authority fell far short of Vauban's. He was a clear
+thinker and writer, and the elements of the system were distinctly
+advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged ravelin with flanks, the
+ends of which were intended to close the gaps at the end of the
+tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with flanks. He provides a very
+large re-entering place of arms, also with a keep, the ditches of which
+are carefully traced so as to be protected from enfilade by the salients
+of the ravelin and bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent
+retrenchment of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with
+many alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as a
+text-book for the school of Mezieres. This school was established in
+1748, and from this time forward there was an official school of
+thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne's work, therefore, represents
+the modifications of Vauban's ideas accepted by French engineers in the
+latter part of the 18th century. The school of Mezieres was afterwards
+replaced by that of Metz, which carried on its traditions. Such schools
+are necessarily conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual
+improvement in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the
+bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of the
+Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us that, before the
+Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification was to write one's
+self down ignorant. How far the general form of the bastion with its
+outworks had become crystallized is evident from a cursory comparison of
+fig. 27 with Vauban's early work. This figure is the front of the Metz
+school in 1822, by General Noizet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Neu-Breisach.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Noizet.]
+
+Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines of the
+system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from
+Cormontaingne's time onwards were given to improvements of detail, and
+mainly to retard breaching operations as long as possible. We find
+enormous pains being bestowed on the study of the comparative heights of
+the masonry walls and crest levels; with the introduction here and there
+of glacis slopes in the ditches, put in both to facilitate their
+defence and to protect portions of the escarps.
+
+Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first of these is
+Chasseloup-Laubat (q.v.), who served throughout the wars of the Republic
+and Empire, and constructed the fortress of Alessandria in Piedmont.
+
+  Chasseloup's main proposals to improve the bastioned system were two:
+
+  First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached through
+  the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward the
+  ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the further
+  advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-fire over
+  the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the ravelin
+  liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this system would
+  have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able commander with a
+  strong force; but under the opposite conditions it has a dangerous
+  element of weakness.
+
+  Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those
+  admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend his
+  exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his
+  bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the flank
+  of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence, and
+  the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length, being
+  defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the
+  tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it
+  combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal
+  systems without getting the full advantages of either.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Chasseloup-Laubat.
+
+  Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup's system, of ordinary length,
+  as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting detail, viz.
+  the Chasseloup mask--a detached mask with tunnels for the casemate
+  guns to fire through, the intention of which is to save them from
+  being destroyed from a distance.
+
+The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French Engineers,
+born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827. Two leading ideas are
+due to him. The first is that of the "independence of parapets." A
+glance at any of the plans that have already been shown will show that
+hitherto the crests of parapets had always been traced parallel to the
+escarp or magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was
+necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with reference
+to the flanking arrangements, there was no such necessity as regards the
+parapets. By making the crest of the parapet quite independent of the
+escarp line he obtained great freedom of direction for his fire. The
+second idea is that of the "inner glacis." This was a glacis parapet
+placed in the main ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to
+prevent the escarp of the body of the place from being breached in the
+usual way by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.
+
+The need for Choumara's improvements has passed by, but he was in his
+time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a resounding note:
+"What is chiefly required in fortification is simplicity and strength.
+It is not on a few little contrivances carefully hidden that one can
+rely for a good defence. _The fate of a place should not depend on the
+intelligence of a corporal shut up in a small post prepared for his
+detachment._"
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sedan in 1705.]
+
+  Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study a
+  couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one regular.
+  Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the end of the
+  17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and there, but the
+  work is for the most part apparently early 17th century. It will be
+  observed that on the river side of the town the defence consists of
+  very irregular bastions with duplicated wet ditches (see the Dutch
+  style, below); and on the other side, where water is not available,
+  strength is sought for by pushing a succession of hornworks far out.
+
+  Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early
+  manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course never
+  thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good nor
+  bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the
+  system.
+
+  It must here be remarked that the reproach of "geometrical"
+  fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and his
+  immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which
+  worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already pointed
+  out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his fellows
+  excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the engineer.
+
+  The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the
+  fortification problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range
+  and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an
+  obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of
+  protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the
+  bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was
+  the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability
+  and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the
+  authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French
+  school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while the
+  conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they could
+  admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not help being
+  original, were struggling against the whole weight of official
+  opposition.
+
+  Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not
+  geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the
+  attack, on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As
+  to the policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us
+  think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and
+  that a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of
+  retreat. There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of
+  outworks, difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral
+  effect of their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and
+  Candia might well say, "Oh, if only when we had held on to that
+  bastion for so many months we had had a second and a third line of
+  permanent retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place
+  for ever." And who shall say that they were wrong? Let us at all
+  events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men who
+  had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves in
+  comparison with them are the theorists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+
+  The Dutch school.
+
+From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods of fortification
+acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout resistance offered to
+the Spaniards by some of their fortresses, the three years' defence of
+Ostend being perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged defences,
+which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the besieged, were
+credited to the quality of their defences. In point of fact the Dutch
+owed more to nature, and more still to their own spirit, than to art;
+but they showed a good deal of skill in adapting recent ideas to their
+needs.
+
+Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch works at this
+time, viz. want of time, want of money and abundance of water. When the
+Netherlands began their revolt against Spain, they would no doubt have
+been glad enough of expensive masonry fortresses on such models as
+Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for
+such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately for them
+they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted walls.
+Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or canals were
+available for inundations. A wide and shallow ditch, while making a good
+obstacle, was also the readiest means of obtaining earth for the
+ramparts. High command was, owing to the flatness of the country,
+unnecessary and even undesirable, as it did not allow of grazing fire.
+
+What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns gives little
+evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an existing enceinte,
+sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide a broad wet ditch. No
+further provision was usually made on the sides of the town which were
+additionally protected by a river or inundation. On the other sides the
+wet ditch was made still broader, and sometimes contained a
+counterguard, sometimes ravelins and lunettes. These were quite
+irregular in their design and relation to each other. At the foot of the
+glacis would be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a
+peculiarly Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a
+river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line,
+strengthened by several redans.
+
+Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want of a
+first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches, and
+further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities of palisading,
+for which purpose the timber of old ships was used. They also recognized
+the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches, as, for instance, that when
+frozen they no longer provide an obstacle; and they studied the means,
+not only of causing inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well
+as to fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this
+work.
+
+Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence at this
+time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon Stevin, Maurice
+and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag. The fortress of Coevorden,
+constructed by Prince Maurice, of which fig. 31 shows a front, is a
+well-known example of this, and the section shows clearly some typical
+features of the school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Coevorden.]
+
+  The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace, but
+  we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design.
+  There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding the
+  rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work, which
+  partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard, served
+  several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the rampart
+  should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch, and the
+  fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead ground at the
+  foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire over the ditch,
+  which was very important, and which the rampart supported by a
+  plunging fire.
+
+
+  Coehoorn.
+
+Coehoorn (q.v.), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban, was the
+greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was distinguished as
+a fighting engineer, both in attack and defence; but in the attack he
+differed from him in relying more on powerful artillery fire than
+systematic earthworks. He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His "first
+system," which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is reproduced for the
+sake of comparison with the Coevorden front designed a hundred years
+earlier. Among other points will be noticed the combination of wet and
+dry ditches; the very broad main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep
+of the ravelin; the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent
+low parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Coehoorn's First System.]
+
+
+  German school.
+
+The "tenaille" system and the "polygonal" system which grew out of it
+are mainly identified with the _German school_. That school, says von
+Zastrow, does not, like that of France, represent the authoritative
+teaching of an official establishment, but rather the general practice
+of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of Durer,
+Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in execution by
+Montalembert. "The German engineers desired a simple trace, a strong
+fortification with retrenchments and keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and
+an organization suitable for an offensive defence."
+
+These had always been the German principles. Already in the 16th century
+the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and Peitz had large bomb-proof
+casemates sufficient for a great part of the garrison. The same thing is
+seen in the defences of Giogau, Schweidnitz, &c., built by Frederick the
+Great. These works show various applications of the tenaille system. In
+1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalembert, and his
+influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel.
+
+Whether through the influence of Albert Durer or not cannot be said, but
+while the bastion was being developed in France the tenaille and the
+accompanying casemates from the first found acceptance in Germany, and
+thence in eastern and northern Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618,
+produced a sort of tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of
+Rimpler. Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d'Aach
+(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion and
+tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion being usually
+distinguished by short faces and long flanks.
+
+Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the Turks in
+1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a great influence.
+He had been struck by the weakness of the early Italian bastions at
+Candia, and published a book in 1673 called _Fortification with Central
+Bastions_, which was practically the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks
+that Rimpler inspired Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to
+illustrate his ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the Prussian
+service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence. He appears to
+have been the first who frankly advocated the tenaille alone, chiefly on
+the ground that the flank, which was the most important part of the
+bastioned system, was also the weakest. Fig. 33 shows his system,
+published in 1712.
+
+
+  Montalembert and Carnot.
+
+It was, however, ultimately a Frenchman, Marc Rene Montalembert (q.v.),
+who was the great apostle of the tenaille, though in his later years he
+leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected to the bastioned trace
+on many grounds; principally that the bastion was a shell trap, that the
+flanks by crossing their fire lost the advantage of the full range of
+their weapons, and that the curtain was useless for defence. He took the
+view that the bastions with their ravelins constituted practically a
+tenaille trace, spoilt by the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by
+the presence of the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted
+of redans, with salient angles of 60 deg. or more, flanking each other at
+right angles; from which he gave to his system the name of
+"perpendicular fortification."
+
+Lazare Carnot (q.v.), the "Organizer of Victory," was, in
+fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797 a
+tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+  In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he
+  recommended a bastioned trace; but for wet ditches and for irregular
+  ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797
+  trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose
+  faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients.
+  There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends
+  overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between the
+  _tenaille trace_ and the _tenaille_, it should be noted that the
+  latter is a low detached parapet placed in front of the escarp of the
+  body of the place, partly as a shield, and partly as an additional
+  line of defence. It is used in front of the curtain in the bastioned
+  trace, and in the re-entering angle in the tenaille trace.)
+
+  Other important features of Carnot's work were: a continuous general
+  retrenchment, or interior parapet, following more or less the lines of
+  the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place of the escarp
+  revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last (of which Carnot
+  was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently outwards from a crest
+  raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level of the ground, sloped
+  inwards from the ground-level to the bottom of the ditch. The
+  advantage of the additional obstacle of the counterscarp was thus lost
+  to the defence. On the other hand, the besiegers' saps, as they
+  progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a plunging fire from the
+  parapet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall.]
+
+Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great believer in the mortar; but
+while Coehoorn introduced the small portable mortar that bears his name,
+Carnot expected great results from a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron
+balls at each discharge. He endeavoured to prove mathematically that the
+discharge of these mortars would in due course kill off the whole of the
+besieging force. These mortars he emplaced in open fronted
+mortar-casemates, in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one
+of these mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the
+retrenchment and a detached wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Montalembert, 1786.]
+
+
+  The polygonal trace.
+
+The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful defence it
+was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that of the enemy.
+This idea led him to the adoption of casemates in several tiers; in
+preference to open parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds,
+high angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects of bastions
+he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking purposes two forms of
+trace were preferable; either the tenaille form, connecting the ravelins
+with the body of the place, or the form in which the primary flanking
+elements, instead of facing each other with overlapping fire, as with
+the bastions, should be placed back to back in the middle of the
+exterior side. Fig. 36 is an example of this. The central flanking work
+resulting from this arrangement is the caponier of the early Italians,
+reintroduced and developed; and with it Montalembert laid the foundation
+of the polygonal system of our own time.
+
+Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming necessity for
+detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly proposed to use
+his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille system for large places.
+In abandoning the bastioned trace he was already committed to the
+principle of casemate defence for ditches; and the combination of this
+principle with his desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him
+in the course of years of controversial writing into somewhat
+extravagant proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds.
+side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his caponier
+sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one above the other.
+Confiding in the power of such an artillery, he freely exposed the upper
+parts of his casemates to direct fire.
+
+Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas to fortification
+than any other man. His designs must be considered in some ways
+unworkable and unsound, but all the best work of the 19th century rests
+on his teaching. The Germans, who already used the tenaille system and
+made free provision of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal
+trace and the idea of the entrenched camp.
+
+The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or slightly
+broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers. The caponier is
+the vital point of the front, and is protected in important works by a
+ravelin and keep. The essence of the system is its simplicity, which
+allows of its being applied to any sort of ground, level or broken, and
+to long or short fronts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Front at Posen.]
+
+
+  1815-1855, entrenched camps.
+
+The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one in the
+history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive works that
+were constructed at this time were obsolete almost as soon as they were
+finished; but this was inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world
+was travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic Confederation
+began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering that they had not
+derived much strategic advantage from their existing fortresses, the
+Germans took up Montalembert's idea of entrenched camps, utilizing at
+the same time his polygonal system with modifications for the main
+enceintes. The Prussians began with the fortresses of Coblenz and
+Cologne; later Posen, Konigsberg and other places were treated on the
+same lines. The Austrians constructed, among other places, Linz and
+Verona. The Germanic Confederation reinforced Mainz with improved works,
+and reorganized entirely Rastatt and Ulm. The Bavarians built
+Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these works were conceived in the
+spirit of Rimpler and Montalembert, they showed the differences of
+national temperament. The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon
+powerful artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the
+enemy's view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth and
+gave more attention to detail.
+
+The German development of the polygonal system at this time is not of
+great importance, since the great masonry caponiers were designed
+without sufficient consideration for the increasing powers of artillery.
+One example (fig. 37) is given for the sake of historical comparison. It
+is a front of Posen.
+
+  "The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long.
+  It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a _detached
+  bastion_.... The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the
+  bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.
+
+
+    Posen.
+
+  "The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and sweeps
+  both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has two
+  floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and on the top is a
+  parapet completely commanding alike the outworks and the body of the
+  place. It contains barrack accommodation for a battalion of 1000 men,
+  and has a large inner courtyard closed at the gorge by a detached
+  wall. The caponier is itself flanked by three small caponiers at the
+  head, and one at the inner end of each flank.
+
+  "The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall; that
+  of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and
+  arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion
+  there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated traverse
+  for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion are
+  parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from it as
+  the faces.
+
+  "Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as keeps of
+  the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter case they
+  have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery, which serves as
+  a base for countermine galleries, and is connected with the detached
+  bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counterscarp is not revetted
+  if the ditch is wet.
+
+  "The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160 deg., in order
+  that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients
+  of the detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry
+  of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view." (R.M.A.
+  _Text-book of F. & M.E._, 1886.)
+
+
+  The detached fort.
+
+We have now reached a period when the "detached fort" becomes of more
+importance than the organization of the enceinte. The early conception
+of the role of detached forts in connexion with the fortress was to form
+an entrenched camp within which an army corps could seek safety if
+necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who added to the permanent
+defences of Toulon a large camp defended by field parapets attached to
+one side of the fortress. The substitution of a ring of detached forts,
+while giving it the greater safety of permanent instead of field
+defences, gave also a wider area and freer scope for the operations of
+an army seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same
+time made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment. The
+use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body of the place
+from bombardment had not yet been made necessary by increased range of
+artillery.
+
+When these detached forts were first used by Germany the scope of the
+idea had evidently not been realised, as they were placed much too close
+to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for instance, were only some 400 or
+500 yds. in advance of the ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in
+most of these forts as in the new enceintes; i.e. a lunette, with a
+casemated keep at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work,
+the rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery
+fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to flank
+its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring works with
+guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable arrangement, which
+is still sometimes used. The front ditches of the lunettes were flanked
+by caponiers. Some of the larger forts were simple quadrangular works
+with casemate barracks and caponier ditch defence.
+
+In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely fresh
+departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to provide an
+entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose works should require
+the smallest possible garrison. With this object Linz was surrounded
+with a belt of circular towers spaced about 600 yds. apart. The towers,
+25 metres in diameter, were enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and
+contained 3 tiers of casemates. The masonry was concealed from view by
+the ditch and glacis. On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over
+which a battery of 13 guns fired _en barbette_. In order to find room
+for so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed
+parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.
+
+This new departure was received with a certain amount of approval at the
+time, which is somewhat difficult to account for, as a more faulty
+system could hardly be devised; but the experiment was never repeated.
+
+The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made in Germany
+during this period is due to General von Brese-Winiari,
+inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.
+
+France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for
+fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor improvements
+on the old lines. Belgium, having some money in hand, rebuilt and
+improved in detail a number of bastioned fortresses which had fallen
+into disrepair.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. The Fortress of Antwerp.]
+
+In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with entrenched
+camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed, and detached forts were
+added at a cost, according to von Zastrow, of L8,000,000. The Belgian
+and German frontiers of France being considered fairly protected by the
+existing fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and
+Italian frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts
+at Belfort, Besancon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at Lyons
+was, according to the same writer, L1,000,000 without the armament. Here
+and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified on account of the advanced
+defences. That of Paris, which was influenced by political
+considerations, was a simple bastioned trace with rather long fronts and
+without ravelins or other outworks; the escarp was high and therefore
+exposed, and the counterscarp was not revetted.
+
+As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of clearness of
+conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses in miniature, square
+or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts and containing defensible
+barracks. Those of Lyons were much more carefully designed, but the
+authors wavered between two ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but
+evidently hankering after the new caponiers, they produced a type which
+it is difficult to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or
+five-sided figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole
+interior space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the
+polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had defensible
+barracks in the gorge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+
+  Period from 1855 to 1870.
+
+During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given to the
+science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the arrival of the
+rifled gun. One immediate result of these was the condemnation of
+masonry exposed to artillery fire. The most important work of the period
+was the new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859. This is
+chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest expression of the
+medieval enceinte, at a time when the war between the polygonal and
+bastioned traces was still raging, though the boom of the long-range
+guns had already given warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also
+associated with the name of General Brialmont (q.v.), of the Belgian
+engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as the greatest writer on
+fortification of the latter half of the 19th century.
+
+
+  Antwerp.
+
+We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859 defences of
+Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its sections, as
+showing almost the last word of fortification before the arrival of high
+explosives.
+
+The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre of the
+national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for 100,000 men. The
+length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The detached forts, which on the
+sides not defended by inundation are about 1-1/4 m. apart and from 2 to
+3 m. in front of the enceinte, are powerful works, arranged for a
+garrison of 1000 men. They have each a frontal crest-line of over 700
+yds. and are intended for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Sections of fig. 39.]
+
+  The general arrangement of the fronts of the enceinte should be
+  compared with the earlier German type of Posen. It will be noticed
+  that while the large casemated caponier at Posen breaks the enceinte
+  and flanks it both without and within, at Antwerp the caponier is
+  detached--a much sounder arrangement--and flanks the front only. The
+  defence of the faces rests on the width of the wet ditches and on the
+  flanking power of the caponier; there is no attempt to add to it by
+  fausse-braie or detached wall. The dimensions are everywhere very
+  generous, allowing free movement for the troops of the defence; the
+  covered way is 22 yds. wide and there is a double terreplein on the
+  face. The parapet of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the
+  casemate guns in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is
+  protected by earth, _a la_ Haxo.
+
+In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery with
+some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by Radetzky in 1848
+were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from the ramparts. Those now
+added, of which fig. 41 is an example, were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Austrian Fort at Verona.]
+
+In the same year the land defences of some of the British dockyards were
+taken in hand. These first serious attempts at permanent fortification
+in England were received with approval on the continent, as constituting
+an advance on anything that had been done before. The detached forts
+intended to keep an enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works
+with small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the
+ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries. The forts
+were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to support each other
+by their fire.
+
+
+  Period from 1870 to 1885.
+
+The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded to in the
+section below dealing with the "Attack of Fortresses." As regards their
+effect on the designs of fortification the most important thing to note
+is the distance to which it was thought necessary to throw out the
+detached forts. These distances were of course influenced by the
+character of the ground, but for the most part they were very largely
+increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr was 18,000 yds. from the
+enceinte; at Verdun the distances varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at
+Belfort the new forts were from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to
+4500; and at Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased
+distances was of course to increase very largely the length of the zone
+of investment, and therefore the strength necessary for the besieging
+force.
+
+As regards the character of the works, the typical shape adopted both in
+France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled lunette, shallow from front
+to rear. The German type had one parapet only, which was organized for
+artillery and heavily traversed, the living casemates being under this
+parapet. The ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached
+wall (see fig. 42).
+
+The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being placed over
+living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section of fig. 43 by a
+dotted line), and commanding the front one. There was a long controversy
+as to whether the artillery of the fort should be on the upper or the
+lower parapet, the advocates of the upper parapet attaching great
+importance to the command that the guns would have over the country in
+front. The other school, objecting to having guns on the skyline,
+preferred to sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet,
+as in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be
+observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches, like those
+of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--German Fort about 1880.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--French Fort about 1880.]
+
+While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very active
+controversy had already begun on the general question as to whether guns
+should be employed in forts at all. Some declared that the accuracy and
+power of artillery had already developed so far, that guns in fixed and
+visible positions must needs be put out of action in a very short time.
+The remedy proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts
+into "wing-batteries" which should be less conspicuous; but soon the
+broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed positions
+and moving them from one to another by means of previously prepared
+roads or railways. Others declared that there was no safety for the guns
+outside the forts, and that the use of steel turrets and disappearing
+cupolas was the only solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who
+had by this time become the first European authority on fortification
+questions, ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger
+school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed themselves
+eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.
+
+It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced, namely, the
+obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive bursting charge. With
+its appearance we say good-bye to the old school and enter upon the
+consideration of the fortification of to-day.
+
+
+II. MODERN PERMANENT FORTIFICATION
+
+  High-angle fire with long shell.
+
+Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885. The Germans
+had begun experiments a year or two before this, with long shell
+containing large charges of gun-cotton. But it was the experiments at
+Fort Malmaison in France in 1886 that set the military world speculating
+on the future of fortification. The fort was used as a target for 8-in.
+shell of five calibres length containing large charges of melinite. The
+reported effects of these made a tremendous sensation, and it was
+thought at first that the days of permanent fortification were over.
+Magazine casemates were destroyed by a single shell, and revetment walls
+were overturned and practicable breaches made by two or three shells
+falling behind them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were
+not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had enough earth
+over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but not enough to prevent it
+from coming into contact with the masonry, and the latter was not thick
+enough to resist the explosion of the big charges. Other experiments
+were made in the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and
+Austria. The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 lb. of high
+explosive.
+
+After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about adapting
+their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments were enormously
+strengthened, and designed so that their weight resisted overturning.
+Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft. thick, and in many cases the
+surface of the concrete was left bare so as to expose a hard surface to
+the shell without any earth tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded
+guns gained ground, and is now practically accepted all over the
+continent of Europe. In many cases the main armament, in some only the
+safety armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.
+
+[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+fortification_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 44.--Metz in 1899.]
+
+But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature on the subject,
+and the whole policy of fortification as well as its minutest details
+were discussed _ab ovo_. The extremists of both sides revelled in their
+opportunity. Some declared that, with the use of heavy guns and armour,
+fortresses could be made stronger than ever. Others held that modern
+fortresses were far too expensive, that their use led to strategic
+mistakes, and (arguing from certain well-known examples) that
+extemporized field defences could offer as good a resistance as
+permanent works.
+
+European military opinion generally is now more or less agreed on the
+following lines:--
+
+  1. Important places must be defended by fortresses.
+
+  2. Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the
+  bombardment of the place.
+
+  3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate.
+
+  4. A few guns (called "safety armament") should be in the forts, and
+  these must be protected by armour.
+
+  5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the
+  forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers in
+  concealed positions.
+
+  6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry
+  positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being provided
+  for the infantry.
+
+  7. There should be ample communications--radial and
+  peripheral--between the place and the forts, both by road and rail.
+
+  8. Special lines of communication--such as mountain passes--should be
+  closed by barrier forts.
+
+These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in detail, but
+first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz in 1899 (fig. 44).
+
+
+    Metz.
+
+  Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily
+  recognized. First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now
+  _declassee_. Next the detached forts, begun by the French engineers in
+  1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be readily recognized by their
+  bastioned trace. Among them are Fort Manteuffel, formerly St Julien,
+  and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly Queuleu. These were not altered in
+  their general lines.
+
+  [Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+  fortification_, by permission.
+
+  FIG. 45.--Fort Goeben, Metz.]
+
+  This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the
+  enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal type
+  such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a very
+  important point, was converted into a fortified position, with two
+  forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running north to
+  Fort Alvensleben.
+
+  The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts can be
+  clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by other
+  batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate
+  important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal
+  battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries.
+
+  There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in connexion
+  with this line.
+
+  Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899 at about
+  9000 yds. from the place.
+
+
+  Fortresses.
+
+Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of groups of
+fortresses, the places which, as mentioned above, are intrinsically
+worth being defended as fortresses are:--
+
+  (a) Centres of national, industrial or military resources.
+
+  (b) Places which may serve as _points d'appui_ for manoeuvres.
+
+  (c) Points of intersection of important railroads.
+
+  (d) Bridges over considerable rivers.
+
+  (e) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.
+
+Examples of (a) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again for (a) and
+(b), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz in the hands of the
+Germans may serve both as a base of supplies and a _point d'appui_ for
+one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head giving the Germans a secure
+retreat across the Rhine if beaten in the plains of Alsace, and an
+opportunity of resuming the offensive when they have re-formed behind
+the river.
+
+[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la
+fortification_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 46.--St Quentin position, Metz.]
+
+
+  The ring of detached forts.
+
+The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the range of
+the siege artillery and the distance at which it can usually be
+established from the forts, and is variously given by different
+continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. (4500 to 10,000 yds.). The
+bombarding range of siege howitzers with heavy shells is considered to
+be about 8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within
+say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance of 6000
+yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers extend the
+minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds. In practice, however, it
+must happen that the position of the forts is determined to a very large
+extent by the lie of the ground. Thus some good positions for forts may
+be found within 4000 or 5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable
+on the same front within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of
+expense might necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples
+of the actual distances of existing forts have already been given.
+Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-10(1/2),
+Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. _Strategic pivots_ are in a different
+category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected from
+bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown out from 9 to 12
+km., to get advantage of ground. Such are Langres, Epinal and Belfort.
+
+  _The Enceinte._--The desirability of this is almost universally
+  allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for
+  any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is
+  the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should
+  be provisionally fortified to assist in a "step-by-step" defence: and
+  behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a
+  last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last
+  moment. It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of
+  an enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be
+  the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is
+  the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large
+  modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to
+  construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of
+  the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief
+  advantages claimed for an enceinte.
+
+  In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in
+  France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft.
+  high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can
+  only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in face
+  of modern artillery, it is a _reductio ad absurdum_.
+
+  _The Safety Armament._--If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed
+  in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very
+  necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently in
+  position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance, forcing
+  him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the advance
+  of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in secure
+  positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from such
+  positions they must have armour to shield them from the concentrated
+  fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger could bring to
+  bear from the first.
+
+
+  The question of artillery positions.
+
+Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important part of the
+defence, and there is room for much discussion as to whether it should
+have positions prepared for it beforehand or should be placed in
+positions selected as the attack develops itself. On the one hand the
+preparation of the positions beforehand, which in many cases means the
+use of armour and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense
+of the defence, and ties the defender somewhat in the special
+dispositions that become desirable once the attack has taken shape.
+Moreover, such expenditure must be incurred on all the fronts of the
+fortress, whereas the results would only be realized on the front or
+fronts actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour are
+involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with extemporized
+protection, and this becomes a serious consideration when one remembers
+how much work of all kinds is necessary in preparing a fortress against
+attack. Again, to avoid the danger of a successful attack on the
+intervals between the forts before their defences have been fully
+completed, the fire of the guns in the intermediate positions might be
+urgently required. The solution in any given case would no doubt depend
+on the importance of the place. In most cases a certain amount of
+compromise will come in, some preparation being made for batteries,
+without their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind must
+in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be overlooked that
+as, whatever theories may exist about successive lines of defence, the
+onus of the defence will now lie on the fort line, just as it formerly
+did on the enceintes, so that line should be fully prepared, and should
+not have to commence its fight in a position of inequality.
+
+[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats et de
+la fortification permanente depuis Vauban_, by permission of M. le
+Commandant G. Meeus.
+
+FIG. 47.]
+
+  _Defence of Intervals of Forts._--The frontal fire of the batteries in
+  the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts
+  will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on
+  infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically a
+  complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between
+  the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously
+  attacked. The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with
+  good communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there
+  must be some _points d'appui_ in the shape of redoubts or infantry
+  forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores near
+  the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts. If they
+  are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built in peace
+  time.
+
+  _Communications_ are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate
+  the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials
+  required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully
+  utilize the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include
+  both railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the
+  different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of
+  forts; also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment
+  is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must
+  be got from earth parapets or plantations.
+
+
+  Barrier forts.
+
+The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the necessary
+line of communication cannot be easily diverted. For instance, in a
+comparatively flat country a barrier fort commanding a road or railway
+is of little use because roads may be found passing round it, or a line
+of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. But in
+mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will be
+necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before he can advance; and
+the impossibility of surrounding it, the few positions from which siege
+artillery can be brought into play, and the fact that there is
+practically only one road of approach to be denied, make these positions
+peculiarly suitable for forts with armoured batteries. Italy makes
+considerable use of such forts for the defence of frontier passes.
+
+  _General Brialmont's Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a
+  Country._--Before going into details, it is worth while to state the
+  full claim of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont,
+  the most thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:--
+
+  A. Fortify the capital.
+
+  B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a
+  strategic barrier.
+
+  C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of
+  communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by one or two
+  places arranged so as to make a fortified district.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats et de
+  la fortification depuis Vauban_, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
+
+  FIG. 48.]
+
+  D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across
+  mountains or marshes.
+
+  E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for the
+  army watching it.
+
+  F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications.
+
+  G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the
+  principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to establish
+  himself.
+
+  H. Fortify coasts and harbours.
+
+  Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the
+  officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the
+  active armies.
+
+
+  Types of detached forts.
+
+So many types of detached forts have been proposed by competent
+authorities, as well as actually constructed in recent years, that it is
+impossible here to consider all of them, and a few only will be
+reproduced of those which are most representative of modern continental
+thought.
+
+  Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns for
+  the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give
+  precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are taken
+  from the _Progres de la defense des etats, &c._, published in 1898.
+  The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section 1
+  is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the
+  defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment
+  preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the
+  counterscarp galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face
+  of the counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been
+  made to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps
+  drive the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials
+  into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may save
+  the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious fumes,
+  but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the view.
+
+  The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing it
+  with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the
+  rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a
+  counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks have no
+  counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the slope, and the
+  covered way which is utilized for a wire entanglement which is under
+  the fire of the parapet. The gorge has a very slight bastioned
+  indentation, which allows for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a
+  couple of machine guns placed in a single casemate on either side.
+
+  The abolition of the covered way as such is noteworthy. It marks an
+  essential difference between the fort and the old enceinte profiles;
+  showing that offensive action is not expected from the garrison of the
+  fort, and is the duty of the troops of the intermediate lines.
+
+  The great central mass of concrete containing all the casemates and
+  the gun-cupolas, a very popular feature, is omitted in this design,
+  advantage being taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to
+  spread the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge, with a
+  communication across the centre of the fort. This arrangement gives
+  more freedom to the disposition of the cupolas. The thickness of the
+  concrete over the casemate arches is more than 8 ft. Communication
+  between the faces and the counterscarp galleries is obtained by
+  posterns under the ditch. The armament, which is all protected by
+  cupolas, is powerful. It consists of two 150-mm. (6 in.) guns, four
+  120-mm. (4.7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (8.4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm.
+  (8.4 in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is
+  also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.
+
+  This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont's designs before
+  1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets and
+  various _chicanes_ which would not long survive bombardment. This type
+  is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.
+
+  The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a
+  keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture
+  of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the necessity
+  of keeps for all important works. History of course gives instances of
+  citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture the main work
+  with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the progress of
+  the general attack. It affords still more instances in which the keeps
+  have made no resistance, or none of any value. Some think that the
+  existence of a keep encourages the defenders of the main work; others
+  that it encourages the idea of retreat. The British school of thought
+  is against keeps. In any case they add largely to expense.
+
+  In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends
+  for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the
+  main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically
+  useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from
+  establishing themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a
+  reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying
+  bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and
+  inner gorge parapets.
+
+  As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the ditch
+  and the armament are similar to the design last considered. This
+  parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The casemates are
+  all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all round
+  giving access to the parapet and the cupolas.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats,
+  &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
+
+  FIG. 49.--Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.]
+
+  Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is a
+  simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on the
+  gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air to
+  the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the artillery
+  fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each face are
+  two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which purpose,
+  it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the angles are
+  look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp, and is
+  defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no covered
+  way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where it is
+  uncovered, is about 10 ft.
+
+  Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen defences are
+  very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original thought, and
+  effectiveness combined with economy. There is one special feature
+  worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which Lyngby is one.
+  These works are intended for the artillery fight only, their main
+  armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in. howitzers,
+  all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is trifling,
+  consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun. There is no
+  provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp or
+  counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.
+
+  It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own
+  defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to
+  withdraw them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers,
+  however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line,
+  some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries. The
+  object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery
+  at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance
+  to the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries,
+  being withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require
+  expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the
+  advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend on
+  the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and what
+  that may be, war alone can tell us.
+
+  In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of
+  defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use of
+  layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness of
+  concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened underneath
+  with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps of
+  concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates look out
+  on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the magazines are
+  under the cupolas.
+
+  The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking an
+  important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be
+  considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example
+  of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent as
+  _batteries traditores_, which seem to be growing in popularity.
+
+  This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a medium
+  armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but to command
+  the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the intervals. The
+  fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accommodation. It
+  contains eight 4.7-in. guns. Two of these are in a cupola concealed
+  from view, though not protected, by a bank of earth in front. The
+  other six are in an armoured battery behind the cupola. It may be
+  remarked that as the cupola gets no real protection from the covering
+  mass of earth, it would be better to be able to utilize the fire of
+  its guns to the front. The _batterie traditore_, if properly protected
+  overhead, would be very difficult to silence, and its flanking fire
+  would probably be available up to the last moment. There is very much
+  to be said both for and against the policy of so emplacing the guns.
+  The immediate defence of the work, with the aid of a broad wet ditch,
+  is easy; but the great mass of concrete, which is intended to form an
+  indestructible platform and breastwork for the infantry, would seem to
+  be a needless expense.
+
+  [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats,
+  &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
+
+  FIG. 50.--Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 51.]
+
+  Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian lieutenant field-marshal Moritz
+  Ritter von Brunner (1839-1904), is selected as a type of the
+  intermediate fort which is intended only to be a strong point in the
+  infantry line of defence between the main forts. It has a protected
+  armament, but this, which consists only of four small Q.F. guns in
+  cupolas, is for its own defence, and not to take part in the artillery
+  duel. There is also a movable armament of four light Q.F. guns on
+  wheels, for which a shelter is provided between the two observatory
+  cupolas. The garrison would be a half company of infantry, for whom
+  casemates are provided in the gorge. The gorge ditch is flanked by a
+  caponier, but there is no flank defence for the front ditch. This is
+  defended by a glacis parapet. At the bottom of the ditch is a wire
+  entanglement and the glacis slope is planted with thorns. The
+  thickness of concrete on the casemates is 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This
+  is a strong and simple form of infantry work, but considering its role
+  it appears to be needlessly expensive.
+
+  Fig. 53 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country. A
+  powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson shield
+  commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling casemates is
+  surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries. There
+  are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties of
+  the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in mind.
+
+_Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle._--After considering the
+above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the details in
+which modern construction has been modified to provide against the
+increasing power of artillery.
+
+[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats, &c._,
+by permission of Commandant G. Meeus.
+
+FIG. 52.]
+
+
+  Bomb-proof protection.
+
+The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature of the
+soil--the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers the greatest
+resistance to penetration, clay the least. Since, however, the
+penetration of heavy shells fired from long ranges with high elevation
+may be 20 ft. or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth
+alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again a moderate
+quantity of earth over a casemate increases the explosive effect of a
+shell by "tamping" it, that is by preventing the force of the explosion
+from being wasted in the open air. We find therefore that in most modern
+designs the tops of casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few
+inches of earth over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.
+
+For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed to fire,
+concrete (q.v.) has entirely replaced masonry and brickwork, not because
+of its convenience in construction, but because it offers the best
+resistance. The exact composition of the concrete is a matter that
+demands great care and knowledge. It should be, like an armour plate,
+hard on the surface and tough within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of
+concrete for casemate arches, very generally prescribed on the continent
+in important positions, is meant to meet the danger of several
+successive shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any
+siege calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough.
+A good deal is expected from the use of "reinforced concrete" (that is
+concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment walls and casemates.
+
+
+  Parapets.
+
+Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that is the
+superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so that the whole
+rampart can be swept by the fire of the defenders from the crest, and
+there is no dead ground in front of it. It is also common to build the
+crest of the parapet in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete
+banquette, so that bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders
+have to man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be
+further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give head
+cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest.
+
+[Illustration: From General Rocchi's _Traccia per lo studio della
+fortificazione_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 53.]
+
+
+  Obstacles.
+
+The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great expense of
+a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A counterscarp of very
+solid construction is generally used. It is low and gives cover to a
+wire entanglement in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel
+unclimbable fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the
+covered way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are
+attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of
+revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against the action
+of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to overturn them, by
+thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows most of these dispositions.
+
+
+  Search-lights.
+
+Electric search-lights are now used in all important works and
+batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas. They are of
+great value for discovering working parties at night, and lighting up
+the foreground during an attack; and since only the projector need be
+exposed, they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not be
+over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no way compare
+with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other mechanical
+contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks in war. They may give
+rise to a false confidence; an important light may fail at a critical
+moment; and in foggy weather they are useless.
+
+
+  Armour.
+
+The use of armour (see also ARMOUR-PLATES) for coast batteries followed
+closely upon its employment for ships, for those were the days of short
+ranges and close fighting, and it seemed natural not to leave the
+battery in a position of inferiority to the ship in the matter of
+protection. In England the coast battery for a generation after the
+Crimean War was a combination of masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont
+employed armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which commanded the
+Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however, engineers were very slow to
+adopt armour. Apart from all questions of difficulty of manufacture,
+expense, &c., the idea was that sea and land fronts were radically
+different. It was pointed out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady
+platform, had not enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same
+spot; so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot
+would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on the other
+hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which could strike
+successive blows on the same spot, and break down the resistance of the
+strongest shield. But in time continental opinion gradually began to
+turn in favour of iron protection. Practical types of disappearing and
+revolving cupolas were produced, and many engineers were influenced in
+their favour by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually
+it was argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to
+obtain a resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a
+work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long as
+possible against a superior force; and that from this point of view
+armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.
+
+[Illustration: From Deguise's _La Fortification permanente_, by
+permission of J. Polleunis.
+
+FIG. 54.]
+
+The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of theory.
+Practically every European state uses iron or steel casemates and
+cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other types of forts so armed have
+been shown. Recent French types have not been published, but it is known
+that cupolas are employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an
+uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his views. These
+countries have had to proceed gradually, by improving existing
+fortresses, and with such resources as could be spared from the needs of
+the active armies. Among the smaller states Rumania and Belgium have
+entered most freely into the new way. In England, which is less directly
+interested, opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the
+publication in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having
+witnessed officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St
+Chamond turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly
+against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly the
+theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the constructions
+under experiment, he added: "The cost of the French turret was about
+L10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for this sum about six movable
+overbank guns of greater power could be provided." In view of the weight
+that belongs of right to his criticisms it is as well to point out that
+while this remark is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six
+gun detachments, with arrangements for supply, &c.; a consideration
+which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum. The whole
+object of protection is to enable a few men and guns successfully to
+oppose a larger number.
+
+  At the time when Sir George Clarke's first edition came out, such
+  extravagances were before the public as Mougin's fort; "a mastless
+  turret ship," as he called it, "buried up to the deck-level in the
+  ground and manned by mechanics." Such ideas tended to throw discredit
+  on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether the system be right
+  or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken account of. Nowhere has it
+  been applied more boldly than in Rumania. The defences of Bucharest
+  (designed by Brialmont) consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with
+  intermediate batteries. The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and
+  11,000 to 12,000 yds. from the centre of the place. The typical
+  armament of a main fort is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for
+  indirect fire), two 8.4-in. howitzers in cupolas, one 4.7-in. howitzer
+  in a cupola, six small Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total
+  armament of the place (all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns,
+  seventy-four 8.4-in. howitzers, eighteen 4.7-in. howitzers, 127 small
+  calibre Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns
+  in casemates for flanking the ditches. The "Sereth Line" will be
+  described later.
+
+_Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &c._--The broad
+difference between casemates or shielded batteries and turrets and
+cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter revolve and in
+some cases disappear. The casemate thus has the disadvantages that the
+arc of fire of the gun, which has to fire through a fixed embrasure or
+port-hole, is very limited, and that the muzzle of the gun and the
+port-hole, the weak points of the system, are constantly exposed to the
+fire of the enemy. The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative
+cheapness and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well
+suited for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and
+the Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such places as
+the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron casemates are also
+useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).
+
+[Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 55.]
+
+_Turrets and Cupolas._--The difference between a turret and a cupola is
+that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat top and
+presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened dome, the
+vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The turret appears to
+be little used. The object of both forms is at once to give an all-round
+arc of fire to the guns and to allow of the weak point of the structure,
+the port-hole and muzzle of the gun, being turned away from the enemy in
+the intervals of firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete,
+which is strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron
+about 12 to 15 in. thick.
+
+
+    Cupolas.
+
+  There are four types of cupolas, viz. (a) Disappearing, (b)
+  Oscillating, (c) Central pivot, (d) On roller rings.
+
+  (a) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing guns,
+  on account of the expense of the various systems. They can be used for
+  medium guns. The details of the best foreign systems are secret. (b)
+  The oscillating turret is a Mougin type, in which the turret is
+  supported in the centre by a knife-edge on which it can swing. The
+  oscillation is controlled by powerful springs. The effect of it is
+  that after firing, the front of the cupola with the port-hole swings
+  downwards under cover, and is held there until the gun is ready to
+  fire again. (c) Schumann's centre pivot is understood to be approved
+  in Germany. It has been adopted in Rumania and Belgium for howitzer
+  cupolas. It is only suitable for a single piece; d is strong and
+  steady--the best cupola for coast batteries; c and d are best for
+  rapid fire because they can be loaded without lowering. They are
+  suited for long guns.
+
+  The following types are illustrated as being generally representative
+  of the different classes of cupola.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).]
+
+  Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp's typical cupola for one 6-in.
+  gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small
+  space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the
+  possibility of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are
+  muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition of a
+  ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is
+  controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to prevent
+  the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola. To facilitate
+  the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle pivotings the
+  breech has of course to be moved through a much larger arc than with
+  ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight. The cupola
+  rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can be turned
+  through a complete circle in about one minute.
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 57.--Gruson Spherical Mortar.]
+
+  Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar,
+  _Kugelmorser_). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is
+  replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar
+  (8.4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close
+  completely the opening of the collar in any position.
+
+  Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4.7-in. Q.F. howitzer.
+
+  Fig. 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector.
+
+  Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5.7-cm. gun. This is
+  drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into action slides
+  on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs about 2-1/2 tons,
+  and with carriage and platform about 4 tons.
+
+  The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than it
+  appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for the
+  lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace with
+  improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first made popular
+  by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such purposes as the
+  collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and compound plates for the
+  tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most recent Krupp-Gruson
+  designs being of nickel steel.
+
+  The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with
+  suitable enlargements in the port-hole; in others by sights affixed to
+  the cupola itself (which of course can give horizontal direction
+  only); in others training and elevation are given in accordance with
+  the readings on electric dials, or instructions by telephone or
+  speaking tube. There is of course nothing unreasonable in this in the
+  case of indirect fire guns and howitzers, for if not firing from
+  cupolas they would be behind the shelter of some wood or quarry.
+
+  _Schumann's System: "Armoured Fronts."_--Lieut.-Colonel Maximilian
+  Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian engineers, who took a very
+  prominent part in the design and advocacy of armoured defences,
+  eventually produced a system which dispensed entirely with forts and
+  relied on the fire of protected guns. It consists of several lines of
+  batteries for Q.F. guns and howitzers in cupolas. He considered that
+  such batteries would be able to defend their own front, and the
+  infantry garrison was not to be called into action except in the case
+  of the enemy breaking through at some point of the line.
+
+  This system was actually adopted by Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth
+  Line. There are three routes by which the Russians can enter the
+  country across the Sereth river: through Focshani, Nemolassa and
+  Galatz. These three routes are barred by bridge-heads, those at
+  Focshani, the most important, being on the left bank of the Milkov, a
+  tributary of the Sereth.
+
+  The Focshani works consist of 71 batteries arranged on a semicircular
+  front about 12 m. long and from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the
+  bridges. The batteries are placed in three lines, which are about 500
+  yds. apart, and are subdivided into groups. The normal group consists
+  of 5 batteries, of which 3 are in the first line, 1 in the second, and
+  1 in the third. The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F.
+  guns in travelling cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small
+  Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The third-line batteries have one
+  120-mm. gun in a cupola, and two 210-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson
+  shields. The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis
+  planted with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.
+
+  [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_.
+
+  FIG. 58.--Cupola for 4.7-in. Howitzer.]
+
+  The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost
+  about L1,100,000. But the system of "armoured fronts" is never likely
+  to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative
+  continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter as
+  follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security
+  against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the
+  defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most serious
+  of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should expect
+  half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with a gun,
+  to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But imagine the
+  feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone in his box,
+  his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment and nights of
+  watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around; he knows nothing
+  of the progress of the attack, but expects everything, and feels every
+  moment the door of his box being opened and the bayonet entering his
+  back. No wise commander would submit his troops to such a test.
+
+_Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems._--Before leaving the subject
+of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of those who, while
+recognizing the necessity for places permanently organized for defence,
+prefer to treat them more from the point of view of perfected field
+defences. It is to the credit of English military science that Sir
+George Clarke may be taken as the representative of this school of
+thought. His study of fortification, as he tells us, began with a
+history of the defence of Plevna (q.v.). He was led to compare the
+resistance made behind extemporized defences at such places as
+Sevastopol, Kars and Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the
+most complete manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the
+conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend on
+great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast expense, but on
+organization, communications and invisibility. In his 1907 edition he
+says:--
+
+  "Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the following
+  categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in peace time and
+  forming the key points of the position. (2) Gun emplacements,
+  magazines and shelters for men in rear of the main line, all concrete
+  structures and platforms to be completed, though some earthwork may be
+  left until the position is placed in a state of defence. (3) Field
+  works, trenches, &c., guarding the intervals between the permanent
+  defences in the main line, or providing rear positions. These should
+  be deliberately planned in time of peace ready to be put in hand at
+  short notice. The essence of a well-fortified position is that the
+  weapons of the defender shall obtain the utmost possible scope of
+  action, and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances
+  of effecting injury."
+
+[Illustration: Drawn from illustration in Leithner's _Bestandige
+Befestigung_, by permission.
+
+FIG. 59.--Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.]
+
+
+  Infantry redoubts.
+
+Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 continental
+ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement as to the three
+categories of defences would be accepted anywhere now: the differences
+of opinion come in when we reach the stage of classifying under the
+first head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time. In most
+countries these would include forts with guns for the artillery duel,
+forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with or without armour, and
+forts for infantry only. Sir George Clarke will have no armour for guns
+except in certain special cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and
+howitzers requiring permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.)
+must either be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions.
+The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry. They are
+redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men, with casemate
+accommodation for three-fourths of that number. Fig. 61 shows the
+design:--two rows of casemates, one under the front parapet, one under a
+parados; frontal musketry defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements,
+mines, &c., with or without escarp and counterscarp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Transportable Cupola for 5.7-cm. Gun (Friedr.
+Krupp A.G.).]
+
+  "The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be about
+  2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the conformation of
+  the ground. Where there are good artillery positions falling within
+  the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals will be
+  permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence where
+  the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a continuous
+  chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour of groups of
+  redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case, the redoubts
+  in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back in approximately
+  horse-shoe form."
+
+[Illustration: From Sir George S. Clarke's Fortification, by permission
+of John Murray.
+
+FIG. 61.]
+
+The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in future will
+undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore it is of great
+interest to compare with the above types two studies put forward by
+Schroeter (_Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegfuhrung_), one in his first
+edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the other in the second in 1905 (fig.
+63). In both these the defensive arrangements are merely trenches of
+field profile with entanglements, the command and the obstacle being
+less than in Sir George Clarke's work; and it will be noticed that in
+the 1905 type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much
+less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been
+introduced. But these works of Schroeter's are merely infantry
+supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular type
+with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very complete
+arrangement of field defences and communications; while Sir G. Clarke's
+redoubts are the only permanent works giving casemate protection in the
+front line.
+
+[Illustration: From Schoeter's Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegfuhrung,
+by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.
+
+FIG. 62.]
+
+The comparative merits of either design for an infantry redoubt are not
+of much importance. It is agreed that the main line of defence must
+consist of a more or less continuous line of field defences and
+obstacles, and that at some points in the line there should be infantry
+supporting points with bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big
+shells. The open question is, what additional works, if any, are
+required for the artillery, whether for the medium and heavy guns that
+will take part in the "artillery duel," or for the lighter natures that
+will help in the close fight and defence of the intervals. Is it best
+for the defenders to rely on armoured protection or on concealment for
+his guns?
+
+
+  Opposing views as to armour, gun positions, &c.
+
+Official opinion outside England has certainly sanctioned armour, since
+all over the continent it is to some extent adopted in practice.
+National practice is usually based on the advice of the most
+distinguished officers of the day, and therefore it is unsafe to condemn
+it hastily. Sir George Clarke and those who are with him--and they are
+many, both in Great Britain and abroad--object entirely to armour. He
+says (_Fortification_, ed. 1907, p. 96): "The great advantage possessed
+by the attack in all ages has been the employment of a mobile artillery
+against armaments cribbed, cabined and confined by fortification. It is
+necessary to perpetuate this advantage?" Of course the effect of
+long-range weapons, in increasing the length of front that can be held
+by a given force, has given much greater freedom of action to the
+defence and this should be taken full advantage of.
+
+[Illustration: From Schroeter's _Die Festung in der heutigen
+Kriegfuhrung_, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.
+
+FIG. 63.]
+
+The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is not at present
+strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), "If the high angle fire ... is ever
+to find a favourable opportunity, it will surely be against a cupola,
+the site of which can generally be determined with accuracy." On the
+other hand he says (p. 90), "During the long and costly experiments
+carried on at Bucharest in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the
+Krupp 21 cm. mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area" (about 430
+sq. ft.) "without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the
+targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting conditions
+were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned back to the firing
+point; but it must have been evident to the least instructed observer
+that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells on an invisible area 2 metres
+square would have been absolutely futile." These facts are adduced to
+prove that it is not necessary to give great thickness to concrete
+casemates, to resist successive bursts of shells in the same place; but
+surely they are equally applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), "The
+experience gained at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as
+regards the use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour
+were sunk by opening their sea-valves.... Fire was subsequently directed
+upon them from 11 in. howitzers at ranges up to about 7500 yds. This was
+deliberate practice from siege batteries at stationary targets; but the
+effect was distinctly disappointing." The cupolas therefore can hardly
+be considered ideal targets: and the probability is that they would hold
+their own against both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There
+are other and stronger arguments against the general use of them, all of
+which are clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.
+
+The worst objections to the cupola are the military disadvantages of
+isolation and immobility, and the multiplication of mechanical
+arrangements. For a successful round from a disappearing cupola, the
+elevating and traversing arrangements, the elevating and loading gear of
+the gun, and the telephone communication, must all be in good order. At
+night the successful co-operation of the searchlight is also in many
+cases necessary.
+
+The teaching of history is all against immobile mechanical defences.
+Initiative, surprise, unforeseen offensive action, keeping the besieger
+in ignorance of the dispositions of the garrison, and of what progress
+he is making: all these, with their influence on the morale of both
+sides, tend towards successful defences and do not point towards the use
+of armour.
+
+It may further be said that the use of armour as a general rule is
+unnecessary, because a concealed battery is a protected one; and with
+the long ranges now usual for heavy guns and howitzers, there is not
+generally much difficulty about concealment.
+
+In the opinion, however, of the present writer an exception must be made
+for guns intended to flank the line of defence, which would generally
+need bomb-proof over-head cover. Further, when we leave theory and come
+to the consideration of actual problems of defence, it will often be
+found that it is necessary to place guns in certain positions where good
+concealment cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection must be
+given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of the attack.
+
+
+III. THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES
+
+In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction of
+gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to follow, viz. the
+gradually increasing power of artillery, the systematizing of the works
+of attack, and in recent times the change that has been brought about by
+the effect of modern small-arm fire.
+
+Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars, to destroy
+hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of burning composition.
+Early in the 15th century we find cannon throwing metal balls, not only
+against hoarding and battlements, but also to breach the bases of the
+walls. It was only possible to work the guns very slowly, and archers or
+crossbowmen were needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from
+the crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period the
+artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and in much
+the same manner. The guns of the defence were inaccurate, and being
+placed high on the walls were made ineffective by bad mountings, which
+did not allow of proper depression. The besieger therefore could place
+his guns close to the walls, with only the protection of a few large
+gabions filled with earth, set up on the ground on either side of the
+muzzle.
+
+In the course of the 15th century the power of artillery was largely
+increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it in an
+astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed. The guns of
+the defence having gained equally in effectiveness, greater protection
+was needed for the attack batteries; bastions and outworks were
+introduced to keep the besieger at a distance from the inner walls; and
+the walls were sunk in ditches so that they could only be breached by
+batteries placed on the edge of the glacis.
+
+Early in the 16th century fortresses were being rapidly remodelled on
+these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at once very much
+increased. The tendency of the assailants was still to make for the
+curtain, which had always been considered the weak point; but the
+besiegers now found that they had to bring their guns right up to the
+edge of the ditch before they could make a breach, and in doing so had
+to pass over ground which was covered by the converging fire from the
+faces of the bastions. Towards the end of the century the attack of the
+curtain was delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front
+increased by the introduction of ravelins.
+
+The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at first
+replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found inadequate; but a
+still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the siege guns to their
+positions, emplacing them and maintaining communication with them under
+fire. In addition to this, the guns of the defence until they could be
+overpowered (a slow process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of
+the fortress; and unless the besiegers could find some means of
+maintaining a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to
+be destroyed by sorties from the covered way.
+
+
+  Siegecraft before Vauban.
+
+Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the artillery.
+The besiegers found that they had first to bring up enough guns to
+overpower those of the defence; then to advance their guns to positions
+from which they could breach the walls; and throughout these operations
+to protect them against sorties. Breaches once made, the assault could
+follow on the old lines.
+
+The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the battery
+positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the first to make
+systematic use of them, having probably inherited the idea from the
+Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom, however, strongly disliked
+digging, and at first great leaders like Bayard and Montluc had
+themselves to use pick and shovel, to give their men an example. In due
+course the necessity of the trenches was recognized, but the soldiers
+never took kindly to them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner
+reminiscent of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry
+as workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.
+
+Through the 16th and most of the 17th century, therefore, we find the
+attack being conducted by means of trenches leading to the batteries,
+and supported by redoubts often called "places of arms" also made by
+trench work. During this period the result of a siege was always
+doubtful. Both trenches and batteries were arranged more or less at
+haphazard without any definite plan; and naturally it often happened
+that offensive action by the besieged against the trenches would
+disorder the attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken
+from a late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of
+the general practice of that day when Vauban's methods were not yet
+generally known.
+
+Another weak point about the attack was that after the escarp walls had
+been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has been described, there
+was no clear idea as to how they should be breached. The usual process
+was merely an indiscriminate pounding from batteries established on the
+crest of the glacis. Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned
+after they had been carried as far as the attempt to breach.
+
+It is in no way strange that this want of method should have
+characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had begun to
+assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had to be assimilated.
+Guns were gradually growing in power; sieges were conducted under all
+sorts of conditions, sometimes against medieval castles, sometimes
+against various and widely-differing examples of the new fortification;
+and the military systems of the time were not favourable to the
+evolution of method. It is the special feature of Vauban's practical
+genius for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and
+made the issue of a siege under normal conditions, a mere matter of
+time, usually a very short time.
+
+
+  Vauban's teaching.
+
+The whole of Vauban's teaching and practice cannot be condensed into the
+limits of this article, but special reference must be made to several
+points. The most important of these is his general arrangement of the
+attack. The ultimate object of the attack works was to make a breach for
+the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary to establish
+breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and before this could be
+done it was necessary to overpower the enemy's artillery. This
+preliminary operation is nowadays called the "artillery duel." In
+Vauban's day the effective range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us
+that it was customary to establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the
+place, but that at that range they did little more than make a great
+deal of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the
+preliminary operations of investment, &c., had been completed, was to
+establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place, to
+counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front of attack;
+and to protect these batteries against sorties. After the artillery of
+the defences had been subdued--if it could not be absolutely
+silenced--it was necessary to push trenches to the front so that guns
+might be conveyed to the breaching positions and emplaced there in
+batteries. Throughout these processes it was necessary to protect the
+working parties and the batteries against sorties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Siege-works of the 17th century.]
+
+For this purpose Vauban devised the _Places d'armes_ or _lignes
+paralleles_. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the siege
+of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which was captured in
+thirteen days after the opening of the trenches. The object of these
+parallels was to provide successive positions for the guard of the
+trenches, where they could be at hand to repel sorties. The latter were
+most commonly directed against the trenches and batteries, to destroy
+them and drive out the working parties. The most vulnerable points were
+the heads of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that
+the guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads of
+the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so from the
+covered way. This was provided for as follows.
+
+The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds. from the
+place, this being considered the limiting range of action of a sortie.
+The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, the
+excavated earth being thrown forward to make a parapet 3 or 4 ft. high.
+In front of the first parallel and close to it were placed the batteries
+of the "first artillery position."
+
+
+  The attack.
+
+While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy's artillery,
+for which purpose most of them were placed in prolongation of the faces
+of the fortress so as to enfilade them, the "Approach Trenches" were
+being pushed forward. The normal attack included a couple of bastions
+and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress as could
+support them; and the approach trenches (usually three sets) were
+directed on the capitals of the bastions and ravelin, advancing in a
+zigzag so arranged that the prolongations of the trenches always fell
+clear of the fortress and could not be enfiladed.
+
+Fig. 65, taken from Vauban's _Attack and Defence of Places_, shows
+clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.
+
+  After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly half-way
+  to the most advanced points of the covered way, the "second parallel"
+  was constructed, and again the approach trenches were pushed forward.
+  Midway between the second parallel and the covered way, short branches
+  called _Demi-parallels_ were thrown out to either flank of the
+  attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis came the third
+  parallel. Thus there was always a secure position for a sufficient
+  guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working parties could fall
+  back and the guard would advance.
+
+  Trenches were either made by _common trenchwork, flying trenchwork or
+  sap_. In the first two a considerable length of trench was excavated
+  at one time by a large working party extended along the trench: flying
+  trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being distinguished from
+  common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by the help of which
+  protection could be more quickly obtained. Both these kinds of
+  trenchwork were commenced at night, the position of the trench having
+  been previously marked out by tape. The "tasks" or quantities of earth
+  to be excavated by each man were so calculated that by daybreak the
+  trench would afford a fair amount of cover. Flying trenchwork was
+  generally used for the 2nd parallel and its approaches, and as far
+  beyond it as possible. In proportion as the attack drew nearer to the
+  covered way, the fire of the defenders' small-arms and wall-pieces
+  naturally grew more effective, though by this time most of their
+  artillery would have been dismounted by the fire of the siege
+  batteries. It therefore became necessary before reaching the 3rd
+  parallel to have recourse to sap.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Regular Attack (Vauban).]
+
+
+    Sapping.
+
+  Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing
+  forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the
+  sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a trench 1
+  ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench he had a
+  shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the gabions in
+  position one after another as the sap-head progressed. Other men
+  following strengthened the parapet with fascines, and increased the
+  trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig.
+  66, taken from Vauban's treatise on the attack, shows the process
+  clearly. The sap after being completed to this extent could be widened
+  at leisure to ordinary trench dimensions by infantry working parties.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--Sapping (Vauban).]
+
+  As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged his
+  sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which increased
+  rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all concerned to
+  do their best, and reckoned that under average conditions he could
+  depend on a rate of progress for an ordinary sap of about 50 yds. in
+  24 hours.
+
+  It is interesting to compare the more recent method of sapping with
+  that above described (fig. 67 taken from the _Instruction in Military
+  Engineering_, 1896). It is no longer possible to place gabions in
+  position at the sap-head under fire. Accordingly the leading sapper
+  excavates to the full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and the rate of progress
+  is retarded proportionately, so that an advance of only 15 to 30 yds.
+  in 24 hours can be reckoned on instead of 50. The head of the sap is
+  protected by a number of half-filled sandbags, which the leading
+  sapper throws forward as he goes on.
+
+  The nearer the approaches drew to the covered way, the more oblique
+  became the zig-zags, so that little forward progress was made in
+  proportion to the length of the trench. The approaches were then
+  carried straight to the front, by means of the "double sap," which
+  consisted of two single saps worked together with a parapet on each
+  side (fig. 68). To protect these from being enfiladed from the front,
+  traverses had to be left at intervals, usually by turning the two saps
+  at right angles to right or left for a few feet, then forward, and so
+  on as shown in fig. 69, the distance apart of these traverses being of
+  course regulated by the height from which the enemy's fire commanded
+  the trench.
+
+
+  Later stages of the attack.
+
+The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From the
+third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis by means of
+the double sap. It was then pushed right and left along the glacis, a
+little distance from the crest of the covered way. This was called
+"crowning" the covered way, and on the position thus gained breaching
+batteries were established in full view of the escarp. While the escarp
+was being breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack
+throughout, a mine gallery (see _Mining_ below) was driven under the
+covered way and an opening made through the counterscarp into the ditch.
+The sap was then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the
+breach, the defenders' resistance being kept under by musketry and
+artillery fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus
+captured successively, and where the bastions had been retrenched the
+same methods were used against the retrenchment.
+
+[Illustration: From _Military Engineering_, by permission of the
+Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 67.--"Deep" Sap.]
+
+Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least expenditure of
+ammunition. This was done by making, with successive shots placed close
+together (which was feasible even in those days from a position so close
+as the crest of the covered way) horizontal and vertical cuts through
+the revetment wall. The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being
+thus detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the earth
+from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention of Vauban. He
+showed how, in enfilading the face of a work, by using greatly reduced
+charges a shot could be made to drop over the crest of the parapet and
+skim along the terreplein, dismounting guns and killing men as it went.
+
+
+  18th-century principles of defence.
+
+The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method and thorough
+organization. There was a deadly certainty about his system that gave
+rise to the saying "Place assiegee, place prise." He left nothing to
+chance, and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress of saps
+across the ditch and up the breach to the loss and delay that might
+follow an unsuccessful assault. His contemporary and nearest rival
+Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges by heavy artillery fire and attacks
+across the open; but in the long run his sieges were slower than
+Vauban's.
+
+So much a matter of form did the attack become under these conditions,
+that in comparing the supposed defensive powers of different systems of
+fortification it was usual to calculate the number of days that would be
+required in each case before the breach was opened, the time being
+measured by the number of hours of work required for the construction of
+the various trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of
+course that no place under any circumstances could hold out more than a
+given number of days; and naturally, when the whole question had become
+one of formula, it is not surprising to find that places were very often
+surrendered without more than a perfunctory show of resistance.
+
+The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since it was
+impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected progress of the
+besiegers' trenches, no real resistance was possible until after they
+had reached the covered way, and this idea is at the root of the
+extraordinary complications of outworks and multiplied lines of ramparts
+that characterized the "systems" of this period. No doubt if a successor
+to Vauban could have brought the same genius to bear on the actual
+defence of places as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that
+the essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the
+body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want of such a
+man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves contentedly to the
+loss of the open ground outside their walls, and relied either upon
+successive permanent lines of defence, or if these did not exist, upon
+extemporized retrenchments, usually at the gorge of the bastion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Double Sap.]
+
+It is curious that such experienced soldiers as most of them were should
+not have realized the fatal effect upon the minds of the defenders which
+this almost passive abandonment of line after line must needs produce.
+Even a civilian--Machiavelli--had seen into the truth of the matter
+years before when he said (_Treatise on the Art of War_, Book vii.):
+"And here I ought to give an advice ... to those who are constructing a
+fortress, and that is, not to establish within its circuit
+fortifications which may serve as a retreat to troops who have been
+driven back from the first line.... I maintain that there is no greater
+danger for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire
+in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a secure
+retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does in fact abandon
+it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Direct advance by Double Sap.]
+
+It must, however, be remembered that in those days when soldiers were
+mostly of a separate or professional caste, the whole thing had become a
+matter of business. Fighting was so much regulated by the laws and
+customs of war that men thought nothing of giving up a place if,
+according to accepted opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they
+could no longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set
+in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now and then
+when some officer of very unusual resolution was in command. This is the
+real reason for the feeble resistance so often made by fortresses in the
+17th and 18th centuries, which has been attributed to inherent weakness
+in fortifications. Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a
+place until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at
+least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation of the
+powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign he was trying
+to impress upon his governors the importance of their charge. The
+limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for history at that time could
+have afforded plenty of instances of places that had been successfully
+defended for many months after breaches were opened, and assault after
+assault repulsed on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the 17th
+and 18th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs,
+established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison which
+surrendered without giving too much trouble after a breach had been
+opened should have honourable consideration; while if they put the
+besiegers to the pains of storming the breach, they were liable to be
+put to the sword.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).]
+
+
+  Peninsular War.
+
+It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft of
+Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest, but because
+the system he introduced was practically unaltered until the end of the
+19th century. The sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his
+lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposition of
+siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained in the Crimea,
+the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish War. The sieges in the
+Napoleonic wars were few, except in the Iberian peninsula. These last
+differed from those of the Vauban period and the 18th century in this,
+that instead of being deliberately undertaken with ample means, against
+fortresses that answered to the requirements of the time, they were
+attempted with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date
+works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had rudimentary
+outworks, and escarps that could be seen and breached from a distance.
+At that time, though the power of small arms had increased very slightly
+since the last century, there had been a distinct improvement in
+artillery, so that it was possible to breach a visible revetment at
+ranges from 500 to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for
+engineers, siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be
+carried out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great
+importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical
+advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp from a
+distance--a new departure--and launching assaults from trenches that had
+not reached the covered way. Under these circumstances the direct
+attacks on breaches failed several times, with great loss of life.
+Wellington in one or two earlier despatches reflected on his engineers
+for not establishing their batteries on the crest of the glacis. The
+failures are, however, clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a
+conclusion without proper preparation.
+
+  So much has been written of late years in criticism of the
+  fortification to what may be called the Vauban period that it is
+  important to note what were the preparations considered necessary for
+  a siege at that time (_Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814_).
+  Sir John Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data
+  accumulated by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of
+  Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work of
+  entrenching, sapping, &c., on the front attacked was much the same
+  whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the other hand
+  the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting men inside
+  the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to be sufficient
+  to allow three or four complete shifts or "reliefs" for all work and
+  duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other duties, he
+  calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place situated in
+  open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080 effectives,
+  and remarks further that this force would be greatly exhausted after a
+  month's service. The same place held by 10,000 would call for a
+  besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties increasing, but not
+  working parties). Thus the besieger should if possible have a
+  superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000, 6 to 1 if 10,000
+  and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery, he should have
+  as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those of the defender
+  on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweeping every line
+  subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses, &c. Later in
+  the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the covered way and
+  places of arms, and finally, after the covering of the covered way,
+  fifty additional battering guns would be required. It is apparent from
+  this that the practical engineers of the day looked upon a siege as a
+  serious matter, and did not find permanent fortifications wanting in
+  defensive strength.
+
+
+  Crimea.
+
+During the long peace that followed the Napoleonic wars, one advance was
+made in siegecraft. In England in 1824 successful experiments were
+carried out in breaching an unseen wall by curved or indirect fire from
+howitzers. At Antwerp in 1830 the increasing power and range of
+artillery, and especially of howitzers, were used for bombarding
+purposes, the breaches there being mostly made by mines. Then came one
+of the world's great sieges; that of Sevastopol in 1854-1855 (see
+CRIMEAN WAR). The outstanding lesson of Sevastopol is the value of an
+active defence; of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench
+and countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in proportion
+to the increased power of the rifle.
+
+  In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of Sevastopol
+  with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is essential to
+  remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal. Sir John Jones
+  has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and besieged should
+  be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery for the attack. The
+  following quotations may be added:
+
+  "The siege corps should be sufficiently strong--(1) To invest the
+  fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the
+  efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to
+  execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete
+  investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has repeatedly
+  shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously increased if the
+  garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies from outside, and
+  to rid themselves of their sick and wounded." (Lewis). Again as
+  regards artillery: "In a regular attack, where every point is gained
+  inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without overpowering the
+  defensive artillery"; and "it is useless to attempt to sap near a
+  place till its artillery fire is subdued..." (Jones).
+
+  These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol that
+  (a) there was no investment--in fact the Russians came nearer to
+  investing the Allies; (b) the Russians had the preponderance in guns
+  almost throughout; (c) the Russian force in and about Sevastopol was
+  numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must add to this that
+  Todleben had been able to get rid of most of his civilian population,
+  and those who remained were chiefly dockyard workmen, able to give
+  most valuable assistance on the defence works. The circumstances were
+  therefore exceptionally favourable to an active defence. The weak
+  point about the extemporized earthworks, which eventually led to the
+  fall of the place, was the want of good bomb-proof cover near the
+  parapets.
+
+
+  Franco-German War.
+
+The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty. The Germans
+were not anxious to undertake siege operations when it could be avoided.
+In several cases minor fortresses surrendered after a slight
+bombardment. In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans
+contented themselves with establishing a blockade or detaching a small
+observing force. By far the most interesting siege was that of Belfort
+(q.v.). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau employed the active defence so
+successfully by extemporizing detached redoubts and fortifying outlying
+villages, that he obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small
+force at first) to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded
+in holding the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the
+enceinte, for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect
+fire, withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the
+ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French found
+great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous positions outside
+the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a disadvantage in being fired
+through embrasures. These had served their purpose when artillery fire
+was very inaccurate, but had now for a long time been recognized by the
+best engineers as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Duppel in
+1864 had mounted their siege guns on "overbank" carriages; that is, high
+carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the parapet of
+the battery without embrasures. The guns in the Paris forts which were
+further handicapped by conspicuous parapets and the bad shooting of the
+gunners were easily silenced.
+
+At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The escarp of
+Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method. The breaching
+battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck the face of the wall
+at an angle (horizontally) of 55 deg., the effect being observed and
+reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds from 60-pounder guns
+sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.
+
+  Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will be
+  observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in
+  the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was crossed
+  by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a parapet or
+  screen of sandbags.
+
+  "Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds. wide,
+  and 6 to 9 ft. deep.... It was determined to effect the passage by a
+  cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by breweries near at
+  hand.... The formation of the bridge was begun at nightfall. A pioneer
+  swam across, hauled over a cable, and made it fast to the hedge on the
+  berm. Four men were stationed in the water, close to the covered way,
+  the casks were rolled down to them one after the other, and fitted
+  with saddles, so as to form piers ... these piers were successively
+  boomed out along the line of the cable.... In two hours the bridge was
+  finished, and the lunette was entered.... The work had not been
+  discovered by the besieged, and the formation of lodgments inside the
+  lunette was already begun, when the noise made by some troops in
+  passing the bridge attracted attention, and drew a fire which cost the
+  besiegers about 50 men. A dam was afterwards substituted for the
+  bridge, as it was repeatedly struck by shells." (_R.E. Professional
+  Papers_, vol. xix.)
+
+  It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time. Such
+  operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending guns
+  remained in action.
+
+
+  Modern siege warfare.
+
+On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically nothing
+from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish war taught less, Plevna
+(q.v.) having been defended by field works and attacked by the
+old-fashioned methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century
+military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the sieges of the future
+would work out. As guns and projectiles continued to improve the
+"attaque brusquee" proposed by von Sauer had many adherents. It was
+thought that a heavy bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the
+way for an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special
+appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the strength of
+the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works, would be greater
+than ever when the field works were backed by permanent works, good
+communications and the resources of a fortress. One thing was
+obvious--namely, that as long as the artillery of the place, of even the
+smallest calibres, remained unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and
+sapping would be enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed
+a clear conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture
+delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair example of
+the vagueness of idea then prevailing: "For the attack, the following is
+the actual procedure: Accumulation and preparation of material for
+attack before the fortress: advance of attacking artillery, covered by
+infantry. Artillery duel. Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of
+the capability for defence of the position attacked; when possible by
+long-range artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers.
+Occupation of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines of the
+fortress." That seemed quite a simple prescription, but the necessary
+drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur great uncertainty as to
+the future of the attack remains.
+
+[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the
+Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 71.--Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.]
+
+  Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege
+  batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed each
+  other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided human
+  eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the
+  parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly the
+  task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets and
+  embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege batteries
+  were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the construction of
+  such batteries, with traverses, &c., involved much work. The height of
+  parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft., a
+  great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the gun-platforms about
+  4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this was only possible
+  where rock or water were not near the surface.
+
+  The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of earth
+  necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very easily
+  deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is especially
+  the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted earth, and
+  clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These facts were
+  taken note of in England more than on the Continent in the design of
+  instructional siege batteries.
+
+  The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the
+  long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule
+  be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even
+  from balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct
+  fire batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets
+  unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light
+  splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of common
+  shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure and by
+  daylight.
+
+  The most important point about the modern battery is the gun platform
+  for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require very solid
+  construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not long ago it
+  was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance than the
+  attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required a concrete
+  bed, which could not be made at short notice. The Japanese, however,
+  at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 11 in. howitzers. It may be
+  remarked that difficulties which loom largely in peace are often
+  overcome easily enough under the stress of war.
+
+  Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The old
+  powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to batteries,
+  and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such propellants as
+  cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open. They are
+  very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode like
+  gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof magazines
+  for them in connexion with the batteries.
+
+  In future sieges the question of supply will be more important than it
+  has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up of supplies
+  from the base of operations, the task of distribution at the front is
+  a very large one. The Paris siege manoeuvres of 1894 furnish some
+  instructive data on this point. The main siege park was at Meaux, 10
+  m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average distance from the
+  1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked was 5000 yds.
+  The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral batteries
+  covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st artillery
+  position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds. To connect
+  Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of narrow gauge
+  railway largely along existing roads. The line was single, with
+  numerous branches and sidings. They ran 11 regular trains to the front
+  daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The amount of artillery material
+  sent up was over 5000 tons, without any projectiles; but it can easily
+  be imagined that large demands were also made on transport for other
+  purposes. For instance, one complete bakery train was sent up daily.
+  The amount of ammunition sent up would be limited only by the power of
+  transporting it. A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of
+  from 500 to 1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of
+  firing.
+
+  But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future
+  (putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of
+  the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour the
+  artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery
+  duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers' guns do not succeed
+  in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery
+  position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed
+  positions, will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will
+  be necessary for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points,
+  and to fight for those that offer better positions for fire and
+  observation. In doing this they will have to face the defenders'
+  infantry, entrenched, backed by their unsilenced guns, and having
+  secure places of assembly from which to deliver counter-attacks. The
+  distance to which they can work forward and establish themselves under
+  these conditions will depend on the ground. It will then be for the
+  engineers to cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present
+  conditions, will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough
+  to cause the failure of the siege.
+
+  As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be "deep," as long as
+  the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap
+  already described was first introduced, it was known as a "deep sap";
+  but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep
+  sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got
+  below the surface of the earth.
+
+  Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the whole
+  of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench to the
+  rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by
+  splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a
+  foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should
+  be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is
+  completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet in
+  places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the
+  guard of the trenches.
+
+  The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders'
+  trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be
+  made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better of
+  the defenders in a contest with shells from short-range mortars.
+
+  Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary
+  eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so in
+  the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle of
+  a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground give
+  the utmost opportunity to the defenders' fire, and the least chance of
+  concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable latitude of
+  choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course, the same
+  latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the _raison
+  d'etre_ of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the whole
+  country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be
+  unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the
+  difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will
+  provide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated
+  by searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be
+  crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great
+  the task will be for the besieger.
+
+  There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed, the use
+  of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is expected of
+  balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to correspond to
+  peace expectations. They must be kept at a considerable distance from
+  the enemy's guns, a distance which will increase as the means of
+  range-finding improve; and as the height from which they can observe
+  usefully is limited, so is the observers' power to search out hidden
+  objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a captive balloon at a
+  height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from an enemy's howitzer
+  battery: and suppose the battery placed behind a steep hill-side or a
+  grove of trees, at such a distance that a shell fired with 30 deg.
+  elevation can just clear this screen. The line of sight from the
+  observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal at {2000/3 x
+  4000}, that is 1/6, or roughly 10 deg. It is obvious, therefore, that
+  the observer cannot see the battery.
+
+  Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking the
+  effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale a
+  balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100
+  guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number of
+  highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in
+  existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and
+  the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an enemy
+  were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions.
+
+  Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly
+  are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps
+  marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery
+  fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give
+  better results than ever before, and the question of communication and
+  transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs
+  detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and supplies
+  that will have to be handled.
+
+  The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn and
+  revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great attention.
+  It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges in the future,
+  when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient resources, will
+  depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in trench work, on mining
+  and countermining in connexion with the trenches, and on the use of
+  light mortars made to throw large charges of high explosive for short
+  distances with great accuracy.
+
+  For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of the
+  greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its
+  military importance, the reader is referred to the article
+  RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.
+
+  DEFINITIONS.--The following definitions may be useful, but have no
+  place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is mainly
+  devoted.
+
+  _Investment._--This most necessary, almost indispensable operation of
+  every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged,
+  so as to cut off its communications with the outside world.
+  _Preliminary investment_ which is carried out by cavalry and light
+  troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing
+  the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. _Close
+  investment_ should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of
+  communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term
+  "_blockade_" is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.
+
+  _Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation._--These now obsolete
+  terms were in great use until the 19th century. The _circumvallation_
+  was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing
+  position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of
+  attack by a relieving army. The line of _contravallation_ was the line
+  of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the
+  town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.
+
+  _Observing Force._--When circumstances make the reduction of a
+  particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force
+  is often detached to "observe" it. The duty of this force will be to
+  watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids on the
+  lines of communications.
+
+  _Bombardment._--This operation, common to all ages, consists in a
+  general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole
+  target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target.
+  In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment--whether of
+  ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters
+  tending to breed pestilence--upon a population closely crowded within
+  its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military
+  importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern conditions
+  it cannot do much real harm.
+
+
+IV. MILITARY MINING
+
+It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient
+resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining operations
+dates from the end of the 15th century. When Shakespeare makes Fluellen
+say, at Henry V.'s siege of Harfleur, "th'athversary is digt himself
+four yards under the countermines; I think 'a will plow up all, if there
+is not better directions," he is anticipating the development of
+siegecraft by nearly 100 years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is
+credited with the first practical use of explosive mines. He employed
+them with great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards,
+when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably the
+first to make permanent provision for their use in countermines.
+Countermining had been a measure of defence against the earlier methods
+of attack-mining; the object being to break into the besiegers'
+galleries and fight hand to hand for the possession of them. When the
+explosive mine was introduced, it became the object of the defenders to
+establish their countermines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy
+them by the effect of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have
+passed this branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods
+of mining have not advanced much, and the increased power of high
+explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least advantage in moving
+masses of earth.
+
+When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a certain
+distance of the enemy's works without having subdued their fire, he may
+find that the advance by sap becomes too slow and too dangerous. He can
+then advance underground by means of mine galleries, and by exploding
+large charges at the heads of these galleries can make a series of
+craters. These craters are then occupied by infantry, and are connected
+with each other and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming
+a new parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger can
+advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp. His mines will
+now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the counterscarp and
+afterwards the escarp. This is done by placing suitable charges at
+intervals behind the scarps at such a height above the foundations that
+the pressure of the earth above the mine will more than counterbalance
+the resistance of the masonry.
+
+
+  Mines and countermines.
+
+But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There is as a
+general rule this broad difference between the mines of the defence and
+those of the attack, that the defenders do not wish the surface of the
+ground broken, lest increased opportunities of getting cover should be
+offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence, therefore, is to
+destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming craters, and for this
+purpose they generally endeavour to get underneath the attack galleries.
+The defenders may, however, wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to
+explode mines under the attack parallels, in which case there is of
+course no objection to disturbing the surface.
+
+  "At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object of the
+  defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations as early
+  as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the siege.
+  Every endeavour must be made to push forward countermines so as to
+  meet and check the attack. On the approach of the opponents to each
+  other careful listening for the enemy must be resorted to. To this end
+  it is necessary at _irregular_ intervals to suspend all work for some
+  minutes at a time, closing doors of communication and employing
+  experienced listeners at the heads of the countermines. This matter is
+  a most important one, as a premature explosion of the defender's mines
+  is a double loss to the defender, a loss of a mine and an advantage to
+  the enemy in more than one way. As soon as the overcharged mines of
+  the besieger have been fired, a heavy fire should be brought to bear
+  on the craters, and if possible sorties should be made to prevent the
+  enemy occupying them. At the same time every effort should be made
+  underground to surround with galleries, and as it were isolate, the
+  craters so as to prevent the besieger making a new advance from them.
+  The efforts of the attack at this stage will probably be directed to
+  the formation of what are called "Boule shafts" (i.e. shafts partially
+  lined in which charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping),
+  and to meet these in time the defender may resort to the use of boring
+  tools, and so place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the
+  countermines. His great object must be to prevent as long as possible
+  the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions, when
+  the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater than,
+  that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence."
+  (Lewis, _Text-book on Fortification, &c._, 1893.)
+
+The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of being able
+to establish beforehand a system of countermine galleries in masonry.
+Many systems have been worked out for this purpose. A good typical
+arrangement is that of General Marescot, published in 1799, shown in
+fig. 72.
+
+[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the
+Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 72.]
+
+The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from the
+counterscarp gallery _e_ to three of the points _a_) fall gently to the
+front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface--the deeper they are
+the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines. Branch galleries
+(marked _c b + d c_) run obliquely upward from them to right and to
+left, leading to the mines, which are placed at various depths,
+according to circumstances.
+
+Two main points must be observed in any system of countermines: the
+branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as not to present their
+sides to the action of the enemy's mines; and the distance between the
+ends of the branches from adjacent main galleries should be such that
+the enemy cannot pass between them unheard. This distance will vary with
+the nature of the soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient
+size for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries
+may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other branch
+galleries, called _listeners_, will be pushed out from main and branch
+galleries. The section to fig. 1 of fig. 72 shows openings left for the
+purpose.
+
+Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches. A
+permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour, is shown in
+fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity was expended in the
+18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments.
+
+
+  Different kinds of mines.
+
+The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which is desired.
+When the charge is strong enough to produce a crater, the radius of the
+circular opening on the surface of the ground is called the _radius of
+the crater_. The line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest
+surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the _line of least
+resistance_ (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the diameter of
+which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is called a one-lined
+crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R., a _two-lined crater_ and
+so on. _Common mines_ are those which produce a two-lined crater.
+_Over-charged mines_ produce craters greater than two-lined, and
+_undercharged mines_ less. A _camouflet_ does not produce a crater; it
+is used when the object is to destroy an enemy's gallery without
+breaking the surface. Fig. 73 shows sections of the different kinds of
+mines, with their craters and the effect they will produce downwards and
+horizontally in ordinary earth.
+
+[Illustration: Action of a Common Mine
+
+Probable spheroids of rupture for overcharged Mines
+
+From _Instructions in Military Engineering_, by permission of the
+Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 73.--Mines.]
+
+Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place a
+long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will destroy all
+galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius, without much
+disturbing the surface of the ground.
+
+  Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively
+  recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in one of his
+  galleries and his position approximately determined by the sound, it
+  is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that
+  direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to
+  load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own
+  mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations of
+  war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most
+  skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made less
+  dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a hole
+  several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction. With
+  suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore hole
+  20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then pushed up
+  to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small camouflet
+  chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this chamber the
+  charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No tamping of course
+  is required.
+
+Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results. It will
+certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may do so
+indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence, namely
+that when ground has been much mined it becomes charged with poisonous
+gases. Some explosives are less noxious than others in this way, and it
+will be advantageous for the attack, but not necessarily for the
+defence, to make use of these.
+
+  _Calculation of Charges._--The quantity of powder required for a
+  charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.^3, and the following
+  formulae are used:
+
+  l = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in
+  pounds, s = a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.
+
+                        s
+  For a common mine c = -- l^3
+                        10
+                              s
+  For an overcharged mine c = -- {l + .9(r - l)}^3.
+                              10
+
+                               s
+  For an undercharged mine c = -- {l - .9(l - r)}^3.
+                               10
+
+  The values to be given to s are:
+
+       Nature of Soil.            Value of s.
+    Very light earth                 0.80
+    Common earth                     1.00
+    Hard sand                        1.25
+    Earth mixed with stones          1.40
+    Clay mixed with loam             1.55
+    Inferior brickwork               1.66
+    Rock or good new brickwork       2.25
+    Very good old brickwork          2.50
+
+Military mining is carried on by means of vertical _shafts_ and
+horizontal or inclined _galleries_. When the soil is very stiff, very
+little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but
+usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.
+
+  Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used at
+  intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases
+  are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they
+  take up more timber.
+
+
+    Shafts and galleries.
+
+  There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British service,
+  namely the _common gallery_ whose interior dimensions with cases are 5
+  ft. 6 in. X 2 ft., and the _branch gallery_ which is 4 ft. X 2 ft. The
+  _shaft_ has about the same dimensions as a branch gallery. Formerly it
+  was sometimes necessary in the systematic attack of a fortress to get
+  guns down into the ditch. For this purpose a "great gallery" was used,
+  6 ft. 6 in. in height and 6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.
+
+  _Miners' Tools._--These are few and simple. The pick and shovel differ
+  from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable for
+  the confined space in which they are used. There is also a
+  _push-pick_, an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel
+  head 6 in. long and 3-1/2 in. wide. The _miner's truck_, used for
+  drawing the earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the
+  shaft, is a small wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth.
+  Formerly the noise of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven
+  wooden floor of the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy.
+  To obviate this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens
+  nailed to the floor. The _miner's bucket_ is a small canvas bucket
+  with a couple of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up
+  the shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to
+  it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the
+  surface. By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and
+  time and labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the
+  truck to the bucket.
+
+  _Ventilation_ is an important point. The breath of the miners and the
+  burning of their candles (when electric light is not available)
+  vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a
+  gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing some
+  means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing fresh air,
+  by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to the head of
+  the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by, there is great
+  danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil into the
+  gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of special
+  apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped, so that the
+  wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all. Ventilation
+  can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the surface of the
+  ground.
+
+  Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a mine,
+  a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the side of
+  the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of the
+  direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the
+  explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or boxes,
+  precautions being taken against damp.
+
+
+    Charging mines.
+
+  The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine
+  is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which
+  may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably be necessary
+  to untamp the mine in order to renew the fuze; an operation attended
+  by considerable danger. The loading of the mine should therefore be
+  done by the officer in charge with his own hands. He has to work in a
+  very cramped position and practically in the dark (unless with
+  electric light) as of course no naked lights can be allowed near
+  powder. Everything should therefore be prepared beforehand to
+  facilitate the loading of the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham
+  a 1000 lb. mine, at the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded
+  in 30 minutes. The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in
+  sandbags, and emptied into a box of the required size.
+
+  Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer who
+  loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to
+  make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery are
+  not liable to damage in the process of tamping.
+
+  _Tamping._--This operation consists in filling up the head of the
+  gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no
+  possibility of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The
+  distance depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For
+  a common mine it should extend to about 3/2 L.L.R. from the charge,
+  when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to
+  about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of timber
+  across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.
+
+  _Firing._--This may be done electrically, or by means of _safety_ or
+  _instantaneous fuze_ or _powder hose_.
+
+  Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being
+  exploded at any given moment. For this purpose _electric fuzes_ (for
+  powder) or _electric detonators_ (for guncotton or other high
+  explosive) are employed. The current that fires them is passed through
+  copper wire leads.
+
+  The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of about
+  3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile a
+  minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in
+  conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading from
+  the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.
+
+  Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by making a
+  tube of strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with
+  powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second.
+
+  _Explosives._--The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black
+  variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and
+  prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because their
+  action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape
+  through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick
+  shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than
+  gunpowder in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them
+  give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent high
+  explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively
+  innocuous in this respect.
+
+
+  Effects of mines.
+
+Some formulae have been given above for the calculation of charges. It
+will, however, simplify matters for the reader to record some actual
+instances of charges fired both in peace and war.
+
+  In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual leading
+  the way, and the following results among others were obtained by him
+  at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 lb. placed 13 ft. below
+  the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined crater, or
+  "common mine"). Galleries were destroyed at distances equal to the
+  L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions. Double the charge,
+  placed at double the depth, i.e. 324 lb. with an L.L.R. of 27 ft. made
+  no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries below it and on each
+  side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge of 3828 lb. with L.L.R.
+  of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed a gallery distant 61
+  ft. horizontally.
+
+  Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experiments at
+  La Fere about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer and
+  inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His experiments
+  were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries at greater
+  distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by means of very
+  large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he called "globes of
+  compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 lb. of powder placed
+  only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or "compressed" a gallery
+  distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.
+
+  At Frederick the Great's siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very large
+  charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 lb. with an L.L.R. of 16
+  ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle's
+  _Frederick the Great_ may recall his description of the contest of the
+  rival engineers on this occasion.
+
+  At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 lb. of powder
+  placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of 15
+  ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 lb. of guncotton, calculated as
+  being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under the
+  same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence of
+  tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a
+  disadvantage.
+
+
+    The Petersburg Mine, 1864.
+
+  Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the siege of
+  Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The circumstances
+  were all abnormal, and the untechnical account of it in _Battles and
+  Leaders of the Civil War_ (vol. iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining
+  tools or materials and no military miners were available; and no one
+  had any confidence in the success of the attempt except its
+  originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession,
+  his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and General
+  Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrenchments were 130 yds.
+  apart. The mine gallery was started behind the Federal lines and
+  driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a field redoubt in the
+  Confederate lines. There two branches were made right and left, each
+  about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines aggregating 8000 lb. of
+  powder were placed. The first attempt to fire them failed, and an
+  officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter the gallery to seek the
+  cause of the failure. A defective splice in two lengths of fuze was
+  thus discovered and repaired. At the second attempt all the mines were
+  fired simultaneously with success, and made a gigantic crater 170 ft.
+  long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. The occupants of the redoubt, at
+  least several hundred men (they have been stated at 1000), were blown
+  up and mostly killed. The assault which followed, however, failed
+  completely, for want of organization. The infantry was drawn up in
+  readiness to advance, but no outlets had been provided from the
+  parallel, and this and other causes delayed the occupation of the
+  crater and gave the defending artillery a moment's respite. Thus the
+  assailants gained the crater but could not advance beyond it in face
+  of the defenders' fire, nor could they establish themselves within it,
+  on its steep clay sides, for want of entrenching tools. A good many
+  troops were sent forwards in support, but being in many cases of
+  inferior quality, they could not be induced to go forward, and huddled
+  in disorder in the already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were
+  captured when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack
+  and the total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000.
+
+The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing to advance
+the science of military mining, but a good deal has been done in peace
+to improve the means. Electric lighting and electric firing of mines
+will be a great help; modern drilling machines may be used to go through
+rock; ventilating arrangements are much improved; and the use of bored
+mines is sure to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught
+nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but the
+siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in future, in
+the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose trench, so in
+fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than ever. It appears that
+they will be essential to destroy both the ditch-flanking arrangements
+of forts and the escarp or other permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.
+
+
+V. FIELD FORTIFICATION
+
+_Field Fortifications_, now more often spoken of as field defences, are
+those which are constructed at short notice, with the means locally
+available, usually when the enemy is near at hand. Subject to the
+question of time, a very high degree of strength can be given to them,
+if the military situation makes it worth while to expend sufficient
+labour. A century or more ago, the dividing line between permanent and
+field fortification was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high
+masonry escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent
+fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized. Works without
+masonry, in other ways made as strong as possible with deep ditches and
+heavy timbers,--such as would require about six weeks for their
+construction--were known as _semi-permanent_, and were used for the
+defence of places which acquired strategic importance in the course of a
+war, but were not immediately threatened. The term _field_ fortification
+was reserved for works constructed of lighter materials, with parapets
+and ditches of only moderate development. Redoubts of this class
+required a fortnight at most for their construction.
+
+In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches were
+essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would be equally
+clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally admitted, and
+where the resources exist, the use of our present means of
+construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, reinforced concrete
+and wire, in conjunction with the defensive power of modern firearms,
+makes it possible to extemporize in a very short time works having much
+of the resisting power of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can
+be expanded from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too
+exposed, in the presence of the enemy.
+
+Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions, a very
+limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration will show that
+its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected by the change from
+machine-thrown projectiles to those fired by rude smooth-bore guns.
+There is therefore nothing in the history of this branch of the subject
+that is worth tracing, from the earliest ages to about the end of the
+18th century. One or two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is
+probably one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile
+weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth while to
+seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been found desirable to
+have some means of checking the onrush of an enemy physically or
+numerically superior. Hence the use by savage tribes, to this day, of
+pits, pointed stakes hidden in the grass, entanglements and similar
+obstacles. In this direction the ages have made no change, and the most
+highly civilized nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.
+
+Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protection of
+camps at night, where small forces are operating against an enemy more
+numerous but inferior in arms and discipline. In daylight such an enemy
+is not feared, but at night his numbers might be dangerous. Hence the
+Roman practice of making each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for
+palisades; and the simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British
+for their camps in the Sudan.
+
+Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have always been
+used. Except wire, there is practically no new material. As to methods,
+the laagers of the Boers are preceded by the wagon-forts of the
+Hussites, and those no doubt by similar arrangements of British or
+Assyrian war chariots; and so in almost every direction it will be found
+that the expedient of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the
+countless yesterdays. The only really marked change in the arrangements
+of field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing
+rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to consider briefly
+what were the principles of field fortification at the end of the 18th
+century. That period has been chosen because it gives us the result of a
+couple of centuries of constant fighting between disciplined troops with
+fairly effective firearms. The field defences of the 19th century are
+transitional in character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show
+only faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not till
+quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted began to take
+shape.
+
+The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the Peninsular
+War were _command_ and _obstacle_; now they are _protection_ and
+_concealment_.
+
+
+  Old type of field defences.
+
+The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of smooth-bore
+muskets and guns as in those of javelins and arrows. When the enemy
+could get close up to a work without serious loss, and attack in close
+order, the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front of them.
+Moreover, since they could not rely on their fire alone to repulse the
+attack, they needed a two-deep line, with reserves close at hand, to
+meet it with the "arme blanche." For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft.
+high, with a steep slope, perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must
+climb after passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after
+firing their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the
+parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had also the
+advantage that the attackers could not tell what was going on inside the
+redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered from their fire as well from
+view until the last moment.
+
+The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended
+principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little power
+of defence at the time, unless they held practically as many men as
+would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles on the other hand
+had a greater value, against the inelastic tactics of the time, than
+they have now. A good position therefore was one which offered good
+fire-positions for redoubts and plenty of facilities for creating
+obstacles. Strong redoubts which could resist determined assaults; good
+obstacles in the intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals,
+and troops in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes--these
+were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.
+
+The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns before the
+attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be made of a suitable
+thickness--from 4 or 5 ft. upwards--according to the time available, the
+resisting nature of the soil, and the severity of the bombardment
+expected.
+
+The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained from the
+ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this obstacle. The
+garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt were to be
+sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with this object
+great pains were bestowed on the principle of "defilade." The object of
+defilade, which was a great fetish in theoretical works, was so to
+arrange the height of the parapet with reference to the terreplein of a
+work that a straight line (not, be it observed, the trajectory of the
+projectiles) passing from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most
+commanding point of the enemy's position, over the crest of the parapet,
+should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of the
+work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date after the
+development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless taught with great
+rigour till within the last twenty years.
+
+The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with an addition
+of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of the parapet. If a
+wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary, the surplus earth could
+be used to form a glacis.
+
+The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to allow the
+garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter of some difficulty
+if a small irregularly shaped work had to contain a strong garrison.
+Consideration of the plan and sections of these works will show that the
+banquette for infantry with its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off
+a good deal from the interior space within the crest-line. Guns were
+usually placed at the salients, where they could get the widest field of
+fire. They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through
+embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to fire over
+the parapet (_en barbette_).
+
+As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to elaborate
+theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was made between forts
+and redoubts, the former being those which were arranged to flank their
+own ditches, while the redoubts did not. Redoubts again were classed as
+"closed," those which had an equally strong defence all round; and
+"half-closed," those which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade
+for the gorge or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge
+defence) were named according to their trace, as _redans_ and
+_lunettes_. A redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It
+was frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or
+breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming an
+obtuse angle, and two flanks.
+
+The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected, were
+designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-bastioned fronts,
+star traces, and so forth, and in the same books intricate calculations
+were entered into to balance the _remblai_ and _deblai_, that is, the
+amount of earth in the parapets with that excavated from the ditches. In
+practice such niceties of course disappeared, though occasionally when
+the ground allowed of it star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.
+
+On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt to the
+ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the foreground,
+and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter without adding
+the complications of flanking defences. Sir John Jones, speaking of the
+traces of the several works in the Torres Vedras lines, says:--
+
+
+    Torres Vedras.
+
+  "The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a,
+  limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and two
+  pieces of artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and six pieces
+  of artillery, the importance of the object to be attained being the
+  only guide in forming the dimensions. Many of the redoubts first
+  thrown up, even some of the smallest, were shaped like stars, under
+  the idea of procuring a flank defence for the ditches; but this
+  construction was latterly rejected, it being found to cut up the
+  interior space, and to be almost fallacious with respect to flank
+  defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in some cases equal
+  to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even when, from the
+  greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus gained, the
+  angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it demanded
+  more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably to be expected to
+  aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and further, this
+  construction prevented the fire of the work being more powerful in
+  front than in rear.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--Torres Vedras Works.]
+
+  In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to
+  consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing
+  himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to
+  insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity.
+  In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of
+  adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients. In
+  the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the
+  establishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too
+  simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most
+  fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or
+  musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present
+  the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object
+  to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of
+  proceeding.
+
+  This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to isolated
+  works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those considered
+  the key of any position. No labour or expense should be spared to
+  render such works capable of resisting the most furious assaults,
+  either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a flank defence
+  in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula shows that an
+  unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field profile, if
+  skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be carried....
+  Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior space, which
+  renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small works, apply
+  to works of large dimensions.... Under this view the great work on
+  Monte Agraca (fig. 75) must be considered as very defective, the flank
+  defence being confined to an occasional break of a few feet in the
+  trace, caused by a change of direction in the contour of the height,
+  whilst the interior space is more than doubly sufficient for the
+  number of its allotted garrison to encamp.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--Monte Agraca, Torres Vedras.]
+
+  _Interior and other Defences._--This work, however, had some of its
+  salient points ... cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply
+  revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the
+  interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within
+  it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient
+  points formed into an independent post. These interior defences and
+  retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic amongst
+  the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part of
+  indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by the
+  entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such
+  interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of
+  a large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or
+  tower, placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent
+  earthen works, and merit far more attention than they generally
+  receive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Torres Vedras Works.]
+
+  The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently found
+  occupying salient knolls ... readily converted into admirable interior
+  posts of that nature. The profile of the several works varied on every
+  face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked or
+  cannonaded; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches
+  should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the
+  crest of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the
+  counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless exposed
+  to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft.; and some, on
+  high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility be brought
+  against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft. in
+  thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the
+  use of the defenders' bayonets."
+
+  Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration because
+they offer very good historical examples, and also because of the value
+of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones, who as a captain was the
+engineer in charge of their construction. At the same time it must be
+remembered that they differ from ordinary field-works in having an
+unusual degree of strength, plenty of time and civilian labour having
+been available for their construction. In this respect they approximate
+more to semi-permanent works, the main reason why they did not receive
+under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and parapet being
+that in addition to the large number of works required, much labour was
+expended in abatis, inundations, scarping hill-sides and constructing
+roads.
+
+Some further remarks of Sir John on the _situations of the works_ are
+very instructive:--
+
+  "Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations on the
+  summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing appearance;
+  but it was in reality a defect ... for the fire of their artillery on
+  the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose half its
+  powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face of the hill
+  sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of most uncertain
+  effect.
+
+  "The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave confidence
+  to the young troops which composed their garrisons, protected them
+  from a cannonade, and screened their interior from musketry, unless
+  fired at a high angle, and consequently at random. These
+  considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites selected
+  for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot induce an
+  approval of them as a general measure."
+
+The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts were the
+most important features of lines of defence, and that they combined
+physical obstacle and protection with good musketry and artillery
+positions. The value of concealment was not ignored, but it was as a
+rule subordinated to other considerations.
+
+
+  19th century.
+
+The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the Crimean
+War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle began to assert
+itself, and it was found that a simple breastwork defended by a double
+rank of men could protect itself by its fire against an ordinary
+assault. This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to any
+defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls, hedges or any
+natural cover. About the period of the Franco-German War other
+considerations came in. The increased velocity of artillery projectiles
+reduced in some ways their destructive effects against earth parapets,
+because the shell had an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on
+striking a bank of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it
+impossible for troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some
+distance behind the parapet.
+
+These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that time. The
+reason was partly a want of touch between the engineers and the
+non-technical branches of most armies, and partly that original writers
+from the Napoleonic wars to the present day have been more occupied with
+the primary question of the value of field defences as a matter of
+tactics than with their details considered from the standpoint of
+fortification.
+
+There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed against
+all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so essential to
+success. Those writers who treated of the arrangements of defences
+devoted themselves to theoretical details of trace quite after the old
+style; discussing the size and shape of typical redoubts, their distance
+apart and relation to lines of trenches, &c. The profiles--the thick
+parapet with command of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the
+inadequate cover behind the parapet--remained as they had been for a
+century.
+
+The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind slight
+defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It proved the great
+resisting power of extemporized lines; but more than that, we begin to
+find new arrangements for protection against shell fire (see plans and
+sections in Greene's _The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey_). The
+trace of the works and the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres
+Vedras; but a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof
+shelters show the necessity for a different class of protection. The
+parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a better;
+the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the necessities of
+the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers of musketry fire, as
+for instance one from the crest of the glacis, one from the parapet, and
+one from a traverse in rear of it. This, however, is a development which
+will not be necessary in future, thanks to magazine rifles.
+
+
+  Principles of modern field defences.
+
+From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly increased,
+and certain new principles, causing the field defences of the present
+day to differ radically from those of the 18th century, remained to be
+developed. These may be considered under the following heads: the nature
+of protection required, the diminished need of obstacle, and the
+adaptation of works to ground.
+
+The principle that _thickness_ of parapet is no longer required, to
+resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896. The
+distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on parapets
+comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the crest of a
+parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way, and displace a
+bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the contents of the shell,
+whether shrapnel or explosive, that is the source of danger and not the
+shell itself. Thus the enemy's object is to burst his common shell
+immediately behind the parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in
+front of it, in order to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet
+is thick enough if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same
+thickness will _a fortiori_ keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of
+shell. For this purpose 3 ft. is enough.
+
+Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the parapet, deep
+enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel, and narrow enough to
+minimize the chance of a common shell dropping into it. This protection
+is increased by frequent traverses across the trench.
+
+The most essential point of all is _concealment_. In gaining this we say
+good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection is now given by the
+trench rather than the parapet; command and the ditch-obstacle (which
+furnished the earth for the high parapet) are alike unnecessary.
+Concealment can therefore be studied by keeping the parapet down to the
+lowest level above the surface from which the foreground can be seen.
+This may be 18 in. or less.
+
+The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders are not
+abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night work, or when the
+assailant is so strong as to be able to force home his attack in face of
+protected rifle fire, what is needed is not a deep ditch immediately in
+front of the parapet, difficult to climb, but also difficult to flank,
+but an obstacle that will detain him under fire at short range. It may
+be an entanglement, an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check
+the rush and make him move slowly.
+
+In the _adaptation of works to ground_, the governing factor is the
+power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in Peninsular
+times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence of lines by guns
+in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple line of trench could not
+resist a strong attack without such support. Now, however, infantry
+behind a slight trench, with a good field of fire should be able to
+defend themselves against any infantry attack.
+
+This being so, the enemy's artillery seeks to locate the trenches and to
+cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the defenders to
+keep down under cover. If they can succeed in doing this, it is possible
+for the attacking infantry to advance, and the artillery fire is kept up
+until the last moment, so that the attack may have the narrowest
+possible space to cover after the defenders have manned their parapets
+and opened fire. Fig. 78 shows the action of various natures of
+projectiles.
+
+[Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the Controller
+of H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+FIG. 78.--Effect of Projectiles.]
+
+We need not here discuss the role of the defenders' artillery in
+replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor for the
+moment consider how far the defence of the trenches while under
+artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover. The main question
+is--what is, in view of the nature of the attack, the best disposition
+of lines of trench; and do they require the addition of redoubts?
+
+The most important point, with the object of protection, is that the
+trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best defence against
+artillery. With the object of resistance by their own fire they must
+have a good view, or, as it is generally described, no _dead ground_ in
+front of them. For this purpose 300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the
+ground is even and affords no cover.
+
+This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness of the
+zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has of late
+years very much affected the choice of ground for a line of trenches.
+
+
+    Siting of trenches.
+
+  For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down
+  until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the
+  "military crest" (Fr. _crete militaire_), _i.e._ the highest point on
+  the hill from which the whole of the slopes in front can be seen. Thus
+  in the three sections of ground shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b
+  and c respectively. The simplicity of this prescription made it
+  attractive and it came to be rather abused in the text-books. There
+  were, even before the improvements in artillery, objections to it,
+  because on most slopes the military crest would be found at very
+  different elevations on different parts of the line, so that by a
+  strict adherence to the rule some of the trenches would be placed near
+  the top of the hill, and some in dangerous isolation near the bottom.
+  Moreover a rounded hill has no military crest.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+  Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of the
+  fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and the
+  whole question is extremely difficult.
+
+  For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not vary
+  along the line, the positions at _a_ and _b_, fig. 79, are bad because
+  they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery. That
+  at _b_ is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that
+  the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire down
+  it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the very
+  last moment. The position _c_ has the advantage of not being on the
+  sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+  Such a position as that at _d_, fig. 80, is good, but protected or
+  concealed communications must be made for the supports coming from _e_
+  over the brow of the hill.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+  Another possible position for the infantry line is at _f_, fig. 81,
+  with the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite
+  concealed from the enemy's artillery. The drawback is that no
+  retirement up the exposed slope would be possible for them, except at
+  night. The fire from _f_ will be _grazing_, which will be a great
+  advantage as compared with the _plunging_ fire that would be obtained
+  from a position up the hill.
+
+  It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration
+  to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on
+  the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and
+  only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the
+  advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid for
+  in some degree by exposure to the enemy's artillery; and at least as
+  much consideration--possibly as much labour--must be given to
+  communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches themselves.
+  Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment but also gives
+  cover to the enemy's approach. The lie of the ground will itself
+  dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the predispositions
+  of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the general
+  trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a more difficult
+  target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of cross and
+  flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care should,
+  however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique or enfilade
+  fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by traversing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+
+    Trenches.
+
+  Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the freshly
+  turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches or grass.
+  In this connexion it should be remembered that after a day or two cut
+  leaves and grass wither and may become conspicuous against a green
+  surface. Where the ground is so even that a good view of the
+  foreground is possible from the surface level, the trench may be made
+  without a parapet; but this entails great labour in removing and
+  disposing of the excavated earth. A common device is to conceal the
+  parapet as well as possible and to make a dummy trench some distance
+  away to draw fire.
+
+  Besides the direct concealment of trenches, care must be taken that
+  the site is not conspicuous. Thus a trench should not be placed along
+  the meeting line of two different kinds of cultivation, or along the
+  edge of a belt of heather on a hill-side, or where a difference of
+  gradient is sharply defined; or where any conspicuous landmark would
+  help the enemy's artillery to get the range.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+  Trenches are broadly distinguished as "fire trenches" and "cover
+  trenches," according as they are for the firing line or supporting
+  troops. The following simple types are taken from the 1908 edition of
+  _Military Engineering_ (part 1): "Field Defences."
+
+  Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour is
+  saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take 1-1/2 to 2
+  hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved by 2 or
+  3 hours' more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without parapet, with
+  cover trench and communication.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by
+  permission of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 84.]
+
+  The addition of a loophole of sandbags on the top for concealment
+  (called _head-cover_), gives increased protection, but at the cost of
+  greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead cover can only
+  be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still greater
+  height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench not used for
+  firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection by putting
+  over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches of earth: or
+  by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be had. A better
+  plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches immediately behind
+  and communicating with the fire trench.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 85.]
+
+
+    Redoubts.
+
+  The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly they
+  were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power of a
+  line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was always imagined
+  as one of the older type, with a high conspicuous parapet. Of course a
+  redoubt of such a nature would be readily identified and made
+  untenable. But the idea of a redoubt does not necessarily imply
+  command. Its object is that it shall be capable of all-round defence.
+  There can be no doubt that as there is always a possibility of lines
+  being pierced somewhere, it is desirable, unless the whole line is to
+  be thrown into confusion and forced back, to have some point at which
+  the defenders can maintain themselves. This is not possible unless at
+  such points there is provision for defence towards both flanks and
+  rear, that is to say, when there are redoubts, which can hold on after
+  certain portions of the line have been lost and thereby can localize
+  the enemy's success and simplify the action of supporting troops. In
+  order that redoubts may exercise this function, all that is necessary
+  is that their defenders should be able to see the ground for a furlong
+  in front of them in every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need
+  be in no way more conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire
+  trenches, and in that case there is no fear of their drawing special
+  attention from the enemy's artillery. Whatever theories may have been
+  put forward en the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and
+  in the Russo-Japanese War, where the experience of South Africa was
+  already available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+  The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more conspicuous
+  than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground that will
+  give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted angles.
+  Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches and improving
+  the overhead cover; and special use may here be made of obstacles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+  Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of those
+  required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and field
+  casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt, and figs.
+  87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a work can
+  easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives excellent
+  cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against howitzer
+  common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate fire to
+  bear on it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+  Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind it for
+  a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would require a
+  concealed position, which can often be found a little in rear of the
+  firing line.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by
+  permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 89.]
+
+
+    Boer, Russian and Japanese types.
+
+  In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by a type
+  of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the surface, giving
+  only just room for a man to stand; but undercut or hollowed out below,
+  so that he could sit down with very good cover. Such a section is
+  only possible in very firm soil. Apart from this, the type is really
+  only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper should have room for
+  officers and N.C.O's to move along within it. The Boers showed great
+  skill in concealing their trenches. One good point was that there was
+  generally something making a background immediately behind the men's
+  heads, so that they did not stand out in relief when raised above the
+  parapet.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Russo-Japanese War: British Officers' Reports_,
+  vol. ii., by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIGS. 90 and 91.]
+
+  In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset were of
+  old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better types were
+  evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from Port Arthur;
+  the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the top. The Japanese
+  appear to have taken their type mainly from the latest British
+  official books, but applied them with great skill to the ground
+  studying especially invisibility. In their prepared positions they
+  used large redoubts manned by several companies.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 92.--Gun-pit.]
+
+  _Cover for Guns._--Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the
+  shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface
+  of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank
+  is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and
+  3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up
+  to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for
+  the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the
+  shelter is called a gun-pit.
+
+  In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun. Shelter
+  can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but it is
+  generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.
+
+
+    Obstacles.
+
+  The commonest forms of _obstacle_ now used are _abatis_ and _wire
+  entanglements_. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The
+  branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are buried and pegged
+  firmly down. Wire entanglement may be added to this with advantage. An
+  abatis should be protected from artillery fire, which is sometimes
+  done by placing it in a shallow excavation with the earth thrown up in
+  front of it.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission
+  of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 93.--Abatis.]
+
+  Wire may be used as a _high_ or _low entanglement_ or as a fence or
+  trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire
+  entanglement consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long,
+  driven firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected
+  horizontally and diagonally with barbed wire.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 94.--Crows' Feet.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 95.--Plan and section of Trous-de-loup.]
+
+  _Palisades_ are still used, and need no description. They were
+  formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible.
+  _Fraises_ are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasionally
+  in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with deep
+  ditches, and are palisades placed so as to project horizontally from
+  the escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom of the ditch. _Military
+  pits_ both _deep_ and _shallow_ (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called
+  _trous de loup_) are not so much used as formerly, because the
+  obstacle is hardly worth the labour expended on it. Both, however,
+  were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. _Crows' feet_, formerly much
+  used as a defence against cavalry, are practically obsolete. They
+  consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their bases in such a
+  manner that however they were thrown down one point would always be
+  pointing upwards (fig. 94). _Chevaux-de-frise_ (q.v.) were formerly a
+  much-used type of obstacle.
+
+  The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object
+  with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of view
+  barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is that it
+  gives no cover whatever to the enemy.
+
+  _Fougasses_ have always for convenience been classed as obstacles. A
+  fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping pit.
+  Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over the
+  shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96,
+  gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form,
+  charged with 80 lb. of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a
+  surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder hose,
+  fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter of
+  chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.
+
+  _Dams_ are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of their
+  use. They are constructed by military engineers as small temporary
+  dams would be in civil works.
+
+
+    Illumination.
+
+  A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles, is
+  that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric
+  searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting the enemy's
+  movements at some distance; but their use will naturally always be
+  restricted. Star shells and parachute lights fired from guns are not
+  of much use for the immediate foreground, and do not burn very long.
+  They were formerly chiefly of use in siege works, to light up an
+  enemy's working parties. Germany has introduced lightballs fired from
+  pistols, which will probably have a considerable future.
+
+  Various civilian forms of _flare-light_ would be very useful to
+  illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field.
+  _Bonfires_ are very useful when material is available. They require
+  careful treatment, _e.g._ they must be so arranged that they can be
+  lighted instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means
+  of a trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once
+  (this can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum);
+  they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them
+  easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind them
+  so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.
+
+
+    Blockhouses.
+
+  Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played in
+  the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned permanent
+  fortification they were used as keeps in such positions as re-entering
+  places of arms and built of masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been
+  used in the Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built
+  cruciform, so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of
+  bullet-proof log-cabins they have played a great part in warfare
+  between pioneer settlers and savages.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the
+  Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 96.--Fougasse.]
+
+  In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to give partial
+  protection against field artillery; the walls being built of two
+  thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and covered
+  with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the walls up
+  to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in positions where
+  it is not likely that artillery will be brought against them: but they
+  may be made tenable for a while even under artillery fire if they are
+  surrounded by a trench and parapet.
+
+  Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such
+  points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy by
+  cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loopholed wall,
+  arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the
+  garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some
+  arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular blockhouses
+  were very popular in South Africa. They were made of sheets of
+  corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework, the space
+  between the sheets being filled with small stones. The loopholes were
+  made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls. Fig. 97 shows a
+  section of one of these blockhouses.
+
+  [Illustration: By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.
+
+  FIG. 97.--Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.]
+
+
+    Woods.
+
+  The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field
+  defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized,
+  trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood concealed the
+  numbers of the defenders. A wood was therefore generally considered a
+  useful addition to a line of defence. It was customary to hold the
+  front edge of the wood, the irregularities of the outline being
+  utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while obstacles were disposed
+  some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully prepared position, clearings
+  would be made parallel to the front and some distance back from it,
+  for support positions, and great attention was paid (in theory at
+  least) to clearing communications, erections, signposts, &c., so that
+  the defending troops might move freely in any desired direction.
+
+  Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is hard to
+  dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication, at the best,
+  is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered a strong
+  defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent ranging
+  mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not easily made,
+  because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that no
+  reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against the
+  modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood, the
+  position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action. If
+  a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that in
+  most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the
+  best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the
+  fighting line at the outset.
+
+
+    Villages.
+
+  The defence of villages is another question which has been much
+  affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages were
+  very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and strong points for a
+  detached force to hold. There were indeed always drawbacks. The
+  preparations for defence entailed a good deal of labour, and the
+  defending force was scattered in houses and enclosures, so that
+  control and united action were difficult. But the value of the
+  ready-made protection afforded by walls was so great--and sometimes
+  even decisive--that villages were occupied as a matter of course. This
+  is certainly now changed, but precisely to what extent it will be
+  impossible to say, until after the next European war. A village under
+  fire is not now an ideal defensive position. A single shrapnel
+  penetrating the outer wall may kill all the occupants of a room; a
+  single field-howitzer shell may practically ruin a house. At the same
+  time, a house or line of houses may (without any preliminary labour at
+  all) give very good protection against shell fire to troops _behind_
+  them. Further, the value to the defence of the slightest cover, once
+  the infantry attack has developed, is so great that the ruins of walls
+  and houses occupied at the right moment may prove an impregnable
+  stronghold. This class of fighting, however, does not properly come
+  under the present heading. For the details of the defence of walls,
+  houses, &c., see the official _Mil. Engineering_ (1908).
+
+  _Entrenching under Fire._--Progress in this direction has been delayed
+  by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable
+  entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry
+  soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic
+  inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the
+  pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or
+  corkscrew. A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom
+  satisfactory for any.
+
+
+    Extemporized cover.
+
+  The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry,
+  when their advance is checked by the enemy's fire, to maintain the
+  ground they have won by extemporizing cover where none exists. The
+  need of this was first felt in the American Civil War, and towards the
+  close of it a small entrenching spade 22 in. long and weighing only
+  1-1/2 lb. was introduced by Brigadier-General H.W. Benham into the
+  Army of the Potomac. Since that time a great number of patterns have
+  been tried, including shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular
+  of these has been the Linnemann spade, which is used by most
+  continental armies and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool
+  is a rectangular spade with straight handle. The length over all is a
+  little less than 20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of
+  it has a saw edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the
+  blade is enclosed in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or
+  the waist-belt. In the British army the Wallace combined pick and
+  shovel was used for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was
+  always great doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool
+  was such as to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in
+  carrying it. But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to
+  have finally established the necessity of it, and also the fact that
+  it must generally be used lying down. For this purpose and for
+  convenience in carrying it on the person, a very light short-handled
+  tool is required.
+
+  The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can make a
+  little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of his
+  head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check in the
+  advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward, the
+  supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus
+  commenced.
+
+
+    General remarks.
+
+  There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of
+  training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it, it is tiring and
+  tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its importance.
+  At the same time it is a commonplace of recent history that men who
+  have been in action a few times develop a great affection for the
+  shovel. The need of trenches grows with the growth of firearms, and
+  the latest feature of modern tactics is the use of them in attack as
+  well as in defence. The observation has often been made--with what
+  truth as a general proposition we cannot here discuss--that modern
+  battles tend more and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is
+  said, entrenches itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining
+  as much ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall
+  and entrench; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment before
+  dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced to gaining
+  ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground, where the rifle and
+  gun have full play, the trench is to the modern soldier very much what
+  the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms, an absolute essential.
+
+  The most important point in connexion with modern field fortification
+  is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting
+  power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the
+  frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its
+  position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before.
+  This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite
+  possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification as
+  that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger than
+  itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out and
+  compel its surrender.
+
+
+VI. CONCLUSION
+
+In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in outlining
+the practice of our own time it has been necessary to dwell chiefly on
+the material means of defence and attack. The human element has had to
+be almost ignored. But here comes in the paradox, that the material
+means are after all the least important element of defence. Certainly it
+is inconceivable that the designer of a fortress should not try to make
+it as strong as is consistent with the object in view and the means at
+his disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly
+for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that the best
+defences recorded in history owed little to the builder's art. The
+splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte, of early Italian
+design, was already obsolete but whose capture cost the Turks 100,000
+men; the three years defence of Ostend in 1601; the holding of Arcot by
+Clive, are instances that present themselves to the memory at once. The
+very weight of the odds against them sometimes calls out the best
+qualities of the defenders; and the _man_ when at his best is worth many
+times more than the _rampart_ behind which he fights. But it would be a
+poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to evoke
+these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison will rise to the
+occasion, and the weakness of the place has very often been found an
+excuse for giving it up with little or no resistance.
+
+Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French saying, "tant vaut
+l'homme, tant vaut la place." Among modern men we think of Todleben (not
+governor, but the soul of the defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams
+at Kars, Denfert-Rochereau at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The
+sieges of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which the
+event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the governor; in
+some cases distinguished by courage, skill and foresight, in others by
+incapacity, cowardice or treachery. The reader is referred to Carnot's
+_Defense des places fortes_ for a most interesting summary of such
+cases, one or two of which are quoted below.
+
+
+  The spirit of the defence.
+
+Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September 1673 and
+defended by Philippe de Proce, sieur Dupas. The duke of Luxemburg
+visited the place some hours before it was invested, and arranged with
+Dupas to relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. But the
+governor lost his head when he saw the enemy encamped round the place,
+and surrendered it before he had even lost the covered way. He was
+subsequently tried by a council of war and sentenced to be degraded
+before the troops and imprisoned for life. The reason the court gave for
+not condemning him to death was that they could find no regulation which
+condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that period the
+decapitation of a governor who was considered to have failed in his duty
+was not uncommon.) This man, however, was not wanting in physical
+courage. He was in prison at Grave when it was besieged a year later,
+obtained leave to serve as a volunteer in the defence, fought well and
+was killed.
+
+A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the young
+governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was entertaining a
+party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell appeared and summoned him to
+surrender. The attacking force had no firearm more powerful than a
+carbine, but the governor, overawed by Cromwell's personality, yielded.
+Charles I., who was usually merciful to his officers, caused this
+governor to be shot.
+
+A defence of another kind was that of Quilleboeuf in 1592. Henry IV. had
+occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before the works had been
+well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake it. Bellegarde undertook its
+defence, with 115 soldiers, 45 gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had
+ammunition but not much provisions. With these forces and a line of
+defence a league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on
+the 17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The relieving
+forces were astonished to find that he had been defending not a
+fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the places where it
+had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft. wide and deep.
+
+At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already alluded to
+had been recognized, but many commanders retained the old spirit of
+chivalry in their reluctance to say the "loth word." The gallant Marshal
+d'Esse, who feared nothing but the idea of dying in his bed, was lying
+ill at his country house when he was sent for by the king. He was
+ordered to take command at Therouanne, then threatened by Charles V.,
+and made his farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of
+Grenville: "Sire, je m'y en vais donc de bon et loyal coeur; mais j'ai
+oui dire que la place est mal envitaillee, non pas seulement pourvue de
+palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la terre; mais
+lors, quand entendrez que Therouanne est prise, dites hardiment que
+d'Esse est gueri de sa jaunisse et mort." And he made good his word, for
+he was killed at the breach by a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish
+soldier.
+
+Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of the
+inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of Rochelle (1627)
+and Saint-Jean de Lone (1636), but these are too long to quote. We may,
+however, mention Livron, which is curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one
+of his favourites, Saint Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the
+Dauphine. Being entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to
+achieve some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of
+Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the inhabitants.
+But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the women of the town
+conceived such a contempt for him that they came in crowds to empty
+their slops at the breach by way of insult. This annoyed him very much,
+and he ordered a fresh assault. The women alone sustained this one,
+repulsed it lightheartedly, and the siege was raised.
+
+
+  Arcot.
+
+The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest than any
+other branch of military history. It is full of the personal element, of
+the nobility of human endurance and of dramatic surprises. And more than
+any battles in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage
+of men fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120
+Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two 18-pounders and 8 lighter guns, he
+held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000 native troops. "The
+fort" (says Orme) "seemed little capable of sustaining the impending
+siege. Its extent was more than a mile in circumference. The walls were
+in many places ruinous; the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of
+artillery; the parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers
+were decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one piece
+of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others dry and in
+some choked up," &c. These feeble ramparts were commanded almost
+everywhere by the enemy's musketry from the houses of the city outside
+the fort, so that the defenders were hardly able to show themselves
+without being hit, and much loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his
+tiny garrison, which timbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the
+enclosure, Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really
+severe assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and after
+which the enemy hastily decamped.
+
+Such feats as this make arguments about _successive lines of defence_
+and the _necessity of keeps_ seem very barren. History, as far as the
+writer knows, shows no instances where successive lines have been held
+with such brilliant results.
+
+Clive's defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted rules of
+war were untenable, brings us to another point which has been already
+mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honourably make terms when
+there was an open breach in their main line of defence. This is a
+question upon which Carnot delivers himself very strongly in
+endeavouring to impress upon French officers the necessity of defence to
+the last moment. Speaking of Cormontaingne's imaginary _Journal of the
+Attack of a Fortress_ (which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes
+by the words "It is now time to surrender"), he says with great scorn:
+"Crillon would have cried, 'It is time to begin fighting.' He would have
+said as at the siege of Quilleboeuf, 'Crillon is within, the enemy is
+without.' Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered walls of
+Mezieres, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would have said,
+'It is time to surrender.' Thus when Guise was repairing the breaches
+of Metz under the redoubled fire of the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if
+he had been there, would have said, 'It is time to surrender.'" Carnot
+of course allows that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is
+for the accepted principle, not for the man.
+
+
+  Resisting "to the last."
+
+It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks by Sir John
+Jones, made in answer to Carnot's book. He says in the notes to the
+second volume of the _Journals of the Sieges in Spain_: "When the breach
+shall be pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon the
+ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed, as by so doing he
+spills the blood of many brave men without a justifiable object, his
+life and the lives of the garrison should be made the forfeit. A system
+enforced by terror must be counteracted by still greater terror.
+Humanity towards an enemy in such a case is cruelty to one's own
+troops.... The principle to be combated is not the obligation to resist
+behind the breach--for where there is a good retrenchment the bastion
+should be disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can
+as safely be so--but the doctrine that surrender shall not take place
+when successful resistance becomes hopeless."
+
+Carnot's word is "fight to the last." Sir John Jones says the commander
+has no right to provoke further carnage when resistance is hopeless. The
+question of course is, When is resistance hopeless? Sir John Jones's
+reputation leaves little doubt that if he had been commanding a fortress
+on British soil he would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as
+there was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these two men
+of similar temper are found in opposition is quite simple. When Carnot
+wrote, the French army occupied most of the important fortresses of
+Europe, and it was to the interest of the emperor that if attacked they
+should be held to the last moment, in order to cause the enemy as much
+delay and loss as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the
+engineers who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his
+arguments were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen whose lives
+were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.
+
+A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the ideas in
+which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic era. In
+the 18th century fortresses were many, good roads few, and campaigns for
+the most part leisurely. To the European nations of that time,
+inheritors of a perennial state of war, the idea of concentrating the
+national resources on a short and decisive campaign had not occurred.
+The "knock-out blow" had not been invented. All these conditions are now
+so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been set up, both
+for the defence of places and the general employment of fortification.
+
+As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a garrison as a
+penalty for holding out too long would meet with no sympathy in the
+present day. On the other hand, the issue of modern wars is worked out
+so rapidly that if a fortress is well defended, with the advantage of
+the present weapons, there is always a chance of holding out till the
+close of the war. If the place is worth holding, it should as a rule be
+held to the bitter end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs;
+moreover, the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions
+imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large number of
+his troops.
+
+
+  Permanent defences.
+
+In concluding this article some elementary considerations in connexion
+with the use of permanent defences may be noticed, though the general
+question of strategic fortification is outside its scope. The objects of
+fortification differ, as has been shown, from age to age. In former
+times a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical Norsemen might
+find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron might look on
+his castle as so much capital invested; a wealthy medieval town might
+prove the value of its walls more than once in a generation; a country
+without a standing army might gain time for preparation by means of
+fortresses barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the
+question stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize their
+full fighting strength at a few hours' notice? It can only be answered
+when the circumstances of a particular country are examined.
+
+
+  The use and abuse of fortresses.
+
+If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations of equal
+fighting strength and equal resources standing ready in arms to defend a
+common frontier, and that the theatre of war presents no difficulties on
+either side, then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as an
+adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses do not decide the
+issue of a campaign; they can only influence it. It is better,
+therefore, to put all the money the fortress would have cost, and all
+the man-power that its maintenance implies, into the increase and
+equipment of the active army. For the fate of the fortress must depend
+ultimately on the result of the operations of the active armies.
+Moreover, the very assumption that resources on both sides are equal
+means that the nation which has spent money on permanent fortifications
+will have the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself
+beforehand to a defensive role.
+
+This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the tendency to
+over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In practice there will
+always be occasion for some use of fortification. A mountain range may
+lend itself to an economical defence by a few men and some inexpensive
+barrier forts. A nation may have close to its frontier an important
+strategic centre, such as a railway junction, or a town of the first
+manufacturing importance, which must be protected. In such a case it may
+be necessary to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again,
+if one nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other, it
+may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by fortresses so
+as to force invasion into a district where concentration against it is
+easiest.
+
+As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary if it
+stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the active
+armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting strength of the
+country has been practically destroyed, it is not of much use to stand a
+siege in the capital. There can be but one end, and it is better, as
+business men say, to cut losses. If the fighting strength is not
+entirely destroyed and can be recruited within a reasonable time, say
+two or three months, then it appears that under modern conditions the
+capital might be held for that time by means of extemporized defences.
+The question is one that can only be decided by going into the
+circumstances of each particular case.
+
+The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive neighbours is in
+a different category. If she stands alone she will be eaten up in time,
+fortifications or no fortifications; but if she can reckon on assistance
+from outside, it may be worth while to expend most of the national
+resources on permanent defences.
+
+These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as
+illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual problems that
+soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too complex to be dealt with
+in generalities, and no mere treatise can supply the place of knowledge,
+thought and practice.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The more important works on the subject are: Durer,
+  _Unterricht zur Befestigung_ (Nuremberg, 1527); Speckle, _Architectur
+  von Festungen_ (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, _L'Architecture mil. ou la
+  f. nouvelle_ (Paris, 1637); Pagan, _Les Fortif._ (Paris, 1689); de
+  Ville, _Les Fortif._ (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, _Introduction a la
+  fortification_ (Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, _Science des
+  Ingenieurs, &c._ (Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban,
+  Montalembert, Cormontaingne; Mandar, _De l'architecture des
+  forteresses_ (Paris, 1801); Chasseloup-Laubat, _Essais sur quelques
+  parties de l'artil. et de la fortification_ (Milan, 1811); Carnot,
+  _Defense des places fortes_ (Paris, 1812); Jones, _Journals of Sieges
+  in Spain_ (3rd ed., London, 1846); T. Choumara, _Memoire sur la
+  fortification_ (1847); A. von Zastrow, _Geschichte der bestandigen
+  Befestigung_ (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of Sir C. Pasley; Noizet,
+  _Principes de fortif._ (Paris, 1859); Dufour, _De la fortif.
+  permanente_ (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, _L'Architecture
+  militaire au moyen age_ (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy, _Essai
+  historique sur la fortification_ (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont
+  (_q.v._); Delambre, _La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la
+  tactique et la strategie_ (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, _Angriff und
+  Verteidigung fester Platze_ (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, _Die Festung in
+  der heutigen Kriegfuhrung_ (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner,
+  _Die bestandige Befestigung und der Festungskrieg_ (Vienna,
+  1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen, _Grundriss der Befestigungslehre_ (Berlin,
+  1900-1909); Plessix and Legrand, _Manuel complet de fortification_
+  (Paris, 1900, new edition 1909); Ritter v. Brunner, _Die bestandige
+  Befestigung_ (Vienna, 1909), _Die Feldbefestigung_ (Vienna, 1904);
+  Rocchi, _Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione permanente_
+  (Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Fortification_ (1907); V. Deguise,
+  _La Fortification permanente contemporaine_ (Brussels, 1908); Royal
+  Military Academy, _Text-book of Fortification_, pt. ii. (London,
+  1893); British official _Instruction in Military Engineering_, pts.
+  i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908).     (L. J.)
+
+
+
+
+FORTLAGE, KARL (1806-1881), German philosopher, was born at Osnabruck.
+After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin, he became professor of
+philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he held till his death.
+Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to Fichte and Beneke (q.v.),
+with whose insistence on psychology as the basis of all philosophy he
+fully agreed. The fundamental idea of his psychology is impulse, which
+combines representation (which presupposes consciousness) and feeling
+(i.e. pleasure). Reason is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine
+in its nature, God is the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his
+instruments.
+
+  Fortlage's chief works are: _Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit
+  Kant_ (Leipzig, 1852); _System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); _Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise fur das
+  Dasein Gottes_ (Heidelberg, 1840); _Beitrage zur Psych. als
+  Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FORT LEE, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the N.E.
+part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson river, opposite the
+northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905) 3433; (1910) 4472. It is
+connected with the neighbouring towns and cities by electric railways,
+and by ferry with New York City, of which it is a residential suburb.
+The main part of the borough lies along the summit of the Palisades;
+north of Fort Lee is an Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of
+Independence the Americans erected here a fortification, first called
+Fort Constitution but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General
+Charles Lee. The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the
+village that grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until
+the 20th of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene
+with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of Fort
+Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the crossing of the
+Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made it necessary for Greene to
+abandon this post and join Washington in the famous "retreat across the
+Jerseys." An attempt to recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony
+Wayne in 1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,
+designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a
+Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908. The borough of
+Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on
+the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the state, and about 20 m.
+S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901; (1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910) 8900. Fort Madison is served by the
+Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (which has repair shops here) and the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The city has various
+manufactures, including canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements;
+the value of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of
+50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of Iowa's
+penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site of the city in
+1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently settled in 1833, Fort Madison
+was laid out as a town in 1836, and was chartered as a city in 1839.
+
+
+
+
+FORTROSE (Gaelic for _t'rois_, "the wood on the promontory"), a royal
+and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated on the south-eastern coast of
+the peninsula of the Black Isle, 8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26-1/4 m.
+by rail. It is the terminus of the Black Isle branch of the Highland
+railway; there is communication by steamer with Inverness and also with
+Fort George, 2-1/2 m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose
+consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1 m. apart,
+which were united into a free burgh by James II. in 1455 and created a
+royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable antiquity, a
+monastery having been established in the 6th century by St Moluag, a
+friend of Columba's, and St Peter's church built in the 8th century. In
+1124 David I. instituted the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and
+the town acquired some fame for its school of theology and law. The
+cathedral is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of
+Ross (her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and
+finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at Melrose is
+said to account for the Perpendicular features of his portion of the
+work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform in plan, and built of
+red sandstone, but all that is left are the south aisles of the nave and
+the chancel, with the chapter-house, a two-storeyed structure, standing
+apart near the north-eastern corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace
+were destroyed by order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great
+fort at Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of
+1460. These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but
+other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination
+poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some consequence, and
+the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie, in the churchyard of which is
+an ancient Celtic cross, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and there
+is a golf course in Chanonry Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness
+district group of parliamentary burghs.
+
+
+
+
+FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county, Kansas,
+U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of Kansas City, Missouri.
+Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946; (1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were
+negroes; (1910 census) 10,463. It is the point of intersection of the
+Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways, and has in
+consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a rolling plain. Among
+its institutions are an Epworth house (1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the
+Goodlander home, and a Carnegie library. Near the city there is a
+national cemetery. Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral
+fields, and its trade in bituminous coal is especially important.
+Building stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also
+found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water is procured
+from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is a mineral-water
+bath house. The city is also a trading centre for a rich farming region,
+and is a horse and mule market of considerable importance. Among its
+manufactures are mattresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry
+products. In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product was
+$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city owns and
+operates its waterworks. The fort after which the city is named was
+established by the Federal government in 1842, at a time when the whole
+of eastern Kansas was still parcelled out among Indian tribes; it was
+abandoned in 1855. The town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was
+chartered as a city in 1860.
+
+
+
+
+FORT SMITH, a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county, on the
+extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about 440 ft. above
+sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, at its junction with
+the Poteau, and at the point where the Arkansas breaks through the
+Boston mountains. Pop. (1890) 11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were
+of negro descent and 684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975.
+Transportation is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St
+Louis & San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the
+Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley and the
+Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business centre of the city
+facilitates freight transfers. Some of the business streets are
+unusually broad, and the streets in the residential district are well
+shaded. Fort Smith is the business centre of a fine agricultural country
+and of the Arkansas coal and natural gas region. It has extensive
+wholesale jobbing interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in
+its own manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,
+chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and bricks. In
+1905 the total value of the factory product was $2,329,454, an increase
+of 66.2% since 1900. The public schools have a rich endowment: the
+proceeds of lands (about 200 acres) once belonging to the local
+military reservation, which--except the part occupied by a national
+cemetery--was given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of
+the city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there is a
+Carnegie library. A United States army post was established here in
+1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county was created in 1851.
+Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a
+city in 1845. All transportation was by river and wagon until 1876, when
+the railway was completed from Little Rock. The military post, in
+earlier years the chief depot for the western forts, was abandoned in
+1871. During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with the
+Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April 1861, and was
+reoccupied by the Union forces in September 1863. There was considerable
+unrest due to border "bushwhacking" throughout the war, and several
+skirmishes took place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than
+doubled in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNA (FORTUNE), an Italian goddess of great antiquity, but apparently
+not native at Rome, where, according to universal Roman tradition, she
+was introduced by the king Servius Tullius as Fors Fortuna, and
+established in a temple on the Etruscan side of the Tiber outside the
+city, and also under other titles in other shrines. In Latium she had
+two famous places of worship, one at Praeneste, where there was an
+oracle of _Fortuna primigenia_ (the first-born), frequented especially
+by women who, as we may suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their
+children or their own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well
+known from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna was
+never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented the hopes
+and fears of men and especially of women at different stages of their
+life and experience; thus we find her worshipped as time went on under
+numerous cult-titles, such as _muliebris_, _virilis_, _hujusce diei_,
+_equestris_, _redux_, &c., which connected her supposed powers with
+individuals, groups of individuals, or particular occasions. Gradually
+she became more or less closely identified with the Gr. [Greek: Tyche],
+and was represented on coins, &c., with a cornucopia as the giver of
+prosperity, a rudder as the controller of destinies, and with a wheel,
+or standing on a ball, to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this
+semi-Greek form she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and
+Pliny (_N.H._ ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all
+places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis, and as
+_Panthea_ was supposed to combine the attributes of all other deities.
+
+  The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher's
+  _Mythological Lexicon_ (s.v.); see also Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus
+  der Romer_, p. 206 foll.     (W. W. F.*)
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th century
+A.D. He was the author of a treatise on metres, dedicated to one of his
+pupils, a youth of senatorial rank, who desired to be instructed in the
+Horatian metres. The manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental
+ideas of metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed
+analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used are Caesius
+Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the grammarian of the [Greek:
+Techne] of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a common name in the African
+provinces, it is probable that the author was a countryman of Juba,
+Terentianus Maurus and Victorinus.
+
+  Editions of the _Ars_ in H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi., and
+  separately by him (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European chap-book. He was a
+native, says the story, of Famagusta in Cyprus, and meeting the goddess
+of Fortune in a forest received from her a purse which was continually
+replenished as often as he drew from it. With this he wandered through
+many lands, and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the
+treasures which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had
+the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired. Of this
+hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to Cyprus, where he
+led a luxurious life. On his death he left the purse and the hat to his
+sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they were jealous of each other, and by
+their recklessness and folly soon fell on evil days. The moral of the
+story is obvious: men should desire reason and wisdom before all the
+treasures of the world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus
+occupies in Karl Simrock's _Die deutschen Volksbucher_, vol. iii.,
+upwards of 158 pages. The scene is continually shifted--from Cyprus to
+Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France; and a large
+number of secondary characters appear. The style and allusions indicate
+a comparatively modern date for the authorship; but the nucleus of the
+legend can be traced back to a much earlier period. The stories of
+Jonathas and the three jewels in the _Gesta Romanorum_, of the emperor
+Frederick and the three precious stones in the _Cento Novelle antiche_,
+of the Mazin of Khorassan in the _Thousand and one Nights_, and the
+flying scaffold in the _Bahar Danush_, have all a certain similarity.
+The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus appeared at
+Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators are disposed to
+regard this as the original form. Innumerable versions occur in French,
+Italian, Dutch and English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in
+1553, and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter's comedy appeared in
+a German translation in _Englische Komodien und Tragodien_, 1620. Ludwig
+Tieck has utilized the legend in his _Phantasus_, and Adelbert von
+Chamisso in his _Peter Schlemihl_; and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished
+narrative poem entitled "Fortunatus and his Sons."
+
+  See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt's _Fortunatus und seine Sohne, eine
+  Zauber-Tragodie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang_, &c. (Berlin,
+  1819); Joseph Johann Gorres, _Die deutschen Volksbucher_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609), bishop of
+Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time, was born near Ceneda in
+Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan and Ravenna, with the special object
+of excelling as a rhetorician and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to
+France, where he was received with much favour at the court of Sigbert,
+king of Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an
+_epithalamium_. After remaining a year or two at the court of Sigbert he
+travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons of distinction,
+and composing short pieces of poetry on any subject that occurred to
+him. At Poitiers he visited Queen Radegunda, who lived there in
+retirement, and she induced him to prolong his stay in the city
+indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed the friendship of the famous Gregory
+of Tours and other eminent ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of
+Poitiers in 599, and died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were
+collected in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the _Vexilla
+regis prodeunt_, Englished by J.M. Neale as "The royal banners forward
+go"), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour of his patroness
+Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of a nunnery at Poitiers. He
+also wrote a large poem in 4 books in honour of St Martin, and several
+lives of the saints in prose. His prose is stiff and mechanical, but
+most of his poetry has an easy rhythmical flow.
+
+  An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower at
+  Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A. Luschi
+  (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne's _Patrologiae cursus
+  completus_, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch (Berlin,
+  1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and Leroux (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and traveller, was born
+at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of September 1813. He was employed
+in the botanical garden at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal
+Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of
+the Chinese War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in
+China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of many
+beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in 1848 on behalf of
+the East India Company, had much more important consequences,
+occasioning the successful introduction into India of the tea-plant. In
+subsequent journeys he visited Formosa and Japan, described the culture
+of the silkworm and the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many
+trees, shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The
+incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting
+books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.
+
+
+
+
+FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO (1838-1874), Spanish painter, was
+born at Reus on the 11th of June 1838. His parents, who were in poor
+circumstances, sent him for education to the primary school of his
+native town, where he received some instruction in the rudiments of art.
+When he was twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care
+of his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a collection
+of wax figures, with which he was travelling from town to town. In the
+working of this show the boy took an active part, modelling and painting
+many of the figures; and two years later, when he reached Barcelona, the
+cleverness of his handiwork made so much impression on some people in
+authority there that they induced the municipality to make him an
+allowance of forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go
+through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy of
+Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio Lorenzale, and
+in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that entitled him to complete his
+studies in Rome. Then followed a period of more than two years, during
+which he laboured steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had
+access at Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the war
+between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny was sent by the
+authorities of Barcelona to paint the most striking incidents of the
+campaign. The expedition lasted for about six months only, but it made
+upon him an impression that was powerful enough to affect the whole
+course of his subsequent development, and to implant permanently in his
+mind a preference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He
+returned to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned by the
+city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture of the camps
+of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the Spanish army. After making a
+large number of studies he went back to Rome, and began the composition
+on a canvas fifteen metres long; but though it occupied much of his time
+during the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself
+instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great size, in
+which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities of technique and
+modulations of colour. He visited Paris in 1868 and shortly afterwards
+married the daughter of Federico Madrazo, the director of the royal
+museum at Madrid. Another visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two
+years' stay at Granada, but then he returned to Rome, where he died
+somewhat suddenly on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of
+malarial fever, contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and
+Portici in the summer of 1874.
+
+The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life is
+distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a marvellous
+cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but the qualities of
+his art are those that are attainable by a master of technical resource
+rather than by a deep thinker. His insight into subtleties of
+illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity was remarkable in the
+extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious to the point of
+extravagance. At the same time in such pictures as "La Vicaria" and
+"Choosing a Model," and in some of his Moorish subjects, like "The Snake
+Charmers" and "Moors playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be
+endowed with a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a
+thorough understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love
+of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the
+fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.
+
+  See Davillier, _Fortuny, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance, &c._
+  (Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, _Fortuny_ (_Artistes celebres_ series)
+  (Paris, 1889).     (A. L. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FORT WAYNE, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where the St Joseph and St
+Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890)
+35,393; (1900) 45,115, of whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+63,933. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort
+Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake
+Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the
+Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban electric
+lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft. above sea-level) and
+level, and its land area was in 1906 a little more than 6 sq. m. The
+streets are laid out on a rectangular plan and bordered by a profusion
+of shade trees. The city has several parks, including Lawton Park (31
+acres), in which there is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry
+Ware Lawton (1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side
+Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre), and Old
+Fort Park (1/4 acre), which is on the site of Old Fort Wayne. The
+educational institutions include the German Concordia Collegium
+(Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having 220 students in 1908, and the
+state school for feeble-minded youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie
+library. Fort Wayne is one of the most important railway centres in the
+Middle West, and several railways maintain here their principal car and
+repair shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing
+industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state in the
+value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway companies. The
+other manufactories include foundries and machine shops, iron and steel
+mills, knitting mills, planing mills, sash and door, car-wheel,
+electrical machinery, and woodenware factories and flour mills. In 1905
+the total value of the factory product of the city was $15,129,562,
+showing an increase of 34.3% since 1900.
+
+The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood,
+and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or Great Miami Village),
+was situated on the E. bank of the St Joseph river, within the limits of
+the present city. On the E. bank of the St Mary's a French trading post
+was built about 1680. In 1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was
+moved to the E. bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in
+1760 and Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than
+three months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September
+1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the Maumee river the
+stockade fort which was named in his honour, the site of which forms the
+present Old Fort Park. By the treaty of Greenville, concluded by General
+Wayne on the 3rd of August 1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area,
+including the tract of the Miami towns, was ceded to the United States,
+and free passage to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was
+guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians. By the
+treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H. Harrison on the 7th of
+June 1803, the tract about Vincennes reserved to the United States by
+the treaty of Greenville was described and defined; by the second treaty
+of Fort Wayne, concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the
+Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land, mostly
+S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort Wayne was besieged by
+Indians, who withdrew on the arrival, on the 12th of September, of
+General Harrison with about 2700 men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort
+was abandoned on the 19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The
+first permanent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was an
+important fur-trading depot until 1830. The opening of the Wabash & Erie
+canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was platted and was made the
+county-seat in 1824; and in 1840 Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.
+
+  See W.A. Brice, _History of Fort Wayne_ (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John B.
+  Dillon, _History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by
+  Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816_
+  (Indianapolis, Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, _History of the
+  Maumee River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization
+  into Counties_ (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+FORT WILLIAM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district, Ontario,
+Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the Kaministiquia river,
+about a mile from Lake Superior. It is the lake terminus of the Canadian
+Pacific railway, of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several
+steamship lines. Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern
+railway, lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain
+elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export trade
+in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also exported from the
+mining district, of which it is the centre. Industries, such as saw,
+planing and flour mills, have also sprung up. The population was 4800 in
+1901, but has since increased with great rapidity.
+
+
+
+
+FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe, an arm of the
+sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or canal, and was, in
+bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands. It is 122-1/2 m. N.E. of
+Glasgow by the West Highland railway. The fort, at first called
+Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in 1655 to hold the Cameron men in
+subjection, and was enlarged in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed
+it after William III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour
+of his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe met to
+share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully besieged it in 1715
+and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860, and demolished in 1890 to
+provide room for the railway and the station. Amongst the public
+buildings are the Belford hospital, public hall, court house and the
+low-level meteorological observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in
+connexion with the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter
+was closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the
+distilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape.
+Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory of Ewen
+Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born in the parish.
+Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place of call for the
+steamers passing through the Caledonian canal. The town is the point
+from which the ascent of Ben Nevis--4-1/2 m. E.S.E. as the crow flies--is
+commonly made. At Corpach, about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins,
+the series of locks between here and Banavie--within little more than a
+mile--being known as "Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lochy and the Nevis
+enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort William. A mile and a
+half from the town, on the Lochy, stands the grand old ruin of
+Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular pile with a round tower at
+each corner, a favourite subject with landscape painters. Close by is
+the scene of the battle of the 2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose
+completely defeated the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the
+Scottish Baronial style, 1-1/2 m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and
+farther from the river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.
+
+
+
+
+FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the West Fork of the Trinity
+river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890) 23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were
+foreign-born and 4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served
+by the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City, the
+Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco & Texas of the
+"Frisco" system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas
+Central, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas &
+Texas, the St Louis South-Western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity
+& Brazos Valley (Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is
+beautifully situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of
+Fort Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College in
+1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy, a college
+of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a law school, a
+medical school, a school of commerce, and a department of oratory and
+elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students; the Polytechnic College
+(coeducational; Methodist Episcopal, South), which was established in
+1890, has preparatory, collegiate, normal, commercial, and fine arts
+departments and a summer school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and
+(altogether) 696 students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a
+kindergarten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant Episcopal),
+and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There are several good
+business, municipal and county buildings, and a Carnegie library. On the
+3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed ten blocks in the centre of the city.
+Fort Worth lies in the midst of a stock-raising and fertile
+agricultural region; there is an important stockyard and packing
+establishment just outside the city; and considerable quantities of
+cotton are raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,
+flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,
+clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and overalls;
+and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries. In 1905 the
+total value of the city's factory product was $5,668,391, an increase of
+62.5% since 1900; Fort Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of
+the state in the value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth.
+Fort Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance as a
+commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and
+the electric-lighting plant.
+
+A military post was established here in 1849, being called first Camp
+Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in 1853. A settlement grew
+up about the fort, and the city was incorporated in 1873. The fort and
+the settlement were named in honour of General William Jenkins Worth
+(1794-1849), a native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of
+1812, commanded the United States forces against the Seminole Indians in
+1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and General Scott in the
+Mexican War, distinguishing himself at Monterey (where he earned the
+brevet of major-general) and in other engagements, and later commanded
+the department of Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of
+government.
+
+
+
+
+FORTY, the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word is derived from
+the O. Eng. _feowertig_, a combination of _feower_, four, and _tig_, an
+old form of "ten," used as a suffix, cf. Icel. _tiu_, Dan. _ti_, ten,
+and Ger. _vierzig_, forty. The name "The Forty" has been given to
+various bodies composed of that number of members, particularly to a
+judicial body in ancient Athens, who tried small cases in the rural
+districts, and to a court of criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal
+courts in the Venetian republic. The French Academy (see ACADEMIES) has
+also been known as "The Forty" or "The Forty Immortals." The period just
+before the repeal of the corn laws in the United Kingdom is frequently
+alluded to, particularly by the free trade school, as the "hungry
+forties"; and the "roaring forties" is a sailor's name for the stormy
+region between the 40th and 50th latitudes N. and S., but more
+particularly applied to the portion of the north Atlantic lying between
+those latitudes.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM (Lat. from _foris_, "out of doors"), in Roman antiquity, any open
+place used, like the Greek [Greek: agora], for the transaction of
+mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes merely as a
+promenade. It was level, rectangular in form, surrounded by porticoes,
+basilicas, courts of law and other public buildings. In the laws of the
+Twelve Tables the word is used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, _De
+legibus_, ii. 24); in a Roman camp the forum was an open place
+immediately beside the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally
+applied generally to the space in front of any public building or
+gateway. In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early
+history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and formerly
+marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills (also called
+Forum Romanum), which probably even during the regal period afforded the
+accommodation necessary for such public meetings as could not be held
+within the area Capitolina. In early times the Forum Romanum was used
+for athletic games, and over the porticoes were galleries for
+spectators; there were also shops of various kinds. But with the growth
+of the city and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum
+became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number of
+_civilia_ (judicial) and _venalia_ (mercantile) fora came into
+existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of Caesar and
+Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum _boarium_ (cattle),
+_holitorium_ (vegetable), _piscarium_ (fish), _pistorium_ (bread),
+_vinarium_ (wine), to the latter. The Fora of Nerva (also called
+_transitorium_ or _pervium_, because a main road led through it to the
+Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian, although partly intended to
+facilitate the course of public business, were chiefly erected to
+embellish the city. The construction of separate markets was not,
+however, necessarily the rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii,
+at the north-east end of the forum, there was a _macellum_ (market), and
+shops for provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a
+building supposed to have been the clothworkers' exchange, and at Timgad
+in North Africa (a military colony founded under Trajan) the whole of
+the south side of the forum was occupied by shops. The forum was usually
+paved, and although on festal occasions chariots were probably driven
+through, it was not a thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the
+entrances, of which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites
+for new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the centre,
+and the two main streets crossed one another close to but not through
+it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or 6 ft. lower than the forum.
+The word _forum_ frequently appears in the names of Roman market towns;
+as, for example, in Forum Appii, Forum Julii (_Frejus_), Forum Livii
+(_Forli_), Forum Sempronii (_Fossombrone_). These _fora_ were
+distinguished from mere _vici_ by the possession of a municipal
+organization, which, however, was less complete than that of a
+prefecture. In legal phraseology, which distinguishes the _forum
+commune_ from the _forum privilegiatum_, and the _forum generale_ from
+the _forum speciale_, the word is practically equivalent to "court" or
+"jurisdiction."
+
+  For the fora at Rome, see ROME: _Archaeology_, and works quoted.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia, 43 m. S.E. of
+Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor of the road. Horace
+mentions it as the usual halt at the end of the first day's journey from
+Rome, and describes it as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The
+presence of the former was due to the fact that it was the
+starting-point of a canal which ran parallel to the road through the
+Pomptine Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and
+Horace (see APPIA, VIA). It is mentioned also as a halting place in the
+account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). Under Nerva and
+Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription records expressly the
+paving with silex (replacing the former gravelling) of the section from
+Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was
+similarly repaired, and that at Forum Appii, though it bears no
+inscription, is of the same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have
+been found here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via
+Appia was reconstructed.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about 23 m. N.W. of Rome
+(not 32 m. as in the _Antonine Itinerary_), situated above the western
+bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. Lake of Bracciano), and connected with
+the Via Cassia at Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side
+of the lake (_Ann. Inst._, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church
+of SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the 8th or
+9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses have come
+to light on the spot; and an inscription of the Augustan period, which
+probably stood over the door of a villa, calls the place Pausilypon--a
+name justified by the beauty of the site.
+
+  See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342.
+
+
+
+
+FORUM TRAIANI (mod. _Fordongianus_), an ancient town of Sardinia, on the
+river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the Roman road through the
+centre of the island from Carales to Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of
+its ruins have been destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the
+baths, erected over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the
+water and the large central _piscina_ are noteworthy. The bridge over
+the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite bank are
+the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off is a group of
+_nuraghi_, of which that of St Barbara in the commune of Villanova
+Truschedda is one of the finest.
+
+  See Taramelli in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1903), 469.
+
+
+
+
+FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English antiquary, was born in
+London on the 27th of May 1770. He was educated at St Paul's school and
+Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was
+ordained and became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he
+remained till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and
+remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards
+as vicar. His first important work, _British Monachism_ (2 vols., 1802),
+was a compilation, from manuscripts in the British Museum and Bodleian
+libraries, of facts relating to English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke
+had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for
+which he is best remembered, the _Encyclopaedia of Antiquities_,
+appeared in 1824. A sequel to this, _Foreign Topography_, was published
+in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died at Walford on
+the 1st of January 1842.
+
+
+
+
+FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged to a noble
+Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices of the
+republic--ambassador, president of the Forty, member of the Council of
+Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, _avvogadore di comun_, &c. His
+first wife was Maria Priuli and his second Maria Nani; of his many
+children all save one son (Jacopo) died young. But although a capable
+administrator he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge
+Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the various
+candidates for the succession, warned the council against electing
+Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the republic into
+disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari was elected (1423) and
+reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming the new doge the customary
+formula which recognized the people's share in the appointment and asked
+for their approval--the last vestige of popular government--was finally
+dropped.
+
+Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of wars on the
+_terra ferma_, and through the doge's influence Venice joined the
+Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was carried on with
+varying success for eight years. In 1430 an attempt was made on
+Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had refused an appointment; and
+three years later a conspiracy of young bloods to secure the various
+offices for themselves by illicit intrigues was discovered. These
+events, as well as the long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory
+state of Venetian finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to
+abdicate, which was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic
+tragedy by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's son
+Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and irresponsible
+youth, was in that year accused of the serious crime of having accepted
+presents from various citizens and foreign princes who either desired
+government appointments or wished to influence the policy of the
+republic. Jacopo escaped, but was tried in contumacy before the Council
+of Ten and condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and to
+have his property confiscated. But the execution of the sentence was
+delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually the penalty was
+commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446). Four years later Ermolao
+Donato, a distinguished official who had been a member of the Ten at the
+time of the trial, was assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of
+complicity in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for
+the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed to his
+guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the accused, and so
+merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his life, with a pension
+of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the council received information
+from the rector (governor) of Candia to the effect that Jacopo Foscari
+had been in treasonable correspondence with the duke of Milan and the
+sultan of Turkey. He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a
+year's imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.
+His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to Jacopo's
+entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him, he replied
+advising him to bear his punishment without protest. When the year was
+up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died in January 1457. The doge
+was overwhelmed with grief at this bereavement and became quite
+incapable of attending to business. Consequently the council decided to
+ask him to abdicate; at first he refused, but was finally obliged to
+conform to their wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats.
+Within a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days
+later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.
+
+  The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added many
+  picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them tending to
+  show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo's judges and accusers,
+  whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional leniency.
+  The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin's _Storia
+  documentata di Venezia_, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice, 1855);
+  where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan, _I due
+  Foscari_ (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the subject
+  Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger's poem _Italy_
+  (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the subject entitled _I
+  due Foscari_.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at Zante in the
+Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the death of his father, a
+physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the family removed to Venice, and in
+the University of Padua Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the
+Dalmatian grammar school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was
+the abbe Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly
+popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo's literary
+tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies in
+ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the appearance
+in 1797 of his tragedy _Tieste_--a production which obtained a certain
+degree of success. Foscolo, who, from causes not clearly explained, had
+changed his Christian name Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an
+active part in the stormy political discussions which the fall of the
+republic of Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the
+national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the liberator,
+expecting from the military successes of the French general, not merely
+the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy, but the establishment of
+a free republican government.
+
+The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which Napoleon handed
+Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude shock to Foscolo, but did not
+quite destroy his hopes. The state of mind produced by that shock is
+reflected in the _Letters of Jacopo Ortis_ (1798), a species of
+political _Werther_,--for the hero of Foscolo embodies the mental
+sufferings and suicide of an undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero
+of Goethe places before us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering
+and at last cutting short the life of a private German scholar. The
+story of Foscolo, like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy
+fact. Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student of
+Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances akin to those
+described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo's mind appears to have been
+only too familiar with the thought of suicide. Cato and the many
+classical examples of self-destruction scattered through the pages of
+Plutarch appealed to the imaginations of young Italian patriots as they
+had done in France to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde.
+In the case of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the
+writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have been
+beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future rudely
+shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and sought relief in
+now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national poet. At Milan,
+whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he was engaged in other
+literary pursuits besides the composition of _Ortis_. The friendship
+formed there with the great poet Parini was ever afterwards remembered
+with pride and gratitude. The friendship formed with another celebrated
+Milanese poet soon gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still
+hoping that his country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a
+volunteer in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and
+the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When released he
+returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches to his _Ortis_,
+published a translation of and commentary upon _Callimachus_, commenced
+a version of the _Iliad_, and began his translation of Sterne's
+_Sentimental Journey_. The result of a memorandum prepared for Lyons,
+where, along with other Italian delegates, he was to have laid before
+Napoleon the state of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him
+for his country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of
+France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his _Carme sui
+sepolcri_, of which the entire spirit and language may be described as a
+sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the misery of the present
+and the darkness of the future. The mighty dead are summoned from their
+tombs, as ages before they had been in the masterpieces of Greek
+oratory, to fight again the battles of their country. The inaugural
+lecture on the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in
+January 1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,
+was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged his
+young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to academic
+traditions, but in their relation to individual and national life and
+growth. The sensation produced by this lecture had no slight share in
+provoking the decree of Napoleon by which the chair of national
+eloquence was abolished in all the Italian universities. Soon afterwards
+Foscolo's tragedy of _Ajax_ was represented but with little success at
+Milan, and its supposed allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an
+object of suspicion, he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The
+chief fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of _Ricciarda_, the
+_Ode to the Graces_, left unfinished, and the completion of his version
+of the _Sentimental Journey_ (1813). His version of Sterne is an
+important feature in his personal history. When serving with the French
+he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had traversed much of the ground
+gone over by Yorick; and in his memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the
+version is ascribed, he throws much curious light on his own character.
+He returned to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence
+he passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin on
+his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the shores
+of England at the close of 1816.
+
+During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until his death
+there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the most brilliant
+circles of the English capital confer on foreigners of political and
+literary renown, and experienced all the misery which follows on a
+disregard of the first conditions of domestic economy. His contributions
+to the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_, his dissertations in Italian
+on the text of Dante and Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on
+Petrarch, of which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable
+translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his
+previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and forethought
+in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment, and at last
+consigned him to a prison; and when released he felt bitterly the change
+in his social position, and the coldness now shown to him by many whom
+he had been accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in
+society--if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an
+observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott--had unhappily not
+been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships. He died at Turnham
+Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four years after his death, in
+1871, his remains were brought to Florence, and with all the pride, pomp
+and circumstance of a great national mourning, found their final
+resting-place beside the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of
+Michelangelo and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of
+Santa Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully entitled.
+For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour of his diction his
+country honours him as a great classic author. He had assigned to the
+literature of his nation higher aims than any which it previously
+recognized. With all his defects of character, and through all his
+vicissitudes of fortune, he was always a sincere and courageous patriot.
+
+  Ample materials for the study of Foscolo's character and career may be
+  found in the complete series of his works published in Florence by Le
+  Monnier. The series consists of _Prose letterarie_, (4 vols., 1850);
+  _Epistolario_ (3 vols., 1854); _Prose politiche_ (1 vol., 1850);
+  _Poesie_ (1 vol., 1856); _Lettere di Ortis_ (1 vol., 1858); _Saggi di
+  critica storico-letteraria_ (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this
+  series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn in
+  1876, _Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di
+  Stael, a Vincenzo Monti_. The work published at Florence in the summer
+  of 1878, _Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi_, throws much
+  doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo's writings as given in
+  the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some curious and
+  original illustrations of Foscolo's familiarity with the English
+  language.     (J. M. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer, was born in
+London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a solicitor by profession,
+and on his retirement from practice in 1840, he devoted himself to the
+study of legal antiquities. His _Judges of England_ (9 vols., 1848-1864)
+is a standard work, characterized by accuracy and extensive research.
+_Biographia Juridica_, _a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges_,
+appeared shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the
+Incorporated Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He
+died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
+Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
+7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has an imposing castle with four
+towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia in 1314. The cathedral was
+reconstructed at the end of the 18th century. The place began to acquire
+some importance in the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237,
+but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to
+Filippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy.
+It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has a branch line to
+Mondovi.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the railway
+station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It is the finest example of a
+Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian Early Gothic style, in Italy,
+and dates from the end of the 12th to the end of the 13th century. The
+church (1187-1208) is closely similar to that of Casamari. The other
+conventual buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in
+1274.
+
+  See C. Enlart, _Origines francaises de l'architecture gothique en
+  Italie_ (Paris, 1894) (_Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes
+  et de Rome_, fasc. 66).
+
+
+
+
+FOSSE (or FOSS) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman road or series of
+roads in Britain, used later by the English, running from Lincoln by
+Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost all the Roman line is still in use
+as modern road or lane. It passes from Lincoln through Newark and
+Leicester (the Roman _Ratae_) to High Cross (_Venonae_), where it
+intersects Watling Street at a point often called "the centre of
+England." Hence it runs to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and
+Ilchester, crosses the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and
+enters Exeter. Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but
+without warrant. (See further under ERMINE STREET.)     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning fussy or
+troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of Australia to the
+search for gold by solitary individuals, in untried localities or in
+abandoned diggings. A "fossicker," or pocket miner, is one who buys up
+the right to search old claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked
+by previous diggers.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSOMBRONE (anc. _Forum Sempronii_), a town and episcopal see of the
+Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 11 m. E.S.E. of
+the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 7531,
+commune, 10,847. The town is situated in the valley of the Metauro, in
+the centre of fine scenery, at the meeting-point of roads to Fano, to
+the Furlo pass and Fossato di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino
+and to Sinigaglia, the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The
+cathedral, rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor
+Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured _ancona_ of 1480. S.
+Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal. The library, founded by
+a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains some antiquities. Above the
+town is a medieval castle. There is a considerable trade in silk.
+
+The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E. at S. Martino al
+Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station on the Via Flaminia
+and a _municipium_. The date of its foundation is not known. Excavations
+in 1879-1880 led to the discovery of a house and of other buildings on
+the ancient road (A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 458).
+It already had a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta
+obtained possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold,
+with Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the latter
+it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1754-1844), Tuscan statesman and
+mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was educated at the university of
+Pisa, where he devoted himself particularly to mathematics. He obtained
+an official appointment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was
+entrusted by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the
+drainage of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a
+treatise in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but
+on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily. On the
+erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom of Etruria, under
+the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed president of the
+commission of finance. In 1809 he went to Paris as one of the senators
+for Tuscany to pay homage to Napoleon. He was made president of the
+legislative commission on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand
+III. in 1814, and subsequently prime minister, which position he
+retained under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which was
+only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote the
+well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany, and the
+bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the law, honesty
+in the administration of justice and toleration of opinion, but he
+totally neglected the moral improvement of the people. At the age of
+seventy-eight he married, and twelve years afterwards died, in 1844.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Gino Capponi, _Il Conte V. Fossombroni_, A. von
+  Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg_
+  (Gotha, 1877); Zobi, _Storia civile delta Toscana_ (Florence,
+  1850-1853); Galeotti, _Delle Leggi e dell' amministrazione della
+  Toscana_ (Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II_. (Florence,
+  1871); see also under CAPPONI, GINO; FERDINAND III., of Tuscany, and
+  LEOPOLD II., of Tuscany.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904), English geologist and
+mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve Foster (for many years
+secretary of the Society of Arts), was born at Camberwell on the 23rd of
+March 1841. After receiving his early education at Boulogne and Amiens,
+he studied successively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at
+the mining college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the
+Geological Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards
+in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894) he
+communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865 the now classic
+paper "On the superficial deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with
+remarks on the Denudation of the Weald." In this paper the sculpturing
+of the Wealden area by rain and rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from
+the Geological Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to
+mineralogy and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was
+appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for the S.W. of
+England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N. Wales district. In
+1890 he was appointed professor of mining at the Royal College of
+Science and he held this post until the close of his life. His later
+work is embodied largely in the reports of mines and quarries issued
+annually by the home office. He was distinguished for his extensive
+scientific and practical knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone
+quarrying. He was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While
+investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man in 1897
+his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide gas, and he
+never fully recovered from the effects. He died in London on the 19th of
+April 1904. He published _Ore and Stone Mining_, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and
+_The Elements of Mining and Quarrying_, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician and financier, was
+born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist
+descent. After a brilliant university career at the university of
+Brunswick, at Edinburgh and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught
+in various local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and
+history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative member
+for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament, and in 1885 entered
+the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries;
+in 1888 he became minister of finance, which position he held till the
+defeat of his party in 1896. A careful and even brilliant financier, and
+a keen debater, he became known as a strong believer in protection for
+Canadian industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and dissenting minister,
+generally known as the "Essayist," was born in a small farmhouse near
+Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September 1770. Partly from
+constitutional causes, but partly also from the want of proper
+companions, as well as from the grave and severe habits of his parents,
+his earlier years were enshrouded in a somewhat gloomy and sombre
+atmosphere, which was never afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful
+energy, finding no proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to
+morbid intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own
+testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of a "painful
+sense of an awkward but entire individuality."
+
+The small income accruing to Foster's parents from their farm they
+supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he began to assist them by
+spinning wool by the hand wheel, and from his fourteenth year by weaving
+double stuffs. Even "when a child," however, he had the "feelings of a
+foreigner in the place"; and though he performed his monotonous task
+with conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing
+his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without difficulty
+passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a great taste for
+reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut himself up alone in a barn,
+afterwards working at his loom "like a horse," to make up for lost time.
+He had also at this period "a passion for making pictures with a pen."
+Shortly after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of the
+Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents were connected;
+and with the view of preparing himself for the ministerial office he
+began about the same time to attend a seminary at Brearley Hall
+conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.
+
+After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted to the
+Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of study at this
+institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he
+preached to an audience of less than a hundred persons, in a small and
+dingy room situated near the river at the top of a flight of steps
+called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he remained only three months. In
+the beginning of 1793 he proceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a
+preacher, he attempted to revive a classical and mathematical school,
+but with so little success that he did not prosecute the experiment for
+more than eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a
+Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself with more
+earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the discharge of his
+ministerial duties, his efforts produced little apparent impression, and
+the gradual diminution of his hearers necessitated his resignation.
+After employing himself for a few months at Battersea in the instruction
+of twenty African youths brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with
+the view of having them trained to aid as missionaries to their
+fellow-countrymen, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small
+congregation at Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years.
+In 1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he became
+pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the thyroid gland
+compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the same year he
+published the volume of _Essays_ on which his literary fame most largely
+if not mainly rests. They were written in the form of letters addressed
+to the lady whom he afterwards married, and consist of four papers,--"On
+a Man writing Memoirs of himself"; "On Decision of Character"; "On the
+Application of the Epithet Romantic"; and "On some Causes by which
+Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable to Men of Cultivated
+Taste." The success of this work was immediate, and was so considerable
+that on resigning his charge he determined to adopt literature as his
+profession. The _Eclectic Review_ was the only periodical with which he
+established a connexion; but his contributions to that journal, which
+were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles. On his marriage
+in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water, a small village in
+Gloucestershire, where he remained till 1817, when he returned to
+Downend and resumed his duties to his old congregation. Here he
+published in 1820 his _Essay on Popular Ignorance_, which was the
+enlargement of a sermon originally preached on behalf of the British and
+Foreign School Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol,
+and in 1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead
+chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the settlement of
+Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued, as in such
+circumstances it appeared to Foster to be "altogether superfluous and
+even bordering on impertinent." The health of Foster during the later
+years of his life was somewhat infirm, the result chiefly of the toil
+and effort of literary composition; and the death of his only son, his
+wife and the greater number of his most intimate friends combined with
+his bodily ailments to lend additional sombreness to his manner of
+regarding the events and arrangements of the present world--the "visage
+of death" being almost his "one remaining luminary." He died at
+Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.
+
+The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather than
+logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately Calvinistic
+views, his language even in preaching very seldom took the mould of
+theological forms. Though always retaining his connexion with the
+Baptist denomination, the evils resulting from organized religious
+communities seemed to him so great that he came to be "strongly of
+opinion that churches are useless and mischievous institutions, and the
+sooner they are dissolved the better." The only Christian observances
+which he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the
+Lord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered the
+ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured by a
+constant reference to the "endless future." He was a firm believer in
+supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing hope that a ray of
+light from the other world might sometimes in this way be vouchsafed to
+mortals. As a writer he was most painstaking and laborious in his choice
+of diction, and his style has its natural consequent defects, though the
+result is eloquent in its way.
+
+  Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a
+  _Discourse on Missions_ (1818); "Introductory Essay" to Doddridge's
+  _Rise and Progress of Religion_ (1825); "Observations on Mr Hall's
+  Character as a Preacher," prefixed to the collected edition of Hall's
+  _Works_ (1832); an "Introduction" to a pamphlet by Mr Marshman on the
+  Serampore Missionaries; several political letters to the _Morning
+  Chronicle_, and contributions to the _Eclectic Review_, published
+  posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. _His Life and Correspondence_, edited
+  by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1907), English physiologist, was born at
+Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After graduating in medicine at
+London University in 1859, he began to practise in his native town, but
+in 1867 he returned to London as teacher of practical physiology at
+University College, where two years afterwards he became professor. In
+1870 he was appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its
+praelectorship in physiology, and thirteen years later he became the
+first occupant of the newly-created chair of physiology in the
+university, holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and
+administrator, and had a very large share in the organization and
+development of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was
+one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity
+exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great Britain. In
+1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president of the British
+Association at its meeting at Dover. In the following year he was
+elected to represent the university of London in parliament. Though
+returned as a Unionist, his political action was not to be dictated by
+party considerations, and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he
+played no prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was
+defeated. His chief writings were a _Textbook of Physiology_ (1876),
+which became a standard work, and _Lectures on the History of Physiology
+in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1901), which consisted of
+lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, in
+1900. He died suddenly in London on the 29th of January 1907.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter, was born at North
+Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the workshop of Ebenezer
+Landells, a wood engraver, with whom he worked for six years as an
+illustrative draughtsman, devoting himself mainly to landscape. During
+the succeeding fifteen years he became famous as a prolific and
+accomplished illustrator, but about 1861 abandoned illustration for
+painting, and gained wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water
+colours, of landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of
+children. He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of
+the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable
+for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and
+pleasantness of sentiment.
+
+  See _Birket Foster, his Life and Work_ (extra number of the _Art
+  Journal_) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and
+  _Birket Foster, R.W.S._, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very
+  complete and fully illustrated biography.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song and ballad writer,
+was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of July 1826. He was
+the youngest child of a merchant of Irish descent who became a member of
+the state legislature and was related by marriage to President Buchanan.
+Stephen early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,
+the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge of French
+and German. He was sent to school in Towanda, Pennsylvania, and later to
+Athens, Pennsylvania, and when thirteen years old he wrote the song
+"Sadly to Mine Heart Appealing." At sixteen he wrote "Open thy Lattice,
+Love"; at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati,
+Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile such
+popular pieces as "Old Uncle Ned," "O Susannah!" and others. He then
+adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief successes were songs
+written for the negro melodists or Christy minstrels. Besides those
+mentioned the following attained great popularity: "Nelly was a Lady,"
+"Old Kentucky Home," "Old Folks at Home," "Massa's in de Cold, Cold
+Ground," &c. For these and other songs the composer received
+considerable sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000
+dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music. In
+1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned to Pittsburg.
+His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies, many of which have
+been popular on both sides of the Atlantic and sung in many tongues.
+"Old Black Joe," the last of these negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His
+later songs were sentimental ballads. Among these are "Old Dog Tray,"
+"Gentle Annie," "Willie, we have missed you," &c. His "Come where my
+Love lies Dreaming" is a well known vocal quartet. Although as a
+musician and composer Foster has little claim to high rank, his
+song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern developments of
+popular music. He died at New York on the 13th of January 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FOSTORIA, a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and partly in
+Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7070;
+(1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the Ohio Central,
+the Lake Erie & Western, and the Hocking Valley railways, and by two
+interurban electric lines. The city is situated in an agricultural
+region, and oil abounds in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures
+are glass, flour, planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages,
+barrels, incandescent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile
+engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear. The
+waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. In 1832, upon the
+coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome and Risdon, were laid out
+on the site of what is now Fostoria. A bitter rivalry arose between
+them, but they were finally united under one government, and the city
+thus formed was named in honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles
+Foster (1828-1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and
+secretary of the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to
+promote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.
+
+
+
+
+FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was born of a Quaker
+family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End in Yorkshire. He took the
+degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736, and after visiting the continent of
+Europe he in 1740 settled in London, where he gained an extensive
+practice. In the epidemics of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to
+have had sixty patients daily. In his leisure he made a study of
+conchology and botany; and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive
+botanical garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various
+parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the South Sea
+voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by Anthony Purver, a
+Quaker, was made and printed at his expense. His pamphlet entitled
+"Account of the Sore Throat attended with Ulcers" (1748) contains one of
+the first descriptions of diphtheria in English, and was translated into
+several languages. He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.
+
+
+
+
+FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, picturesquely
+situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1-1/2 m. from Elton station
+on the Peterborough branch of the London & North-Western railway. The
+castle, of which nothing but the earthworks and foundations remain, is
+famous as the scene of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from
+September 1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587.
+The earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of very
+early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times. It became an
+important stronghold of the Plantagenets from the time of Edward III.,
+and was the birthplace of Richard III. in 1452. The church of St Mary
+and All Saints, originally collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the
+nave with aisles, and the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but
+the building is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of
+York, who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the
+third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the earl of
+Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of Wakefield in
+1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments were erected by Queen
+Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs in ruins.
+
+
+
+
+FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON (1819-1868), French physicist, was the son
+of a publisher at Paris, where he was born on the 18th of September
+1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine,
+which, however, he speedily abandoned for physical science, the
+improvement of L.J.M. Daguerre's photographic processes being the object
+to which he first directed his attention. During three years he was
+experimental assistant to Alfred Donne (1801-1878) in his course of
+lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he carried on a
+series of investigations on the intensity of the light of the sun, as
+compared with that of carbon in the electric arc, and of lime in the
+flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the interference of heat rays, and
+of light rays differing greatly in lengths of path; and on the chromatic
+polarization of light. In 1849 he contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_ a
+description of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp,
+and, in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision. By
+the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir Charles
+Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric currents, he was
+enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater velocity of light in air than
+in water, and to establish that the velocity of light in different media
+is inversely as the refractive indices of the media. For his
+demonstration in 1851 of the diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation
+of the plane of oscillation of a freely suspended, long and heavy
+pendulum exhibited by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the
+following year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the
+Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year he was
+made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at Paris. In
+September of that year he discovered that the force required for the
+rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when it is made to rotate
+with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disk at the same time
+becoming heated by the eddy or "Foucault currents" induced in its metal.
+Foucault invented in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the
+succeeding year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting
+telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution. With
+Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the absolute
+velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000 m.) a second,
+or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous experimenters. He
+was created in that year a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and an
+officer of the Legion of Honour, in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal
+Society of London, and next year a member of the mechanical section of
+the Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of Watt's
+governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting with a view
+to making its period of revolution constant, and on a new apparatus for
+regulating the electric light; and in the following year (_Compt. Rend._
+lxiii.) he showed how, by the deposition of a transparently thin film of
+silver on the outer side of the object glass of a telescope, the sun
+could be viewed without injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault
+died of paralysis on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year
+1845 he edited the scientific portion of the _Journal des Debats_. His
+chief scientific papers are to be found in the _Comptes Rendus_,
+1847-1869.
+
+  See _Revue cours scient._ vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; _Proc. Roy. Soc._
+  xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, _Notice historique sur
+  la vie et les travaux de Leon Foucault_ (Paris, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763-1820), French statesman, was born
+in a small village near Nantes on the 21st of May 1763. His father, a
+seafaring man, destined him for the sea; but the weakness of his frame
+and the precocity of his talents soon caused this idea to be given up.
+He was educated at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed
+marked aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to
+enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept by
+brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made rapid progress,
+and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the colleges of Niort, Saumur,
+Vendome, Juilly and Arras. At Arras he had some dealings with
+Robespierre at the time of the beginning of the French Revolution
+(1789).
+
+In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at
+Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal for revolutionary
+principles; but at Nantes he showed even more democratic fervour. His
+abilities and the zeal with which he espoused the most subversive
+notions brought him into favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a
+leading member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the
+college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouche gave up all
+connexion with the church, whose major vows he had not taken. After the
+downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of August 1792, he was elected as
+deputy for the department of the Lower Loire to the National Convention
+which met at the autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The
+literary and pedagogic sympathies of Fouche at first brought him into
+touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists; but
+their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of Louis XVI.
+(December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to espouse the cause of the
+Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more thoroughgoing champions of
+revolutionary doctrine. On the question of the execution of the king,
+Fouche, after some preliminary hesitations, expressed himself with the
+utmost vigour in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who
+"wavered before the shadow of a king."
+
+The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the Convention
+against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and a little later against
+Spain, brought Fouche into notoriety as one of the fiercest of the
+Jacobinical fanatics who then held power at Paris. While the armies of
+the first coalition threatened the north-east of France, a revolt of the
+royalist peasants of Brittany and la Vendee menaced the Convention on
+the west. That body deputed Fouche with a colleague, Villers, to proceed
+to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial powers
+for the crushing of the revolt of "the whites." The vigour with which he
+carried out these duties earned him other work, and he soon held the
+post of commissioner of the republic in the department of the Nievre.
+Together with Chaumette, he helped to initiate the atheistical movement,
+the founders of which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the
+extinction of Christianity in France. In the department of the Nievre he
+ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and
+established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the cemeteries, he
+ordered these words to be inscribed: "Death is an eternal sleep." He
+also waged war against luxury and wealth, and desired to abolish the use
+of money. The new cult was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the
+strange orgy known as "The Festival of Reason" (November 10, 1793).
+
+Fouche then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance of the
+Convention on that city, which had revolted against the new Jacobin
+tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable for its obscene
+parody of religious rites, he then, along with his colleague, Collot
+d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to work with a rigour which
+made his name odious. Modern research, however, proves that at the close
+of those horrors Fouche exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his
+conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris
+early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: "The blood of
+criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes power on sure
+foundations." By that time Robespierre had struck down the other leaders
+of the atheistical party; but early in June 1794, at the time of the
+"Festival of the Supreme Being," Fouche ventured to mock at the theistic
+revival which Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took
+place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of Fouche from
+the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouche, however, was working with his
+customary skill and energy, and along with Tallien and others, managed
+to effect the overthrow of the theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July
+28), 1794. The ensuing reaction in favour of more merciful methods of
+government threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been
+mainly instrumental in carrying through the _coup d'etat_ of Thermidor;
+but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche in intrigue, they managed for
+a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords, however, crept in which
+left him for a time almost isolated, and it needed all his ability to
+withstand the attacks of the moderates. A vigorous attack on him by
+Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of August 1795, caused him to be arrested,
+but the troubles which ensued in Vendemiaire averted the doom that
+seemed to be pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was
+passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year 1795.
+
+In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799),
+Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations which he had
+with the communists, once headed by Chaumette and now by Francois N.
+("Gracchus") Babeuf (q.v.), helped him to rise once more. He is said to
+have betrayed to the director Barras the secret of the strange plot
+which Babeuf and a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent
+research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from
+poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the supply of
+military _materiel_, which offered opportunities direct and indirect.
+After offering his services to the royalists, whose movement was then
+gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and the
+director Barras (q.v.). In the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor 1797 he made
+himself serviceable to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him to be French
+ambassador to the Cisalpine republic. At Milan he carried matters with
+so high a hand against the Gallophobes of that government that his
+actions were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused
+state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold his own
+and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early in 1799 he
+returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office as ambassador at
+The Hague, he became minister of police at Paris (July 20, 1799). The
+newly elected director, Sieyes (q.v.), was then in the ascendant and
+desired to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened
+their club. Fouche, casting consistency to the winds, closed the
+Jacobins club in a manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted
+down the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, who
+were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of the return of
+Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin was one of the most
+powerful men in France.
+
+Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouche lent himself to
+the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyes for their overthrow. His activity in
+furthering the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire 18-19 (November 9-10), 1799,
+procured him the favour of Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v.
+Napoleon I.). In the ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouche
+behaved with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and
+extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche was
+careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of the new
+master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted himself with so
+much skill as to earn at times the gratitude even of the royalists.
+Thus, while countermining a foolish intrigue of theirs in which the
+duchesse de Guiche was the chief agent, Fouche took care that she should
+escape. Equally skilful was his action in the affair of the so-called
+Arena-Ceracchi plot, in which the _agents provocateurs_ of the police
+were believed to have played a sinister part. The chief "conspirators"
+were easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivose
+(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This far more
+serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded a bomb near the
+First Consul's carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was
+soon seen by Fouche to be the work of royalists; and when the First
+Consul, eager to entrap the still formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten
+the blame on them, Fouche firmly declared that he would not only assert
+but would prove that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his
+efforts, however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was
+resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters
+(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the spring of
+1802) Fouche was thought to have secured the Jacobins concerned from the
+vengeance of the First Consul. In any case the latter resolved to rid
+himself of a man who had too much power and too much skill in intrigue
+to be desirable as a subordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as
+First Consul for life (August 1, 1802) Fouche was deprived of his
+office; but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of
+police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended
+ministry of justice. Fouche also became a senator and received half of
+the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure
+of office. He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, whose
+information was so superior to that of the new minister of police as to
+render great services to Napoleon at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru
+conspiracy (February-March 1804).
+
+As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouche to the
+re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also later on
+entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no less important
+than at the time of the Consulate. His police agents were ubiquitous,
+and the terror which Napoleon and Fouche inspired, owing to their proven
+ability to benefit by plots, partly accounts for the absence of
+conspiracies after 1804. After Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouche uttered
+the _mot_ of the occasion: "Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old
+aristocracy; the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires."
+
+That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of fear, of
+Fouche was proved by his conduct in the early days of 1808. While
+engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouche
+and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, were having interviews at Paris in
+which Murat, king of Naples, was concerned. At once the sensitive
+autocrat hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In
+that year Fouche received the title of duke of Otranto. During the
+absence of Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British
+Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of Antwerp.
+Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of the northern
+departments of the empire for the mobilization of 60,000 National
+Guards. He added to the order a statement in which occurred the words:
+"Let us prove to Europe that although the genius of Napoleon can throw
+lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse
+the enemy." The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked
+than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months brought
+further causes of friction between emperor and minister. The latter,
+knowing the desire of his master for peace at the close of the year
+1809, undertook on his own account to make secret overtures to the
+British ministry. A little later Napoleon opened negotiations and found
+that Fouche had forestalled him. His rage against his minister was
+extreme, and on the 3rd of June 1810 he dismissed him from his office.
+However, as it was not the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man
+who might again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of Rome. He
+went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving the
+emperor's order to give up certain important documents of his former
+ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that the rest were
+destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst forth again, and Fouche on
+learning, after his arrival at Florence, that the storm was still raging
+at Paris, prepared to sail to the United States. Compelled, however, by
+stress of weather and sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in
+Elisa Bonaparte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed
+to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point Carre. In
+1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of
+Russia; and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smorgoni to Paris
+at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of
+complicity in the conspiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely
+near to success. From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the
+emperor useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic
+situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the
+arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian
+provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system in Germany in
+October 1813 Fouche was ordered to repair to Rome and thence to Naples,
+in order to watch the movements of Murat. Before Fouche arrived at
+Naples Murat threw off the mask and invaded the Roman territory,
+whereupon Fouche received orders to return to France. He arrived at
+Paris on the 10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being
+constrained by his marshals to abdicate.
+
+The conduct of Fouche at this crisis was characteristic. As senator he
+advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte d'Artois, brother
+of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy
+and the nation. A little later he addressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a
+letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw
+to the United States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an
+appeal in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures
+which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but Fouche
+remained unmolested.
+
+This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that there were no
+hopes of advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who
+sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. Lafayette and Davout were
+concerned in the affair, but their refusal to take the course desired by
+Fouche and other bold spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon
+escaped from Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before
+his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to Fouche an
+offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, saying, "It is too
+late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat." He then foiled an attempt
+of the royalists to arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he
+received for the third time the portfolio of police. That, however, did
+not prevent him from entering into secret relations with Metternich at
+Vienna, his aim being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities.
+Meanwhile he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his
+rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words "The
+sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of power" in the
+declaration of the council of state. But the autocratic tendencies of
+Napoleon could scarcely be held in check, and Fouche seeing the fall of
+the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his
+own interests. On the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second
+time, and Fouche was next day elected president of the commission which
+provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with Louis
+XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the overtures of his
+agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for the recognition of Napoleon
+II., he facilitated the success of the Bourbon cause, and thus procured
+for himself a place in the ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill,
+however, was unequal to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists
+who remembered his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He
+resigned office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at
+Dresden, he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he
+died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great wealth.
+
+Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least
+conscientious, Fouche's character deteriorated in and after the year
+1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition represented all
+that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution
+and Empire. In Fouche the enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a
+cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the
+period 1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest
+instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking to the
+level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain
+aloofness. He multiplied the means of resistance even to that
+irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never
+wholly disgraced. Despised by all for his tergiversations, he
+nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness. He repaid
+the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a
+mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected
+no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared
+to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors,
+present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party. In this
+versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica.
+Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of
+serving France. Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy;
+Fouche may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and reports, the
+  chief of which are _Reflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet_ (1793);
+  _Reflexions sur l'education publique_ (1793); _Rapport et projet de
+  loi relatif aux colleges_ (1793); _Rapport sur la situation de
+  Commune-Affranchie_ [_Lyons_] (1794); _Lettre aux prefets concernant
+  les pretres_, &c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a
+  _Lettre au duc de Wellington_ (1817). The best life of Fouche is that
+  by L. Madelin, _Fouche_ (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called _Fouche
+  Memoirs_ are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least
+  in part, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable, though
+  their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is not
+  seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle, _Napoleon
+  et l'Angleterre_ (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904). For the
+  plots with which Fouche had to deal see E. Daudet, _La Police et les
+  Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1895); P.M.C. Desmarest,
+  _Temoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police_ (Paris, 1833,
+  2nd ed., 1900); E. Picard, _Bonaparte et Moreau_ (Paris, 1905); G.A.
+  Thierry, _Conspirateurs et gens de police_; _le complot de libelles_
+  (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H. Welschinger, _Le Duc
+  d'Enghien_ (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, _Les Complots militaires sous le
+  Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1894).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was born at Dijon on the
+1st of March 1644. He was the son of a merchant, and appears to have
+taken orders at a very early age. For some years he held the position of
+honorary canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up his
+residence in Paris. He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the
+remainder of his life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the
+27th of April 1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a
+keen opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was one of
+scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived the old
+arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with much ingenuity against
+Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise his scepticism is subordinate to
+orthodox belief, the fundamental dogmas of the church seeming to him
+intuitively evident. His object was to reconcile his religious with his
+philosophical creed, and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an
+academician. His writings against Malebranche were collected under the
+title _Dissertations sur la recherche de la verite_, 1693.
+
+  See F. Rabbe, _L'Abbe Simon Foucher_ (1867); C. Jourdain in
+  _Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_ (1875), pp. 557-559.
+
+
+
+
+FOUCQUET, JEAN, or JEHAN (c. 1415-1485), French painter, born at Tours,
+is the most representative and national French painter of the 15th
+century. Of his life little is known, but it is certain that he was in
+Italy about 1437, where he executed the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV.,
+and that upon his return to France, whilst retaining his purely French
+sentiment, he grafted the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had
+acquired during his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks,
+which was the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became
+the founder of an important new school. He was court painter to Louis
+XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator and miniaturist, of
+exquisite precision in the rendering of the finest detail, and his power
+of clear characterization in work on this minute scale, have long since
+procured him an eminent position in the art of his country, his
+importance as a painter was only realized when his portraits and
+altarpieces were for the first time brought together from various parts
+of Europe in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at
+the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet's most important
+paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame de Melun, of which one
+wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum
+and the other in the Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of
+Charles VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a
+portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from his brush
+is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous are his
+illuminated books and miniatures that have come down to us. The
+Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains forty miniatures from
+a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed
+by Foucquet on the Berlin wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's
+hand again are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a
+translation of Josephus at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The second volume
+of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen
+miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry Yates Thompson
+at a London sale, and restored by him to France.
+
+  See _Oeuvres de Jehan Foucquet_ (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867); A. de
+  Champeaux and P. Gauchery, _Oeuvres d'art executees pour le duc de
+  Berry_; "Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet" from vols. i.
+  and ii. of the _Anciennetes des Juifs_ (London, 1902); Charles Blanc,
+  _Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles_ (introduction); and
+  Georges Lafenestre, _Jehan Fouquet_ (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+FOUGERES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m. N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 21,847. Fougeres is built on the summit and slopes of a hill on
+the left bank of the Nancon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was
+formerly one of the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy,
+and it still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,
+notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St Sulpice. The
+castle, which is situated in the lower part of the town, directly
+overlooking the Nancon, is now a picturesque ruin, but gives abundant
+evidence in its towers and outworks of its former strength and
+magnificence. The finest of the towers was erected in 1242 by Hugues of
+Lusignan, and named after Melusine, the mythical foundress of the
+family. The churches of St Leonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in
+part, from the 15th century. An hotel de ville and a belfry, both of the
+15th century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses many
+curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de Lari Coisiere (d.
+1812), born in the town. Fougeres is the seat of a subprefect, and has a
+tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce and a communal
+college. It is the chief industrial town of its department, being a
+centre for the manufacture of boots and shoes; tanning and
+leather-dressing and the manufacture of sail-cloth and other fabrics
+are also important industries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the
+granite of the neighbouring quarries. Fougeres frequently figures in
+Breton history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the
+English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne, the captor
+on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the towers of the
+castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of Charles VIII. under la
+Tremoille. In the middle ages Fougeres was a lordship of some
+importance, which in the 13th century passed into the possession of the
+family of Lusignan, and in 1307 was confiscated by the crown and
+afterwards changed hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the
+Vendee, it was occupied by the insurgents.
+
+
+
+
+FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE (1838-   ), French philosopher, was born at
+La Poueze on the 18th of October 1838. He held several minor
+philosophical lectureships, and from 1864 was professor of philosophy at
+the lycees of Douai, Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and
+1868 he was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work on
+Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences at the
+Ecole Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his
+two treatises, _Platonis Hippias Minor sive Socratica contra liberum
+arbitrium argumenta_ and _La Liberte et le determinisme_. The strain of
+the next three years' continuous work undermined his health and his
+eyesight, and he was compelled to retire from his professorship. During
+these years he had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history
+of philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed his
+philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through which he
+endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with the naturalistic and
+mechanical standpoint of science. In _L'Evolutionnisme des idees-forces_
+(1890), _La Psychologie des idees-forces_ (1893), and _La Morale des
+idees-forces_ (1907), is elaborated his doctrine of _idees-forces_, or
+of mind as efficient cause through the tendency of ideas to realize
+themselves in appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological
+developments of this theory succeed its physical and psychological
+treatment, the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially
+important. Fouillee's wife, who by a previous marriage was the mother of
+the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888), is well known,
+under the pseudonym of "G. Bruno," as the author of educational books
+for children.
+
+  His other chief works are: _L'Idee moderne du droit en Allemagne, en
+  Angleterre et en France_ (Paris, 1878); _La Science sociale
+  contemporaine_ (1880); _La Propriete sociale et la democratie_ (1884);
+  _Critique des systemes de morale contemporains_ (1883); _La Morale,
+  l'art et la religion d'apres Guyau_ (1889); _L'Avenir de la
+  metaphysique fondee sur l'experience_ (1889); _L'Enseignement au point
+  de vue national_ (1891); _Descartes_ (1893); _Temperament et
+  caractere_ (2nd ed., 1895); _Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception
+  sociologique du monde_ (1896); _Le Mouvement idealiste et la reaction
+  contre la science positive_ (1896); _La Psychologie du peuple
+  francais_ (2nd ed., 1898); _La France au point de vue moral_ (1900);
+  _L'Esquisse psychologique des peuples europeens_ (1903); _Nietzsche et
+  l' "immoralisme"_ (1903); _Le Moralisme de Kant_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician, was born at
+Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of a rich Jewish banker, he
+was associated with and afterwards succeeded his father in the
+management of the business. As early as 1842 he entered political life,
+having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the
+Hautes Pyrenees. From that time to his death he actively busied himself
+with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution
+of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence in
+financial matters on the provisional government then formed. He shortly
+afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of paper money,
+entitled, _Pas d'Assignats!_ and _Observations sur la question
+financiere_. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times
+minister of finance, and took a leading part in the economical reforms
+then made in France. His strong conservative tendencies led him to
+oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the _coup
+d'etat_ and the new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence
+of the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, he
+resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the same day
+appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government as minister of
+state and of the imperial household. In this capacity he directed the
+Paris exhibition of 1855. The events of November 1860 led once more to
+his resignation, but he was recalled to the ministry of finance in
+November of the following year, and retained office until the
+publication of the imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when
+Emile Ollivier became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last
+tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican war
+had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 millions
+of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a
+taste for the fine arts, which he developed and refined during his youth
+by visiting Italy and the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857
+he was made a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes
+on the 5th of October 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776), Scottish printers and
+publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow maltman. Robert was apprenticed
+to a barber; but his ability attracted the attention of Dr Francis
+Hutcheson, who strongly recommended him to establish a printing press.
+After spending 1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his
+brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had received a
+better education, he started business in 1741 in Glasgow, and in 1743
+was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought
+out _Demetrius Phalereus de elocutione_, in Greek and Latin, the first
+Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the
+famous 12mo edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to
+be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in the
+university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six
+errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon
+afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for
+about thirty years to issue carefully corrected and beautifully printed
+editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French and
+Italian. They printed more than five hundred separate publications,
+among them the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos,
+Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful
+edition of the Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol.,
+1756-1758); Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon,
+Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems; Pope's Works;
+Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman's designs were executed, is
+perhaps the most famous production of the Foulis press. The brothers
+spared no pains, and Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the
+classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.
+Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for
+the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief
+patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to "print for posterity
+and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of
+sculpture and models, in paying for the education and travelling of
+youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their
+countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the "Academy" not only
+proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died on the
+18th of September 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to
+realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much
+less than he anticipated, and Robert returned broken-hearted to
+Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was
+the author of a _Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks_. The
+business was afterwards carried on under the same name by Robert's son
+Andrew.
+
+  See W.J. Duncan, _Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary
+  History of Glasgow_, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which
+  _inter alia_ contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis
+  press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of
+  Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow.
+
+
+
+
+FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1717-1789), French administrator, was born at
+Saumur. During the Seven Years' War he was intendant-general of the
+armies, and intendant of the army and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle.
+In 1771 he was appointed intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker
+was dismissed, Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household,
+and was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But he was
+unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested him on account of
+his severity, the Parisians on account of his wealth accumulated in
+utter indifference to the sufferings of the poor; he was reported,
+probably quite without foundation, to have said, "If the people cannot
+get bread, let them eat hay." After the taking of the Bastille on the
+14th of July, he withdrew to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread
+the news of his death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried
+off with a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hotel de ville, and, in
+spite of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace
+and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.
+
+  See Eugene Bonnemere, _Histoire des paysans_ (4th ed., 1887), tome
+  iii.; C.L. Chassin, _Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_.
+  (Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATION (Lat. _fundatio_, from _fundare_, to found), the act of
+building, constituting or instituting on a permanent basis; especially
+the establishing of any institution by endowing or providing it with
+funds for its continual maintenance. The word is thus applied also to
+the institutions so established, such as a college, monastery or
+hospital; and the terms "on the foundation," or "foundationer," are used
+of members of such a college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars,
+&c., the benefits of the endowment. Formerly "foundation" also meant the
+charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and it is
+still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such institutions.
+
+The terms "old foundation" and "new foundation" used in connexion with
+the organizing of English cathedral chapters have no reference to the
+age of the cathedrals. At the time of the Reformation under Henry VIII.
+the old college chapters were left unchanged, and are referred to as the
+"old foundations," but the monastic chapters were all suppressed,
+consequently new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and
+these constitute the "new foundations."
+
+"Foundation" also means the base (natural or artificial) on which any
+erection is built up; generally made below the level of the ground (see
+FOUNDATIONS below). A foundation-stone is one of the stones at the base
+of a building, generally a corner-stone, frequently laid with a public
+ceremony to celebrate the commencement of the building. The term is also
+applied to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making,
+the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material used for
+stiffening purposes, as "foundation muslin or net." In knitting or
+crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest are worked are called
+the "foundation chain." In gem-cutting the "foundation-square" is the
+first of eight squares round the edges of a brilliant made in bevel
+planes and from which the angles are all removed to form three-corner
+facets.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations is to distribute the
+weight of a structure equally over the ground. In the construction of a
+building the weights are concentrated at given points on piers, columns,
+&c., and these foundations require to be spread so as to reduce the
+weight to an average. In the preparation of a foundation care must be
+taken to prevent the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed
+upon sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any
+damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with in ordinary
+practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand, vary as to their
+capabilities of bearing weight. There is no provision in any English
+building acts as to the load that may be placed on any of these soils,
+but under the New York Building Code it is provided that, where no test
+of the sustaining power of the soil is made, different soils, excluding
+mud, at the bottom of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the
+following loads to the superficial foot:
+
+                                                      per sq. ft.
+  Soft clay                                             1 ton.
+  Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers,
+    wet and springy                                     2 tons.
+  Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry                 3 tons.
+  Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay      4 tons.
+
+
+  Load on foundation.
+
+A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation by the
+walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided for by the London
+Building Act of 1894, and a comparison of a few of the principal
+authorities, will be found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision
+as to what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a wall of the
+warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base for a height of
+27 ft. is 2-1/2 bricks thick (or 22-1/2 in.), and for the same distance
+in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the remainder to the top
+being 1-1/2 bricks thick (or 14 in.). The weight of brickwork per foot
+run of such a wall is 4.05 tons on any area of 3.75 ft. super. of
+brickwork. According to the act the concrete is to project 4 in. on each
+side; we have then an additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus
+making the total foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft.
+super. to take a weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super.
+(viz. .9 ton.)
+
+Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration, viz. the
+weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the roof. In this case
+there would be at least six floors, and the entire weight could hardly
+be taken at less than 6 tons, which would give a total weight of 10.05
+tons on an area of 4.41 ft. super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot
+super. This is on the assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on
+the foundations by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case,
+in addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations should
+be increased in area. Piers always involve a great increase of weight on
+the foundations, and in very many instances this increased weight,
+instead of being provided for by increasing the area of the foundations
+and so reducing the weight per foot super., is only partly met by the
+improper method of merely increasing the depth of the concrete, while
+keeping the same projection of concrete round the footings as for the
+walls. As an example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80
+tons, standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by a
+brick pier 22-1/2 in. square. In this case we should have, after allowing
+for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of 4 ft. 5 in.
+square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure of 4.1 tons
+per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much as in the previous
+example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead of increasing the depth of
+the concrete, it would be necessary to increase its width; if it were
+made 6 ft. square, we should have an area of 36 ft. super. to take the
+80 tons, and thus the pressure would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the
+cost of the foundation be much the same.
+
+If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class, as
+prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a wall 50
+ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22-1/2 in. as for the
+warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall weighing 3.75
+tons per foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super., or .85 ton per foot
+without weight of floors and roof as against the .9 ton in the warehouse
+example. To this must be added the weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at
+a total of 3 tons per foot run of wall, and we then have an aggregate of
+6.75 tons per foot run and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28
+tons in the warehouse class.
+
+If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel Seddon in the
+_Aide Memoir_ gives the load which ordinary foundations will bear as a
+safe load per foot super. as follows:
+
+                                                         tons.
+  Rock, moderately hard                                   9
+  Rock of strength of good concrete                       3
+  Rock, very soft                                       1.8
+  Firm earth                                             1 to 1-1/2
+  Hard clay                                              1 to 1-1/2
+  Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from
+    spreading sideways                                   1 to 1-1/2
+
+Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the latter heads,
+and according to this table we have, when we erect walls in accordance
+with the building act, to overload our foundations.
+
+As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an example the
+chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham, 312 ft. high, so arranged
+that its pressure on the foundations is only 1-1/2 tons per foot super.;
+also the great St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, which has a pressure of
+1-3/4 tons; the weight of the Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over
+4 bases, each 130 ft. square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or
+2-1/3 cwt., per foot super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per
+foot on the granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by
+spreading to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The
+piers under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2-1/4 tons only, those of
+the Imperial Institute 2-1/4 tons, and those of the destructor cells and
+chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6-3/4 cwt. per foot super. From
+these various examples it would appear that on sound clay or gravel
+foundation a load of from 2-1/4 to 4 tons may be employed with safety.
+
+
+    Trial borings.
+
+One of the first and most important requirements in preparing drawings
+for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil and
+strata at different levels over the proposed site, so as to be able to
+arrange the footings accordingly at the various depths and to decide as
+to the various forms and methods to be employed. For this purpose trial
+holes or borings are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon
+which the concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom
+is found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations must
+be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile foundations,
+&c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples of the
+varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will be noticed
+the great depths dug before getting through the made ground: At the Bank
+of England there were 22 ft. of made ground resting on 4 ft. of gravel.
+Some of the made ground was of ancient date, and preserved relics of
+Roman occupation. In some parts the subsoils have been excavated for
+ballast or gravel, as at Kensington, or for brick earth, as at Highbury,
+and the pits filled in with rubbish. Rock, which forms an excellent and
+unchanging foundation in one situation, may prove a dangerous foundation
+in another. Thus chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain
+positions, but when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop
+of the gault or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for
+any building, as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the
+Dorsetshire coast bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the
+Thames embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in.
+greensand, wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5)
+5-1/2 ft. peaty bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean
+ballast, resting at a depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue
+clay. A boring at Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18
+ft. loam, (3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand.
+These examples show that while trial holes should always be made before
+designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care
+must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block 2 of
+the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial holes
+upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay to be
+about 29-1/2 ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual
+excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution
+of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west
+corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground.
+The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are placed in
+a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid
+concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland Avenue
+(London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38-1/2 ft. made
+ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3) 6 ft.
+rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue clay.
+At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north end 37 ft.
+The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft. wide. The site
+was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about 6 ft. wide, forming a
+species of boxes, and the whole was covered with a depth of 6 ft. of
+concrete upon which the walls were raised. The foundation for 53
+Parliament Street, where running sand was encountered, was constructed
+with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and 6 in. diam., pointed and placed as
+close together as possible over the whole foundation, the tops were then
+sawn off level, and a concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over
+the whole area. At the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George
+Street, Westminster, the foundations to the two party walls upon each
+side of the building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement
+level, that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side
+24 ft.
+
+
+    Construction.
+
+  The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the erection of
+  buildings on sites that have been used as "shoots" for faecal matter
+  or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the objectionable material must
+  be removed prior to the commencement of building operations, and the
+  holes from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other
+  rubbish well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or
+  navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level
+  pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow,
+  rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and
+  excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have
+  to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides of
+  the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts; this work
+  is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms of planking
+  and strutting for the different soils.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is used
+  for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket with a
+  cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the excavation,
+  and on being withdrawn cuts off a portion of soil which is hoisted and
+  deposited in carts for removal to any desired position within the
+  radius commanded by the crane. The work of trimming the excavation to
+  a regular shape must always be done by manual labour.
+
+  Concrete for filling into the foundations is usually mixed by navvies;
+  for large works it is sometimes mixed by machinery.
+
+  In order that the work of excavating and constructing the foundations
+  may proceed in a water-logged site, pumps have to be employed, and
+  where the inrush of water is great it is usual to sink a sump hole
+  lower than the depth required for the foundations, and to use a steam
+  pump kept going day and night.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance
+  with the London Building and Amendment Acts: "The projection of the
+  bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall shall be
+  at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base,
+  unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may
+  be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the footings
+  of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the height from
+  the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least
+  equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its base." (See
+  BRICKWORK.) The base of a wall is the thickness above the footing; the
+  footing is the brickwork built directly on the top of the concrete and
+  diminishing in width in every course. Thus: "The projection of the
+  bottom footing to be equal to one-half the thickness of wall on both
+  sides" means that a 13-1/2-in. wall would require to have three courses
+  of footings, the bottom one being 27 in. wide. "The height from the
+  bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least equal
+  to two-thirds the thickness of wall at its base" means that in the
+  case of a 13-1/2-in. wall the height of footings would have to be 9 in.,
+  or three courses of brickwork, each measuring 3 in.
+
+  The New York Building Code enters more fully into the requirements for
+  the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use in London.
+  Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except buildings
+  erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the water front,
+  shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete laid not less
+  then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid ground or
+  level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers when solid
+  earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a wall, pier or
+  post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than 20 in. on
+  centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable, and
+  their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure
+  proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than 5 in. at the
+  small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles 20 ft. or
+  less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding 40,000
+  lb. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining power
+  shall be determined by the following formula: twice the weight of the
+  hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall in feet divided by
+  the least penetration of pile under the last blow in inches plus one.
+  There are also further requirements as to piles, &c., and the
+  commissioner of buildings must be notified when the piles are to be
+  driven.
+
+  The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that foundation
+  walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers built below
+  the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to serve as
+  supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or beams.
+  Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland cement
+  concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland cement
+  concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall above
+  them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every
+  additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4
+  in. in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in.
+  thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the
+  curb level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper,
+  they shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course
+  shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up
+  brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight
+  to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete,
+  the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the
+  stones shall not be less than 2 X 3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness
+  for walls, and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers,
+  columns or posts. The footing or base course, whether formed of
+  concrete or stone, shall be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom
+  width of walls, and at least 12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom
+  width of said piers, columns or posts. If the superimposed load is
+  such as to cause undue transverse strain on a footing projecting 12
+  in., the thickness of such footing is to be increased so as to carry
+  the load with safety. For small structures and for small piers
+  sustaining light loads the commissioner of buildings having
+  jurisdiction may, in his discretion, allow a reduction in the
+  thickness and projection specified for footing or base courses. All
+  base stones shall be bedded and laid crosswise, edge to edge. If
+  stepped-up footing of brick is used in place of stone above the
+  concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall each not exceed
+  1-1/2 in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall not exceed 3
+  in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half the
+  thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the load
+  to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that the
+  American acts are far more extensive than in London. The London
+  Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest upon the
+  solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure. The
+  building act amendment says: "The foundations of the walls of every
+  house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete not less
+  than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side of the
+  lowest course of footings."
+
+  _Various Types of Foundations._--The most natural foundations for
+  walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly upon
+  the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard or
+  consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply
+  levelled and the building commenced.
+
+  The next and most universally recognized method, which might safely be
+  said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the system of
+  placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches where the
+  walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and in these laying
+  the concrete. The London Building Act requires this concrete bed to be
+  at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of footings on each side
+  of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider on each side and in
+  general circumstances the depth of the concrete is varied according to
+  the weight placed upon it.
+
+  Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course,
+  &c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies low,
+  naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is soft. It
+  is here that special foundations are required.
+
+
+    Concrete piers, legs, or stilts.
+
+  In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These
+  are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building,
+  and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may require
+  according to the nature of the ground; and on the tops of these stilts
+  concrete arches or lintels are turned over (fig. 3). As an example of
+  the stilt principle, mention may be made of some premises at Stratford
+  and a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers were
+  sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4-1/2 ft. square, in pot holes dug
+  out of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the
+  intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of 18 in. or
+  the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in which
+  steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment,
+  London, the foundations were formed with cement concrete stilts or
+  piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London clay; from the tops
+  of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning the spaces between
+  the piers, and upon these arches the walls were built.
+
+
+    Pile foundations.
+
+  Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works,
+  consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6
+  in. to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom
+  ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to be
+  easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have an
+  iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in the
+  band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of driving
+  these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary
+  structure, upon one side of which is a guide path faced with
+  sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up and down this guide path a
+  heavy iron weight, called a monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted
+  to the top of the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or
+  steam, and when released descends with a good force, and so drives the
+  piles into the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10
+  cwt. and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or
+  under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In
+  the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles,
+  each with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of
+  52-1/2 ft. and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a
+  period of two weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile
+  was adopted as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads
+  used in practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles
+  50 ft. in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y.,
+  piles 20 ft. in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2
+  tons; Schiller building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case
+  the building settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of
+  all piles should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped
+  with concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks
+  of granite.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+
+    Concrete piles.
+
+  Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement concrete
+  blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land, &c. In
+  some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and the centres are
+  filled with blocks of concrete and grouted in. The Yarmouth destructor
+  cells and chimney shaft were built in this way; the cylinders were
+  constructed of 9 in. brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4
+  ft. being encased in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the
+  gravel and sand at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of
+  a grab, the bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a
+  diver. Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement
+  concrete having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron
+  shoes and head for driving (fig. 6).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist
+  of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the
+  lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary from 9
+  in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of the
+  projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the shaft.
+  For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 ft. will
+  be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. The
+  lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being bevelled
+  and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting into and
+  penetrating the soil.
+
+  Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists in
+  driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, also
+  driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., which
+  form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In this way
+  the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing the building
+  to settle unevenly.
+
+
+    Plank foundations.
+
+  Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9),
+  consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the trench
+  and spiked together; on the top of these are laid similar planks but
+  at right angles to the last, and upon the platform thus formed the
+  wall is built. This method is used in soft ground.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+
+    Caissons.
+
+  Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction of the
+  foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in foundations
+  for buildings are to be found in the American Surety and the Manhattan
+  Life Insurance buildings, New York City. The latter building is 242
+  ft. high to the parapet, and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher.
+  The building is carried on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft.
+  below the street level to solid rock, and these piers support the 34
+  cast iron columns upon which the building is erected. The piers to
+  each building were constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see
+  CAISSON).
+
+
+    Well foundations.
+
+  A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy is to
+  build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully
+  practised in Madras. The wells are made circular, about 3 ft. in
+  diameter and one brick thick. The first course is laid and cemented
+  together on the surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is
+  excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another
+  is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. The
+  brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according to
+  building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with
+  rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon
+  foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under the
+  city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+
+    Coffer dams.
+
+  Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water whilst
+  putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed with two
+  rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced about 6 ft. apart, and
+  filled in between with a double row of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the
+  space between the rows being packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The
+  general rule for the thickness of a coffer dam is to make it equal to
+  the depth of water. An interesting example of a coffer dam is that at
+  the Keyham dock extension, where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to
+  85 ft. They were driven in a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000
+  were used.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+    Dock foundations.
+
+  Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large concrete
+  tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty arises as to
+  the ingress of water. They are considered the best method of
+  constructing a building on soft ground and of keeping a building dry
+  (fig. 11). This type of foundation was used at the new colonial
+  office, Whitehall, London, and the new admiralty buildings at St
+  James's Park, London. A few buildings treated after the style of a
+  dock, but in some instances without the enclosing walls, are the
+  following: At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete
+  retaining wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and
+  is joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered
+  with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside
+  clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new "Old
+  Bailey" buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed on a
+  concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy Auxiliary
+  Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet's Wharf, near Southwark Bridge, a
+  concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the site, with an
+  extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed similarly to dock
+  foundations, but in addition having steel joists and rods inserted in
+  the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole together, are
+  known as _gridiron_ foundations.
+
+  In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed with
+  small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed for
+  floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended
+  foundation on soft ground.
+
+
+    Cantilever foundations.
+
+  Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is not
+  sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of building
+  pier foundations at some distance from the proposed new wall. On the
+  top of these piers rest steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon
+  cast iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one end to a
+  column, while the other ends go through the full thickness of the new
+  wall. Upon these last ends is placed a steel girder upon which the
+  wall is built. This construction (fig. 12) has been used in America,
+  and in the Ritz Hotel, Piccadilly, London.
+
+  Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in the case of
+  some premises at Carr's Lane, Birmingham, partly built over the Great
+  Western railway tunnel (fig. 13). In this instance large piers were
+  built below the ground at the side of the tunnel. From the tops of
+  these piers large steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the
+  crown of the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the
+  building constructed upon them.
+
+
+    Foundations in Tunis.
+
+  In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy ground,
+  the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited by the sewage water
+  from the ancient or Arab quarter of the city, which is situated on an
+  adjacent hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about 33 ft. To
+  prepare the soil for supporting an ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to
+  10 ft. square are excavated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level
+  of the ground water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and
+  powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt stone from the
+  lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust when exposed to the air.
+  The mixture is thrown into pits in layers about 12 in. thick and
+  rammed down for a very long time by specially trained labourers. A
+  gang of 15 or 20 men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the
+  foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard bed is thus
+  obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface of the ground, and
+  on this artificial bed the foundations of the building are laid.
+  Although this method of construction is crude, it is stated that the
+  practical results are superior to those obtained by using piles,
+  concrete or other recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is
+  much less, for labour is cheap.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+    Building on sand.
+
+  A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a signal station
+  at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on top of the highest
+  sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so that the observer may have an
+  unobstructed view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the sea
+  and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is absolutely
+  required that it shall stand firmly planted in such a way that even a
+  hurricane shall not shake it or make it tremble, since that would
+  affect the sight of the telescope in the observatory. The usual mode
+  of securing such a building is by means of a foundation of screw piles
+  or of heavy timbers sunk into the sand; this method, however, has the
+  disadvantage that if the wind shifts the sand away from around the
+  foundation, it becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To
+  avoid such an accident, recourse was had to the following design,
+  which was considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an
+  effective anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a
+  cellar, above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole
+  is surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a
+  square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and
+  pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made
+  likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined
+  together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are
+  mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet
+  above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first
+  room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper room.
+  Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts. The
+  structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside with
+  rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and grooved
+  yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal in shape, is
+  securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a corrugated iron
+  roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with 3 in. wood, and
+  boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit was first dug in
+  the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on the bottom. The
+  cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure built upon it;
+  thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top of the hill or
+  the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up with sand and
+  packed solid all round, consequently the building is anchored in its
+  place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in weight.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.]
+
+  The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,
+  is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much
+  importance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact
+  and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site
+  answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best
+  form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if
+  that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, on
+  a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of
+  solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of
+  the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before
+  his work can even be started on its way to completion.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The principal books for reference on this subject are:
+  _A Practical Treatise on Foundations_, by W.M. Patron, C. E.;
+  _Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i., by F.E. Kidder;
+  _Notes on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. and iii.; _Aide
+  Memoir_, vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; _Advanced Building
+  Construction_, by C.F. Mitchell; _Modern House Construction_, by G.L.
+  Sutcliffe; _Building Construction_, by Professor Henry Adams;
+  _Practical Building Construction_, by J.P. Allen.     (J. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDING (from Lat. _fundere_, to pour), the process of casting in
+metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running molten
+metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from that object. To
+enable the founder to prepare a mould for the casting, he must receive a
+pattern similar to the casting required. Some few exceptions occur, to
+be noted presently, but the above statement is true of perhaps 98% of
+all castings produced. The construction of such patterns gives
+employment to a large number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire
+the necessary knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to
+seven years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the work
+of pattern construction--that of the craft itself and that of the
+moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed strongly. They are
+generally of wood, and they thus require skill in the use of woodworking
+tools and the making of timber joints, together with a knowledge of the
+behaviour of timber, &c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or
+white metal alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the
+founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without
+inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since cast
+work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including
+projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the
+withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and fracture of
+the sand must involve many difficult problems that have to be as fully
+understood by the pattern-maker as by the moulder. It is from this point
+of view that the work of the pattern-maker should be approached in the
+first place. No closed mould can possibly be made without one or more
+joints, for if a pattern is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it
+cannot be withdrawn except by making a parting in the sand, and it is
+not difficult to conceive that the parting in the pattern might
+advantageously be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately,
+with that of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal
+of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the lower
+than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle smaller or
+"tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions into the lower sand,
+unless these can be made to withdraw separately from the main portion of
+the pattern. Finally, there are many internal spaces which cannot be
+formed by a pattern directly in the sand, but provision for which must
+be made by some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  A single example must illustrate the main principles which have just
+  been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves questions
+  of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding. The
+  casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1
+  illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation
+  of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious
+  difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it were
+  made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with the
+  open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the pieces
+  A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will "deliver"
+  freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as shown in fig. 3,
+  or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as in fig. 4, or along
+  the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The timber shadings in
+  figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable arrangement of
+  material. The prints are "boxed up." Fig. 4 shows a certain stage of
+  the moulding, in which one half of the pattern has been "rammed" in
+  sand, and turned over in the "bottom box," and the upper half is ready
+  to be rammed in the "top box," with "runner pin" or "git stick" A, set
+  in place. The lower loose piece has had its skewer removed during the
+  ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates the mould completed and ready for pouring.
+  The boxes have been parted, the pattern has been withdrawn, cores
+  inserted in the impressions left by the prints, vents taken from the
+  central body of cinders, the pouring basin made and the boxes cottered
+  together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  Every single detail now briefly noted in connexion with this bracket
+  is applied and modified in an almost infinite number of ways to suit
+  the ever varying character of foundry work. Yet this process does not
+  touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting. There is
+  a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete patterns and
+  core boxes are never made, because of the great expense that would be
+  involved in the pattern construction. There are also some cases in
+  which the methods adopted would not permit of the use of patterns, as
+  in that group of work in which the sand or loam is "swept" to the form
+  required for the moulds and cores by means of striking boards, loam
+  boards, core boards or strickles. In these classes of moulding the
+  loose green sands and core sands are not much used; instead, loam--a
+  wet and plastic sand mixture--is employed, supported against bricks
+  (loam moulds) or against core bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam
+  cores). All heavy marine engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping,
+  and all massive cores for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides
+  much large circular and cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders,
+  soap pans, lead pans, mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In
+  these cases the edge of the striking board is a counterpart of the
+  profile of the work swept up. Joints also have to be made in such
+  moulds, not of course in order to provide for the removal of a
+  pattern, but for the exposure of the separate parts in course of
+  construction, and for closing them up, or putting them together in
+  their due relations. These joints also are swept by the boards,
+  generally cut to produce suitable "checks," or "registers" to ensure
+  that they accurately fit together. Fig. 6, showing a portion of a
+  swept-up mould, illustrates the general arrangement. A plate, A,
+  carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are embedded in loam, and break
+  joint. To a striking bar, C, supported in a step, a striking board or
+  sweeping board, D, is bolted, and is swept round against plastic loam,
+  which is afterwards dried. The check on the board at A corresponds
+  with a similar check on the board which strikes the interior of the
+  pan, and by which top and bottom portions of the mould are registered
+  together. This is indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept
+  on bricks, and turned over into place, and the metal is poured into
+  the space b, b, between the two moulds. There is also a large group of
+  swept-up work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation.
+  Then the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges
+  of "core plates," or of "core irons" (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the
+  volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of this
+  kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and B the
+  "strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves pasted
+  together completing the core.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often involving
+  as much detail as the construction and moulding of patterns. Two
+  perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in both of which
+  provision exists for removing the box parts from the core after the
+  latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and tapered, and often
+  have loose pieces within them, and also prints, into the impressions
+  of which other cores are inserted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Machine-moulding._--There is a development of modern methods of
+founding which is effecting radical changes in some departments of
+foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines. The advantages of this
+method are manifold, and its limitations are being lessened
+continually. There are two broad departments between which
+machine-moulding is divided. One, of less importance, is that of toothed
+wheels; the other is that of general work, except of a very massive
+character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special adaptation of the
+mechanism of the dividing engine, by means of which, instead of using a
+complete pattern of a toothed wheel, two or three pattern teeth are
+used, and the machine takes charge of the correct pitching or division
+of the teeth moulded therefrom, leaving to the moulder the work only of
+turning the handle of the division plate, and ramming the sand around
+the pattern teeth. The result is accurate pitching, and the use of two
+or three teeth instead of a full pattern, together with any core boxes
+and striking boards that are necessary for the arms.
+
+The other department of machine moulding includes nearly every
+conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions. There are some
+dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for no one type is suitable
+for all classes of moulds, while some are designed specially for one or
+two kinds only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The pattern
+  parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate or table A
+  (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they must
+  partake of certain movements which are imparted to it. Often patterns
+  mounted, as in fig. 10, are moulded by hand, without any aid from a
+  machine, by methods of "plate-moulding." The delivery of the pattern
+  from the sand is invariably accomplished by a perpendicular movement
+  of a portion of the machine (fig. 11), withdrawing either the pattern
+  from the mould or the mould from the pattern. The important point is
+  that the perpendicular movement, being under the coercion of the
+  vertical guides provided in the hand machines, or the hydraulic ram in
+  fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental to
+  withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine performed
+  nothing more than this it would justify its existence. Little or no
+  taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds are more nearly
+  uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds. But there are other
+  advantages. In machine-moulding the joint faces for parting moulds
+  are produced by the faces of the plates on which the pattern is
+  mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by the hands and trowel of the
+  moulder. When the joint face is of irregular outline, as it often is,
+  this item alone saves a good deal of time, which again is multiplied
+  by the number of moulds repeated, often amounting to thousands.
+  Further, provision is generally made on machine plates for the ingates
+  and runners (fig. 10) through which the metal enters the mould, the
+  preparation of which in hand work occupies a considerable amount of
+  time. Another great advantage applies especially to the case of deep
+  moulds. These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the
+  liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of the
+  pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled by a
+  plate, termed a "stripping plate," which is pierced to allow the
+  patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly on the
+  sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from becoming torn
+  up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but is a necessity in
+  numerous instances. The most familiar example is that of the teeth of
+  gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount of taper interferes
+  with accurate engagement, and this is representative of many other
+  portions of mechanism. These stripping plates are of metal, but in
+  order to save the cost of filing them in iron or steel, many are
+  cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy round the actual pattern
+  itself in the first place, the white metal being enclosed and retained
+  in a plain iron frame which forms the body of the plate. Lastly, many
+  machines, but not the majority, include provision for mechanically
+  ramming the sand around the pattern by power instead of by hand. This
+  is really the least valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it
+  is not applicable to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly
+  used for these, but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand
+  round a pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by
+  careful hand ramming.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when (1)
+  several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a single
+  plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould are produced
+  on different machines, carrying each its moiety of the pattern; (3)
+  when the machine and pattern details are simplified so much that the
+  labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of unskilled
+  attendants who are taught in a month or two the few simple operations
+  required. That is the direction in which repetitive casting is now
+  rapidly tending.
+
+  In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with
+  the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so
+  as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for
+  ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the final
+  squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of the
+  hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D. The
+  plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent of the
+  ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the stage seen
+  in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on the carriage
+  F, provided with wheels to run on rails.
+
+  Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is
+  carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing
+  principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green, i.e.
+  moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being used),
+  and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and machine
+  moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted. The
+  differences in working are those due to the various characteristics of
+  the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the sand
+  mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of the
+  temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the fluxing
+  and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical
+  character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department
+  must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably
+  fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings
+  would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither
+  brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned
+  suitably for iron.
+
+  A special kind of casting is that into "chill moulds," adopted in a
+  considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels in
+  the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and
+  steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill
+  ranges in depth from 1/4 in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a
+  special mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron
+  surface, the parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled
+  being surrounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of
+  chill-casting is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.
+
+  The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account of by
+  the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are made larger
+  than the size of the casting required by the exact amount that the
+  metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold state. This
+  amount varies from 1/8 in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings, to 1/8
+  in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from 3/16 in. to 5/16 in. per
+  foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be
+  borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with or
+  without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a
+  fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings,
+  particularly of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this
+  respect than iron, and iron much less than steel.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the reception of
+"foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned or exposed, and left
+for the public to find and save. The early history of such institutions
+is connected with the practice of infanticide, and in western Europe
+where social disorder was rife and famine of frequent occurrence,
+exposure and extensive sales of children were the necessary
+consequences. Against these evils, which were noticed by several
+councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being
+deposited (_jactati_) in marble shells at the church doors, and tended
+first by the _matricularii_ or male nurses, and then by the _nutricarii_
+or foster-parents.[1] But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that
+definite institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as
+Treves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop
+of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his
+fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de Paul, who in the
+reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the countess of Joigny, Mme le
+Gras and other religious ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from
+the horrors of a primitive institution named La Couche (rue St Landry),
+and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicetre for their
+accommodation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital in
+1670. The Hotel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. No provision,
+however, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the cities were
+overcrowded and administered with laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied
+that the state would yet be seriously embarrassed by this increasing
+evil.[2] From 1452 to 1789 the law had imposed on the _seigneurs de
+haute justice_ the duty of succouring children found deserted on their
+territories. The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a
+state debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were
+given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the "enfants de la
+patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. "Toute recherche de la
+paternite est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoleon, "la
+recherche de la maternite est admise."
+
+  _France._--The laws of France relating to this part of what is called
+  L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction
+  of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of the
+  5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law of the
+  27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles of the
+  law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the system of
+  national poor relief established by the Revolution. The _enfants
+  assistes_ include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings proper, (3)
+  children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated, neglected or
+  morally abandoned children whose parents have been deprived of their
+  parental rights by the decision of a court of justice, (5) children,
+  under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for certain crimes,
+  whose parental rights have been delegated by a tribunal to the state.
+  Children classified under 1-5 are termed _pupilles de l'assistance_,
+  "wards of public charity," and are distinguished by the law of 1904
+  from children under the protection of the state, classified as: (1)
+  _enfants secourus_, i.e. children whose parents or relatives are
+  unable, through poverty, to support them; (2) _enfants en depot_, i.e.
+  children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence and children
+  temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital, and (3)
+  _enfants en garde_, i.e. children who have either committed or been
+  the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state care by
+  judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these children is a
+  departmental (_etablissement depositaire_), and not a communal
+  institution. The etablissement depositaire is usually the ward of an
+  hospice, in which--with the exception of children _en depot_--the stay
+  is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing the principle
+  laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of age under the
+  guardianship of the state, except the mentally or physically infirm,
+  must be boarded out in country districts. They are generally
+  apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural industry, and
+  until majority they remain under the guardianship of the
+  administrative commissioners of the department. The state pays the
+  whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The expenses of
+  administration, the "home" expenses, for the nurse (_nourrice
+  sedentaire_) or the wet nurse (_nourrice au sein_), the _prime de
+  survie_ (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the "outdoor"
+  expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers
+  in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the foster-parents
+  (_nourriciers_) in the country for board, school-money, &c.; (3)
+  clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children; (5) printing,
+  &c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials and apprentice
+  fees--are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by the state
+  two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by the communes.
+  The following figures show the number of children (exclusive of
+  _enfants secourus_) relieved at various periods:
+
+    Year.       Number relieved.
+    1890             95,701
+    1895            121,201
+    1900            138,308
+    1905            149,803
+
+  The _droit de recherche_ is conceded to the parent on payment of a
+  small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all
+  expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed a
+  _tour_ or revolving box (_Drehcylinder_ in Germany) to be kept at each
+  hospital. These have been discontinued. The "Assistance Publique" of
+  Paris is managed by a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the
+  interior, and associated with a representative _conseil de
+  surveillance_. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistes contains about
+  700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities for the
+  adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible here to give
+  even a sketch of the long and able controversies which have occurred
+  in France on the principles of management of foundling hospitals, the
+  advantages of _tours_ and the system of admission _a bureau ouvert_,
+  the transfer of orphans from one department to another, the hygiene
+  and service of hospitals and the inspection of nurses, the education
+  and reclamation of the children and the rights of the state in their
+  future. Reference may be made to the works noticed at the end of this
+  article.
+
+  _Belgium._--In this country the arrangements for the relief of
+  foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very
+  much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described
+  apart from the general questions of local government and poor law
+  administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are
+  purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance
+  from both the departments and the state. A decree of 1811 directed
+  that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in
+  every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in
+  1860. (See _Des Institutions de bienfaisance et de prevoyance en
+  Belgique_, 1850 a 1860, par M.P. Lentz.)
+
+  _Italy_ is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans
+  and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See
+  _Della carita preventiva in Italia_, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one
+  branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola
+  Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time of
+  Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual number
+  of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See _The Charitable
+  Institutions of Rome_, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa
+  degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving
+  450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The
+  splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the
+  support of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carita" acting
+  through 30 parish boards (_deputazione fraternate_).
+
+  _Austria._--In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent
+  place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of
+  April 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment
+  commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were
+  declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported by
+  the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October 1860
+  handed them over to the provincial committees. They are now local
+  institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate
+  from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is gratuitous
+  when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a
+  criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four
+  months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate
+  from the parish priest and "poor-father" (the parish inspector of the
+  poor-law administration) that she has no money. In other cases
+  payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child
+  is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighbourhood of
+  respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or
+  the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a
+  special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly
+  diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14
+  days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child
+  in their service or employment till the age of twenty-two, but the
+  true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the
+  asylum and compensating the foster-parents.
+
+  _Russia._--Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were
+  received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state.
+  But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been
+  in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity (prykaz
+  obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions
+  (Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch at
+  Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought the
+  baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child
+  may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child.
+  After the usual period of six years in the country very great care is
+  taken with the education, especially of the more promising children.
+  The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the public service.
+  Malthus (_The Principles of Population_, vol. i. p. 434) has made a
+  violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they
+  discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best
+  management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An
+  occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price
+  if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most
+  useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It
+  does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is
+  comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of
+  parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the
+  government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in
+  1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gourov.
+  See his _Recherches sur les enfants trouves_, and _Essai sur
+  l'histoire des enfants trouves_ (Paris, 1829).
+
+  In _America_, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private
+  charities, exist in most of the large cities.
+
+  _Great Britain._--The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated by
+  royal charter in 1739 "for the maintenance and education of exposed
+  and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram,
+  who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,[3] states as
+  its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable
+  children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of
+  exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no
+  questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing mark
+  was put on each child by the parent. These were often marked coins,
+  trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of
+  paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully recorded. One entry is,
+  "Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too
+  numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white and black balls
+  was adopted. In 1756 the House of Commons came to a resolution that
+  all children offered should be received, that local receiving places
+  should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be
+  publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the
+  hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two to twelve
+  months, and a flood of children poured in from the country workhouses.
+  In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile
+  trade grew up among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the
+  country to the hospital,--an undertaking which, like the French
+  _meneurs_, they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty.
+  Of these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total
+  expense was about L500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. After
+  throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by
+  fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the
+  conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued.
+  The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a
+  pernicious system of receiving children with considerable sums (e.g.
+  L100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the
+  parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it is now a fundamental
+  rule that no money is received. The committee of inquiry must now be
+  satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the
+  mother, and that the father of the child has deserted it and the
+  mother, and that the reception of the child will probably replace the
+  mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood.
+  All the children at the Foundling hospital are those of unmarried
+  women, and they are all first children of their mothers. The principle
+  is in fact that laid down by Fielding in _Tom Jones_--"Too true I am
+  afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to
+  the last degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip."
+  At present the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of
+  fifteen. The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of
+  admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named after the
+  patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a list. Children
+  are seldom taken after they are twelve months old. On reception they
+  are sent down to the country, where they stay until they are about
+  four or five years old. At sixteen the girls are generally apprenticed
+  as servants for four years, and the boys at the age of fourteen as
+  mechanics for seven years. There is a small benevolent fund for
+  adults. The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind
+  children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel, who
+  frequently had the "Messiah" performed there, and who bequeathed to
+  the hospital a MS. copy (full score) of his greatest oratorio. The
+  altar-piece is West's picture of Christ presenting a little Child. In
+  1774 Dr Burney and Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to
+  form in connexion with the hospital a public music school, in
+  imitation of the Conservatorium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a
+  successful "Juvenile Band" was started. The educational effects of
+  music have been found excellent, and the hospital supplies many
+  musicians to the best army and navy bands. The early connexion between
+  the hospital and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is
+  one of extreme interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling,
+  which were organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the
+  formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of
+  Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to
+  Finchley, and Roubillac's bust of Handel. (See _History and Objects of
+  the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder_, by J. Brownlow.)
+
+  In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No inquiry was
+  made about the parents, and no money received. From 1500 to 2000
+  children were received annually. A large income was derived from a
+  duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In 1822 an admission fee
+  of L5 was charged on the parish from which the child came. This
+  reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. In 1829 the select committee
+  on the Irish miscellaneous estimates recommended that no further
+  assistance should be given. The hospital had not preserved life or
+  educated the foundlings. The mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the
+  total cost L10,000 a year. Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then
+  Irish Secretary) closed the institution.
+
+  Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In 1759
+  John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious and
+  charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the establishment
+  of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and taking care of their
+  children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament in 1822, which
+  sets forth "doubts as to the propriety" of the original purpose, the
+  money was given to trustees to erect a hospital for the maintenance
+  and education of destitute children.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouves_ by
+  MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent
+  medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the
+  foundling hospital); Remacle, _Des hospices d'enfants trouves en
+  Europe_ (Paris, 1838); Hugel _Die Findelhauser und das Findelwesen
+  Europas_ (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, "Das Armenwesen und die
+  Armengesetzgebung," in _Europaischen Staaten_ (Berlin, 1870);
+  Sennichon, _Histoire des enfants abandonnes_ (Paris, 1880); the annual
+  _Rapport sur le service des enfants assistes du departement de la
+  Seine_; Epstein, _Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten_ (Prague,
+  1882); Florence D. Hill, _Children of the State_ (2nd ed., 1889). For
+  United States, see H. Folks, _Care of Neglected and Dependent
+  Children_ (1901); A.G. Warner, _American Charities_ (enlarged, 1908)
+  and _Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Charities_. Information
+  may also be got in the _Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries_,
+  communicated to the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary;
+  _Accounts and Papers_ (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; _Report of Committee
+  on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1890); _Report of Lords Committee
+  on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1896). (See also CHARITY AND
+  CHARITIES.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See _Capitularia regum Francorum_, ii. 474.
+
+  [2] _De l'administration des finances_, iii. 136; see also the
+    article "Enfant expose" in Diderot's _Encyclopedie_, 1755, and
+    Chamousset's _Memoire politique sur les enfants,_ 1757.
+
+  [3] Addison had suggested such a charity (_Guardian_, No. 3).
+
+
+
+
+FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. _fontana_, from _fons_, a spring), a term applied in
+a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether fed by natural
+or artificial means, have contrivances of human art at a point where the
+water emerges. A very early existing example is preserved in the carved
+Babylonian basin (about 3000 B.C.) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash,
+and Layard mentions an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the
+river Gomel, which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock
+and descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally led
+from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which was
+ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is applied equally
+to the simpler arrangements for letting water gush into an ornamental
+basin or to the more elaborate ones by which water is mechanically
+forced into high jets; and a "fountain" may be either the ornamental
+receptacle or the jet of water itself. In modern times the examples of
+ornamental or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to
+mention some of the more important facts of historical interest.
+
+Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities. Springs being
+very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill was required to
+convey the water from place to place. Receptacles of sufficient size
+were made for it at the springs; and to maintain its purity, structures
+were raised enclosing and covering the receptacle. In Greece they were
+dedicated to gods and goddesses, nymphs and heroes, and were frequently
+placed in or near temples. That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by
+Herodotus) was formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells
+from which the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects
+it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when bewailing
+her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was changed into a
+fountain. The city of Corinth possessed many fountains. In one near the
+statues of Diana and Bellerophon the water flowed through the hoofs of
+the horse Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was
+dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown herself into it
+believing that its waters could counteract the poisons of Medea. Another
+Corinthian fountain had a bronze statue of Poseidon standing on a
+dolphin from which the water flowed. The fountain constructed by
+Theagenes at Megara was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for
+the number of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and
+the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool summer
+retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo, and in it a
+fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite architectural detail when
+he says that a fountain at Patrae was reached from without by descending
+steps. Mystical, medicinal, surgical and other qualities, as well as
+supernatural origin, were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia
+was said to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into
+it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the legends of
+fountains and other waters with strange powers to heal are numerous in
+many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus at Athens was called Callirrhoe
+before the time the water was drawn from it by the nine pipes from which
+it took its later name. Two temples were above it, according to
+Pausanias, one dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to
+Triptolemus. The fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was
+supplied by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that
+in the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.
+
+The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were on a scale
+to be expected from a people of such great practical power. The remains
+of the aqueducts which stretched from the city across the Campagna are
+amongst the most striking monuments of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.)
+gives minute particulars concerning the methods to be employed for the
+discovery, testing and distribution of water, and describes the
+properties of different waters with great care, proving the importance
+which was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts
+supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last all the
+populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate pipe to
+their houses, obtained their water. These fountains were therefore of
+large size and numerous. They were formed at many of the _castella_ of
+the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius, each _castellum_ should have
+three pipes,--one for public fountains, one for baths and the third for
+private houses. Considerable revenue was drawn from the possessors of
+private water-pipes. The Roman fountains were generally decorated with
+figures and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman
+villas and country houses; in those so situated the water generally
+ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a second
+fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses in Pompeii had
+very remarkable fountains. One, says Gell, "is covered with a sort of
+mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae of different colours, but in
+which blue predominates. These are sometimes arranged in not inelegant
+patterns, and the grand divisions as well as the borders are entirely
+formed and ornamented with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat
+of the eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries"
+(_Pompeiana_, i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated
+with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured
+figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples. This
+fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is placed,
+and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure up to the
+eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column in the piscina
+was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth of which water
+issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a fountain which was
+decorated with marine shells.
+
+Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the crossways in
+Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes from the reservoirs, and had
+little ornament except a human or animal head, from the mouth of which
+it was arranged that the water should issue. Not only did simple running
+fountains exist, but the remains of _jets d'eau_ have been found; and a
+drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water, standing
+on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been the impluvium of a
+house. There was also a _jet d'eau_ at the eastern end of the peristyle
+of the Fullonica at Pompeii.
+
+As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of superstitious
+beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be traced in
+monumental and legendary remains. Near the village of Primaleon in
+Brittany was a very remarkable monument,--one possibly unique, as giving
+distinct proof of the existence of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is
+a dolmen composed of a horizontal table supported by two stones only,
+one at each end. All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long
+square basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of
+water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of fountains.
+Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon which it is built,
+is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an ancient chapel, which
+with its ivy-covered walls has a most romantic appearance. A Gothic
+vault protects this fountain. Miraculous virtues are still attributed to
+its water, and on certain days the country people still come with
+offerings to draw it (see La Poix de Freminville, _Antiquites de la
+Bretagne_, i. p. 101). In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous
+from its connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was
+said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water from it, and
+sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous storm of thunder
+and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.
+
+Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious feeling
+concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints were erected
+upon the rude structures that collected the water and preserved its
+purity. There is some uniformity in the architectural characteristics of
+these structures during the middle ages. A very common form in rural
+districts was that in which the fountain was reached by descending steps
+(_fontaine grotte_). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a
+spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered by a
+sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and sculptured
+figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain at Poitiers is a
+fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert, which though restored in
+1597 was originally a structure of the 14th century. This kind of
+fountain is frequently decorated with figures of the Virgin or of
+saints, or with the family arms of its founder; often, too, the water is
+the only ornament of the structure, which bears a simple inscription. A
+large number of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed
+throughout France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved by
+the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst the
+peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was that of a large
+open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in form, with a columnar
+structure at the centre, from the lower part of which it was arranged
+that spouts should issue, playing into an open basin, and supplying
+vessels brought for the purpose in the cleanest and quickest manner. The
+columns take very various forms, from that of a simple regular
+geometrical solid, with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of
+an elaborate and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins,
+saints and warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At
+Provins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which is in
+form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre, the capital of
+which is pierced by three mouths, which are furnished with heads of
+bronze projecting far enough to cast the water into the basin. In the
+public market-place at Brunswick is a fountain of the 15th century, of
+which the central structure is made of bronze. Many fountains are still
+existing in France and Germany which, though their actual present
+structure may date no earlier than the 15th or 16th century, have been
+found on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as
+restorations of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains
+are of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are at the
+abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another, of granite, is at
+Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains are simple, open reservoirs
+enclosed in structures which, however plain, still carry the charm that
+belongs to the stone-work of those times. There is one of this kind at
+Cully, Calvados, walled on three sides, and fed from the spring by two
+circular openings. Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with
+mouldings. At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front
+of the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular plan,
+which bears a statue of Neptune.
+
+The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown by the
+fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing Mount Parnassus,
+upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the horse Pegasus, Philosophy
+and the Nine Muses. At the top Apollo, in the 16th-century costume,
+plays a harp. Rocks, grass and sheep fill up the scene.
+
+Purely ornamental fountains and _jets d'eau_ are found in or near many
+large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The celebrated Fontana di
+Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the 18th century under Pope Clement
+XII., and has all the characteristics of decadence. La Fontana Paolina
+and those in the piazza of St Peter's are perhaps next in celebrity to
+that of Trevi, and are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine
+des Innocens (the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs
+Elysees and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The
+fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace are,
+with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The largest _jets
+d'eau_ are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham Crystal Palace and at
+San Ildefonso.
+
+About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England occurs in
+Moxon's _Tutor to Astronomie and Geographie_ (1659); it is "surmounted
+by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak, and set upon a composite
+column at Leadenhall corner, in the majoralty of Sir John Dethick,
+Knight." The water springs from the top and base of the column, which
+stands upon a square pedestal and bears four female figures, one at
+least of which represents the costume of the period.
+
+In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important
+institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These "sebeels" are
+not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful in the fields and
+villages.
+
+The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has done much to
+provide facilities in London for both man and beast to get water to
+drink in the streets. And in the United States liberal provision has
+also been made by private and public enterprise.
+
+
+
+
+FOUNTAINS ABBEY, one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical ruins in
+England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river Skell, 3 m. S.W.
+of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation is most beautiful. The
+little Skell descends from the uplands of Pateley Moor to the west a
+clear swift stream, traversing a valley clothed with woods, conspicuous
+among which are some ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the
+monks who first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale.
+Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise the
+picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately tower, and
+the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which enable the great abbey
+to be almost completely reconstructed in the mind. The arrangements are
+typical of a Cistercian house (see ABBEY). Building began in earnest
+about 1135, and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th
+century, after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby's tower
+(c. 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of Ripon) contains the
+ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal Dutch style, the work of
+John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the early part of the 18th century.
+Near the abbey is the picturesque Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.
+
+In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary's abbey, York, being
+dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the monastery and
+with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of York, founded a house in
+the valley of the Skell, where they adopted the Cistercian rule. While
+building their monastery the monks are said to have lived at first under
+an elm and then under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two
+years later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter's, York, who
+brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection of
+books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St Mary's abbey,
+York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others. Henry I. and succeeding
+sovereigns granted them many privileges. During the reign of Edward I.
+the monks appear to have again suffered from poverty, partly no doubt
+owing to the invasion of the Scots, but partly also through their own
+"misconduct and extravagance." On account of this Edward I. in 1291
+appointed John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay
+their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough for
+their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them exemption from
+taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold the manor and site of the
+monastery to Sir Richard Gresham, and from him after passing through
+several families it came to the marquess of Ripon.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; Dugdale, _Monasticon_;
+  Surtees Society, _Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains_,
+  collected and edited by J.R. Walbran (1863-78).
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUE, FERDINAND ANDRE (1828-1904), French geologist and petrologist,
+was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on the 21st of June 1828. At
+the age of twenty-one he entered the _Ecole Normale_ in Paris, and from
+1853 to 1858 he held the appointment of keeper of the scientific
+collections. In 1877 he became professor of natural history at the
+_College de France_, in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of
+the Academy of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much
+assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course of time
+he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic phenomena and
+earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was the first to introduce
+modern petrographical methods into France. His studies of the eruptive
+rocks of Corsica, Santorin and elsewhere; his researches on the
+artificial reproduction of eruptive rocks, and his treatise on the
+optical characters of felspars deserve special mention; but he was
+perhaps best known for the joint work which he carried on with his
+friend Michel Levy. He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief
+publications were: _Santorin et ses eruptions_, 1879; (with A. Michel
+Levy) _Mineralogie micrographique, Roches eruptives francaises_ (2
+vols., 1879); and _Synthese des mineraux et des roches_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE, BARON (1777-1843), German
+writer of the romantic movement, was born on the 12th of February 1777
+at Brandenburg. His grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great's
+generals and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally
+intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouque ultimately
+gave up his university studies at Halle to join the army, and he took
+part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest of his life was devoted
+mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many of the younger romanticists,
+Fouque owed his introduction to literature to A.W. Schlegel, who
+published his first book, _Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin_ in 1804.
+His next work, _Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval_ (1805), showed more plainly
+his allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the _Historie vom edlen
+Ritter Galmy_ (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of medieval
+chivalry. _Sigurd der Schlangentoter, ein Heldenspiel_ (1808), the first
+modern German dramatization of the _Nibelungen_ saga, attracted
+attention to him, and influenced considerably subsequent versions of the
+story, such as Hebbel's _Nibelungen_ and Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_.
+These early writings indicate the lines which Fouque's subsequent
+literary activity followed; his interests were divided between medieval
+chivalry on the one hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813,
+the year of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the
+Prussian army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people left
+its mark upon his writings.
+
+Between 1810 and 1815 Fouque's popularity was at its height; the many
+romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned out with
+extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood of the hour. The
+earliest of these are the best--_Undine_, which appeared in 1811, being,
+indeed, one of the most charming of all German _Marchen_ and the only
+work by which Fouque's memory still lives to-day. A more comprehensive
+idea of his powers may, however, be obtained from the two romances _Der
+Zauberring_ (1813) and _Die Fahrten Thiodulfs des Islanders_ (1815).
+From 1820 onwards the quality of Fouque's work rapidly degenerated,
+partly owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his
+inability to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained the
+belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to new interests,
+clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia of romanticism; but in
+the cold, sober light of the post-romantic age, these appeared merely
+flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing imaginative power of his early
+years deserted him, and the sobriquet of a "Don Quixote of Romanticism"
+which his enemies applied to him was not unjustified.
+
+Fouque's first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended in divorce. His
+second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831) enjoyed some reputation as
+a novelist in her day. After her death Fouque married a third time. Some
+consolation for the ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by
+the munificence of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a
+pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort. He died
+in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.
+
+  Fouque's _Ausgewahlte Werke_, edited by himself, appeared in 12 vols.
+  (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found in
+  Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. 146, part ii.
+  (Stuttgart, 1893); _Undine_, _Sintram_, &c., in innumerable reprints.
+  Bibliography in Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouque's
+  works have been translated, and the English versions of _Aslauga's
+  Knight_ (by Carlyle), _Sintram and his Companions_ and _Undine_, have
+  been frequently republished. For Fouque's life cp. _Lebensgeschichte
+  des Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouque. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn
+  selbst_ (Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the
+  introduction to Koch's selections in the _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_.
+       (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUET (or FOUCQUET), NICOLAS (1615-1680), viscount of Melun and of
+Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of finance in France under
+Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615. He belonged to an influential
+family of the _noblesse de la robe_, and after some preliminary
+schooling with the Jesuits, at the age of thirteen was admitted as
+_avocat_ at the parlement of Paris. While still in his teens he held
+several responsible posts, and in 1636, when just twenty, he was able to
+buy the post of _maitre des requetes_. From 1642 to 1650 he held various
+intendancies at first in the provinces and then with the army of
+Mazarin, and, coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650
+to buy the important position of _procureur general_ to the parlement of
+Paris. During Mazarin's exile Fouquet shrewdly remained loyal to him,
+protecting his property and keeping him informed of the situation at
+court.
+
+Upon the cardinal's return, Fouquet demanded and received as reward the
+office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a position which, in
+the unsettled condition of the government, threw into his hands not
+merely the decision as to which funds should be applied to meet the
+demands of the state's creditors, but also the negotiations with the
+great financiers who lent money to the king. The appointment was a
+popular one with the moneyed class, for Fouquet's great wealth had been
+largely augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille, who
+also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His own credit,
+and above all his unfailing confidence in himself, strengthened the
+credit of the government, while his high position at the parlement (he
+still remained _procureur general_) secured financial transactions from
+investigation. As minister of finance, he soon had Mazarin almost in the
+position of a suppliant. The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers,
+who followed the example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for
+Fouquet to meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit,
+but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own to
+good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless; fraudulent
+operations were entered into with impunity, and the financiers were kept
+in the position of clients by official favours and by generous aid
+whenever they needed it. Fouquet's fortune now surpassed even Mazarin's,
+but the latter was too deeply implicated in similar operations to
+interfere, and was obliged to leave the day of reckoning to his agent
+and successor Colbert. Upon Mazarin's death Fouquet expected to be made
+head of the government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his poorly
+dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he made the
+well-known statement, upon assuming the government, that he would be his
+own chief minister. Colbert fed the king's displeasure with adverse
+reports upon the deficit, and made the worst of the case against
+Fouquet. The extravagant expenditure and personal display of the
+superintendent served to intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had
+bought the port of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with
+a view to taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous
+sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent,
+magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of Versailles.
+Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest paintings, jewels
+and antiques in profusion, and above all surrounded himself with artists
+and authors. The table was open to all people of quality, and the
+kitchen was presided over by Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were
+among the multitude of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already
+set upon his destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a _fete_ rivalled
+in magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which Moliere's
+_Les Facheux_ was produced for the first time. The splendour of the
+entertainment sealed Fouquet's fate. The king, however, was afraid to
+act openly against so powerful a minister. By crafty devices Fouquet was
+induced to sell his office of _procureur general_, thus losing the
+protection of its privileges, and he paid the price of it into the
+treasury.
+
+Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to Nantes, taking
+Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he was leaving the presence
+chamber, flattered with the assurance of his esteem. The trial lasted
+almost three years, and its violation of the forms of justice is still
+the subject of frequent monographs by members of the French bar. Public
+sympathy was strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sevigne
+and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was sentenced to
+banishment, the king, disappointed, "commuted" the sentence to
+imprisonment for life. He was sent at the beginning of 1665 to the
+fortress of Pignerol, where he undoubtedly died on the 23rd of March
+1680.[1] Louis acted throughout "as though he were conducting a
+campaign," evidently fearing that Fouquet would play the part of a
+Richelieu. Fouquet bore himself with manly fortitude, and composed
+several mediocre translations in prison. The devotional works bearing
+his name are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland,
+in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances which Colbert
+addressed to the States-General. A second edition under the title of
+_Oeuvres de M. Fouquet_ appeared in 1696.
+
+  See Cheruel, _Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fouquet...
+  d'apres ses lettres et des pieces inedites_ (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J.
+  Lair, _Nicolas Foucquet, procureur general, surintendant des finances,
+  ministre d'Etat de Louis XIV_ (2 vols., Paris, 1890); U.V. Chatelain,
+  _Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et
+  des sciences_ (Paris, 1905); R. Pfnor et A. France, _Le Chateau de
+  Vaux-le-Vicomte dessine et grave_ (Paris, 1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Fouquet has been identified with the "Man with the Iron Mask"
+    (see IRON MASK), but this theory is quite impossible.
+
+
+
+
+FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN (1746-1795), French revolutionist,
+was born at Herouel, a village in the department of the Aisne.
+Originally a _procureur_ attached to the Chatelet at Paris, he sold his
+office in 1783, and became a clerk under the lieutenant-general of
+police. He seems to have early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little
+is known of the part he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When
+the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March
+1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which he
+filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this time earned
+him the reputation of one of the most terrible and sinister figures of
+the Revolution. His function as public prosecutor was not so much to
+convict the guilty as to see that the proscriptions ordered by the
+faction for the time being in power were carried out with a due regard
+to a show of legality. He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as
+Robespierre himself; he could be moved from his purpose neither by pity
+nor by bribes; nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which
+made the ordinary Jacobin _enrage_ by turns ferocious and sentimental.
+It was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him so
+effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic eloquence; but
+the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his charges was more convincing
+than any rhetoric, and he seldom failed to secure a conviction.
+
+His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the
+terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the 1st of August 1794 he was
+imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial. His defence
+was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Committee of Public
+Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one days, he was condemned
+to death, and guillotined on the 7th of May 1795.
+
+  See _Memoire pour A.Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public pres le tribunal
+  revolutionnaire_, &c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, _Fouquier-Tinville et
+  le tribunal revolutionnaire_ (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon, _Histoire du
+  tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris_ (1880-1882) (a work of general
+  interest, but not always exact); George Lecocq, _Notes et documents
+  sur Fouquier-Tinville_ (Paris, 1885). See also the documents relating
+  to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in _Bibliographie de l'histoire
+  de Paris pendant la Revolution Francaise_, vol. i. Nos. 4445-4454
+  (1890).
+
+
+
+
+FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of Nievre, on
+the right bank of the Loire, 4-1/2 m. N.W. of Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes its importance to its extensive
+iron-works, established in 1821, which give employment to 2000 workmen
+and produce engineering material for railway, military and other
+purposes. Among the more remarkable _chefs-d'oeuvre_ which have been
+produced at Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du
+Carrousel, the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and
+the vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small canal
+unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.
+
+
+
+
+FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, COMTE DE (1755-1809), French chemist, the
+son of an apothecary in the household of the duke of Orleans, was born
+at Paris on the 15th of June 1755. He took up medical studies by the
+advice of the anatomist Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794), and after many
+difficulties caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his
+doctor's diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by
+J.B.M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the Medical
+School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed P.J. Macquer
+(1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college of the Jardin du
+Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity. He was one of the
+earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier, which he helped to
+promulgate by his voluminous writings, but though his name appears on a
+large number of chemical and also physiological and pathological
+memoirs, either alone or with others, he was rather a teacher and an
+organizer than an original investigator. A member of the committees for
+public instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon,
+director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the
+establishment of schools for both primary and secondary education,
+scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy died at Paris
+on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on which he had been created
+a count of the French empire. By his conduct as a member of the
+Convention he has been accused of contributing to the death of
+Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his _Eloge historique_ of Fourcroy repels the
+charge, but he can scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference,
+if indeed active, though secret, participation be not proved against
+him.
+
+  The Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 59
+  memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and others,
+  mostly L.N. Vauquelin.
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837), French socialist writer,
+was born at Besancon in Franche-Comte on the 7th of April 1772. His
+father was a draper in good circumstances, and Fourier received an
+excellent education at the college in his native town. After completing
+his studies there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and
+Holland. On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount
+of property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged by the
+troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his means of livelihood
+Fourier entered the army, but after two years' service as a chasseur was
+discharged on account of ill-health. In 1803 he published a remarkable
+article on European politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon,
+some of whose ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after
+the author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving the
+army Fourier entered a merchant's office in Lyons, and some years later
+undertook on his own account a small business as broker. He obtained in
+this way just sufficient to supply his wants, and devoted all his
+leisure time to the elaboration of his first work on the organization of
+society.
+
+During the early part of his life, and while engaged in commerce, he had
+become deeply impressed with the conviction that social arrangements
+resulting from the principles of individualism and competition were
+essentially imperfect and immoral. He proposed to substitute for these
+principles co-operation or united effort, by means of which full and
+harmonious development might be given to human nature. The scheme,
+worked out in detail in his first work, _Theorie des quatre mouvements_
+(2 vols., Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a
+particular psychological proposition and a special economical doctrine.
+Psychologically Fourier held what may with some laxity of language be
+called natural optimism,--the view that the full, free development of
+human nature or the unrestrained indulgence of human passion is the only
+possible way to happiness and virtue, and that misery and vice spring
+from the unnatural restraints imposed by society on the gratification of
+desire. This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his
+grandest discovery--a discovery which did more than set him on a level
+with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction or harmony
+among material bodies. Throughout his works, in uncouth, obscure and
+often unintelligible language, he endeavours to show that the same
+fundamental fact of harmony is to be found in the four great
+departments,--society, animal life, organic life and the material
+universe. In order to give effect to this principle and obtain the
+resulting social harmony, it was needful that society should be
+reconstructed; for, as the social organism is at present constituted,
+innumerable restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human
+desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier
+advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects what he says
+of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous waste of economic
+force which the actual arrangements of society entail, still deserves
+attention, and some of the most recent efforts towards extension of the
+co-operative method, e.g. to house-keeping, were in essentials
+anticipated by him. But the full realization of his scheme demanded much
+more than the mere admission that co-operation is economically more
+efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be organized on
+the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation and to the
+harmonious evolution of human nature. The details of this reorganization
+of the social structure cannot be given briefly, but the broad outlines
+may be thus sketched. Society, on his scheme, is to be divided into
+departments or _phalanges_, each _phalange_ numbering about 1600
+persons. Each _phalange_ inhabits a _phalanstere_ or common building,
+and has a certain portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The
+_phalansteres_ are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic
+arrangements are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the
+_phalanges_ is, of course, agriculture, but the various _series_ and
+_groupes_ into which the members are divided may devote themselves to
+such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need any occupation
+become irksome from constant devotion to it. Any member of a group may
+vary his employment at pleasure, may pass from one task to another. The
+tasks regarded as menial or degrading in ordinary society can be
+rendered attractive if advantage is taken of the proper principles of
+human nature: thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a
+fondness for "cleaning up," may easily be induced to accept with
+eagerness the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier's
+scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished, nor is the
+privacy of family life impossible within the _phalanstere_. Each family
+may have separate apartments, and there may be richer and poorer
+members. But the rich and poor are to be locally intermingled, in order
+that the broad distinction between them, which is so painful a feature
+in actual society, may become almost imperceptible. Out of the common
+gain of the _phalange_ a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each
+member the minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in
+shares to labour, capital and talent,--five-twelfths going to the first,
+four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third. Upon the
+changes requisite in the private life of the members Fourier was in his
+first work more explicit than in his later writings. The institution of
+marriage, which imposes unnatural bonds on human passion, is of
+necessity abolished; a new and ingeniously constructed system of licence
+is substituted for it. Considerable offence seems to have been given by
+Fourier's utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later
+advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in silence or
+to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical language.
+
+The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the _Theorie_ first
+appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in his obscure position at
+Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother put him in possession of a small
+sum of money, with which he retired to Bellay in order to perfect his
+second work. The _Traite de l'association agricole domestique_ was
+published in 2 vols. at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the
+following year. After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in
+the hope that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the
+realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this expectation he
+returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited Paris, and as a considerable
+portion of his means had been expended in the publication of his book,
+he accepted a clerkship in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared
+what is probably the most finished exposition of his views, _Le Nouveau
+Monde industriel_. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doctrines of
+Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work _Pieges et charlatanisme de deux
+sectes, St Simon et Owen_. His writings now began to attract some
+attention. A small body of adherents gathered round him, and the most
+ardent of them was Victor Considerant (q.v.). In 1832 a newspaper, _Le
+Phalanstere ou la reforme industrielle_ was started to propagate the
+views of the school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined
+from a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was
+revived in 1836 as _Le Phalange_, and in 1843 became a daily paper, _La
+Democratie pacifique_. In 1850 it was suppressed.
+
+Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and the only
+practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a _phalanstere_ was a
+complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary, deputy for Seine-et-Oise,
+who had become a convert, purchased an estate at Conde-sur-Vesgre, near
+the forest of Rambouillet, and proceeded to establish a socialist
+community. The capital supplied was, however, inadequate, and the
+community broke up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this
+failure, and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, he lived in
+daily expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his
+scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization. It
+may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the _phalanstere_
+have been uniformly unsuccessful.[1]
+
+Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensitive
+disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed, as if he
+were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true nature of social
+arrangements, and of the manner in which they naturally grow and become
+organized, he must be pronounced extremely ignorant. The faults of
+existing institutions presented themselves to him in an altogether
+distorted manner, and he never appears to have recognized that the evils
+of actual society are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of
+his arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed
+harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically
+disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even more
+irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard to the
+economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course to be
+granted that co-operation is more effective than individual effort, but
+he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable consequences of
+organizing society on the abolition of those great institutions which
+have grown with its growth. His temperament was too ardent, his
+imagination too strong, and his acquaintance with the realities of life
+too slight to enable him justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic
+views. That this description of him is not expressed in over-strong
+language must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in
+his works,--and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar discovery
+of Fourier's,--but who takes into account the whole body of his
+speculations, the cosmological and historical as well as the economical
+and social. No words can adequately describe the fantastic nonsense
+which he pours forth, partly in the form of general speculation on the
+universe, partly in the form of prophetic utterances with regard to the
+future changes in humanity and its material environment. From these
+extraordinary writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much
+of insanity in Fourier's mental constitution.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ch. Pellarin, _Fourier, sa vie et sa theorie_ (5th ed.,
+  1872); Sargant, _Social Innovators_ (1859); Reybaud, _Reformateurs
+  modernes_ (7th ed., 1864); Stein, _Socialismus und Communismus des
+  heutigen Frankreichs_ (2nd ed., 1848); A.J. Booth, _Fortnightly
+  Review_, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynski, _Notice bibliographique sur C.
+  Fourier_ (1841); Ferraz, _Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le
+  positivisme_ (1877); Considerant, _Exposition abregee du systeme de
+  Fourier_ (1845); Transon, _Theorie societaire de Charles Fourier_
+  (1832); Stein, _Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_
+  (1850); Marlo, _Untersuchungen uber die Organisation der Arbeit_
+  (1853); J.H. Noyes, _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Bebel,
+  _Charles Fourier_ (1888); Varschauer, _Geschichte des Sozialismus und
+  Kommunismus im 19. Jahrhundert_ (1903); Sambuc, _Le Socialisme de
+  Fourier_ (1900); M. Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United
+  States_ (1903); H. Bourgin, _Fourier, contribution a l'etude de
+  socialisme francais_ (1905).     (R. Ad.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Several experiments were made to this end in the United States
+    (see COMMUNISM) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines
+    were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in the
+    years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement waxed and
+    waned, no fewer than forty-one _phalanges_ were founded, of which
+    some definite record can be found. The most interesting of all the
+    experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from the fact
+    that it attracted the support of many of the most intellectual and
+    cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830), French mathematician, was
+born at Auxerre on the 21st of March 1768. He was the son of a tailor,
+and was left an orphan in his eighth year; but, through the kindness of
+a friend, admission was gained for him into the military school of his
+native town, which was then under the direction of the Benedictines of
+Saint-Maur. He soon distinguished himself as a student and made rapid
+progress, especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army on
+account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed professor
+of mathematics in the school in which he had been a pupil. In 1787 he
+became a novice at the abbey of St Benoit-sur-Loire; but he left the
+abbey in 1789 and returned to his college, where, in addition to his
+mathematical duties, he was frequently called to lecture on other
+subjects,--rhetoric, philosophy and history. On the institution of the
+Ecole Normale at Paris in 1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was
+afterwards attached to the Ecole Polytechnique, where he occupied the
+chair of analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied
+Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he was called to
+discharge important political duties in addition to his scientific ones.
+He was for a time virtually governor of half Egypt, and for three years
+was secretary of the Institut du Caire; he also delivered the funeral
+orations for Kleber and Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in
+the following year he was nominated prefect of Isere, and was created
+baron and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important part
+in the preparation of the famous _Description de l'Egypte_ and wrote the
+historical introduction. He held his prefecture for fourteen years; and
+it was during this period that he carried on his elaborate and fruitful
+investigations on the conduction of heat. On the return of Napoleon from
+Elba, in 1815, Fourier published a royalist proclamation, and left
+Grenoble as Napoleon entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture,
+and, although immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after
+again deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Academie des
+Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of Louis XVIII.
+was not admitted till the following year, when he succeeded the Abbe
+Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made perpetual secretary in conjunction
+with Cuvier, in succession to Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member
+of the French Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the
+council of the Ecole Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a member of the
+government commission established for the encouragement of literature.
+He died at Paris on the 16th of May 1830.
+
+As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his fame chiefly
+rests on his strikingly original contributions to science and
+mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his attention quite early, and
+in 1812 he obtained a prize offered by the Academie des Sciences with a
+memoir in two parts, _Theorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les
+corps solides_. The first part was republished in 1822 as _La Theorie
+analytique de la chaleur_, which by its new methods and great results
+made an epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science (see
+below: FOURIER'S SERIES). An English translation has been published by
+A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884).
+His mathematical researches were also concerned with the theory of
+equations, but the question as to his priority on several points has
+been keenly discussed. After his death Navier completed and published
+Fourier's unfinished work, _Analyse des equations indeterminees_ (1831),
+which contains much original matter. In addition to the works above
+mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on scientific subjects, and
+_eloges_ of distinguished men of science. His works have been collected
+and edited by Gaston Darboux with the title _Oeuvres de Fourier_ (Paris,
+1889-1890).
+
+  For a list of Fourier's publications see the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society of London_. Reference may also be made to
+  Arago, "Joseph Fourier," in the _Smithsonian Report_ (1871).
+
+
+
+
+FOURIER'S SERIES, in mathematics, those series which proceed according
+to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable, the various multiples
+being in the ratio of the natural numbers; they are used for the
+representation of a function of the variable for values of the variable
+which lie between prescribed finite limits. Although the importance of
+such series, especially in the theory of vibrations, had been recognized
+by D. Bernoulli, Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some
+discussion of their properties, J.B.J. Fourier (see above) was the first
+clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions which the
+series can represent, and to make any serious attempt to prove the
+validity of such representation; the series are consequently usually
+associated with the name of Fourier. More general cases of
+trigonometrical series, in which the multiples are given as the roots of
+certain transcendental equations, were also considered by Fourier.
+
+  Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of series
+  to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision what is
+  to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary function by an
+  infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x to be arbitrarily
+  given for values of x between two fixed values a and b; this means
+  that, corresponding to every value of x such that a <= x <= b, a
+  definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned by means of
+  some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined may be denoted by
+  [f](x); the rules by which the values of the function are determined
+  may be embodied in a single explicit analytical formula, or in several
+  such formulae applicable to different portions of the interval, but it
+  would be an undue restriction of the nature of an arbitrarily given
+  function to assume _a priori_ that it is necessarily given in this
+  manner, the possibility of the representation of such a function by
+  means of a single analytical expression being the very point which we
+  have to discuss. The variable x may be represented by a point at the
+  extremity of an interval measured along a straight line from a fixed
+  origin; thus we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value
+  x = c of the variable, and of [f](c) as the value of the function
+  assigned to the point c. For any number of points between a and b the
+  function may be discontinuous, i.e. it may at such points undergo
+  abrupt changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of
+  such points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will
+  be those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity
+  exists at the point c if [f](c + [epsilon]), [f](c - [epsilon]) have
+  distinct but definite limiting values as [epsilon] is indefinitely
+  diminished; these limiting values are known as the limits on the right
+  and on the left respectively of the function at c, and may be denoted
+  by [f](c + 0), [f](c - 0). The discontinuity consists therefore of a
+  sudden change of value of the function from [f](c - 0) to [f](c + 0),
+  as x increases through the value c. If there is such a discontinuity
+  at the point x = 0, we may denote the limits on the right and on the
+  left respectively by [f](+0), [f](-0).
+
+  Suppose we have an infinite series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... + u_n(x) + ...
+  in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form; let
+  any value x = c(a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the series,
+  and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so obtained
+  approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased; this limit
+  is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of c such that a
+  <= c <= b the sum exists and agrees with the value of [f](c), the
+  series [Sigma] [1 to [oo]] u_n(x) is said to represent the function
+  ([f]x) between the values a, b of the variable. If this is the case
+  for all points within the given interval with the exception of a
+  finite number, at any one of which either the series has no sum, or
+  has a sum which does not agree with the value of the function, the
+  series is said to represent "in general" the function for the given
+  interval. If the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by S_n(c),
+  the condition that S_n(c) converges to the value [f](c) is that,
+  corresponding to any finite positive number [delta] as small as we
+  please, a value n1 of n can be found such that if n >= n_1, |[f](c) -
+  Sn(c)| < [delta].
+
+  Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number of
+  points within the given interval have no definite value, and series
+  have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in the
+  interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees with
+  the value of the function; the narrower conception above will however
+  be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article, reference
+  to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion with the
+  history of the theory of Fourier's Series.
+
+  _Uniform Convergence of Series._--If the series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... +
+  u2(x) + ... converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b,
+  and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite
+  positive number [delta], as small as we please, a finite number n1 can
+  be found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) - S_n(x), where n =>
+  n1 is less than [delta] for every value of x in the given interval,
+  the series is said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may
+  however happen that as x approaches a particular value the number of
+  terms of the series which must be taken so that |S(x) - S_n(x)| may be
+  < [delta], increases indefinitely; the convergence of the series is
+  then infinitely slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the
+  series is not uniformly convergent throughout the given interval,
+  although it converges at each point of the interval. If the number of
+  such points in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to
+  converge uniformly be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals
+  of finite magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and
+  considering the convergence of the series in the given interval with
+  such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now
+  uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is said
+  to be _in general_ uniformly convergent within the given interval a to
+  b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion of a finite
+  number of portions of the interval, each such portion being
+  arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite series of
+  continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in the
+  neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not uniform,
+  but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not necessarily
+  imply discontinuity in the sum.
+
+  _Form of Fourier's Series._--If it be assumed that a function [f](x)
+  arbitrarily given for values of x such that o[<=]x[<=]l is capable of
+  being represented in general by an infinite series of the form
+
+           [pi]x          2[pi]x                 n[pi]x
+    A1 sin ----- + A2 sin ------ + ... + A_n sin ------ + ...,
+             l              l                      l
+
+  and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly
+  convergent throughout the interval 0 to l, the form of the
+  coefficients A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series by
+  sin n[pi]x/l, and integrate the product between the limits 0 and l,
+  then in virtue of the property [int][l to 0] sin n[pi]x/l sin
+  n'[pi]x/l dx=0, or 1/2 l, according as n' is not, or is, equal to n,
+  we have -1/2 lA_n= [int][0 to l] [f](x) sin n[pi]x/l dx, and thus the
+  series is of the form
+
+                             _
+    2       [oo]    n[pi]x  / l        n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma]  sin ------  |   [f](x) ------ dx.        (1)
+    l        1         l   _/ 0           l
+
+  This method of determining the coefficients in the series would not be
+  valid without the assumption that the series is in general uniformly
+  convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem the sum of the
+  integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise not
+  necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption being
+  made, it is further assumed that [f](x) is such that [integral][0 to
+  l] [f](x)sin n[pi]x/l dx has a definite meaning for every value of n.
+
+  Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions
+  made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce
+  other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form
+
+                [pi]x          2[pi]x                 n[pi]x
+    B0 + B1 cos ----- + B2 cos ------ + ... + B_n cos ------ + ...
+                  l               l                      l
+
+  for the representation of [f](x) in the interval 0 to l, let us apply
+  the series (1) to represent the function [f](x) sin [pi]x/l; we thus
+  find
+                           _
+    2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l          [pi]x     n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x)sin ----- sin ------ dx,
+    l        1       l   _/ 0            l          l
+
+  or
+                           _         _                                   _
+    1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l       |     (n - 1)[pi]x       (n + 1)[pi]x |
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) | cos ------------ - cos ------------ | dx.
+    l        1        l  _/ 0       |_         l                   l     _|
+
+  On rearrangement of the terms this becomes
+                  _                                              _
+    1      [pi]x / l            2              [pi]x     n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- sin ----- |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] sin ----- cos ------ |  [f](x) cos ------ dx.
+    l        l  _/ 0            l                l         l   _/ 0              l
+
+  hence [f](x) is represented for the interval 0 to l by the series of cosines
+        _                                    _
+    1  / l            2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |  [f](x) cos ------ dx ... (2)
+    l _/ 0            l         1      l   _/ 0              l
+
+  We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary
+  function [f](x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by
+  a series of sines, as in (1), or by a series of cosines, as in (2).
+  Some important differences between the two series must, however, be
+  noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum
+  when x=o or x=l; it therefore does not represent the function at the
+  point x=o, unless [f](0) = 0, or at the point x=l, unless [f](l) = 0,
+  whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both
+  these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (1) and
+  (2) for values of x which do not lie between 0 and l. As [f](x) is
+  given only for values of x between 0 and l, the series at points
+  beyond these limits have no necessary connexion with [f](x) unless we
+  suppose that [f](x) is also given for such general values of x in such
+  a way that the series continue to represent that function. If in (1)
+  we change x into -x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series
+  changes sign, and if x be changed into x + 2l, the series is
+  unaltered; we infer that the series (1) represents an odd function of
+  x and is periodic of period 2l; thus (1) will represent [f](x) in
+  general for values of x between [+-][oo], only if [f](x) is odd and
+  has a period 2l. If in (2) we change x into -x, the series is
+  unaltered, and it is also unaltered by changing x into x + 2l; from
+  this we see that the series (2) represents [f](x) for values of x
+  between [+-][oo], only if [f](x) is an even function, and is periodic
+  of period 2l. In general a function [f](x) arbitrarily given for all
+  values of x between [+-][oo] is neither periodic nor odd, nor even,
+  and is therefore not represented by either (1) or (2) except for the
+  interval 0 to l.
+
+  From (1) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines and
+  cosines, which will represent a function [f](x) arbitrarily given in
+  the interval -l to l, for that interval. We can express by (1) the
+  function -1/2{[f](x) - [f](-x)} which is an odd function, and thus this
+  function is represented for the interval -l to +l by
+                           _
+    2              n[pi]x / l                           n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  1/2 {[f](x) - [f](-x)} sin ------ dx;
+    l                 l  _/ 0                              l
+
+  we can also express 1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)}, which is an even function,
+  by means of (2), thus for the interval -l to +l this function is
+  represented by
+        _                                                     _
+    1  / l                             2      [oo]    n[pi]x / l                            n[pi]x
+    -- |   1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)} dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |   1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)} cos ------ dx.
+    l _/ 0                             l         1       l  _/ 0                               l
+
+  It must be observed that [f](-x) is absolutely independent of [f](x),
+  the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting
+  -x for x in a formula; both [f](x) and [f](-x) are functions given
+  arbitrarily and independently for the interval 0 to l. On adding the
+  expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which
+  represents [f](x) for the interval -l to l. The integrals
+      _                          _
+     / l            n[pi]x      / l            n[pi]x
+     |  [f](-x) cos ------ dx,  |  [f](-x) sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0               l       _/ 0               l
+
+  are equivalent to
+       _                          _
+      /-l          n[pi]x        /-l           n[pi]x
+    - | [f](x) cos ------ dx,  + |  [f](x) sin ------ dx,
+     _/0              l         _/ 0              l
+
+  thus the series is
+        _                                   _                                             _
+    1  / l           1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l         n[pi]x      1      [oo]    n[pi]x / l           n[pi]x
+    -- |  [f](x)dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ |  f(x) cos ------ dx + -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) sin ------ dx,
+    2l_/-l           l         1       l  _/-l            l        l         1       l  _/-l              l
+
+  which may be written
+        _                            _
+    1  / l              1      [oo] / l            n[pi](x - x')
+    -- |  [f](x') dx' + -- [Sigma]  |  [f](x') cos ------------- dx'.  (3)
+    2l_/-l              l        1 _/-l                  l
+
+  The series (3), which represents a function [f](x) arbitrarily given
+  for the interval -l to l, is what is known as Fourier's Series; the
+  expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which
+  (3) takes in the two cases, in which [f](-x) = -[f](x), or [f](-x) =
+  f(x) respectively. The expression (3) does not represent f(x) at
+  points beyond the interval -l to l, unless [f](x) has a period 2l. For
+  a value of x within the interval, at which [f](x) is discontinuous,
+  the sum of the series may cease to represent [f](x), but, as will be
+  seen hereafter, has the value 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the mean
+  of the limits at the points on the right and the left. The series
+  represents the function at x=o, unless the function is there
+  discontinuous, in which case the series is 1/2 {[f](+0) + [f](-0)};
+  the series does not necessarily represent the function at the points l
+  and -l, unless [f](l) = [f](-l). Its sum at either of these points is
+  1/2 {[f](l) + [f](-l)}.
+
+  _Examples of Fourier's Series._--(a) Let [f](x) be given from 0 to l,
+  by [f](x)=c, when 0 <= x < 1/2 l, and by f(x)= -c from 1/2 l to l; it
+  is required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which
+  shall represent the function in the interval.
+
+  We have
+      _                           _                     _
+     / l           n[pi]x        /1/2 l  n[pi]x        / l    n[pi]x
+     |  [f](x) sin ------ dx = c |   sin ------ dx - c |  sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0              l         _/ 0        l         _/1/2 l    l
+
+          cl
+      = ----- (cos n[pi] - 2 cos 1/2 n[pi] + 1).
+        n[pi]
+
+  This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4m, but if n = 4m + 2 it is
+  equal to 4cl/n[pi]; the series is therefore
+
+     4c   /l      2[pi]x   1      6[pi]x   1      10[pi]x      \
+    ---- ( -- sin ------ + -- sin ------ + -- sin ------- + ... ).
+    [pi]  \2         l     3         l     5         l         /
+
+  For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates of
+  the series of straight lines in fig. 1, except that it vanishes at the
+  points 0, (1/2)l, l, (3/2)l ...
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  We find similarly that the same function is represented by the series
+
+     4c   /    [pi]x   1      3[pi]x   1      5[pi]x        \
+    ---- ( cos ----- - -- cos ------ + -- cos ------ - + ... )
+    [pi]  \      l     3         l     5         l          /
+
+  during the interval 0 to l; for general values of x the series
+  represents the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it
+  vanishes at the points (1/2)l, (3/2)l....
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  (b) Let [f](x) = x from 0 to 1/2 l, and f(x) = l - x, from 1/2 l to l;
+  then
+      _                       _                     _
+     / l          n[pi]x     / 1/2 l   n[pi]x      / l           n[pi]x
+     |  [f](x)sin ------ dx= |   x sin ------ dx + |  (l - x)sin ------ dx
+    _/ 0             l      _/ 0          l       _/1/2 l           l
+
+            l^2      n[pi]     l^2         n[pi]    l^2n  /   n[pi]            \
+      = - ------ cos ----- + --------- sin ----- + ----- (cos ----- - cos n[pi] )
+          2n[pi]       2     n^2[pi]^2       2     n[pi]  \     2              /
+
+         l^2                l^2      n[pi]      l^2        n[pi]      2l^2       n[pi]
+      + ----- cos n[pi] - ------ cos ----- + --------- sin ----- = --------- sin -----
+        n[pi]             2n[pi]       2     n^2[pi]^2       2     n^2[pi]^2       2
+
+  hence the sine series is
+
+      4l    /   nx    1      3[pi]x    1      5[pi]x      \
+    ------ (sin -- - --- sin ------ + --- sin ------ - ... )
+    [pi]^2  \   l    3^2        l     5^2        l        /
+
+  For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the
+  row of broken lines in fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The cosine series, which represents the same function for the interval
+  0 to l, may be found to be
+
+    1        2l    /   2[pi]x    1      6[pi]x    1      10[pi]x      \
+    -- l - ------ (cos ------ + --- cos ------ + --- cos ------- + ... )
+    4      [pi]^2  \      l     3^2        l     5^2        l         /
+
+  This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the set
+  of broken lines in fig. 4.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  _Dirichlet's Integral._--The method indicated by Fourier, but first
+  carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain
+  restrictions as to the nature of the function [f](x), that function is
+  in general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum
+  of n+1 terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value
+  of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that the
+  series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum
+  converges is 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, which is in general equal
+  to [f](x). It will be convenient throughout to take -[pi] to [pi] as
+  the given interval; any interval -l to l may be reduced to this by
+  changing x into lx/[pi], and thus there is no loss of generality.
+
+  We find by an elementary process that
+
+    1/2 + cos (x - x') + cos 2(x - x') + ... + cos n(x - x')
+
+          2n + 1
+      sin ------ (x' - x)
+             2
+    = -------------------.
+       2 sin 1/2(x' - x)
+
+  Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n+1 terms of (3) is
+          _
+     1   / [pi]        sin (2n + 1)/2 (x' - x)
+    ---- |     [f](x') ----------------------- dx'.
+    [pi]_/-[pi]           2 sin 1/2 (x' - x)
+
+  If we suppose [f](x) to be continued beyond the interval -[pi] to
+  [pi], in such a way that [f](x) = [f](x + 2[pi]), we may replace the
+  limits in this integral by x + [pi], x-[pi] respectively; if we then
+  put x' - x = 2z, and let [f](x') = [F](z), the expression becomes
+  1/[pi] [int][-[pi]/2 to [pi]/2] F(z) (sin mz/sin z) dz, where m = 2n +
+  1; this expression may be written in the form
+          _                            _
+     1   /[pi]/2     sin mz        1  /[pi]/2      sin mz
+    ---- |      F(z) ------ dz + ---- |      F(-z) ------ dz.  (4)
+    [pi]_/ 0          sin z      [pi]_/ 0           sin z
+
+  We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is
+  indefinitely increased, of [int][0 to [pi]/2] F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz;
+  the form of the second integral being essentially the same. This
+  integral, or rather the slightly more general one [int][0 to h]
+  F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz, when 0 < h <= 1/2[pi], is known as Dirichlet's
+  integral. If we write X(z)= F(z)(z/sin z), the integral becomes
+  [int][0 to h] X(z)(sin mz/z) dz, which is the form in which the
+  integral is frequently considered.
+
+  _The Second Mean-Value Theorem._--The limiting value of Dirichlet's
+  integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a theorem in the
+  integral calculus known as the second mean-value theorem. Let a, b be
+  two fixed finite numbers such that a<b, and suppose [f](x), [phi](x)
+  are two functions which have finite and determinate values everywhere
+  in the interval except for a finite number of points; suppose further
+  that the functions [f](x), [phi](x) are integrable throughout the
+  interval, and that as x increases from a to b the function [f](x) is
+  monotone, i.e. either never diminishes or never increases; the theorem
+  is that
+      _                                  _                             _
+     / b                                /[xi]                         / b
+     |  [f](x) [phi](x) dx = [f](a + 0) |    [phi](x) dx + [f](b - 0) |   [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                               _/ a                          _/[xi]
+
+  when [xi] is some point between a and b, and [f](a), [f](b) may be
+  written for [f](a + 0), [f](b - 0) unless a or b is a point of
+  discontinuity of the function [f](x).
+
+  To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two
+  integrable functions is an integrable function, [int][a to b] [f](x)
+  [phi](x) dx exists, and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a
+  series [f](x0) [phi](x0) (x1 - x0) + [f](x1) [phi](x1) (x2 - x1) + ...
+  + [f]x(n-1) [phi]x_(n-1) (x_n - x_(n-1)) where x0 = a, x_n = b and x1,
+  x2 ... x_(n-1) are n - 1 intermediate points. We can express
+  [phi](x_r) (x_(r+1) - x_r) in the form Y_(r+1) - Y_r, by putting
+
+               K=r
+    Y_r = [Sigma] [phi](x_(K-1)) (x_K - x_(K-1)), Y0 = 0.
+               K=1
+
+  Writing X_r for [f](x_r), the series becomes
+
+    X0(Y1 - Y0) + X1(Y2 - Y1) + ... + X_(n-1)(Y_n - Y_(n-1))
+
+  or Y1(X0 - X1) + Y2(X1 - X2) + ... + Y_n(X_(n-1) - X_n) + Y_n X_n.
+
+  Now, by supposition, all the numbers Y1, Y2 ... Y_n are finite, and
+  all the numbers X_(r-1) - X_r are of the same sign, hence by a known
+  algebraical theorem the series is equal to M(X0 - X_n) + Y_n X_n,
+  where M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of
+  the numbers Y1, Y2, ... Y_n. This remains true however many partial
+  intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is increased
+  indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely according
+  to any law, we have
+      _                                                   _
+     / b                                      _          / b
+     |  [f](x)[phi](x)dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)}  M + [f](b) |  [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                                                _/ a
+
+  when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values which
+  [int][a to x] [phi](x) dx can have, when x is in the given integral.
+  Now this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and
+  therefore there is a value of x in the interval, for which it takes
+  any particular value between the greatest and least values that it
+  has. There is therefore a value [xi] between a and b, such that
+
+         _
+    _   /[xi]
+    M = |    [phi](x)dx,
+       _/ a
+
+  hence
+      _                                         _                        _
+     / b                                       /[xi]                    / b
+     |  [f](x) [phi](x) dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)} |   [phi](x) dx + [f](b) |  [phi](x) dx
+    _/ a                                      _/ a                     _/ a
+                _                         _
+               /[xi]                     / b
+      = [f](a) |    [phi](x) dx + [f](b) |    [phi](x) dx.
+              _/ a                      _/[xi]
+
+  If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity
+  of [f](x) or [phi](x), the method of proof still holds good, provided
+  these points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if
+  either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of [f](x), we write
+  [f](a + 0) or [f](b - 0), for [f](a) or [f](b), it being assumed that
+  these limits exist.
+
+  _Functions, with Limited Variation._--The condition that [f](x), in
+  the mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as
+  x increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of
+  the theorem. We can, however, show that a function [f](x) which is
+  finite and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of
+  ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to
+  diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases
+  from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions
+  [f]1(x), [f]2(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a
+  to b, and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that
+  one or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given
+  function is discontinuous. Let [alpha], [beta] be two consecutive
+  points at which [f](x) is discontinuous, consider any point x1, such
+  that [alpha] <= x1 <= [beta], and suppose that at the points M1, M2
+  ... M_r between [alpha] and x1, [f](x) is a maximum, and at m1, m2 ...
+  m_r, it is a minimum; we will suppose, for example, that the ascending
+  order of values is [alpha], M1, m1, M2, m2 ... M_r, m_r, x1; it will
+  make no essential difference in the argument if m1 comes before M1, or
+  if M_r immediately precedes x1, M_(r-1) being then the last minimum.
+
+  Let [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)]+ ...
+    +[[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1))] + [[f](x1) - [f](m_r)];
+
+  now let (x1) increase until it reaches the value (M_(r+1)) at which
+  [f](x) is again a maximum, then let
+
+    [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ...
+      + [[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](m_r)];
+
+  and suppose as x increases beyond the value M_(r+1), [psi](x1) remains
+  constant until the next minimum m_(r+1) is reached, when it again
+  becomes variable; we see that [psi](x1) is essentially positive and
+  never diminishes as x increases.
+
+  Let
+
+    [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - f(m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... + [[f](M_r)
+      - [f](m_r)],
+
+  then let x1 increase until it is beyond the next maximum M_(r+1), and
+  then let
+
+    [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f](m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... +
+      [[f](M_r) - [f](m_r)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](x1)]
+
+  thus [chi](x1) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and
+  variable. We see that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) is continuous as x1
+  increases from [alpha] to [beta], and that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) =
+  [f](x1) - [f]([alpha] + 0), and when x1 reaches [beta], we have
+  [psi]([beta]) - [chi](x1) = [f]([beta] - 0) - [f]([alpha] + 0). Hence
+  it is seen that between [alpha] and [beta], [f](x) = [[psi](x) +
+  [f]([alpha] + 0)] - [chi](x), where [psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0),
+  [chi](x) are continuous and never diminish as x increases; the same
+  reasoning applies to every continuous portion of [f](x), for which
+  the functions [psi](x), [chi](x) are formed in the same manner; we now
+  take [f]1(x)=[psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0) + C, [f]2(x) = [chi](x) + C,
+  where C is constant between consecutive discontinuities, but may have
+  different values in the next interval between discontinuities; the C
+  can be so chosen that neither [f]1(x) nor [f]2(x) diminishes as x
+  increases through a value for which [f](x) is discontinuous. We thus
+  see that [f](x) = [f]1(x) - [f]2(x), where [f]1(x), [f]2(x) never
+  diminish as x increases from a to b, and are discontinuous only where
+  [f](x) is so. The function [f](x) is a particular case of a class of
+  functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name "functions
+  with limited variation" (_fonctions a variation bornee_); in general
+  such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of maxima and
+  minima.
+
+  _Proof of the Convergence of Fourier's Series._--It will now be
+  assumed that a function [f](x) arbitrarily given between the values
+  -[pi] and +[pi], has the following properties:--
+
+  (a) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed
+  positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values
+  of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.
+
+  (b) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or vice
+  versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is usually
+  expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima is finite.
+
+  These limitations on the nature of the function are known as
+  Dirichlet's conditions; it follows from them that the function is
+  integrable throughout the interval.
+
+  On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of
+  Dirichlet's integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case
+  of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from 0 to
+  1/2[pi], since it has been shown that in the general case the
+  difference of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas
+  will be required:
+
+  1. Since
+      _                   _
+     /[pi]/2 sin mz      /[pi]/2                                              [pi]
+     |       ------ dz = |      {1 + 2cos 2z + 2cos 4z + ... + 2cos 2nz} dz = ----;
+    _/ 0      sin z     _/ 0                                                    2
+
+  this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.
+
+                                [pi]
+  2. If 0 < [alpha] < [beta] <= ----,
+                                  2
+      _                               _                              _
+     /[beta] sin mz           1      /[gamma]                1      /[beta]
+     |       ------ dz = ----------- |       sin mz dz + ---------- |       sin mz dz
+    _/[alpha] sin z      sin [alpha]_/[alpha]            sin [beta]_/[gamma]
+
+  where [alpha] < [gamma] < [beta], hence
+        _
+    |  /[beta] sin mz    |   2   /     1           1    \          4
+    |  |       ------ dz | < -- ( ---------- + --------- ) < -------------;
+    | _/[alpha] sin z    |   m   \sin[alpha]   sin[beta]/    m sin [alpha]
+                                           _
+                                       |  / [beta] sin mz    |      4
+  a precisely similar proof shows that |  |        ------ dz | < --------,
+                                       | _/ [alpha]  z       |   m[alpha]
+                        _                  _
+                       /[beta] sin mz     /[beta] sin mz
+  hence the integrals  |       ------ dz, |       ------ dz, converge to
+                      _/[alpha] sin z    _/[alpha]   z
+
+  the limit zero, as m is indefinitely increased.
+                         _
+                     |  / [oo]  sin [theta]          |
+  3. If [alpha] > 0, |  |       ----------- d[theta] | cannot exceed
+                     | _/[alpha]  [theta]            |
+
+  1/2[pi]. For by the mean-value theorem
+        _
+    |  / h     sin[theta]          |      2      2
+    |  |       ---------- d[theta] | < ------- + --,
+    | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |   [alpha]   h
+                     _
+        |           / h      sin[theta]          |       2
+  hence | Lh = [oo] |        ---------- d[theta] | <= -------;
+        |          _/[alpha]   [theta]           |    [alpha]
+                                       _
+                                   |  /[oo]   sin[theta]          |     2     [pi]
+  in particular if [alpha] >= [pi] |  |       ---------- d[theta] | <= ---- < ----.
+                                   | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |    [pi]     2
+                  _
+            d    /[oo]    sin[theta]              sin[alpha]
+  Again -------- |        ---------- d[theta] = - ----------, [alpha] > 0,
+        d[alpha]_/[alpha]   [theta]                 [alpha]
+             _
+            /[oo]  sin[theta]
+  therefore |      ---------- d[theta] increases as [alpha] diminishes,
+           _/[alpha] [theta]
+
+  when [theta] < [alpha] < [pi]; but lim
+             _                                           _
+            /[oo]  sin[theta]            [pi]        |  /[oo]  sin[theta]          |   [pi]
+            |      ---------- d[theta] = ----, hence |  |      ---------- d[theta] | < ----,
+  [alpha]=0_/[alpha] [theta]               2         | _/[alpha] [theta]           |    2
+
+  where [alpha] < [pi], and < [pi]/2 where [alpha] >= [pi]. It follows that
+        _
+    |  /[beta] sin[theta]          |
+    |  |       ---------- d[theta] | <= [pi], provided 0 <= [alpha] < [beta].
+    | _/[alpha]  [theta]           |
+                        _
+                       /[pi]/2     sin mz
+  To find the limit of |      F(z) ------ dz, we observe that it may be
+                      _/ 0          sin z
+
+  written in the form
+          _                   _
+         /[pi]/2 sin mz      / [mu]             sin mz
+    F(0) |       ------ dz + |    {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz
+        _/        sin z     _/ 0                 sin z
+         _
+        /[pi]/2             sin mz
+      + |     {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz
+       _/[mu]                sin z
+
+  where [mu] is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use
+  lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem,
+      _
+     /[pi]/2    sin mz      [pi]
+     |     F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0)
+    _/ 0         sin z        2
+         _
+        /[mu]                z   sin mz
+      = |    {F(z) - F(0)} ----- ------ dz
+       _/ [0]              sin z    z
+                              _                                            _
+                             /[xi]^1 sin mz                               /[pi]/2 sin mz
+      + {F([mu] + 0) - F(0)} |       ------ dz + {F (1/2[pi] - 0) - F(0)} |       ------ dz
+                            _/ [mu]   sin z                              _/[xi]^1  sin z
+
+  when [xi]^1 lies between [mu] and 1/2[pi]. When m is indefinitely
+  increased, the two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of
+  lemma (2). To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let
+  G/z = {F(z) - F(0)} (sin z/z), and observe that G(z) increases as z
+  increases from 0 to [mu], hence if we apply the mean value theorem
+        _                                  _
+    |  /[mu]        sin mz   |   |        /[mu] sin mz   |
+    |  |    G([mu]) ------ dz| = |G([mu]) |     ------ dz|
+    | _/ 0             z     |   |       _/[xi]    z     |
+                  _
+        |        /m[mu] sin[theta]         |
+      = |G([mu]) |      ---------- d[theta]| < [pi] G([mu]),
+        |       _/m[xi]   [theta]          |
+
+  where 0 < [xi] < [mu], since G(z) has the limit zero when z = 0. If
+  [epsilon] be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of
+  [mu] may be so chosen that [pi]G([mu)] < 1/2[epsilon], and thus that
+        _
+    |  /[mu]     sin mz   |
+    |  |    G(z) ------ dz| < 1/2[epsilon].
+    | _/0           z     |
+
+  When [mu] has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that
+        _
+    |  /1/2[pi]   sin mz      [pi]     |
+    |  |     F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [epsilon].
+    | _/0          sin z       2       |
+
+  It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased
+      _
+     /[pi]/2     sin mz      [pi]
+     |      F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0) has the limit zero.
+    _/ 0          sin z        2
+
+  Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of
+          _                             _
+      1  /[pi]/2     sin mz         1  /[pi]/2      sin mz
+    ---- |      F(z) ------ dz  + ---- |      F(-z) ------ dz
+    [pi]_/ 0          sin z       [pi]_/ 0           sin z
+
+  1/2{F(+0) + F(-0)}; hence the sum of n + 1 terms of the series
+         _                         _
+    1   / l            1          / l            n[pi](x - x^1)
+    --  |  [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] |  [f](x^1) cos ------------- dx
+    2l _/-l            l         _/-l                   l
+
+  converges to the value 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, or to [f](x) at
+  a point where [f](x) is continuous, provided [f](x) satisfies
+  Dirichlet's conditions for the interval from -l to l.
+
+  _Proof that Fourier's Series is in General Uniformly Convergent._--To
+  prove that Fourier's Series converges uniformly to its sum for all
+  values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods of the points
+  of discontinuity of [f](x) are excluded, we have
+        _
+    |  /[pi]/2   sin mz      [pi]     |                      4
+    |  |     F(z)------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [pi]G ([mu]) + ---------- {F([mu] + 0) - F(0)}
+    | _/          sin z        2      |                  m sin [mu]
+
+             4
+      + ------------ {F(1/2[pi] - 0) - F(0)}
+        m sin [xi]^1
+
+      [pi][mu]                                4
+    < -------- {[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)} + ---------- {[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)}
+      sin [mu]                             m sin [mu]
+
+             4
+      + ------------ {[f](x + [pi]) - [f](x)}
+        m sin [xi]^1
+
+  Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(-z), we have
+
+    |S_(2n+1)(x) - [f](x)| < [mu] cosec [mu] [|[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)|
+      + |[f](x - 2[mu]) - [f](x)|] + A|m cosec [mu],
+
+  where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any interval (a, b)
+  in which [f](x) is continuous, a value [mu]1 of [mu] can be chosen
+  such that, for every value of x in (a, b), |[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)|,
+  |[f](x - 2[mu]) - [f](x)| are less than an arbitrarily prescribed
+  positive number [epsilon], provided [mu] = [mu]1. Also a value [mu]2
+  of [mu] can be so chosen that [epsilon][mu]2 cosec [mu]2 < 1/2[eta],
+  where [eta] is an arbitrarily assigned positive number. Take for [mu]
+  the lesser of the numbers [mu]1, [mu]2, then |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| <
+  [eta] + A|m cosec [mu] for every value of x in (a, b). It follows
+  that, since [eta] and m are independent of x, |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| <
+  2[epsilon], provided n is greater than some fixed value n1 dependent
+  only on [epsilon]. Therefore S_(2n+1) converges to [f](x) uniformly in
+  the interval (a, b).
+
+  _Case of a Function with Infinities._--The limitation that [f](x) must
+  be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the
+  interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z) is
+  indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is
+
+  such that the limits of the two integrals [int][c to c[+-][epsilon]]
+  F(z) dz are both zero, as [epsilon] is indefinitely diminished, then
+
+      _
+     /[pi]/2     sin mz
+     |      F(z) ------ dz
+    _/ 0          sin z
+
+  denotes the limit when [epsilon] = 0, [epsilon]^1 = 0 of
+      _                          _
+     /c-[epsilon]   sin mz      /[pi]/2           sin mz
+     |         F(z) ------ dx + |            F(z) ------ dz,
+    _/ 0             sin z     _/c+[epsilon]^1     sin z
+
+  both these limits existing; the first of these integrals has
+  1/2[pi]F(+0) for its limiting value when m is indefinitely increased,
+  and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem therefore holds if
+  F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely integrable; this
+  will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point C is of the form
+  x(z)(z - c)^-[mu] + [psi](z), where [chi](c), [psi](c) are finite, and
+  0 < [mu] < 1. It is thus seen that [f](x) may have a finite number of
+  infinities within the given interval, provided the function is
+  integrable through any one of these points; the function is in that
+  case still representable by Fourier's Series.
+
+  _The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier's Series._--If
+  [f](x) is everywhere finite within the given interval -[pi] to +[pi],
+  it can be shown that a_n, b_n, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in
+  the series which represent the function, are such that na_n, nb_n,
+  however great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For
+  writing [f](x) = [f]1(x) - [f]2(x), we have
+      _                                       _                             _
+     /[pi]                                   /[xi]                         /[pi]
+     |    [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) |   cos nxdx + [f]1([pi] - 0) |   cos nxdx
+    _/-[pi]                                 _/-[pi]                       _/[xi]
+
+  hence
+      _
+     /[pi]                                   sin n[xi]                  sin n[xi]
+     |    [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) --------- + [f]1([pi] - 0) ---------
+    _/-[pi]                                      n                          n
+
+  with a similar expression, with [f]2(x) for [f]1(x), [xi] being
+  between [pi] and -[pi]; the result then follows at once, and is
+  obtained similarly for the other coefficient.
+
+  If [f](x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form [phi](x)/(x - c)^K
+  near the point c, where 0 < K < 1, the integral
+      _
+     /[pi]
+     |    [f](x)cos nxdx contains portions of the form
+    _/-[pi]
+      _                                       _
+     /[epsilon]+[epsilon]  [phi](x)          / c           [phi](x)
+     |                    --------- cos nxdx |            --------- cos nxdx;
+    _/ [c]                (x - c)^K         _/c-[epsilon] (x - c)^K
+
+  consider the first of these, and put x = c + u, it thus becomes
+      _
+     /[epsilon] [phi](c + u)
+     |          ------------ cos n(c + u) du, which is of the form
+    _/  0            u^K
+                                 _
+                                /[epsilon] cos n(c + u)
+    [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) |          ------------ du;
+                               _/  0           u^K
+
+  now let nu = v, the integral becomes
+                                 _           _                                _                  _
+                                |  cos nc   /n[epsilon]  cos v      sin nc   /n[epsilon] sin v    |
+    [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) |  -------  |            ----- dv - -------  |           ----- dv |;
+                                |_ n^(1-K) _/ 0           v^K       n^(1-K) _/ 0          v^K    _|
+
+  hence n^(1-K) [int]([pi] to -[pi]) [f](x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is
+  definitely increased, of the form
+              _        _                       _            _
+             |        /[oo] cos v             /[oo] sin v    |
+    [phi](c) | cos nc |     ----- dv - sin nc |     ----- dv |
+             |_      _/ 0    v^K             _/ 0    v^K    _|
+
+  which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known
+  value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer that
+  n^(1-K) a_n, n^(1-K) b_n are less than fixed finite numbers.
+
+  _The Differentiation of Fourier's Series._--If we assume that the
+  differential coefficient of a function [f](x) represented by a
+  Fourier's Series exists, that function [f]'(x) is not necessarily
+  representable by the series obtained by differentiating the terms of
+  the Fourier's Series, such derived series being in fact not
+  necessarily convergent. Stokes has obtained general formulae for
+  finding the series which represent f'(x), [f]"(x)--the successive
+  differential coefficients of a limited function [f](x). As an example
+  of such formulae, consider the sine series (1); [f](x) is represented
+  by
+                           _
+    2              n[pi]x /l            n[pi]x
+    -- [Sigma] sin ------ |  [f](x) sin ------ dx;
+    l                 l  _/0               l
+                                   _
+                                  /l          n[pi]x
+  on integration by parts we have | [f](x)sin ------ dx
+                                 _/0             l
+             _                                                                                  _
+        l   |                                       n[pi]a                                       |
+    = ----  | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} |
+      n[pi] |_                                         l                                        _|
+                _
+          l    /l             n[pi]x
+      + -----  |  [f]'(x) cos ------ dx
+        n[pi] _/0                l
+
+  where [alpha] represent the points where [f](x) is discontinuous.
+  Hence if f(x) is represented by the series [Sigma]a_n sin (n[pi]x/l),
+  and [f]'(x) by the series [Sigma]b_n cos (n[pi]x/l), we have the
+  relation
+                                _                                                                                     _
+          n[pi]             2  |                                      n[pi][alpha]                                     |
+    b_n = ----- [alpha]_n - -- | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma]cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f](alpha - 0)} |
+            l               l  |_                                           l                                         _|
+
+  hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and [f](+0)
+  [f](l - 0) are both zero, is the series which represents [f]'(x)
+  obtained at once by differentiating that which represents [f](x). The
+  form of the coefficient [alpha]_n discloses the discontinuities of the
+  function and of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the
+  integration by parts we find
+                       _                                                                                        _
+                  2   |                                       n[pi][alpha]                                       |
+    [alpha]_n = ----- | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} |
+                n[pi] |_                                           l                                            _|
+                    _                                                                                         _
+            2l     |                                         n[pi][beta]                                       |
+      + ---------  | [f]'(+0) [+-] [f]'(l - 0) + [Sigma] sin ----------- {[f]'([beta] + 0) - [f]'([beta] - 0)} | + &c.
+        n^2[pi]^2  |_                                             l                                           _|
+
+  where [beta] are the points at which [f]'(x) is discontinuous.
+
+
+  HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE THEORY
+
+  The history of the theory of the representation of functions by series
+  of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with the
+  progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function of a
+  real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function may
+  possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infinitesimal
+  calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in this
+  connexion (see FUNCTION). The representation of functions by these
+  series was first considered in the 18th century, in connexion with the
+  problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to the
+  possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747
+  (_Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin_, vol. iii.) D'Alembert showed that
+  the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a
+  differential equation of the form [delta]^y/[delta]t^2 = a^2
+  [delta]^y/[delta]x^2, where x is measured along the undisturbed length
+  of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of length l fixed, the
+  appropriate solution is y = [f](at + x) - [f](at - x), where [f] is a
+  function such that [f](x) = [f](x + 2l); in another memoir in the same
+  volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition. In the
+  year 1748 (_Berlin Memoirs_, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing the
+  problem, gave [f](x) = [alpha] sin [pi]x/l + [beta] sin 2[pi]x/l + ...
+  as a particular solution, and maintained that every curve, whether
+  regular or irregular, must be representable in this form. This was
+  objected to by D'Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground
+  that irregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (_Berlin
+  Memoirs_, vol. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on
+  physical intuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753). The
+  question was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in
+  a memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (_Miscellanea
+  Taurensia_, 1759; [_OE]uvres_, vol. i.), who, while criticizing
+  Euler's method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and
+  then makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite
+  fully carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli's
+  Series. These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of
+  a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a
+  discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of several
+  different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion of a broken
+  function was not generally admitted. The first cases in which rational
+  functions are expressed in sines and cosines were given by Euler
+  (_Subsidium calculi sinuum_, Novi Comm. Petrop., vol. v., 1754-1755),
+  who obtained the formulae
+
+    1/2 [phi] = sin [phi] - 1/2 sin 2[phi] + 1/3 sin 3[phi] ...
+
+    [pi]^2   [phi]^2
+    ------ - ------- = cos [phi] - 1/4 cos 2[phi] + 1/9 cos 3[phi] ...
+      12        4
+
+  In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777, but not
+  published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards used by
+  Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions; he
+  remarked that if [Phi] is expansible in the form
+                                                         _                           _
+                                                   1    /[pi]                  2    /[pi]
+    A + B cos[phi] + C cos 2[phi] + ..., then A = ----  |    [Phi]d[phi], B = ----  |   cos [phi]d[phi], &c.
+                                                  [pi] _/ 0                   [pi] _/ 0
+
+  The second period in the development of the theory commenced in 1807,
+  when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory of Heat to
+  the French Academy. His exposition of the present theory is contained
+  in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of which his great treatise
+  the _Theorie analytique de la chaleur_, published in 1822, is, in the
+  main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself to consider the
+  representation of a function given graphically, and was the first
+  fully to grasp the idea that a single function may consist of detached
+  portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He had an accurate conception
+  of the convergence of a series, and although he did not give a
+  formally complete proof that a function with discontinuities is
+  representable by the series, he indicated in particular cases the
+  method of procedure afterwards carried out by Dirichlet. As an
+  exposition of principles, Fourier's work is still worthy of careful
+  perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson's treatment of the
+  subject, which has been adopted in English works (see the _Journal de
+  l'ecole polytechnique_, vol. xi., 1820, and vol. xii., 1823, and also
+  his treatise, _Theorie de la chaleur_, 1835), depends upon the equality
+      _
+     /[pi]                         1 - h^2
+     |    [f]([alpha]) ------------------------------ d[alpha]
+    _/-[pi]            1 - 2h cos (x - [alpha]) + h^2
+
+                _                                            _
+          1    /[pi]                          1             /[pi]
+      = -----  |    [f]([alpha]) d[alpha] + ---- [Sigma]h^n |     [f]([alpha]) cos n(x - [alpha]) d[alpha]
+        2[pi] _/-[pi]                       [pi]           _/-[pi]
+
+  where 0 < h < 1; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is
+  evaluated when h=1, and found to be 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the
+  series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier's Series. The equality
+  of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed to be
+  convergent when h = 1, by a theorem of Abel's its sum is continuous
+  with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a proof of the
+  convergency for h = 1 is requisite for the validity of Poisson's
+  proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency, his proof of the
+  general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency cannot be removed
+  except by a process of the same nature as that afterwards applied by
+  Dirichlet. The definite integral has been carefully studied by Schwarz
+  (see two memoirs in his collected works on the integration of the
+  equation [delta]^2u/[delta]x^2 + [delta]^2u/[delta]y^2 = 0), who showed
+  that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner in
+  which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier's Series were
+  also given by Cauchy (see his "Memoire sur les developpements des
+  fonctions en series periodiques," _Mem. de l'Inst_., vol. vi., also
+  _Oeuvres completes_, vol. vii.); his method, which depends upon a use
+  of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification, as valid
+  by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer regarded as
+  satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory investigation is due
+  to Dirichlet; his first memoir appeared in _Crelle's Journal_ for
+  1829, and the second, which is a model of clearness, in Dove's
+  _Repertorium der Physik_. Dirichlet laid down certain definite
+  sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which is
+  expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value of the
+  sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet's determination of the sum of
+  the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized by Schlafli
+  (see _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond (_Mathem.
+  Annalen_, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really
+  indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a
+  misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if x1 be
+  the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach x1,
+  and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series takes
+  any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought to make x =
+  x1 first and afterwards n = [oo], and no other way of going to the
+  double limit is really admissible. Other papers by Dircksen (_Crelle_,
+  vol. iv.) and Bessel (_Astronomische Nachrichten_, vol. xvi.), on
+  similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance. Many
+  of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet's have the object of
+  freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed
+  upon it in Dirichlet's proof, but no complete set of necessary and
+  sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been
+  obtained. Lipschitz ("De explicatione per series trigonometricas,"
+  _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain
+  condition, a function which has an infinite number of maxima and
+  minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his
+  condition is that at the point of discontinuity [beta], |[f]([beta] +
+  [delta]) -f([beta])| < B[delta]^[alpha] as [delta] converges to zero,
+  B being a constant, and a a positive exponent. A somewhat wider
+  condition is
+
+    {[f]([beta] + [delta]) - [f]([beta])} log [delta]) = 0,
+                                      [delta] = 0
+
+  for which Lipschitz's results would hold. This last condition is
+  adopted by Dini in his treatise (_Sopra la serie di Fourier_, &c.,
+  Pisa, 1880).
+
+  The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publication by
+  Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written in 1854, _Uber
+  die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe_.
+  The first part of his memoir contains a historical account of the work
+  of previous investigators; in the second part there is a discussion of
+  the foundations of the Integral Calculus, and the third part is mainly
+  devoted to a discussion of what can be inferred as to the nature of a
+  function respecting the changes in its value for a continuous change
+  in the variable, if the function is capable of representation by a
+  trigonometrical series. Dirichlet and probably Riemann thought that
+  all continuous functions were everywhere representable by the series;
+  this view was refuted by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akad._ vol.
+  xii. 2). It was shown by Riemann that the convergence or
+  non-convergence of the series at a particular point x depends only
+  upon the nature of the function in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood
+  of the point x. The first to call attention to the importance of the
+  theory of uniform convergence of series in connexion with Fourier's
+  Series was Stokes, in his memoir "On the Critical Values of the Sums
+  of Periodic Series" (_Camb. Phil. Trans._, 1847; _Collected Papers_,
+  vol. i.). As the method of determining the coefficients in a
+  trigonometrical series is invalid unless the series converges in
+  general uniformly, the question arose whether series with coefficients
+  other than those of Fourier exist which represent arbitrary functions.
+  Heine showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxi., 1870, and in his
+  treatise _Kugelfunctionen_, vol. i.) that Fourier's Series is in
+  general uniformly convergent, and that if there is a uniformly
+  convergent series which represents a function, it is the only one of
+  the kind. G. Cantor then showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vols. lxxii.
+  lxxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be not demanded, there can
+  be but one convergent expansion for a function, and that it is that of
+  Fourier. In the _Math. Ann._ vol. v., Cantor extended his
+  investigation to functions having an infinite number of
+  discontinuities. Important contributions to the theory of the series
+  have been published by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akademie_,
+  vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in Crelle's Journal, vols. lxxiv.
+  lxxvi. lxxix.), by Kronecker (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by O. Holder
+  (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by Jordan (_Comptes rendus_, 1881, vol.
+  xcii.), by Ascoli (_Math. Annal._, 1873, and _Annali di matematica_,
+  vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (_Atti della R. Acc. di Torino_, vol. x.,
+  1875). Hamilton's memoir on "Fluctuating Functions" (_Trans. R.I.A._,
+  vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied with profit in this connexion. A
+  memoir by Broden (_Math. Annalen_, vol. lii.) contains a good
+  investigation of some of the most recent results on the subject. The
+  scope of Fourier's Series has been extended by Lebesgue, who
+  introduced a conception of integration wider than that due to Riemann.
+  Lebesgue's work on Fourier's Series will be found in his treatise,
+  _Lecons sur les series trigonometriques_ (1906); also in a memoir,
+  "Sur les series trigonometriques," _Annales sc. de l'ecole normale
+  superieure_, series ii. vol. xx. (1903), and in a paper "Sur la
+  convergence des series de Fourier," _Math. Annalen_, vol. lxiv.
+  (1905).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The foregoing historical account has been mainly drawn
+  from A. Sachse's work, "Versuch einer Geschichte der Darstellung
+  willkurlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigonometrische
+  Reihen," published in _Schlomilch's Zeitschrift fur Mathematik_,
+  Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G.A. Gibson "On the History
+  of the Fourier Series" (_Proc. Ed. Math. Soc._ vol. xi.). Reiff's
+  _Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen_ may also be consulted, and also
+  the first part of Riemann's memoir referred to above. Besides Dini's
+  treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment of the
+  subject from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann's treatise,
+  _Uber die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden
+  Entwickelungen_. Jordan's discussion of the subject in his _Cours
+  d'analyse_ is worthy of attention: an account of functions with
+  limited variation is given in vol. i.; see also a paper by Study in
+  the _Math. Annalen_, vol. xlvii. On the second mean-value theorem
+  papers by Bonnet (Brux. Memoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, _Lionville's
+  Journal_, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (_Crelle's Journal_,
+  vol. lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (_Zeitschrift fur Math. und Physik_,
+  vol. xiv., 1869), by Meyer (_Math. Ann._, vol. vi., 1872) and by
+  Holder (_Gottinger Anzeigen_, 1894) may be consulted; the most general
+  form of the theorem has been given by Hobson (_Proc. London Math.
+  Soc._, Series II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform
+  convergence of series, a memoir by W.F. Osgood (_Amer. Journal of
+  Math._ xix.) may be with advantage consulted. On the theory of series
+  in general, in relation to the functions which they can represent, a
+  memoir by Baire (_Annali di matematica_, Series III. vol. iii.) is of
+  great importance. Bromwich's _Theory of Infinite Series_ (1908)
+  contains much information on the general theory of series. Bocher's
+  "Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series," _Annals of Math._,
+  Series II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw's
+  _Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series and Integrals, and the
+  Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat_ (1906). A full account
+  of the theory will be found in Hobson's treatise _On the Theory of
+  Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier's Series_
+  (1907).     (E. W. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOURMIES, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on an
+affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906)
+13,308. It is one of the chief centres in France for wool combing and
+spinning, and produces a great variety of cloths. The glass-works of
+Fourmies date from 1599, and were the first established in the north of
+France. Iron is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges
+and foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour troubles
+brought about military intervention and consequent bloodshed. A board of
+trade arbitration and a school of commerce and industry are among the
+public institutions.
+
+
+
+
+FOURMONT, ETIENNE (1683-1745), French orientalist, was born at Herbelai,
+near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683. He studied at the College
+Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the College Montaigu, where his
+attention was attracted to Oriental languages. Shortly after leaving the
+college he published a _Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben
+Esra sur l'ecclesiast_e. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to assist
+a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar. Hoan-ji died
+in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont published _Meditationes
+Sinicae_ and in 1742 _Grammatica Sinica_. He also wrote _Reflexions
+critiques sur les histoires des anciens peuples_ (1735), and several
+dissertations printed in the _Memoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions.
+He became professor of Arabic in the College de France in 1715. In 1713
+he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member
+of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that of Berlin.
+He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745.
+
+His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1746), was also a member of the
+Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac language in the
+Royal College, and was sent by the government to copy inscriptions in
+Greece.
+
+  An account of Etienne Fourmont's life and a catalogue of his works
+  will be found in the second edition (1747) of his _Reflexions
+  critiques_.
+
+
+
+
+FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER (1801-1869), French geologist and
+metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on the 15th of May 1801. He was
+educated at the Ecole des Mines at Paris, and after considerable
+experience as a mining engineer he was in 1834 appointed professor of
+geology at Lyons. He was a man of wide knowledge and extensive research,
+and wrote memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive
+rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the Western
+Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolinization and on
+metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects also he was an
+acknowledged authority; and he published observations on the order of
+sulphurability of metals (_loi de Fournet_). He died at Lyons on the 8th
+of January 1869. His chief publications were: E_tudes sur les depots
+metalliferes_ (Paris, 1834); _Histoire de la dolomie_ (Lyons, 1847); _De
+l'extension des terrains houillers_ (1855); _Geologie lyonnaise_ (Lyons,
+1861).
+
+
+
+
+FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768), French engraver and typefounder, was
+born at Paris on the 15th of September 1712. He was the son of a
+printer, and was brought up to his father's business. After studying
+drawing under the painter Colson, he practised for some time the art of
+wood-engraving, and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and
+casting of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry
+became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries. Not
+content with his practical achievements, he sought to stimulate public
+interest in his art by the production of various works on the subject.
+In 1737 he published his _Table des proportions qu'il faut observer
+entre les caracteres_, which was followed by several other technical
+treatises. In 1758 he assailed the title of Gutenberg to the honour
+awarded him as inventor of printing, claiming it for Schoffer, in his
+_Dissertation sur l'origine et les progres de l'art de graver en bois_.
+This gave rise to a controversy in which Schopflin and Baer were his
+opponents. Fournier's contributions to this debate were collected and
+reprinted under the title of _Traites historiques et critiques sur
+l'origine de l'imprimerie_. His principal work, however, was the _Manuel
+typographique_, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764, the first volume
+treating of engraving and type-founding, the second of printing, with
+examples of different alphabets. It was the author's design to complete
+the work in four volumes, but he did not live to execute it. He died at
+Paris on the 8th of October 1768.
+
+
+
+
+FOURNIER L'HERITIER, CLAUDE (1745-1825), French revolutionist, called
+"l'Americain," was born at Auzon (Haute-Loire) on the 21st of December
+1745, the son of a poor weaver. He went to America to seek his fortune,
+and started at San Domingo an establishment for making _tafia_ (an
+inferior quality of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to
+France he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and
+specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the
+organization of the popular armed force by means of which the most
+famous of the revolutionary _coups_ were effected. His influence was
+principally manifested in the insurrections of the 5th and 6th of
+October 1789, the 17th of July 1791, and the 20th of June and the 10th
+of August 1792. He was on bad terms with the majority of the
+politicians, and particularly with Marat, and spent a great part of his
+time in prison, all the governments regarding him as an agitator and
+accusing him of inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time
+for trying to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from
+which he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from the
+12th of December 1793 to the 21st of September 1794, and again from the
+9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795. After the attempt on the
+First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise he was deported to Guiana, but
+was allowed to return to France in 1809. In 1811, while under
+surveillance at Auxerre, he was accused of having provoked an _emeute_
+against taxes known as the _droits reunis_ (afterwards called
+c_ontributions indirectes_), and was imprisoned in the Chateau d'If,
+where he remained till 1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons
+Fournier was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force.
+After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed his last
+years in importuning the Restoration government for compensation for his
+lost property in San Domingo. He died in obscurity.
+
+  For further details see preface to F.A. Aulard's edition of Fournier's
+  _Memoires secrets_ (Paris, 1890), published by the Societe de
+  l'histoire de la Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE (1836-1897), French politician,
+was born at Riberac (Dordogne) on the 3rd of January 1836, and
+represented his native department in the National Assembly after the
+Franco-German War. There he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made
+him minister of public works in December 1872. He was minister of
+religion in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the
+Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As minister of
+education, religion and the fine arts in the reconstructed cabinet of
+the duc de Broglie he had used his administrative powers to further
+clerical ends, and as minister of the interior in Broglie's cabinet in
+1877 he resumed the administrative methods of the Second Empire. With a
+well-known Bonapartist, Baron R.C.F. Reille, as his secretary, he
+replaced republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving a
+few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of that year he
+used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a majority for the Right,
+to support a clerical and reactionary programme. He accompanied Marshal
+MacMahon in his tour through southern France, and the presidential
+manifesto of September, stating that the president would rely solely on
+the Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally
+attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell, and a
+commission was appointed to inquire into their unconstitutional abuse of
+power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence of the revelations made in
+the report of the commission. In the Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave
+the lie direct to Fourtou's allegation that the republican party opposed
+every republican principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in
+consequence, but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to the
+chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year. Failing to secure
+re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered the popular chamber
+as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he took no further active part in
+politics. He died in Paris in 1897.
+
+  His works include _Histoire de Louis XVI_ (1840); _Histoire de Saint
+  Pie V_ (1845); _Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols., 1859);
+  _La Question italienne_ (1860); _De la contre-revolution_ (1876); and
+  _Memoires d'un royaliste_ (2 vols., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+FOUSSA, or FOSSA, the native name of _Cryptoprocta ferox_, a somewhat
+cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar, where it is the
+largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice the size of a cat (5 ft.
+from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform pale
+brown. Little is known of its habits, except that it is nocturnal,
+frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially kids, and shows
+great ferocity when wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the
+natives. An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly
+fourteen years. See CARNIVORA.
+
+
+
+
+FOWEY (usually pronounced _Foy_), a seaport and market-town in the
+Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western
+railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth. Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the
+west shore of the picturesque estuary of the river Fowey, close to the
+water's edge, and sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St
+Nicholas is said to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of
+a still older edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine
+tower and late Norman doorway. Within are a priest's chamber over the
+porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some curious
+monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the church, is a highly
+ornate Tudor building. A few ancient houses remain in the town. Deep-sea
+fishing is carried on; but the staple trade consists in the export of
+china clay and minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is
+easy of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state
+of the tide. St Catherine's Fort, dating from the days of Henry VIII.
+and now ruined, stands at the harbour's mouth, and once formed the main
+defence of the town. Opposite the town, and connected with it by
+Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan. Its main features are St
+Saviour's Chapel, with an ancient rood-stone, and the remains of Hall
+House, which was garrisoned during the civil wars of the 17th century.
+
+Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst Cornish ports
+from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the Tudors. The numerous
+references to the privateering exploits of its ships in the Patent and
+Close Rolls and the extraordinary number of them at the siege of Calais
+in 1346 alike testify to its importance. During this period the king's
+mandates were addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs,
+and no charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the
+reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common council
+consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these with a recorder
+elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey and Looe was summoned to
+a council at Westminster in 1340, but from that date until 1571, when it
+was entrusted with the privilege of returning two members, it had no
+parliamentary representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its
+members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a few years
+previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as lord of the manor,
+obtained the right to hold a Monday market and two fairs on the feasts
+of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the charter of 1690 provision was made
+for a Saturday market and three fairs, on the 1st of May, 10th of
+September and Shrove Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.
+
+
+
+
+FOWL (Dan. _Fugl_, Ger. _Vogel_), a term originally used in the sense
+that bird[1] now is, but, except in composition,--as sea-fowl, wild-fowl
+and the like,--practically almost confined[2] at present to designate
+the otherwise nameless species which struts on our dunghills, gathers
+round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry yards--the type of the genus
+_Gallus_ of ornithologists, of which four well-marked species are known.
+The _first_ of these is the red jungle-fowl of the greater part of
+India, _G. ferrugineus_,--called by many writers _G. bankiva_,--which is
+undoubtedly the parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin,
+_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits
+northern India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay
+Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the
+Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of 4000 ft.,
+and its southern limits in the west of India proper are, according to
+Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south of the Nerbudda, and
+in the east near the left bank of the Godavery, or perhaps even farther,
+as he had heard of its being killed at Cummum. This species resembles in
+plumage what is commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the
+"Black-breasted game" breed, and this is said to be especially the case
+with examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples from
+India some differences are observable--the latter having the plumage
+less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white, and slate-coloured
+legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are crimson, like the comb and
+wattles, and the legs yellowish. If the Malayan birds be considered
+distinct, it is to them that the name _G. bankiva_ properly applies.
+This species is said to be found in lofty forests and in dense thickets,
+as well as in ordinary bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near
+its haunts, it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in
+straggling parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives
+utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam, never
+prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds from January to
+July, according to the locality; and lays from 8 to 12 creamy-white
+eggs, occasionally scraping together a few leaves or a little dry grass
+by way of a nest. The so-called _G. giganteus_, formerly taken by some
+ornithologists for a distinct species, is now regarded as a tame breed
+of _G. ferrugineus_ or _bankiva_. The _second_ good species is the grey
+jungle-fowl, _G. sonnerati_, whose range begins a little to the
+northward of the limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern
+part of the Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock
+has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a horny
+plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very peculiar,
+being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike that of _G.
+ferrugineus_ and more like a cackle. The two species where their
+respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed in a wild state, and
+the present readily crosses in confinement with domestic poultry, but
+the hybrids are nearly always sterile. The _third_ species is the
+Sinhalese jungle-fowl, _G. stanleyi_ (the _G. lafayettii_ of some
+authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also greatly resembles in plumage
+some domestic birds, but the cock is red beneath, and has a yellow comb
+with a red edge and purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a
+singularly different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird
+crosses readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be
+infertile. The _fourth_ species, _G. varius_ (the _G. furcatus_ of some
+authors), inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This
+differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and in
+having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a single chin
+wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage is another easy mark of
+distinction. Hybrids between this species and domestic birds are often
+produced, but they are most commonly sterile. Some of them have been
+mistaken for distinct species, as those which have received the names of
+_G. aeneus_ and _G. temmincki_.
+
+Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls were first
+domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent thereto, and it is the
+tradition of the Chinese that they received their poultry from the West
+about the year 1400 B.C. By the Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is
+forbidden, though the wild is allowed to be eaten--showing that its
+domestication was accomplished when they were written. The bird is not
+mentioned in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has [Greek:
+'Alektor] (cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient
+Egyptian monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the
+Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece
+through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between the
+6th and 7th centuries B.C. It is sculptured on the Lycian marbles in the
+British Museum (c. 600 B.C.), and E. Blyth remarks (Ibis, 1867, p. 157)
+that it is there represented with the appearance of a true jungle-fowl,
+for none of the wild _Galli_ have the upright bearing of the tame breed,
+but carry their tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of
+these breeds see POULTRY.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Bird_ (cognate with _breed_ and _brood_) was originally the
+    young of any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament
+    speaks of "Wolf-birdis," i.e. Wolf-cubs.
+
+  [2] Like _Deer_ (Dan. _Dyr_, Ger. _Tier_). _Beast_, too, with some
+    men has almost attained as much specialization.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867), English architect, was born at Cullompton,
+Devon, on the 17th of May 1792. After serving an apprenticeship of five
+years at Exeter, he went to London in 1814, and entered the office of
+David Laing, where he remained till he commenced practice for himself.
+His first work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall
+Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the first
+premium for a design for the new London bridge, which, however, was
+ultimately built according to the design of another architect. Fowler's
+other designs for bridges include one constructed across the Dart at
+Totnes. He was also the architect for the markets of Covent Garden and
+Hungerford, the new market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and
+besides several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845), the
+London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax Chandlers'
+Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years he was honorary secretary
+of the institute of British architects, and he was afterwards created
+vice-president. He retired from his profession in 1853, and died at
+Great Marlow, Bucks, on the 26th of September 1867.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714), English divine, was born in 1632 at
+Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity College, Cambridge. He
+was successively rector of Norhill, Bedfordshire (1656) and of All
+Hallows, Bread Street, London (1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of
+Gloucester, his friend Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in
+his favour. In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after
+four years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration of
+Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced the London
+clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated bishop of
+Gloucester and held the see until his death on the 26th of August 1714.
+Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies, and his earliest book was a
+_Free Discourse_ in defence of _The Practices of Certain Moderate
+Divines called Latitudinarians_ (1670). _The Design of Christianity_,
+published by him in the following year, in which he laid stress on the
+moral design of revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his _How far
+Holiness is the Design of Christianity_ (1671) and by Bunyan in his
+_Defence of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith_ (1672), the latter
+describing the _Design_ as "a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and
+Quakerism," a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous
+pamphlet entitled _Dirt Wip'd Off_. He also published, in 1693,
+_Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity is
+endeavoured to be explained_, challenging with some success the Socinian
+position.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864), English inventor, was born at Melksham, Wilts,
+on the 11th of July 1826. He learned practical engineering at
+Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about 1850 invented a mechanical system for
+the drainage of land. In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation,
+and in 1858 the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of L500
+which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an economic
+substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he founded at Hunslet,
+Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manufacturers of agricultural
+machinery, traction engines, &c. He died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the
+4th of December 1864.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898), English civil engineer, was born on the
+15th of July 1817 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield, where his father was
+a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen he became a pupil of John
+Towlerton Leather, the engineer of the Sheffield water-works. The
+latter's uncle, George Leather, was engineer of the Great Aire and
+Calder Navigation Company, of the Goole Docks, and other similar works,
+and Fowler passed occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired
+a thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of railway
+construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers into its service,
+and one of his first employments was to oppose the route of the Midland
+railway, chosen by the Stephensons, which left Sheffield on a branch
+line, and was therefore strongly resented by the inhabitants. The
+prestige of the Stephensons carried all before it, but in later life Sir
+John Fowler had the satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients
+justified, and Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into
+the office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway engineers
+of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges for the line from
+London to Brighton, and also in surveying for railways in Lancashire. In
+1839 he went as representative of Mr Leather to take charge of the
+construction of the Stockton & Hartlepool railway and remained as
+manager of the line after it was finished. In 1844 he began his
+independent career as an engineer, and from the first was largely
+employed, more particularly in laying out the small railway systems
+which eventually were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester,
+Sheffield & Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a
+bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the Board of
+Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir) Lintorn Simmons.
+The engineering profession espoused Fowler's side in the controversy
+which followed, and as a result the verdict of the Board of Trade was
+modified. The episode was the beginning of a warm friendship between
+these distinguished representatives of civil and military engineering.
+Fowler was engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of
+underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly made not by
+tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and then covering in the
+permanent way; and he lived to be one of the engineers officially
+connected with the deep tunnelling "tube" system extensively adopted for
+electric railways in London. He was also engaged in the making of
+railways in Ireland, and in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on
+a commission to advise the government in respect of a proposal for a
+state-purchase of the Irish railway system. He also carried out
+considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and the
+reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.
+
+In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
+the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair. He was strongly
+opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to France, and in 1872 he
+endeavoured to obtain the consent of parliament to a Channel ferry
+scheme, whereby trains were to be transported across the strait in large
+ferry steamers. The proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at
+Dover and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing
+the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman of a
+committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled to render, in
+his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian government, which
+was much embarrassed by impracticable proposals pressed on it by
+Garibaldi for a rectification of the course of the Tiber and other
+engineering works. He had several interviews with the Italian patriot,
+and persuaded him of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby
+obtaining for the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme.
+For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser in
+Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the Sudan, and
+also the reparation of the barrage. These and many other plans came to
+an end owing to financial reasons. But the maps and surveys for the
+railway were given to the war office, and proved most useful to Lord
+Wolseley in his Nile expedition. For his service Fowler was made
+K.C.M.G. (1885). He was created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of
+the Forth bridge, of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was
+joint engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November 1898.
+
+
+
+
+FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born about the year
+1560. He attended St Leonard's college, St Andrews, between 1574 and
+1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris studying civil law. In 1581 he issued
+a pamphlet against John Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said,
+driven him from his country. He subsequently (about ?1590) became
+private secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of
+James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen went to
+England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant of 2000 acres in
+Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married Sir John Drummond, and was
+mother of the poet William Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of
+_The Triumphs of Petrarke_, Fowler styles himself "P. of Hawick," which
+has been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is
+doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled _The
+Tarantula of Love_, and a translation (1587) from the Italian of the
+_Triumphs of Petrarke_ are preserved in the library of the university of
+Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his nephew, William Drummond.
+Two other volumes of his manuscript notes, scrolls of poems, &c., are
+preserved among the Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of
+Antiquaries of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler's verses were published in
+1803 by John Leyden in his _Scottish Descriptive Poems_. Fowler
+contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.'s _Furies_; and James, in
+return, commended, in verse, Fowler's _Triumphs_.
+
+
+
+
+FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806), British statesman and orator, was the
+third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and his wife. Lady Caroline
+Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was
+born at 9 Conduit Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The
+father, who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him to
+choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wandsworth by a
+French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short time he asked to be
+sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At Eton he did no more work than
+was acceptable to him, but he had an inborn love of literature, and he
+laid the foundation of that knowledge of the classic languages which in
+after years was the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was
+controlled by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he checked
+his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his father trusted
+him to cure his defects.
+
+That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and magnanimous
+man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no one ever owed less to
+education or to family example. The relations of Lord Holland to his
+sons would be difficult to parallel. He not only treated them, and in
+particular Charles, as friends and companions in pleasure from the
+first, but he did his best to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he
+took Charles for a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most
+immoral society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble. The
+boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good fortune that he
+did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome course of ridicule by
+the other boys, and was flogged by Dr Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764
+Charles proceeded to Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he
+read literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to
+mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathematics
+entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense of Sir G.
+Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was known to maintain that it
+was useless. His own account of his school and college training, given
+in a letter to the same correspondent (6th August 1767), is: "I employed
+almost my whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical
+knowledge, but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand
+Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every part of
+useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how little advantage
+there is in being what at school and the university is called a good
+scholar: one receives a good deal of amusement from it, but that is all.
+At present I read nothing but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of,
+particularly of the poetry.... As for French, I am far from being so
+thorough a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I
+could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble,
+especially if I pass three or four months in France." The passage is
+characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature and his
+thoroughness. Fox's youth was disorderly, but it was never indolent. He
+was incapable of half doing anything which he did at all. He did perfect
+himself in French, and he showed no less determination to master mere
+sports. At a later period when he had grown fat he accounted for his
+skill in taking "cut balls" at tennis by saying that he was a very
+"painstaking man." He was all his life a great and steady walker.
+
+The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a common
+subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford and joined his
+father on the continent during a tour in France and Italy. In 1768 Lord
+Holland bought the pocket borough of Midhurst for him, and he entered on
+his parliamentary career, and on London society, in 1769. Within the
+next few years Lord Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that
+was good, and whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son.
+The affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the
+passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy proved the
+ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses, and bet on them largely.
+On the racecourse he was successful, and it is another proof of his
+native thoroughness that he gained a reputation as a handicapper. It is
+said that he won more than he lost on the course. At the gambling table
+he was unfortunate, and there can be little question that he was fleeced
+both in London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social
+rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worthlessness he
+knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his losses and their
+consequences with an attractive gaiety. He called the room in which he
+did business with the Jew moneylenders his "Jerusalem chamber." When his
+elder brother had a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that
+the boy was a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of
+the Jews. "He had his jest, and they had his estate." In 1774 Lord
+Holland had to find L140,000 to pay the gambling debts of his sons. For
+years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment, and during his later
+years, when he had given up gambling, he was supported by the
+contributions of wealthy friends, who in 1793 formed a fund of L70,000
+for his benefit.
+
+His public career did not supply him with a check on habits of
+dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He began, as
+was to be expected in his father's son, by supporting the court; and in
+1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed a junior lord of the
+admiralty with Lord North. During the violent conflict over the
+Middlesex election (see WILKES, JOHN) he took the unpopular side, and
+vehemently asserted the right of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes.
+In 1772 during the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver--a part of the
+"Wilkes and liberty" agitation--he and Lord North were attacked by a mob
+and rolled in the mud. But Fox's character was incompatible with
+ministerial service under King George III. The king, himself a man of
+orderly life, detested him as a gambler and a rake. And Fox was too
+independent to please a master who expected obedience. In February 1772
+he threw up his place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on
+which the king's heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord of
+the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his sympathy with
+the American colonies, which were now beginning to resist the claims of
+the mother country to tax them, made him intolerable to the king and he
+was dismissed in February 1774. The death of his father on the 1st of
+July of that year removed an influence which tended to keep him
+subordinate to the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into
+close alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability had
+won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had prepared to
+distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate cultivation of his
+voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill. His argumentative force was
+recognized at once, but the full scope of his powers was first shown on
+the 2nd of February 1775, when he spoke on the disputes with the
+colonies. The speech is unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it,
+told his friend Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, "taking
+the vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for
+regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies dreaded."
+
+His great political career dates from that day. It is unique among the
+careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was passed almost
+wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in 1782 and 1783, and
+again for a few months before his death in 1806, he was out of office.
+If he was absolutely sincere in the statement he made to his friend
+Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the 3rd of February 1778, his life was all
+he could have wished. "I am," he wrote, "certainly ambitious by nature,
+but I really have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have
+still as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because
+great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation I never
+can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making sacrifices that I
+never will make." His words show that he judged himself and read the
+future accurately. Yet it was certainly a cause of bitter disappointment
+to him that he had to stand by while the country was in his opinion not
+only misgoverned, but led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a
+political critic, which was great from the first and grew as he lived,
+most assuredly did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of
+the causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the purpose
+of obtaining practical success the most important, perhaps the only one
+of real importance, was his personal character. Lord John Russell
+(afterwards Earl Russell), his friendly biographer, has to confess that
+Fox might have joined in the confession of Mirabeau: "The public cause
+suffers for the immoralities of my youth." His reputation as a rake and
+gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his career that
+when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was a general belief
+among the vulgar that he had been detected in actual theft. His perfect
+openness, the notoriety of his bankruptcies and of the seizure of his
+books and furniture in execution, kept him before the world as a model
+of dissipation. In 1776, when he was leading the resistance to Lord
+North's colonial policy, he "neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish
+life. He was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it
+before two at noon." At the most important crisis of his life in 1783,
+he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not only
+to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has drawn a picture
+of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox's beloved and admiring
+nephew, speaking from his early recollections of his uncle, confesses
+has "some justification." Coming from such an authority the certificate
+may be held to confirm the substantial accuracy of Walpole. "Fox lodged
+in St James's Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a
+levee of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks's--all his
+disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite open and
+rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul linen nightgown
+and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic weeds and with Epicurean
+good humour did he dictate his politics, and in this school did the heir
+of the empire attend his lessons and imbibe them." That this cynic
+manner, and Epicurean speech, were only the outside of a manly and
+generous nature was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is
+now universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries, who
+could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously displayed, Fox
+was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral and untrustworthy.
+Therefore when he came into collision with the will of the king he
+failed to secure the confidence of the nation which was his only
+support. Nor ought any critical admirer of Fox to deny that George III.
+was not wholly wrong when he said that the great orator "was totally
+destitute of discretion and sound judgment." Fox made many mistakes, due
+in some cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be
+ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes is a very
+insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical statesman. He
+could have profited by the reaction which followed popular excitement
+but for his bad reputation and his want of discretion.
+
+During the eight years between his expulsion from office in 1774 and the
+fall of Lord North's ministry in March 1782 he may indeed be said to
+have done one very great thing in politics. He planted the seed of the
+modern Liberal party as opposed to the pure Whigs. In political
+allegiance he became a member of the Rockingham party and worked in
+alliance with the marquis and with Burke, whose influence on him was
+great. In opposing the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in
+assailing the waste and corruption of Lord North's administration, as
+well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the
+Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption, and in favour
+of honest management of the public money, which was very strong between
+1779 and 1782, he and they worked heartily together. It had a
+considerable effect, and prepared the way for the reforms begun by Burke
+and continued by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with
+originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement as final,
+or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House of Commons
+could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction that, if the House
+was to be made an efficient instrument for restraining the interference
+of the king and for securing good government, it must cease to be filled
+to a very large extent by the nominees of boroughmongers and the
+treasury. He became a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all
+ways he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been known
+as "Liberal causes," the removal of all religious disabilities and
+tests, the suppression of private interests which hampered the public
+good, the abolition of the slave trade, and the emancipation of all
+classes and races of men from the strict control of authority.
+
+A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would entail the
+mention of every crisis of the American War of Independence and of every
+serious debate in parliament. Throughout the struggle Fox was uniformly
+opposed to the coercion of the colonies and was the untiring critic of
+Lord North. While the result must be held to prove that he was right, he
+prepared future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He
+was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim that an
+enemy should always be treated as if he may one day be a friend, and a
+friend as if he might become an enemy. On the 29th of November 1779 Fox
+was wounded in a duel with Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North's
+whom he had savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured
+invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal
+character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an amiable
+though pliable man, who remained in office against his own wish, in
+deference to the king who appealed to his loyalty. When the disasters of
+the American war had at last made a change of ministry necessary, and
+the king applied to the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord
+Shelburne, Fox made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of
+Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign. The
+result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox's own words,
+partly to the king and partly to the country--that is to say, partly of
+Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and partly of the king's friends,
+represented by Lord Shelburne, whose real function was to baffle the
+Whigs. Dissensions began from the first, and were peculiarly acute
+between Shelburne and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old
+division of duties by which the southern secretary had the
+correspondence with the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and
+the northern secretary with the others, had been abolished on the
+formation of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted
+to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the peace at
+Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some rather scandalous
+pensions, and Fox's acquiescence in this abuse after his recent
+agitation against Lord North's waste did him injury. When the marquess
+of Rockingham died on the 1st of July 1782, and the king offered the
+premiership to Shelburne, Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of
+the Rockingham Whigs.
+
+In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly consistent, but
+his next step was ruinous to himself and his party. On the 14th of
+February 1783 he formed a coalition with Lord North, based as they
+declared on "mutual goodwill and confidence." Plausible excuses were
+made for the alliance, but to the country at large this union, formed
+with a man whom he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an
+unscrupulous conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the House of
+Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive Shelburne from office
+on the 24th of February. The king made a prolonged resistance to the
+pressure put on him to accept Fox and North as his ministers (see PITT,
+WILLIAM). On the 2nd of April he was constrained to submit to the
+formation of a new ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime
+minister and Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new
+administration was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox
+increased its unpopularity both in the House and in the country by
+consenting against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the
+grant of a sum of L100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had
+the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on bad terms
+with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his acquiescence in the
+grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry, convinced the country that
+his zeal for economy was hypocritical. The introduction of the India
+Bill in November 1783 alarmed many vested interests, and offended the
+king by the provision which gave the patronage of India to a commission
+to be named by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The
+coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of most
+telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the growing unpopularity
+of his ministers, George III. gave it to be understood that he would not
+look upon any member of the House of Lords who voted for the India Bill
+as his friend. The bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of
+December, and next day the king dismissed his ministers.
+
+Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his life may be
+divided into four portions--his opposition to Pitt during the session of
+1784; his parliamentary activity till his secession in 1797; his
+retirement till 1800; his return to activity and his short tenure of
+office before his death in 1806. During the first of these periods he
+deepened his unpopularity by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the
+crown, by claiming for the House of Commons the right to override not
+only the king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by
+resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from a
+statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He lost ground
+daily before the steady good judgment and unblemished character of Pitt.
+When parliament was dissolved at the end of the session of 1784, the
+country showed its sentiments by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox
+and North. Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book
+called _The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke_, a compilation of their
+abuse of one another in recent years.
+
+Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes than Admiral
+Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial candidate, Sir Cecil
+Wray. The election was marked by an amazing outflow of caricatures and
+squibs, by weeks of rioting in which Lord Hood's sailors fought pitched
+battles in St James's Street with Fox's hackney coachmen, and by the
+intrepid canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire
+(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for Fox by
+kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what constituted a
+desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make a return, and the
+confirmation of Fox's election was delayed by the somewhat mean action
+of the ministry. He had, however, been chosen for Kirkwall, and could
+fight his cause in the House. In the end he recovered damages from the
+high bailiff. In his place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and
+sometimes opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers' bill
+for the government of India was sound in principle, though the evils he
+foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for his opposition to
+Pitt's commercial policy towards Ireland. But as Fox on this occasion
+aided the vested interests of some English manufacturers he secured a
+certain revival of popularity. His support of Pitt's Reform Bill was
+qualified by a just dislike of the ministers' proposal to treat the
+possession of the franchise by a constituency as a property and not as a
+trust. His unsuccessful opposition to the commercial treaty with France
+in 1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed himself
+to the proposition that France was the natural enemy of Great Britain, a
+saying often quoted against him in coming years. It has been excused on
+the ground that when he said France he meant the aggressive house of
+Bourbon. A statesman whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric
+meaning cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788 he
+travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the illness of
+the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of Wales to the regency
+as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt into declaring that he would
+"unwhig the gentleman for the rest of his life." The friendship between
+him and the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) was always injurious to
+Fox. In 1787 he was misled by the prince's ambiguous assurances into
+denying the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had
+been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a year, but
+their alliance was renewed. During these years he was always in favour
+of whatever measures could be described as favourable to emancipation
+and to humanity. He actively promoted the impeachment of Warren
+Hastings, which had the support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the
+abolition of the slave trade (which he actually effected during his
+short tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of
+concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and in
+Ireland.
+
+The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together with almost all
+his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the states-general in 1789 as
+the downfall of a despotism hostile to Great Britain. But when the
+development of the Revolution caused a general reaction, he adhered
+stoutly to his opinion that the Revolution was essentially just and
+ought not to be condemned for its errors or even for its crimes. As a
+natural consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt's foreign policy,
+which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in the
+interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his unpopularity reached
+its height. He was left almost alone in parliament, and was denounced as
+the enemy of his country. On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful
+scene in the House of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship.
+In 1792 there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt,
+which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with Burke took
+place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill, in which Fox
+displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the division of Upper from
+Lower Canada, and other provisions of the bill, which in the end proved
+so injurious as to be unworkable. In this year he carried the Libel
+Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke of Portland, and most of his party left
+him. In 1797 he withdrew from parliament, and only came forward in 1798
+to reaffirm the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great
+Whig dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy council.
+
+The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life. In 1783
+he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane, commonly known as Mrs
+Armstead or Armistead, an amiable and well-mannered woman to whom he
+was passionately attached. In company with her he established himself at
+St Anne's Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her
+privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters he
+spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends--Mr Coke
+of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he stayed every year,
+being one of them--would not invite her to their houses. It is hard to
+explain this solitary instance of shabby conduct in a thoroughly
+generous man towards a person to whom he was unalterably attached and
+who fully deserved his affection. Fox's time at St Anne's was largely
+spent in gardening, in the enjoyment of the country, and in
+correspondence on literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord
+Holland, and with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His
+letters show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened
+appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first
+favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in French,
+and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite authors were
+Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends against the stock
+criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with equal zeal and insight.
+
+Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of censure on
+ministers for declining Napoleon's overtures for a peace. The fall of
+Pitt's first ministry and the formation of the Addington cabinet, the
+peace of Amiens, and the establishment of Napoleon as first consul with
+all the powers of a military despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of
+resuming power in public life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over,
+and he could have no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful
+general who ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual
+aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his wife. An
+account of his journey was published in 1811 by his secretary, Mr
+Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence. It gives an
+attractive picture of Fox's good-humour, and of his enjoyment of the
+"species of minor comedy which is constantly exhibited in common life."
+His main purpose in visiting Paris was to superintend the transcription
+of the correspondence of Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life
+of James II. The book was never finished, but the fragment he completed
+was published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand Carrel
+in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon. He saw a good
+deal of French society, and was himself much admired for his hearty
+defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish charge of encouraging plots
+for Napoleon's assassination. On his return he resumed his regular
+attendance in the House of Commons. The history of the renewal of the
+war, of the fall of Addington's ministry, and of the formation of Pitt's
+second administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt
+(q.v.) that it need not be repeated here.
+
+The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in public life
+that the king could no longer hope to exclude him from office. The
+formation of a ministry was entrusted by the king to Lord Grenville, but
+when he named Fox as his proposed secretary of state for foreign affairs
+George III. accepted him without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a
+large extent to have died out. A long period of office might now have
+appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had he lived
+it may be considered as certain that the war with Napoleon would have
+been conducted with a vigour which was much wanting during the next few
+years. In domestic politics Fox had no time to do more than insist on
+the abolition of the slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to
+the king's invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the
+Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself Guillet de la
+Gevrilliere, whom Fox at first "did the honour to take for a spy," came
+to him with a scheme for the murder of Napoleon, he sent a warning on
+the 20th of February to Talleyrand. The incident gave him an opportunity
+for reopening negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and
+British envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the
+French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved not to treat
+apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain, nor to consent to
+the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted upon, unless full
+compensation could be obtained for King Ferdinand. The later stages of
+the negotiation were not directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took
+over his work at the foreign office when his health began to fail in the
+summer of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only
+procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for the
+abolition of the slave trade on the 10th of June, he was forced to give
+up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of the duke of
+Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September 1806. His wife
+survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No children were born of the
+marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster Abbey by the side of Pitt.
+
+The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered very familiar
+by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The latter were no doubt
+deliberately exaggerated, and yet a comparison between the head of Fox
+in Sayer's plate "Carlo Khan's triumphal entry into Leadenhall," and in
+Abbot's portrait, shows that the caricaturist did not depart from the
+original. Fox was twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young
+in a group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways, and once
+at full length. A half-length portrait by the German painter, Karl Anton
+Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery, where there is also a
+terra-cotta bust by Nollekens.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The materials for a life of Fox were first collected by
+  his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged by Mr
+  Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as _Memoirs and
+  Correspondence of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1853-1857). On them Lord John
+  Russell based his _Life and Times of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1859-1866);
+  Sir G.O. Trevelyan's _Early History of C.J. Fox_ (London. 1880) brings
+  new evidence; _Charles James Fox, a Political Study_, by J.L. Le B.
+  Hammond (London, 1903), is a series of studies written by an extreme
+  admirer. His _Speeches_ were collected and published in 1815. The
+  newspaper articles (e.g. in _The Times_) published on the occasion of
+  the centenary of his death contain interesting appreciations. See also
+  Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_ (1908).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born about 1496 at
+Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very doubtful authority to
+have been related to Richard Fox (q.v.). From Eton he proceeded to
+King's College, Cambridge, and after graduating was made secretary to
+Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement
+VII. a decretal commission for the trial and decision of the case
+between Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was
+elected provost of King's College, and in August 1529 was the means of
+conveying to the king Cranmer's historic advice that he should apply to
+the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This introduction
+led eventually to Cranmer's promotion over Fox's head to the
+archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission to Paris in October
+1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended Latimer at Cambridge and took an
+active part in persuading that university and Oxford to decide in the
+king's favour. He was sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at
+the French universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in
+negotiating a closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he
+was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity of
+Henry's marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his treatise _De
+vera differentia regiae potestatis et ecclesiae_ (second ed. 1538,
+English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical preferments were now
+granted him, including the archdeaconry of Leicester (1531) and the
+bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-1536 he was sent to Germany to
+discuss the basis of a political and theological understanding with the
+Lutheran princes and divines, and had several interviews with Luther,
+who could not be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII.'s divorce. The
+principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of 1536,
+which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles of the same
+year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his _Commentaries on the Gospels_,
+and Fox's Protestantism was also illustrated by his patronage of
+Alexander Aless, whom he defended before Convocation. Fox is credited
+with the authorship of several proverbial sayings, such as "the surest
+way to peace is a constant preparedness for war" and "time and I will
+challenge any two in the world." The former at any rate is only a
+variation of the Latin _si vis pacem, para bellum_, and probably the
+latter is not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is
+usually ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the
+church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is perhaps
+that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.'s bishops, and was largely
+responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.
+
+  See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper's
+  _Athenae Cantabrigienses_; _Dict. Nat. Biogr._; R.W. Dixon's _Church
+  History_; G. Mentz, _Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536_ (1905).
+       (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35925.txt or 35925.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/2/35925/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35925.zip b/35925.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dedc8ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35925.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93eaacd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #35925 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35925)