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diff --git a/35925.txt b/35925.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3115a67 --- /dev/null +++ b/35925.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18989 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6 + "Foraminifera" to "Fox, Edward" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 20, 2011 [EBook #35925] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [int] stands for the integral symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for + greek letters and [oo] for infinity. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE FORESTS AND FORESTRY: "These trees will all be of + increasing importance." 'will' amended from 'wil'. + + ARTICLE FORM : "All perception is necessarily conditioned by pure + 'forms of sensibility,' i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived + is perceived as having spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE + AND TIME; KANT)." 'spacial' amended from 'special'. + + ARTICLE FORMOSA: "The vegetation of the island is characterized by + tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense + forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (Laurus + Camphora), and the aloe are conspicuous." 'mountainous' amended + from 'moutainous'. + + ARTICLE FORMOSA: "... in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the + east coast, where subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the + settlement was maintained for thirty-seven years." 'thirty' amended + from 'thrity'. + + ARTICLE FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM: "At Cassel Forster formed an + intimate friendship with the great anatomist Sommerring, and about + the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him a + leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently emancipated + himself." 'subsequently' amended from 'subequently'. + + ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "At the sieges of Tyre and + Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of + the ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the + walls." 'Nebuchadnezzar' amended from 'Nebuchadrezzar'. + + ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "The Germanic Confederation + reinforced Mainz with improved works, and reorganized entirely + Rastatt and Ulm." 'entirely' amended from 'enentirely'. + + ARTICLE FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT: "For the fate of the fortress + must depend ultimately on the result of the operations of the + active armies." 'ultimately' amended from 'utlimately'. + + ARTICLE FOSCOLO, UGO: "... found their final resting-place beside + the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of Michelangelo and + Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa Croce." + 'Machiavelli' amended from 'Macchiavelli'. + + ARTICLE FOSSANO: "It appears as a commune in 1237, but in 1251 had + to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to Filippo + d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy." + 'Filippo' amended from 'Fillippo'. + + ARTICLE FOURIER'S SERIES: "Besides Dini's treatise already referred + to, there is a lucid treatment of the subject from an elementary + point of view in C. Neumann's treatise, Uber die nach Kreis-, + Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden Entwickelungen." + 'subject' amended from 'subejct'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME X, SLICE VI + + Foraminifera to Fox, Edward + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FORAMINIFERA FORT LEE + FORBACH FORT MADISON + FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE FORTROSE + FORBES, ARCHIBALD FORT SCOTT + FORBES, DAVID FORT SMITH + FORBES, DUNCAN FORTUNA + FORBES, EDWARD FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS + FORBES, JAMES DAVID FORTUNATUS + FORBES, SIR JOHN FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS CLEMENTIANUS + FORBES (town) FORTUNE, ROBERT + FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO + FORBIN, CLAUDE DE FORT WAYNE + FORCELLINI, EGIDIO FORT WILLIAM (Ontario, Canada) + FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG FORT WILLIAM (Scotland) + FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM FORT WORTH + FORCHHEIM FORTY + FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW FORUM + FORD, JOHN FORUM APPII + FORD, RICHARD FORUM CLODII + FORD, THOMAS FORUM TRAIANI + FORDE, FRANCIS FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY + FORDHAM FOSCARI, FRANCESCO + FORDUN, JOHN OF FOSCOLO, UGO + FORECLOSURE FOSS, EDWARD + FOREIGN OFFICE FOSSANO + FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH FOSSANUOVA + FORESHORE FOSSE WAY + FORESTALLING FOSSICK + FOREST LAWS FOSSOMBRONE + FORESTS AND FORESTRY FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO + FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE + FORFAR FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS + FORFARSHIRE FOSTER, JOHN + FORFEITURE FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL + FORGERY FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET + FORGET-ME-NOT FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS + FORGING FOSTORIA + FORK FOTHERGILL, JOHN + FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS FOTHERINGHAY + FORLI FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON + FORLIMPOPOLI FOUCHE, JOSEPH + FORLORN HOPE FOUCHER, SIMON + FORM FOUCQUET, JEAN + FORMALIN FOUGERES + FORMAN, ANDREW FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE + FORMAN, SIMON FOULD, ACHILLE + FORMERET FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT + FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS + FORMIA FOUNDATION + FORMIC ACID FOUNDATIONS + FORMOSA (territory of Argentine) FOUNDING + FORMOSA (Taiwan) FOUNDLING HOSPITALS + FORMOSUS FOUNTAIN + FORMULA FOUNTAINS ABBEY + FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO FOUQUE, FERDINAND ANDRE + FORRES FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE + FORREST, EDWIN FOUQUET, NICOLAS + FORREST, SIR JOHN FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN + FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD FOURCHAMBAULT + FORSKAL, PETER FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS + FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE + FORST FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH + FORSTER, FRANCOIS FOURIER'S SERIES + FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH FOURMIES + FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM FOURMONT, ETIENNE + FORSTER, JOHN FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER + FORSTER, JOHN COOPER FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON + FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD FOURNIER L'HERITIER, CLAUDE + FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE + FORTALEZA FOUSSA + FORT AUGUSTUS FOWEY + FORT DODGE FOWL + FORT EDWARD FOWLER, CHARLES + FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (lawyer) FOWLER, EDWARD + FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (statesman) FOWLER, JOHN + FORTEVIOT FOWLER, SIR JOHN + FORT GEORGE FOWLER, WILLIAM + FORTH FOX, CHARLES JAMES + FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT FOX, EDWARD + FORTLAGE, KARL + + + + +FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa, the name selected +for this enormous class being that given by A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the +shells characteristic of the majority of the species. He regarded them +as minute Cephalopods, whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina). +Later on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working on +living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized by +pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm) as organs of +prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter in 1862 differentiated the +group nearly in its present limits as "Reticularia"; and since then it +has been rendered more natural by the removal of a number of simple +forms (mostly freshwater) with branching but not reticulate pseudopods, +to Filosa, a distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the +restricted class of Rhizopoda. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1A.--_Lieberkuhnia_, with reticulate pseudopodia.] + +_Anatomy._--Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic bodies of +_granular surface_, emitting processes which branch and _anastomose +freely_, either from the whole surface or from one or more elongated +processes ("stylopods"); nucleus one or more (not yet demonstrated in +some little known simple forms), usually in genetic relation to granules +or strands of matter of similar composition, the "chromidia" scattered +through the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent +investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous (of +compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely (in deep sea +forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but _never latticed_; +opening by one or more permanent apertures ("pylomes") or crevices +between compacted sand-granules, often very complex; reproduction by +fission (only in simplest naked forms), or by brood formation; in the +latter case one mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform +embryos, the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous +gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the coupled cell +("zygote") when mature in the shelled species gives rise to a very small +primitive test-chamber or "microsphere." The adult microspheric animal +gives rise to the amoebiform brood which have a larger primitive test +("megalosphere"); and megalospheric forms appear to reproduce by the A +type a series of similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally +borne, to pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is +consequently rare. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1B.--_Protomyxa aurantiaca_, Haeck. (After Haeckel.) + + 1, Adult, containing two diatom frustules, and three Tintinnid + ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate just caught by the expanded + reticulate pseudopodia. + 2, Adult encysted and segmented. + 3, Flagellate zoospore just freed from cyst. + 4, Zoospore which has passed into the amoeboid state.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Allogromiidea._ + + 1, _Diplophrys archeri_, Barker. + a, Nucleus. + b, Contractile vacuoles. + c, The yellow oil-like body. Moor pools, Ireland. + + 2, _Allogromia oviformis_, Duj. + a, The numerous nuclei; near these the elongated bodies represent + ingested diatoms. Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11, 12 belong to Rhizopoda + Filosa, and are included here to show the characteristic _filose_ + pseudopodia in contrast with the reticulate spread of the others. + + 3, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_, Siddall (_Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci._, + 1880). + + Marine. The protoplasm is retracted at both ends into the tubular + case. + a. Nucleus. + + 5, _Shepheardella taeniiformis_; with pseudopodia fully expanded. + + 6-10, Varying appearance of the nucleus as it is carried along in the + streaming protoplasm within the tube. + + 11, _Amphitrema wrightianum_, Archer, showing membranous shell + encrusted with foreign particles. Moor pools, Ireland. + + 12, _Diaphorophodon mobile_, Archer. + a. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.] + +The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they are +membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always very simple, +the only complication being the doubling of the pylome in _Diplophrys_ +(fig. 2, 1), _Shepheardella_ (fig. 2, 3-5), _Amphitrema_ (fig. 2, 11), +_Diaphorophodon_ (fig. 2, 12). The marine shells are, as we have seen, +of cemented particles, or calcareous, glassy, and regularly perforated, +or again calcareous, but porcellanous and rarely perforate. These +characters have been used as a guide to classification; but some sandy +forms have so large a proportion of calcareous cement that they might +well be called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very +constant in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous +genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the shell by +silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean abysses, where +calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making any difficulty. +Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected process or neck of +the embryonic chamber ("camptopyle") at least in the megalospheric +forms, whereas when such a neck exists in other groups it is straight. +The opening of the shell is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole +where the lateral walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic +ingrowth so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded +opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, 1); or +replaced by a number of coarse pores ("ethmopyle") (fig. 3, 5a). Again, +it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube ("stylopyle"), which in +_Lagena_ (fig. 3, 9) may project outwards ("ectoselenial"), or inwards +("entoselenial"). In most groups the stylopyle is straight; but in the +majority of the porcellanous shells it is bent down on the side of the +shell, and constitutes the "flexopyle" of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid +term should be replaced by "camptopyle." The animal usually forms a +simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this +"embryonic chamber" cannot grow further. In _Spirillina_ and +_Ammodiscus_ there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell continues to +grow as a spiral tube; in _Cornuspira_ (fig. 3, 1) there is a slight +constriction indicating the junction of a small embryonic chamber with a +camptopyle, but the rest of the shell is a simple flat spiral of several +turns. In the majority at least one chamber follows the first, with its +own pylome at the distal end. This second chamber may rest on the first, +so that the part on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the +front of the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this +state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the highest +vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete "proper wall"; +while a "supplementary skeleton," a deposit of shelly matter, binds the +chambers together into a compact whole. In all cases the protoplasm from +the pylome may deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so +as to produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera. + + 1, _Cornuspira_. 11, _Cristellaria_. + 2, _Spiroloculina_. 12, _Globigerina_. + 3, _Triloculina_. 13, _Polymorphina_. + 4, _Biloculina_. 14, _Textularia_. + 5, _Peneroplis_. 15, _Discorbina_. + 6, _Orbiculina_ (cyclical). 16, _Polystomella_. + 7, _Orbiculina_ (young). 17, _Planorbulina_. + 8, _Orbiculina_ (spiral). 18, _Rotalia_. + 9, _Lagena_. 19, _Nonionina_. + 10, _Nodosaria_.] + +Compound or "polythalamic" shells derive their general form largely from +the relations of successive chambers in size, shape and direction. This +is well shown in the porcellanous _Miliolidae_. If we call the straight +line uniting the two ends of a chamber the "polar axis," we find that +successive chambers have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie +on different meridians. In _Spiroloculina_ (fig. 3, 2) the divergence +between the meridians is 180 deg., and the chambers are strongly +incurved, so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly +circular outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic +in section, their transverse prolongations being termed "alary" +outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under this +condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180 deg. we have +the form _Biloculina_ (fig. 3, 4), or with the alary extensions +completely enveloping, _Uniloculina_; when the angle is 120 deg. we have +_Triloculina_, or 144 deg., _Quinqueloculina_. Again in _Peneroplis_ +(figs. 3, 5, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which tends to +straighten out with further growth and additional chambers. In some +forms (_Spirolina_, fig. 22, 3) the chambers have a nearly circular +transverse section, and the adult shell is thus crozier-shaped. In +others (which may have the same sculpture, and are scarcely +distinguishable as species) the chambers are short and wide, drawn out +at right angles to the axis, but in the plane of the spiral, and the +growing shell becomes fan-shaped or "flabelliform" (figs. 3, 5, 4, 2). +This widening may go on till the outer chambers form the greater part of +a circle, as in _Orbiculina_ (fig. 3, 6-8) where, moreover, each large +chamber is subdivided by incomplete vertical bulkheads into a tier of +chamberlets; each chamberlet has a distinct pylomic pore opening to the +outside or to those of the next outer zone. In _Orbitolites_ (figs. 5, +6) we have a centre on a somewhat Milioline type; and after a few +chambers in spiral succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. +In the larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal +bulkheads divide the + +chamberlets into vertical tiers, each with its own pylomic pore. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Modifications of _Peneroplis_. 1, _Dendritina_; +2, _Eu-Peneroplis_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Shell of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing +primordial chamber a, and circumambient chamber b, surrounded by +successive rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which +open at the margin by pores.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Animal of simple type of _Orbitolites_, showing +primordial segment a, and circumambient segment b, surrounded by annuli +of sub-segments connected by radial and circular stolon-processes.] + +The Cheilostomellidae (fig. 3, 13) reproduce among perforate vitreous +genera what we have already seen in the _Miliolida_: _Orbitoides_ (fig. +10, 2) and _Cycloclypeus_, among the Nummulite group, with a very finely +perforate wall, recall the porcellanous _Orbiculina_ and _Orbitolites_. + +In flat spiral forms (figs. 22, 1, 7; 3, 2, 16, 19, &c.) all the +chambers may be freely exposed; or the successive chambers be wider +transversely than their predecessors and overlap by "alary extensions," +becoming "nautiloid"; in extreme cases only the last turn or whorl is +seen (fig. 11). When the spiral axis is conical the shell may be +"rotaloid," the larger lower chambers partially concealing the upper +smaller ones (fig. 3, 12, 15, 17, 18); or they may leave, as in +_Patellina_, a wide central conical cavity--which, in this genus, is +finally occupied by later formed "supplementary" chambers. When the +successive chambers are disposed around a longitudinal central axis they +may be said to "alternate" like the leaves of a plant. If the +arrangement is distichous we get such forms as _Polymorphina_, +_Textularia_ and _Frondicularia_ (fig. 3, 13, 14), if tristichous, +_Tritaxia_. Such an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the +axis for at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped +_Spiroplecta_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of _Rotalia beccarii_, showing the canal +system, a, b, c, in the substance of the intermediate skeleton; d, +tubulated chamber-wall.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Internal cast of _Polystomella craticulata_. + + a, Retral processes, proceeding from the posterior margin of one of + the segments. + b, b^1, Smooth anterior margin of the same segment. + c, c^1, Stolons connecting successive segments and uniting themselves + with the diverging branches of the meridional canals. + d, d^1, d^2, Three turns of one of the spiral canals. + e, e^1, e^2, Three of the meridional canals. + f, f^1, f^2, Their diverging branches.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Operculina_ laid open, to show its internal +structure. + + a, Marginal cord seen in cross section at a'. + b, b, External walls of the chambers. + c, c, Cavities of the chambers. + c', c', Their alar prolongations. + d, d, Septa divided at d', d', and at d", so as to lay open the + interseptal canals, the general distribution of which is seen in the + septa e, e; the lines radiating from e, e point to the secondary + pores. + g, g, Non-tubular columns.] + +Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the characters of +form for classificatory ends--dimorphism and multiformity. + +_Dimorphism._--The majority of foraminiferal shells show two types, the +rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that of the more +frequent. The chambers are called microsphere and megalosphere, the +forms in which they occur microsphaeric and megalosphaeric forms, +respectively. We shall study below their relation to the reproductive +cycle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--1, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the +Pyrenees, showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median +plane; 2, vertical section of _Nummulite_; 3, _Orbitoides_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Vertical section of portion of _Nummulites_, +showing the investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations +of the later. + + a, Marginal cord. + b, Chamber of outer whorl. + c, c, Whorl invested by a. + d, One of the chambers of the fourth whorl from the margin. + e, e', Marginal portions of the enclosed whorls. + f, Investing portion of the outer whorl. + g, g, Spaces left between the investing portions of successive whorls. + h, h, Sections of the partitions dividing these.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Internal surface of wall of two chambers, a, a, +of _Nummulites_, showing the orifices of its minute tubuli. + + b, b, The septa containing canals. + c, c, Extensions of these canals in the intermediate skeleton. + d, d, Larger pores.] + +_Multiformity._--Many of the Polythalamia show different types of +chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted this phenomenon in +such crozier forms as _Peneroplis_, as well as in discoid forms; it is +very frequent. Thus the microspheric _Biloculina_ form the first few +chambers in quinqueloculine succession. The microspheric forms attain to +a greater size when adult than the megalospheric; and in _Orbitolites_ +the microsphere has a straight outlet, orthostyle, instead of the +deflected camptostyle one, so general in porcellanous types; and the +spiral succession is continued for more turns before reaching the +fan-shaped and finally cyclic stage. _Globigerina_, whose chambers are +nearly spherical, is sometimes seen to be enclosed in a spherical test, +perforate, but without a pylome, and known as _Orbulina_; the chambered +Globigerina-shell is attached at first inside the wall of the +_Orbulina_, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate fate of the +_Orbulina_ shell is unknown; but it obviously marks a turning-point in +the life-cycle. + + _Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction._--The protoplasm is not + differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser + in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial + ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms) from + which it is given off. In pelagic forms like _Globigerina_ the + external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the + extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.), being differentiated + into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles + (alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of + the pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R. + Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central capsule + of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be pushed too far. + The cytoplasm contains granules of various kinds, and the internal + protoplasm is sometimes pigmented. The Chrysomonad Flagellate, + _Zooxanthella_, so abundant in its resting state--the so-called + "yellow cells"--in the extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (q.v.) + also occurs in the outer protoplasm of many Foraminifera, not only + pelagic but also bottom-dwellers, such as _Orbitolites_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Internal cast of two chambers, a, a, of + _Nummulites_, the radial canals between them passing into b, marginal + plexus.] + + The nucleus is single in the Nuda and Allogromidia and in the + megalospheric forms of higher Foraminifera; but microspheric forms + when adult contain many simple similar nuclei. The nucleus in every + case gives off granules and irregular masses ("chromidia") of similar + reactions, which play an important part in reproduction. During the + maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the cytoplasm + breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each of which is soon + provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely derived from the + parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia, or from both + these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are amoeboid; they + soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as megalospheres, the + original state of the megalospheric forms. In the adult megalosphere + the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced by hosts of minute + vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration of chromidia. Each + nucleus aggregates around it a proper zone of dense protoplasm; by two + successive mitotic divisions each mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and + splits up into four biflagellate, uninucleate zoospores. These are + pairing-cells or gametes, though they will not pair with members of + the same brood. In the zygote resulting from pairing two nuclei soon + fuse into one; but this again divides into two; an embryonic shell is + secreted, and this is the microspheric type, which is multinuclear + from the first. F. Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult + Foraminifera with the (vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and + the chromidial mass with the micronucleus, whose chief function is + reproductive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls, + a, a, of _Nummulites_. b, b, Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber; d, + d, non-tubulated columns.] + + Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems + probable that under most conditions they also give rise to + megalospheric young like themselves; and that the production of + zoospores, pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only + occasional, and possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the + researches of Schaudinn and J.J. Lister. + + In several species (notably _Patellina_) plastogamy, the union of the + cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as a + prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate + amoebulae. + + _Calcituba_, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic + chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems, may fall + apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and break up into + small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest forms we know + little. In _Mikrogromia_ the cell undergoes fission within the test, + and on its completion the daughter-cells may emerge as biflagellate + zoospores. + + The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In _Astrorhiza_ the + sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement; they + leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there are no + true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a calcareous + or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of distinct pylomes. + Many of the species reproduce the varieties of form found in + calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others not. Many of the + larger ones have their walls thickened internally and traversed by + complex passages; this structure is called _labyrinthic_ (fig. 19, g, + h). The shell of _Endothyra_, a form only known to us by its abundance + in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely composed of calcite + and is sometimes perforated. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Cycloclypeus_.] + + It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects + its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of + sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often so + laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes the + outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a deflected + stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous Arenacea, it + is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with the + Porcellanea. + + _Classification._ + + I. NUDA.--Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save in the + resting encysted condition, sometimes forming colonial aggregates by + coalescence of pseudopods (_Myxodictyum_), or even plasmodia + (_Protomyxa_). Brood cells at first uniflagellate or amoeboid from + birth. Fresh-water and marine genera _Protogenes_ (Haeckel), _Biomyxa_ + (Leidy), _Myxodictyum_ (Haeckel), _Protomyxa_ (Haeckel) (fig. 1B). + + This group of very simple forms includes many of Haeckel's Monera, + defined as "cytodes," masses of protoplasm without a nucleus. A + nucleus (or nuclei) has, however, been demonstrated by improved + methods of staining in so many that it is probable that this + distinction will fall to the ground. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Heterostegina_.] + + II. ALLOGROMIDIACEAE (figs. 1A, 2).--Protoplasmic body protected in + adult state by an imperforate test with one or two openings (pylomes) + for the exit of the stylopod; test simple, gelatinous, membranous, + sometimes incrusted with foreign bodies, never calcareous nor + arenaceous; reproduction by fission alone known. Fresh-water or marine + genera _Allogromia_ (Rhumbl.), _Myxotheca_ (Schaud.), _Lieberkuhnia_ + (Cl. & L.) (fig. 1A), _Shepheardella_ (Siddall) (fig. 2, 3-10), + _Diplophrys_ (Barker), _Amphitrema_ (Arch.) (fig. 2, 11), + Diaphorophodon (Arch.) (fig. 2, 12), are possibly Filosa. This group + differs from the preceding in its simple test, but, like it, includes + many fresh-water species, which possess contractile vacuoles. + + III. ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE.--Simple forms, rarely polythalamous (some + _Rhabdamminidae_), but often branching or radiate; test arenaceous, + loosely compacted and traversed by chinks for pseudopodia + (_Astrorhizidae_), or dense, and opening by one or more terminal + pylomes at ends of branches. Marine, 4 Fam. The test of some + _Astrorhizidae_ is so loose that it falls to pieces when taken out of + water. _Haliphysema_ is remarkable for its history in relation to the + "gastraea theory." _Pilulina_ has a neat globular shell of + sponge-spicules and fine sand. Genera, _Astrorhiza_ (Sandahl) (fig. + 22), _Pilulina_ (Carptr.) (fig. 19), _Saccammina_ (Sars) (fig. 19), + _Rhabdammina_ (Sars), _Botellina_ (Carptr.), _Haliphysema_ (Bowerbank) + (fig. 22). + + IV. LITUOLIDACEAE.--Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained, definite + and often polythalamic, recalling in structure calcareous forms. + _Lituola_ (Lamk.) (fig. 19), _Endothyra_ (Phil.), _Ammodiscus_ + (Reuss), _Loftusia_ (Brady), _Haplophragmium_ (Reuss) (fig. 22), + _Thurammina_ (Brady) (fig. 22). + + V. MILIOLIDACEAE.--Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost invariably + with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic chamber; _Cornuspira_ + (Schultze) (fig. 3); _Miliola_ (Lamk.), including as subgenera + _Spiroloculina_ (d'Orb.) (figs. 3 and 22); _Triloculina_ (d'Orb.) + (fig. 3); _Biloculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 3); _Uniloculina_ (d'Orb.); + _Quinqueloculina_ (d'Orb.); _Peneroplis_ (Montfort) (figs. 22, 3; 3), + with form _Dendritina_ (fig. 4, 1); _Orbiculina_ (Lamk.) (fig. 3, + 6-8); _Orbitolites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); _Vertebralina_ (d'Orb.) + (fig. 22); _Squamulina_ (Sch.) (fig. 22); _Calcituba_ (Schaudinn). + + [Illustration: Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang's Zoologie. + + FIG. 17.--Life Cycle of _Polystomella crispa_. + + A, Young megalospheric individual. + B, Adult decalcified. + C, Later stage, resolving itself into two flagellate gametes. + D, Conjugation. + E, Microspheric individual produced from zygote. + F, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores which are growing + into new megalospheric individuals. + 1, Principal nucleus, and _2_, subsidiary nuclei of megalospheric + form. + 3, Nuclei. + 4, Nuclei in multiple division. + 5, Chromidia derived from 4.] + + VI. TEXTULARIADACEAE.--Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the larger + forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks (distichous or + tristichous). _Textularia_ (Defrance) (fig. 21). + + VII. CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE.--Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers doubling + forwards and backwards as in _Miliolidae_. _Cheilostomella_ (Reuss). + + VIII. LAGENIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono-or + polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped, with a + protruding or an inturned stylopyle; _Lagena_ (Walker & Boys) (fig. 4, + 9); _Nodosaria_ (Lamk.) (figs. 23, 4; 4, 10); _Polymorphina_ (d'Orb.) + (fig. 4, 13); _Cristellaria_ (Lamk.) (fig. 4, 11); _Frondicularia_ + (Def.) (fig. 23, 3). + + IX. GLOBIGERINIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated; chambers + few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size; arranged in a trochoid or + nautiloid spiral. _Globigerina_ (Lamk.) (23, 6; 4, 12); _Hastigerina_ + (Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, 5); _Orbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 8). + + X. ROTALIDACEAE.--Shells vitreous, finely perforate; walls thick, + often double, but without an intermediate party-layer traversed by + canals; form usually spiral or trochoid. _Discorbina_ (Parker & Jones) + (fig. 4, 15); _Planorbulina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); _Rotalia_ (Lamk.) + (figs. 23, 1, 2; 7, 21); _Calcarina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 23, 10); + _Polytrema_ (Risso) (fig. 23, 9). + + [Illustration: Fig. 18.--_Biloculina depressa_ d'Orb., transverse + sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.) + + a, Megalospheric shell X 50, showing uniform growth, biloculine + throughout. b, Microspheric shell X 90, showing multiform growth, + quinqueloculine at first, and then multiform.] + + XI. NUMMULINIDACEAE.--As in Rotalidaceae, but with a thicker finely + perforated shell, often well developed, and a supplementary skeleton + traversed by branching canals as an additional party-wall between the + proper chamber-walls. _Nonionina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, 19); _Fusulina_ + (Fischer) (fig. 20); _Polystomella_ (Lamk.) (figs. 4, 16; 8); + _Operculina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 9); _Heterostegina_ (d'Orb.) (fig. 16); + _Cycloclypeus_ (Carptr.) (fig. 15); _Nummulites_ (Lamk.) (figs. 10, + 11, 12, 13, 14). + + "_Eozoon canadense_," described as a species of this order by J.W. + Dawson and Carpenter, has been pronounced by a series of enquirers, + most of whom started with a belief in its organic structure, to be + merely a complex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of + an admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and + calcite. + +_Distribution in Vertical Space._--Owing to their lack of organs for +active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or attached, with +the exception of a few genera (very rich in species, however) which +float near the surface of the ocean, constituting part of the pelagic +plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are littoral or deep-sea, sometimes +attached to other bodies or even burrowing in the tests of other +Foraminifera; most of the fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting +the layer of organic debris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of +pools, ponds and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth +cannot possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it +is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Arenaceous Foraminifera. + + a, Exterior of _Saccammina_. + b, The same laid open. + c, Portion of test more highly magnified. + d, _Pilulina_. + e, Portion of test more highly magnified. + f, Nautiloid _Lituola_, exterior. + g, Chambered interior. + h, Portion of labyrinthic chamber wall, showing component sand-grains.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Section of _Fusulina_ Limestone.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend. +a, b, c, d, _Textularia globulosa_; e, e, e, e, _Rotalia aspera_; f, +_Textularia aculeata_; g, _Planularia hexas_; h, _Navicula_.] + +The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their shell is +either thin or extended many times by long slender tapering spines, and +the protoplasm outside has the same character as that of the Radiolaria +(q.v.), being differentiated into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and +traversed by reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce +into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods, here rather +radiate than reticulate. Most genera and most species are cosmopolitan; +but local differences are often marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore +sands and the crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms +decay without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead +Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand, both below +and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring on Funafuti, enter +largely into the constituents of coral rock. They may accumulate in the +mud of the bottom to constitute Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these +shells in the latter case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers +accumulate on the spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a +continuous shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during +which process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is formed +an ooze known as "Globigerina-ooze," being formed largely of that genus +and its ally _Hastigerina_; below 3000 fathoms even the tests themselves +are dissolved. Casts of their bodies in glauconite (a green ferrous +silicate, whose composition has not yet been accurately determined) are, +however, frequently left. Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably +_Globigerina_, have been found in Lower Cambrian (e.g. Hollybush +Sandstone), and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that +age. It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone that +sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon Foraminifera are +more abundant as constituents, partial or principal of calcareous rocks, +the genus _Endothyra_ being indeed almost confined to Carboniferous +beds. The genus _Fusulina_ (fig. 20) and _Saccammina_ (fig. 19) give +their names (from their respective abundance) to two limestones of the +Carboniferous series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the +Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations are +chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to consist largely of +foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like the north Atlantic +globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk more littoral conditions +prevailed, and we find such large-sized species as _Orbitoides_ +(vitreous) and _Orbitolites_ (porcellanous; figs. 5, 6), &c. In the +Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of the Paris basin is mainly +composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites occur in English beds and in the +Paris basin; but the great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of +limestone, occur farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the +southern and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The +peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone, as well +as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous genus, +"_Eozoon_," by Carpenter and Dawson, and abundantly illustrated in the +9th edition of his encyclopaedia, is now universally regarded as of +inorganic origin. "Looking at the almost universal diffusion of +existing Foraminifera and the continuous accumulation of their shells +over vast areas of the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than +any other group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its +solution in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth +what is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the +calcareous materials of the land above sea-level." (E.R. Lankester, +"Protozoa," _Ency. Brit._ 9th ed.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Imperforata. + + 1, _Spiroloculina planulata_, Lamarck, showing five "coils"; + porcellanous. + + 2, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to + show the seven nuclei n. + + 3, _Spirolina_ (_Peneroplis_); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell; + porcellanous. + + 4, _Vertebralina_, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding + one another in a straight line; porcellanous. + + 5, 6, _Thurammina papillata_, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so + as to show an inner chamber; recent. X 25. + + 7, _Haplophragmium canariensis_, a sandy form; recent. + + 8, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of _Haliphysema_. + + 9, _Squamulina laevis_, M. Schultze; X 40; a simple porcellanous + Miliolide. + + 10, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid + from the shell of _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_, Bow. n, Vesicular + nuclei, stained with haematoxylin. (After Lankester.) + + 11, _Haliphysema tumanovitzii_; X 25 diam.; living specimen, showing + the wine-glass-shaped shell built up of sand-grains and + sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm p, issuing from the mouth + of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting constituents. + + 12, Shell of _Astrorhiza limicola_, Sand.; X 3/2; showing the + branching of the test on some of the rays usually broken away in + preserved specimens (original). + + 13, Section of the shell of _Marsipella_, showing thick walls built of + sand-grains.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Perforata. + + 1, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as + in small _Rotalia_. + + 2, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance + (shaded), as in large _Rotalia_. + + 3, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may + completely embrace their predecessors, as in _Frondicularia_. + + 4, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as + in _Nodosaria_. + + 5, _Hastigerina murrayi_, Wyv. Thomson, a, Bubbly (vacuolated) + protoplasm, enclosing b, the perforated _Globigerina_-like shell + (conf. central capsule of Radiolaria). From the peripheral protoplasm + project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of calcareous + matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active + protoplasm. Pelagic; drawn in the living state. + + 6, _Globigerina bulloides_, d'Orb., showing the punctiform + perforations of the shell and the main aperture. + + 7, Fragment of the shell of _Globigerina_, seen from within, and + highly magnified, a, Fine perforations in the inner shell substances; + b, outer (secondary) shell substance. Two coarser perforations are + seen in section, and one lying among the smaller. + + 8, _Orbulina universa_, d'Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent + radiating calcareous spines (hollow), and internally a small + _Globigerina_ shell. It is probably a developmental phase of + _Globigerina_, a, _Orbulina_ shell; b, _Globigerina_ shell. + + 9, _Polytrema miniaceum_, Lin.; X 12. Mediterranean. Example of a + branched adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian. + + 10, _Calcarina spengleri_, Gmel.; X 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell + dissected so as to show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and + the copious secondary shell substance. a^2, a^3, a^4, Chambers of three + successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall (finely + tubulate) of each; b, b, b, b, perforate surfaces of the primary wall + of four tiers of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance + has been cleared away; c', c', secondary or intermediate shell + substance in section, showing coarse canals; d, section of secondary + shell substance at right angles to c'; e, tubercles of secondary shell + substance on the surface; f, f, club-like processes of secondary shell + substance.] + +_Historical._--The Foraminifera were discovered as we have seen by A. +d'Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number of species, but it was to +F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the recognition of their true zoological +position and the characters of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and +W.C. Williamson in England contributed largely to the study of the +shell, the latter being the first to call attention to its multiform +character in the development of a single species, and to utilize the +method of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K. +Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration, described an +enormous number of forms in a series of papers, as well as in the +monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera of the "Challenger" +expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger brought out the fact of +dimorphism in the group, which was later elucidated and incorporated in +the full cytological study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J. +Lister and F. Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results. + + LITERATURE.--The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, _The + Foraminifera_ (1902), and J.J. Lister, "The Foraminifera," in E.R. + Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_ (1903), in which full bibliographies + will be found. For a final resume of the long controversy on Eozoon, + see George P. Merrill in _Report of the U.S. National Museum_ (1906), + p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by + G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in _Zeitschr. fur wissenschaftliche + Zoologie_, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in _Archiv fur + Protistenkunde_, iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is + based on the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited + work, and of F. Schaudinn, in _Arbeiten des kaiserlichen + Gesundheitsamts_, xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K. + Parker and T. Rymer Jones, _Introduction to the Study of the + Foraminifera_ (Ray Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, "Foraminifera," in + _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, _On the Recent Foraminifera + of Great Britain_ (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, "The + Foraminifera," in _Challenger Reports_, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in _Ann. + de la soc. royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique_, xxxvii. + (1902), p. 60; xxxix. (1904), p. 7. + + _Appendix._--The XENOPHYOPHORIDAE are a small group of bottom-dwelling + Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous Foraminifera, + though observations in the living state show that the character of the + pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm is contained in + branching tubes, aggregated into masses of definite form, bounded by a + common wall of foreign bodies (sponge spicules, &c.) cemented into a + membrane. The cytoplasm contains granules of BaSO4 and pellets of + faecal matter. All that is known of reproduction is the resolution of + the pellets into uninucleate cells. (F.E. Schultze, _Wissenschaftliche + Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition_, vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.) + (M. Ha.) + + + + +FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, +on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway from Metz to +Saarbrucken, 5-1/2 m. S.W. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a +Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic) church, a synagogue and a +Progymnasium. Its industries include the manufacture of tiles, +pasteboard wares and gardening implements, while there are coal mines in +the vicinity. After the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren +(6th of August 1870), in which the French under General Frossard were +defeated by the Germans under General von Glumer, the town was occupied +by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed to +Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins of the castle of +the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of Saarbrucken. + + See Besler, _Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt + Forbach_ (1895). + + + + +FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish divine, was born at +Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He was the second son of John Henry +Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a judge of the court of session, and grandson of +Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh +Academy, then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in +Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and, having +chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed his studies +with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836 he went to Madras and +secured early promotion, but in consequence of ill-health he was obliged +to return to England. He then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where +in 1841 he obtained the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in +1844. He was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known as +Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with Newman, +Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian appointment. In 1844 +he was ordained deacon and priest in the English Church, and held +curacies at Aston, Rowant and St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally +attracted to the Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering +from long depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town +of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed to the +vicarage of St Saviour's, Leeds, a church founded to preach and +illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called to succeed +Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed the episcopal residence to +Dundee, where he resided till his death, combining the pastoral charge +of the congregation with the duties of the see. When he came to Dundee +the churchmen were accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in +a room over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built, and +among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prosecuted in the +church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded on his primary +charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which he set forth his views +on the Eucharist. He made a powerful defence of the charge, and was +acquitted with "a censure and an admonition." Keble wrote in his +defence, and was present at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good +scholar, a scientific theologian and a devoted worker, and was much +beloved. He died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875. + + Principal works: _A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed_ (1852); _An + Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (2 vols., 1867 and 1868); + _Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms_ (1847); _Commentary on + the Canticles_ (1853). See Mackey's _Bishop Forbes, a Memoir_. + + + + +FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), British war correspondent, the son of a +Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on the 17th of April 1838, +and was educated at Aberdeen University. Entering the Royal Dragoons as +a private, he gained, while in the service, considerable practical +experience of military life and affairs. Being invalided from his +regiment, he settled in London, and became a journalist. When the +Franco-German War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war +correspondent to the _Morning Advertiser_, and in this capacity he +gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians for +withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the _Daily News_, his +brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew world-wide +attention to his despatches. He was with the German army from the +beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards witnessed the rise and fall +of the Commune. Forbes afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he +chronicled the outbreak of the second Carlist War; but his work here was +interrupted by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a +mission of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he +returned to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the +Republican and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the _Daily +News_, he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India in +1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of 1876, and was +present at all the important engagements. In the Russo-Turkish campaign +of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic successes at great personal +risk. Attached to the Russian army, he witnessed most of the principal +operations, and remained continuously in the field until attacked by +fever. His letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and +Millet, were republished by the _Daily News_. On recovering from his +fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness the British +occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India, and in the winter +accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad. He was present at the +taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with several expeditions against the +hill tribes. Burma was Forbes's next field of adventure, and at +Mandalay, the capital, he had several interesting interviews with King +Thibaw. He left Burma hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence +of the disaster of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the +invasion of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and his +famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled to +convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one of the +finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes subsequently +delivered many lectures on his war experiences to large audiences. His +closing years were spent in literary work. He had some years before +published a military novel entitled _Drawn from Life_, and a volume on +his experiences of the war between France and Germany. These were now +followed by numerous publications, including _Glimpses through the +Cannon Smoke_ (1880); _Souvenirs of some Continents_ (1885); _William I. +of Germany: a Biography_ (1888); _Havelock_, in the "English Men of +Action" Series (1890); _Barracks, Bivouacs, and Battles_ (1891); _The +Afghan Wars_, 1839-80 (1892); _Czar and Sultan_ (1895); _Memories and +Studies of War and Peace_ (1895), in many respects autobiographic; and +_Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_ (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900. + + + + +FORBES, DAVID (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist and +chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (q.v.), was born on the 6th of +September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and received his early +education there and at Brentwood in Essex. When a boy of fourteen he had +already acquired a remarkable knowledge of chemistry. This subject he +studied at the university of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he +was appointed superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at +Espedal in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of Evans +& Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that capacity during the +years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia and Peru. Besides reports for +the Iron and Steel Institute, of which, during the last years of his +life, he was foreign secretary, he wrote upwards of 50 papers on +scientific subjects, among which are the following: "The Action of +Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," _Rep. Brit. +Assoc._, 1855, pt. ii. p. 62; "The Relations of the Silurian and +Metamorphic Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; "The Causes +producing Foliation in Rocks," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xi., 1855; "The +Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian Limestones," _Phil. +Mag._ xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; "The Geology of Bolivia and Southern +Peru," _Journ. Geol. Soc._ xvii. pp. 7-62, 1861; "The Mineralogy of +Chile," _Phil. Mag._, 1865; "Researches in British Mineralogy," _Phil. +Mag._, 1867-1868. His observations on the geology of South America were +given in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw +much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on the resulting +changes in rock-formations. He also contributed important articles on +chemical geology to the _Chemical News_ and _Geological Magazine_ (1867 +and 1868). In England he was a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was +elected F.R.S. in 1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876. + + See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. + xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in _Geol. Mag._, 1877, p. 45. + + + + +FORBES, DUNCAN, OF CULLODEN (1685-1747), Scottish statesman, was born at +Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness on the 10th of November 1685. +After he had completed his studies at the universities of Edinburgh and +Leiden, he was admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own +talents and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid +advancement, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the +Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In 1722 Forbes +was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725 he succeeded Dundas of +Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited the patrimonial estates on the +death of his brother in 1734, and in 1737 he attained to the highest +legal honours in Scotland, being made lord president of the court of +session. As lord advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation +and revenue of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures, +and no less to render the government popular and respected in Scotland. +In the proceedings which followed the memorable Porteous mob, for +example, when the government brought in a bill for disgracing the lord +provost of Edinburgh, for fining the corporation, and for abolishing +the town-guard and city-gate, Forbes both spoke and voted against the +measure as an unwarranted outrage on the national feeling. As lord +president also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of +office was characterized by quick and impartial administration of the +law. + +The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all his +patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly and earnestly +urged upon the government the expediency of embodying Highland +regiments, putting them under the command of colonels whose loyalty +could be relied upon, but officering them with the native chieftains and +cadets of old families in the north. "If government," said he, +"pre-engages the Highlanders in the manner I propose, they will not only +serve well against the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good +behaviour of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be +absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands." In 1739, +with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730) six companies +(locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed into the famous +"Forty-second" regiment of the line. The credit given to the earl of +Chatham in some histories for this movement is an error; it rests really +with Forbes and his friend Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll +(see the _Autobiography_ of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq., +1906). + +On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened to Inverness, +and through his personal influence with the chiefs of Macdonald and +Macleod, those two powerful western clans were prevented from taking the +field for Charles Edward; the town itself also he kept loyal and well +protected at the commencement of the struggle, and many of the +neighbouring proprietors were won over by his persuasions. His +correspondence with Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers, +affords a fine illustration of his character, in which the firmness of +loyal principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness and +consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the apathy of +the government interfered considerably with the success of his +negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived too late, and though +Forbes employed all his own means and what money he could borrow on his +personal security, his resources were quite inadequate to the emergency. +It is doubtful whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was +doled out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be +maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into disgrace +in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate the impolitic +severities inflicted upon his countrymen after their disastrous defeat +at Culloden. The ingratitude of the government, and the many distressing +circumstances connected with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind +of Forbes. He never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and +after a period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747. + +Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true Scotsman +with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even erudite scholar +without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without asceticism or +intolerance. His country long felt his influence through her reviving +arts and institutions; and the example of such a character in that +coarse and venal age, and among a people distracted by faction, +political strife, and national antipathies, while it was invaluable to +his contemporaries in a man of high position, is entitled to the lasting +gratitude and veneration of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure +he cultivated with some success the study of philosophy, theology and +biblical criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the +Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance, +include--_A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important Discoveries in +Philosophy and Theology_ (1732); _Some Thoughts concerning Religion, +natural and revealed, and the Manner of Understanding Revelation_ +(1735); and _Reflections on Incredulity_ (2nd ed., 1750). + + His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a memoir + of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill Burton, and + published along with a _Life of Lord Lovat_, in 1847. His statue by + Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh. + + + + +FORBES, EDWARD (1815-1854), British naturalist, was born at Douglas, in +the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February 1815. While still a child, when +not engaged in reading, or in the writing of verses and drawing of +caricatures, he occupied himself with the collecting of insects, shells, +minerals, fossils, plants and other natural history objects. From his +fifth to his eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance +at any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole House +Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of Man for London, +where he studied drawing. In October, however, having given up all idea +of making painting his profession, he returned home; and in the +following month he matriculated as a student of medicine in the +university of Edinburgh. His vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work +on the natural history of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in +Norway, the botanical results of which were published in Loudon's +_Magazine of Natural History_ for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he +devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the succeeding +year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany. + +Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical duties of a +surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the idea of taking a +medical degree, resolving to devote himself to science and literature. +The winter of 1836-1837 found him at Paris, where he attended the +lectures at the Jardin des Plantes on natural history, comparative +anatomy, geology and mineralogy. Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to +Algiers, and there obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater +Mollusca, published in the _Annals of Natural History_, vol. ii. p. 250. +In the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a student +of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume, _Malacologia +Monensis_, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca. During the summer +of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and made extensive botanical +collections. In the following autumn he read before the British +Association at Newcastle a paper on the distribution of terrestrial +Pulmonifera in Europe, and was commissioned to prepare a similar report +with reference to the British Isles. In 1841 was published his _History +of British Star-fishes_, embodying extensive observations and containing +120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed by +the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes, accompanied by +his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta H.M. surveying ship +"Beacon," to which he had been appointed naturalist by her commander +Captain Graves. From that date until October 1842 he was employed in +investigating the botany, zoology and geology of the Mediterranean +region. The results of these researches were made known in his "Report +on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the British +Association in 1843," and in _Travels in Lycia_, published in +conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt in 1847. In +the former treatise he discussed the influence of climate and of the +nature and depth of the sea bottom upon marine life, and divided the +Aegean into eight biological zones; his conclusions with respect to +bathymetrical distribution, however, have naturally been modified to a +considerable extent by the more recent explorations of the deep seas. + +Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family misfortunes had now +thrown upon his own resources, sought and obtained the curatorship of +the museum of the Geological Society of London. To the duties of that +post he added in 1843 those of the professorship of botany at King's +College. In November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological +Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Great +Britain. Two years later he published in the _Memoirs of the Geological +Survey_, i. 336, his important essay "On the Connexion between the +distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and +the Geological Changes which have affected their Area, especially during +the epoch of the Northern Drift." It is therein pointed out that, in +accordance with the theory of their origin from various specific +centres, the plants of Great Britain may be divided into five +well-marked groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of +Spain, the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the +Channel Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English, +characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast; a group +peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type; and, lastly, a +general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arguments the conclusion is +drawn that the greater part of the terrestrial animals and flowering +plants of the British Islands migrated thitherward, over continuous +land, at three distinct periods, before, during and after the glacial +epoch. On this subject Forbes's brilliant generalizations are now +regarded as only partially true (see C. Reid's _Origin of the British +Flora_, 1899). In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of +General Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his +_Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae_ (Ray Society). The year +1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the Geological Survey +from Craig's Court to the museum in Jermyn Street, and the appointment +of Forbes as professor of natural history to the Royal School of Mines +just established in conjunction therewith. In 1852 was published the +fourth and concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley's _History of +British Mollusca_; also his _Monograph of the Echinodermata of the +British Tertiaries_ (Palaeontographical Soc.). + +In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society of London, +and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment of a long-cherished +wish in his appointment to the professorship of natural history in the +university of Edinburgh, vacant by the death of R. Jameson, his former +teacher. Since his return from the East in 1842, the determination and +arrangement of fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work, +including the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded +Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits of his +earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that at length he +was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of biological +information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the summer session of 1854, +and in September of that year he occupied the post of president of the +geological section at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association. +But he was taken ill just after he had commenced his winter's course of +lectures in Edinburgh, and after not many days' illness he died at +Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854. + + See _Literary Gazette_ (November 25, 1854); _Edinburgh New + Philosophical Journal_ (New Ser.), (1855); _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ + (May 1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, _Memoir of Edward Forbes_ (1861), + in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes's writings. See also + _Literary Papers_, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following works + were issued posthumously: "On the Tertiary Fluviomarine Formation of + the Isle of Wight" (_Geol. Survey_), edited by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen + (1856); "The Natural History of the European Seas," edited and + continued by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen (1859). + + + + +FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868), Scottish physicist, was the fourth son +of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo, and was born at +Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1809. He entered the university of +Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began to contribute papers to the +_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_ anonymously under the signature +"[Delta]." At the age of nineteen he became a fellow of the Royal +Society of Edinburgh, and in 1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of +London. A year later he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in +Edinburgh University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in +competition with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that +office, which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself +an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve the +internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed +successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United College of St +Andrews, a position which he held until his death at Clifton on the 31st +of December 1868. + +As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches on heat +and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published in the _Trans. Roy. +Soc. Ed._ four series of "Researches on Heat," in the course of which he +described the polarization of heat by tourmaline, by transmission +through a bundle of thin mica plates inclined to the transmitted ray, +and by reflection from the multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates +placed at the polarizing angle, and also its circular polarization by +two internal reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the +Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its +Royal medal for a paper on the "Transparency of the Atmosphere and the +Laws of Extinction of the Sun's Rays passing through it." In 1846 he +began experiments on the temperature of the earth at different depths +and in different soils near Edinburgh, which yielded determinations of +the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa, sandstone and pure loose sand. +Towards the end of his life he was occupied with experimental inquiries +into the laws of the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of +work was to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with +increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the question of +the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis Agassiz at the Glasgow +meeting of the British Association, and in subsequent years he made +several visits to Switzerland and also to Norway for the purpose of +obtaining accurate data. His observations led him to the view that a +glacier is an imperfect fluid or a viscous body which is urged down +slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and +involved him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to +priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested in +geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of the Pyrenees, +on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardeche), on the geology of +the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition to about 150 scientific +papers, he wrote _Travels through the Alps of Savoy and Other Parts of +the Pennine Chain, with Observations on the Phenomena of Glaciers_ +(1843); _Norway and its Glaciers_ (1853); _Occasional Papers on the +Theory of Glaciers_ (1859); _A Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_ +(1855). He was also the author (1852) of the "Dissertation on the +Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science," published in the 8th +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + + See _Forbes's Life and Letters_, by Principal Shairp, Professor P.G. + Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); _Professor Forbes and his + Biographers_, by J. Tyndall (1873). + + + + +FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787-1861), British physician, was born at Cuttlebrae, +Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar school at Aberdeen, and +afterwards entered Marischal College. After serving for nine years as a +surgeon in the navy, he graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then +began to practise in Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822. +He took up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year +was appointed physician to the royal household. He was knighted in 1853, +and died on the 13th of November 1861 at Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir +John Forbes was better known as an author and editor than as a practical +physician. His works include the following:--_Original Cases ... +illustrating the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis +of Diseases of the Chest_ (1824); _Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism_ +(1845); _A Physician's Holiday_ (1st ed., 1849); _Memorandums made in +Ireland in the Autumn of 1852_ (2 vols., 1853); _Sightseeing in Germany +and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855_ (1856). He was joint editor with A. +Tweedie and J. Conolly of _The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine_ (4 +vols., 1833-1835); and in 1836 he founded the _British and Foreign +Medical Review_, which, after a period of prosperity, involved its +editor in pecuniary loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in +consequence of the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious +to the profession. + + + + +FORBES, a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New South Wales, +Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the Lachlan river, and with a +station on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance +as a commercial centre is due to its advantageous position between the +northern and southern markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills, +breweries and wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding +country produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit. + + + + +FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON (1853- ), English actor, was the son of John +Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an art critic. He was educated at +Charterhouse, and studied at the Royal Academy schools with a view to +becoming a painter. But though he kept up his interest in that art, in +1874 he turned to the theatre, making his first appearance in London as +Chastelard, in _Mary, Queen of Scots_. He studied under Samuel Phelps, +from whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played with +the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary Anderson in both +England and America, and also acted at different times with Sir Henry +Irving. His refined and artistic style, and beautiful voice and +elocution made him a marked man on the English stage, and in Pinero's +_The Profligate_ at the Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare's management, +he established his position as one of the most individual of London +actors. In 1895 he started under his own management at the Lyceum with +Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing _Romeo and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_ +and also some modern plays; his impersonation as Hamlet was especially +fine, and his capacity as a romantic actor was shown to great advantage +also in John Davidson's _For the Crown_ and in Maeterlinck's _Pelleas +and Melisande_. In 1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with +whom, as his leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in +subsequent years _The Light that Failed_, Madeleine Lucette Riley's +_Mice and Men_, and G. Bernard Shaw's _Caesar and Cleopatra_, Jerome K. +Jerome's _Passing of the Third Floor Back_, &c. His brothers, Ian +Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes (b. 1859), had also been +well-known actors from about 1878 onwards. + + + + +FORBIN, CLAUDE DE (1656-1733), French naval commander, was born in +Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656. High-spirited and +ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away from his home, and through the +influence of an uncle entered the navy, serving his first campaign in +1675. For a short time he quitted the navy and entered the army, but +soon returned to his first choice. He made under D'Estrees the American +campaign, and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions +distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most remarkable +episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During the administration +of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that country, the project was formed +of introducing the Christian religion and European civilization, and the +king sent an embassy to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent +out, Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the rank of +major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin was induced to remain in +the service of the Siamese king, and accepted, though with much +reluctance, the posts of grand admiral, general of all the king's armies +and governor of Bangkok. His position, however, was soon made untenable +by the jealousy and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end +of two years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards +fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war with +England, when they were both captured and taken to Plymouth. They +succeeded in making their escape and were soon serving their country +again. Forbin was wounded at the battle of La Hogue, and greatly +distinguished himself at the battle of Lagos. He served under D'Estrees +at the taking of Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702 +took a brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish +Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk, and +captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the English. In 1708 he +was entrusted with the command of the squadron which was to convey the +Pretender to Scotland; but so effectually were the coasts guarded by +Byng that the expedition failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now +beginning to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils +of service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles. +There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published in +1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic and +attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733. + + + + +FORCELLINI, EGIDIO (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was born at Fener +in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very poor family. He went +to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied under Facciolati, and in due +course attained to the priesthood. From 1724 to 1731 he held the office +of rector of the seminary at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of +father confessor in the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his +life were mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768 +before the completion of the great work on which he had long co-operated +with Facciolati. This was the vast _Latin Lexicon_ (see FACCIOLATI), +which has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been +published. He was engaged with his Herculean task for nearly 35 years, +and the transcription of the manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight +years more. + + + + +FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG (1794-1865), Danish mineralogist and +geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on the 24th of July 1794, and +died at Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1865. After studying at Kiel +and Copenhagen from 1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch +in their mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable +share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained his doctor's +degree by a chemical treatise _De mangano_, and immediately after set +out on a journey through England, Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. In +1823 he was appointed lecturer at Copenhagen University on chemistry and +mineralogy; in 1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established +polytechnic school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of mineralogy +in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the geological museum. +From 1835 to 1837 he made many contributions to the geological survey of +Denmark. On the death of H.C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as +director of the polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of +Sciences. In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various +anthropological publications which gained a high reputation. As a public +instructor Forchhammer held a high place and contributed potently to the +progress of his favourite studies in his native country. He interested +himself in such practical questions as the introduction of gas into +Copenhagen, the establishment of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the +boring of artesian wells. + + Among his more important works are--_Loerebog i de enkelte Radicalers + Chemi_ (1842); _Danmarks geognostiske Forhold_ (1835); _Om de + Bornholmske Kulformationer_ (1836); _Dit myere Kridt i Danmark_ + (1847); _Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske Forhold_ + (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals, Danish, + English and German, will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific + Papers_ published by the Royal Society of London. One of the most + interesting and most recent is "On the Constitution of Sea Water at + Different Depths and in Different Latitudes," in the _Proceedings of + the Roy. Soc._ xii. (1862-1863). + + + + +FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM (1801-1894), German classical archaeologist, +was born at Husum in Schleswig on the 23rd of October 1801. He was +educated at the Lubeck gymnasium and the university of Kiel, with which +he was connected for nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he +travelled in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was +appointed professor of philology at Kiel and director of the +archaeological museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn. +He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a democrat in the +best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873 represented the +progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the German Reichstag. His +published works deal chiefly with topography and ancient mythology. His +travels had convinced him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of +classical antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance +with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a detailed +examination of the topographical and climatic conditions of the chief +localities of the ancient world. These principles are illustrated in his +_Hellenika. Griechenland. Im Neuen das Alte_ (1837), which contains his +theory of the origin and explanation of the Greek myths, which he never +abandoned, in spite of the attacks to which it was subjected. According +to him, the myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and +aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring processes of +nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in _Achill_ (1853), the +Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements in that district. +Other similar short treatises are: _Die Grundung Roms_ (1868); +_Daduchos_ (1875), on the language of the myths and mythical buildings; +_Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter Io_ (1880); _Prolegomena zur +Mythologie als Wissenschaft und Lexikon der Mythensprache_ (1891). +Amongst his topographical works mention may be made of: _Topographie von +Athen_ (1841); _Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja_ (1850), a commentary +on a map of the locality executed by T.A. Spratt (see _Journal of the +Royal Geographical Society_, xii., 1842); _Topographia Thebarum +Heptapylarum_ (1854); _Erklarung der Ilias_ (1884), on the basis of the +topographical and physical peculiarities of the plain of Troy. His +_Demokratenbuchlein_ (1849), in the main a discussion of the +Aristotelian theory of the state, and _Die Athener und Sokrates_ (1837), +in which, contrary to the almost universal opinion, he upheld the +procedure of the Athenians as perfectly legal and their verdict as a +perfectly just one, also deserve notice. + + For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in + C. Bursian's _Biographisches Jahrbuch fur Altertumskunde_, xx. (1897); + also J. Sass in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, and A. Hoeck and + L.C. Pertsch, _P.W. Forchhammer_ (1898). + + + + +FORCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, near the +confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E. of Bamberg. Pop. +(1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic churches, including the Gothic +Collegiate church and a Protestant church. Among the other public +buildings are the progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the +town include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and glue +works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious chateau occupies the site +of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed in 1246. + +Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence of the +Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the 9th century. +Consequently many diets were held here, and here also Conrad I. and +Louis the Child were chosen German kings. The town was given by the +emperor Henry II. in 1007 to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a +short period during the 11th century, it remained in the possession of +the bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August 1796 a +battle took place near Forchheim between the French and the Austrians. +The fortifications of the town were dismantled in 1838. + + See Hubsch, _Chronik der Stadt Forchheim_ (Nuremberg, 1867). + + + + +FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1901), English sculptor, was born in London. +He received some education as a painter in Antwerp and as a sculptor in +Munich under Professor Wagmuller, but was mainly self-taught. His first +contribution to the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and +in portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success. His +busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at their best. +Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker (1894), Briton +Riviere and Sir W.Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir +Hubert von Herkomer and Sir John Millais (1897), and of A.J. Balfour are +all striking likenesses, and are equalled by that in marble of Sir +Frederick Bramwell (for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He +gained the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected +in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883 with "Henry +Irving as Hamlet," now in the Guildhall art gallery. This seated statue, +good as it is, was soon surpassed by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city +museum, Birmingham) and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal +memorial statue of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less +successful. The standing statue of W.E. Gladstone (1894, for the City +Liberal Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford's better portrait +works. The colossal "General Charles Gordon," camel-mounted, for +Chatham, "Lord Strathnairn," an equestrian group for Knightsbridge, and +the "Maharajah of Mysore" (1900) comprise his larger works of the kind. +A beautiful nude recumbent statue of Shelley (1892) upon a +cleverly-designed base, which is not quite impeccable from the point of +view of artistic taste, is at University College, Oxford, and a +simplified version was presented by him to be set up on the shore of +Viareggio, where the poet's body was washed up. Ford's ideal work has +great charm and daintiness; his statue "Folly" (1886) was bought by the +trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other statues or +statuettes of a similar order: "Peace" (1890), which secured his +election as an associate of the Royal Academy, "Echo" (1895), on which +he was elected full member, "The Egyptian Singer" (1889), "Applause" +(1893), "Glory to the Dead" (1901) and "Snowdrift" (1902). Ford's +influence on the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of +good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely popular, +and when he died a monument was erected to his memory (C. Lucchesi, +sculptor, J.W. Simpson, architect) in St John's Wood, near to where he +dwelt. + + See SCULPTURE; also M.H. Spielmann, _British Sculpture and Sculptors + of To-day_ (London, 1901). + + + + +FORD, JOHN (1586-c. 1640), English dramatist, was baptized on the 17th +of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came of a good family; his +father was in the commission of the peace and his mother was a sister of +Sir John Popham, successively attorney-general and lord chief justice. +The name of John Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as +matriculating at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to +whom, with other members of the society of Gray's Inn, he dedicated his +play of _The Lover's Melancholy_), the future dramatist entered the +profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple in 1602; but +he seems never to have been called to the bar. Four years afterwards he +made his first appearance as an author with an elegy called _Fame's +Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire deceased_, and dedicated to the +widow of the earl (Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, "coronized," to use +Ford's expression, by King James in 1603 for his services in Ireland)--a +lady who would have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own +tragedies of lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich. +This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs and is +composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as the author +declares, written "unfee'd"; it shows that Ford sympathized, as +Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done, with the "awkward fate" of +the countess's brother, the earl of Essex. Who the "flint-hearted Lycia" +may be, to whom the poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress, +is unknown; indeed, the record of Ford's private life is little better +than a blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and +epilogues of his various plays, he seems to have enjoyed the patronage +of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, "himself a muse" after a +fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the ex-queen of +Bohemia. Ford's tract of _Honor Triumphant, or the Peeres Challenge_ +(printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare Society with the _Line of +Life_, in 1843), and the simultaneously published verses _The Monarches +Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes Welcome into England_, exhibit him as +occasionally meeting the festive demands of court and nobility; and a +kind of moral essay by him, entitled _A Line of Life_ (printed 1620), +which contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome +praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford's plays +(_The Broken Heart_, iii. 4) contains an implied protest against the +absolute system of government generally accepted by the dramatists of +the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations with his brother-authors +little is known; it was natural that he should exchange complimentary +verses with James Shirley, and that he should join in the chorus of +laments over the death of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice +an epigram in honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in +one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run: + + "Thou cheat'st us, Ford; mak'st one seem two by art: + What is Love's Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?" + +It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he gratified +the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed in _The Time Poets_ +(_Choice Drollery_, 1656) by withdrawing from business and from literary +life in London, to his native place; but nothing is known as to the date +of his death. His career as a dramatist very probably began by +collaboration with other authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote _The Fairy +Knight_ and _The Bristowe Merchant_ (licensed in 1624, but both +unpublished), with John Webster _A late Murther of the Sonne upon the +Mother_ (licensed in 1624). A play entitled _An ill Beginning has a good +End_, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attributed to Ford, was +(if his) his earliest acted play; whether _Sir Thomas Overbury's Life +and untimely Death_ (1615) was a play is extremely doubtful; some lines +of indignant regret by Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He +is also said to have written, at dates unknown, _The London Merchant_ +(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher's _Knight +of the Burning Pestle_) and _The Royal Combat_; a tragedy by him, +_Beauty in a Trance_, was entered in the Stationers' Register in 1653, +but never printed. These three (or four) plays were among those +destroyed by Warburton's cook. _The Queen, or the Excellency of the +Sea_, a play of inverted passion, containing some fine sensuous lines, +printed in 1653 by Alexander Singhe for private performance, has been +recently edited by W. Bang (_Materialien zur Kunde d. alteren engl. +Dramas_, 13, Louvain, 1906), and is by him on internal evidence +confidently claimed as Ford's. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the +dates span little more than a decade--the earliest, _The Lover's +Melancholy_, having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest, +_The Lady's Trial_, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639. + +When writing _The Lover's Melancholy_, it would seem that Ford had not +yet become fully aware of the bent of his own dramatic genius, although +he was already master of his powers of poetic expression. He was +attracted towards domestic tragedy by an irresistible desire to sound +the depths of abnormal conflicts between passion and circumstances, to +romantic comedy by a strong though not widely varied imaginative +faculty, and by a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic +humour. In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristically +expressive of his peculiar strength, _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ (acted c. +1626) and _The Broken Heart_ (acted c. 1629), both printed in 1633 with +the anagram of his name _Fide Honor_, he had found horrible situations +which required dramatic explanation by intensely powerful motives. Ford +by no means stood alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal +subjects; but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and +yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression which +renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable, or converts the +horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford's genius there was real +refinement, except when the "supra-sensually sensual" impulse or the +humbler self-delusion referred to came into play. In a third tragedy, +_Love's Sacrifice_ (acted c. 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on +similar materials; but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the +interest of his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility--doing +homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult. In +_Perkin Warbeck_ (printed 1634; probably acted a year later) he chose an +historical subject of great dramatic promise and psychological interest, +and sought to emulate the glory of the great series of Shakespeare's +national histories. The effort is one of the most laudable, as it was by +no means one of the least successful, in the dramatic literature of this +period. _The Fancies Chaste and Noble_ (acted before 1636, printed +1638), though it includes scenes of real force and feeling, is +dramatically a failure, of which the main idea is almost provokingly +slight and feeble; and _The Lady's Trial_ (acted 1638, printed 1639) is +only redeemed from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness +of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very different kinds, +in which Ford co-operated with other writers, the mask of _The Sun's +Darling_ (acted 1624, printed 1657), hardly to be placed in the first +rank of early compositions, and _The Witch of Edmonton_ (printed 1658, +but probably acted about 1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer +with Dekker and Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of +the English or any other stage. + + A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the plays + enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a stinging + epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that _The Lover's Melancholy_ was + stolen by Ford from Shakespeare's papers. Undoubtedly, the madness of + the hero of this play of Ford's occasionally recalls Hamlet, while the + heroine is one of the many, and at the same time one of the most + pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of them is a copy, as Friar + Bonaventura in Ford's second play may be said to be a copy of Friar + Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he disagreeably exaggerates, or as + D'Avolos in _Love's Sacrifice_ is clearly modelled on Iago. The plot + of _The Lover's Melancholy_, which is ineffective because it leaves no + room for suspense in the mind of the reader, seems original; in the + dialogue, on the other hand, a justly famous passage in Act i. (the + beautiful version of the story of the nightingale's death) is + translated from Strada; while the scheme of the tedious interlude + exhibiting the various forms of madness is avowedly taken, together + with sundry comments, from Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_. Already + in this play Ford exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the + despondent misery of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last + scene, in which his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart. + A situation--hazardous in spite of its comic substratum--between + Thaumasta and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford + points out, with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy, + notwithstanding, or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the + author. + + _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ has been justly recognized as a tragedy of + extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on Ford, has + rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and has at the same + time indicated wherein consists its poison. He dwells with great force + upon the different treatment applied by Ford to the characters of the + two miserable lovers--brother and sister. "The sin once committed, + there is no more wavering or flinching possible to him, who has fought + so hard against the demoniac possession; while she who resigned body + and soul to the tempter, almost at a word, remains liable to the + influences of religion and remorse." This different treatment shows + the feeling of the poet--the feeling for which he seeks to evoke our + inmost sympathy--to oscillate between the belief that an awful crime + brings with it its awful punishment (and it is sickening to observe + how the argument by which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her + evil courses mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution), + and the notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible, + and therefore in a sense self-justified, in so dominant a passion. The + key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of + the first scene-- + + "All this I'll do, to free me from the rod + Of vengeance; _else I'll swear my fate's my god_." + + Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one + side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs, + in the dying words of "the student struck blind and mad by passion"-- + + "O, I bleed fast! + Death, thou'rt a guest long look'd for; I embrace + Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes! + Where'er I go, let me enjoy this grace + Freely to view my Annabella's face." + + It has been observed by J.A. Symonds that "English poets have given us + the right key to the Italian temperament.... The love of Giovanni and + Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative than sensual." It is + difficult to allow the appositeness of this special illustration; on + the other hand, Ford has even in this case shown his art of depicting + sensual passion without grossness of expression; for the exception in + Annabella's language to Soranzo seems to have a special intention, and + is true to the pressure of the situation and the revulsion produced by + it in a naturally weak and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to + speak, of the play is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the + underplot with Hippolita. + + _'Tis Pity she's a Whore_ was translated into French by Maurice + Maeterlinck under the title of _Annabella_, and represented at the + Theatre de l'Oeuvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version an + eloquent appreciation of Ford's genius, especially in his portraits of + women, whose fate it is to live "dans les tenebres, les craintes et + les larmes." + + Like this tragedy, _The Broken Heart_ was probably founded upon some + Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter instance + there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject, the play + commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of many + excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford's dramatic genius. The + complicated plot is constructed with greater skill than is usual with + this dramatist, and the pathos of particular situations, and of the + entire character of Penthea--a woman doomed to hopeless misery, but + capable of seeking to obtain for her brother a happiness which his + cruelty has condemned her to forego--has an intensity and a depth + which are all Ford's own. Even the lesser characters are more pleasing + than usual, and some beautiful lyrics are interspersed in the play. + + Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only _The Chronicle Historie + of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth_, appears to call for special + attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment that + it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shakespeare's + national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken into consideration + in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James Gairdner's essay appended + to his _Life and Reign of Richard III._, there are still credulous + persons left to think and assert that Perkin was not an impostor, they + will derive little satisfaction from Ford's play, which with really + surprising skill avoids the slightest indication as to the poet's own + belief on the subject. That this tragedy should have been reprinted in + 1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the public, as is often the + case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather than to the development of + the action. The dramatic capabilities of the subject are, however, + great, and it afterwards attracted Schiller, who, however, seems to + have abandoned it in favour of the similar theme of the Russian + Demetrius. Had Shakespeare treated it, he would hardly have contented + himself with investing the hero with the nobility given by Ford to + this personage of his play,--for it is hardly possible to speak of a + personage as a _character_ when the clue to his conduct is + intentionally withheld. Nor could Shakespeare have failed to bring out + with greater variety and distinctness the dramatic features in Henry + VII., whom Ford depicts with sufficient distinctness to give some + degree of individuality to the figure, but still with a tenderness of + touch which would have been much to the credit of the dramatist's + skill had he been writing in the Tudor age. The play is, however, + founded on Bacon's Life, of which the text is used by Ford with + admirable discretion, and on Thomas Gainsford's _True and Wonderful + History of Perkin Warbeck_ (1618). The minor characters of the honest + old Huntley, whom the Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter's + hand upon Warbeck, and of her lover the faithful "Dalyell," are most + effectively drawn; even "the men of judgment," the adventurers who + surround the chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman + among them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is, + as befits a "Chronicle History," so clear and straightforward as to + make it easy as well as interesting to read. + + _The Witch of Edmonton_ was attributed by its publisher to William + Rowley, Dekker, Ford, "&c.," but the body of the play has been + generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The subject + of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported witch, + Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne agrees with + Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the first act; and + he is most assuredly right in considering that "there is no more + admirable exposition of a play on the English stage." Supposing Dekker + to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing with the unfortunate + old woman whom persecution as a witch actually drives to become one, + and Ford for the domestic tragedy of the bigamist murderer, it cannot + be denied that both divisions of the subject are effectively treated, + while the more important part of the task fell to the share of Ford. + Yet it may be doubted whether any such division can be safely assumed; + and it may suffice to repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught + with more effective simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely + double lesson of the folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of + crime. + + With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of _The Sun's Darling_; or, as + seems most probable, they founded this production upon _Phaeton_, an + earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author. Gifford holds that + Dekker's hand is perpetually traceable in the first three acts of _The + Sun's Darling_, and through the whole of its comic part, but that the + last two acts are mainly Ford's. If so, he is the author of the rather + forced occasional tribute on the accession of King Charles I., of + which the last act largely consists. This mask, which furnished + abundant opportunities for the decorators, musicians and dancers, in + showing forth how the seasons and their delights are successively + exhausted by a "wanton darling," Raybright the grandchild of the Sun, + is said to have been very popular. It is at the same time commonplace + enough in conception; but there is much that is charming in the + descriptions, Jonson and Lyly being respectively laid under + contribution in the course of the dialogue, and in one of the + incidental lyrics. + +Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the intensity of his +passion, in particular scenes and passages where the character, the +author and the reader are alike lost in the situation and in the +sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is a supreme dramatic gift. But +his plays--with the exception of _The Witch of Edmonton_, in which he +doubtless had a prominent share--too often disturb the mind like a bad +dream which ends as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme +dramatic defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most +reason to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford's; +nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in _The Broken +Heart_, "is formed of books and school-traditions," which has a right to +protest against the final effect of the most powerful creations of his +genius. There is a morality which both + + "Keeps the soul in tune, + At whose sweet music all our actions dance," + +and is able to physic + + "The sickness of a mind + Broken with griefs." + +Of that morality--or of that deference to the binding power within man +and the ruling power above him--tragedy is the truest expounder, even +when it illustrates by contrasts; but the tragic poet who merely places +the problem before us, and bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty, +is not to be reckoned among the great masters of a divine art. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with notes + and introduction, revised with additions to both text and notes by + Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the _Dramatic Works of Massinger + and Ford_ appeared in 1840, with an introduction by Hartley Coleridge. + _The Best Plays of Ford_ were edited for the "Mermaid Series" in 1888, + with an introduction by W.H. Havelock Ellis, and reissued in 1903. + A.C. Swinburne's "Essay on Ford" is reprinted among his _Essays and + Studies_ (1875). _Perkin Warbeck_ and _'Tis Pity_ were translated into + German by F. Bodenstedt in 1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in + 1904. The probable sources of the various plays are discussed in Emil + Koeppel's _Quellenstudien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip + Massinger's und John Ford's_ (1897). (A. W. W.) + + + + +FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858), English author of one of the earliest and +best of travellers' _Handbooks_, was the eldest son of Sir Richard Ford, +who in 1789 was member of parliament for East Grinstead, and for many +years afterwards chief police magistrate of London. His mother was the +daughter and heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in +art. He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833 he +travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra and at +Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions to the +_Quarterly Review_) was a pamphlet, _An Historical Inquiry into the +Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain_ (Murray, 1837), in reply to +one called the _Policy of England towards Spain_, issued under the +patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the winter of 1839-1840 in Italy, +where he added largely to his collection of majolica; and soon after his +return he began, at John Murray's invitation, to write his _Handbook for +Travellers in Spain_, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died +on the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of +pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir A. +Molesworth. + + + + +FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 1580), English musician, of whose life little more +is known than that he was attached to the court of Prince Henry, son of +James I. His works also are few, but they are sufficient to show the +high stage of efficiency and musical knowledge which the English school +had attained at the beginning of the 17th century. They consist of +canons and other concerted pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute +accompaniment. The chief collection of his works is entitled _Musike of +Sundrie Kinds set forth in Two Books_, &c. (1607), and the histories of +music by Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with +Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare's sonnets, Ford is the chief +representative of the school which preceded Henry Lawes. + + + + +FORDE, FRANCIS (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in the army +list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1746. This regiment was the first +of the king's service to serve in India (hence its motto _Primus in +Indis_), and Forde was on duty there when in 1755 he became major, at +the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to become his rival, was promoted +captain. At the express invitation of Clive, Forde resigned his king's +commission to take the post of second in command of the E.I. Company's +troops in Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French +of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley rabble of an army +which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into the field, Forde pushed +ahead through difficult country and came upon the enemy entrenched at +Condore. For four days the two armies faced one another; on the fifth +both commanders resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In +spite of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in the +end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first to last a +brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself with this; on the +same evening he stormed the French camp, and his pursuit was checked +only by the guns of Masulipatam itself. The place was quickly invested +on the land side, but difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of +men. For fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last +avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at midnight on +the 25th of January 1759. The Company's troops lost one-third of their +number, but the storm was a brilliant and astounding success. Forde +received less than no reward. The Company refused to confirm his +lieut.-colonel's commission, and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote, +his old subaltern in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist +Clive, and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable to +Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A year later he at +last received his commission, but was still opposed by a faction of the +directors which supported Coote. Clive himself warmly supported Forde in +these quarrels. In 1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was +sent out with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian +administration. Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of +Good Hope on the 27th of December. + + Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be found in + Malleson's _Decisive Battles of India_. + + + + +FORDHAM, formerly a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., and +now a part of New York City. It lies on the mainland, along the eastern +bank of the Harlem river, E. of the northern end of Manhattan Island. It +is the seat of Fordham University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as +St John's College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus. In +1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University, and now +includes St John's College high school and grammar school, St John's +College, the Fordham University medical school (all in Fordham), and the +Fordham University law school (42 Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908 +the university had 96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the +high school) 236 students, of whom 105 were in St John's College, 31 in +the medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still stands +the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to 1849 and in which +he wrote "Annabel Lee," "Ulalume," &c. + +The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer (a Dutchman, +who called himself "John Archer" after coming to America), who in that +year received permission from Francis Lovelace, colonial governor of New +York, to settle sixteen families on the mainland close by a +fording-place of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters +the Harlem river. Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians +the tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the Harlem +river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and extending from +the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High Bridge. In 1671 Governor +Lovelace erected this tract into the manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was +included with Morrisania in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with +part of the township of Yonkers was erected into the township of +Kingsbridge, which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and in +1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York City. + + + + +FORDUN, JOHN OF (d. c. 1384), Scottish chronicler. The statement +generally made that the chronicler was born at Fordoun (Kincardineshire) +has not been supported by any direct evidence. It is certain that he was +a secular priest, and that he composed his history in the latter part of +the 14th century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the +cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest attempt to +write a continuous history of Scotland. We are informed that Fordun's +patriotic zeal was roused by the removal or destruction of many national +records by Edward III. and that he travelled in England and Ireland, +collecting material for his history. This work is divided into five +books. The first three are almost entirely fabulous, and form the +groundwork on which Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical +fictions, which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his _Critical Essay_ (i. +pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed with fable, +contain much valuable information, and become more authentic the more +nearly they approach the author's own time. The 5th book concludes with +the death of King David I. in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun +wrote part of another book, and collected materials for bringing down +the history to a later period. These materials were used by a +continuator who wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who is +identified with Walter Bower (q.v.), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm. +The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down the narrative +to the death of King James I. in 1437. According to the custom of the +time, the continuator did not hesitate to interpolate Fordun's portion +of the work with additions of his own, and the whole history thus +compiled is known as the _Scotichronicon_. + + The first printed edition of Fordun's work was that of Thomas Gale in + his _Scriptores quindecim_ (vol. iii.), which was published in 1691. + This was followed by Thomas Hearne's (5 vols.) edition in 1722. The + whole work, including Bower's continuation, was published by Walter + Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872 Fordun's chronicle, in + the original Latin and in an English translation, was edited by + William F. Skene in _The Historians of Scotland_. The preface to this + edition collects all the biographical details and gives full + bibliographical references to MSS. and editions. + + + + +FORECLOSURE, in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment by order of the +court of a mortgagor's equity of redemption. In the law of equity the +object of every mortgage transaction is eventually the repayment of a +debt, the mortgaged property being incidental by way of security. +Therefore, although the day named for repayment of the loan has passed +and the mortgagor's estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to +mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a reconveyance +of the mortgaged property on payment of the principal, interest and +costs. This right of the mortgagor to relief is termed his "equity of +redemption." But the right must be exercised within a reasonable time, +otherwise he will be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the +mortgagee's possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such +foreclosure is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action is +brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the chancery division +of the High Court in England, claiming that an account may be taken of +the principal and interest due to the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor +may be directed to pay the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by +the court and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of +redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in foreclosure +actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed L500, or where the +mortgage is for more than L500, but less than that sum has been actually +advanced. In a Welsh mortgage there is no right to foreclosure. (See +also MORTGAGE.) + + + + +FOREIGN OFFICE, that department of the executive of the United Kingdom +which is concerned with foreign affairs. The head of the Foreign Office +is termed principal secretary of state for foreign affairs and his +office dates from 1782. Between that date and the Revolution there had +been only two secretaries of state, whose duties were divided by a +geographical division of the globe into northern and southern +departments. The duties of the secretary of the northern department of +Europe comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while the +secretary of the southern department of Europe communicated with France, +Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, and also looked after Irish +and colonial business, and carried out the work of the Home Office. In +1782 the duties of these two secretaries were revised, the northern +department becoming the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign +affairs is the official agent of the crown in all communications between +Great Britain and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either +through the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or +through representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all +treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects +residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they may +sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two +under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other a +permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries (civil +servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department and a staff of +clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office are the African, American, +commercial and sanitary, consular, eastern (Europe), far eastern, +western (Europe), parliamentary, financial, librarian and keeper of the +papers, treaties and registry. In the case of important despatches and +correspondence, these, with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the +permanent under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the +sovereign and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet. +The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is L5000 per annum, +that of the permanent under-secretary L2000, the parliamentary +under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, L1500, and the +other assistant under-secretaries L1200. + + See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part ii. + + + + +FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two chalk headlands on the Kent coast of +England, overlooking the Strait of Dover, the North Foreland forming the +eastern projection of the Isle of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m. +N.E. of Dover. Both present bold cliffs to the sea, and command +beautiful views over the strait. On the North Foreland (51 deg. 22-1/2' +N., 1 deg. 27' E.) there is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51 +deg. 8-1/2' N., 1 deg. 23' E.) there are two. There is also a Foreland +on the north coast of Devonshire, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine +projection of the highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol +Channel, and forming the most northerly point of the county. + + + + +FORESHORE, that part of the seashore which lies between high- and +low-water mark at ordinary tides. In the United Kingdom it is ordinarily +and prima facie vested in the crown, except where it may be vested in a +subject by ancient grant or charter from the crown, or by prescription. +Although numerous decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima +facie title of the crown, S.A. Moore in his _History of the Foreshore_ +contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather than of +the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving an express +grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence of user from which a +grant may be presumed. The chief acts showing title to foreshore are, +taking wreck or royal fish, right of fishing, mining, digging and taking +sand, seaweed, &c., embanking and enclosing. There is a public right of +user in that part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the +purpose of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over +lands adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that, in +order to make the right available, there must be a highway or other +public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it has been held that +the public have no legal right to trespass on land above high-water mark +for the purpose of bathing in the sea, though if they can get to it they +may bathe there (_Blundell_ v. _Catteral_, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. 268). There +is no right in the public to take sand, shells or seaweed from the +shore, nor, except in certain places by local custom, have fishermen the +right to use the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their +boats, or for drying their nets or similar purposes. + + See S.A. Moore, _History of the Foreshore and the Law relating + thereto_ (1888); Coulson and Forbes, _Law of Waters_ (1902). + + + + +FORESTALLING, in English criminal law, the offence of buying +merchandise, victual, &c., coming to market, or making any bargain for +buying the same, before they shall be in the market ready to be sold, or +making any motion for enhancing the price, or dissuading any person from +coming to market or forbearing to bring any of the things to market, &c. +See ENGROSSING. + + + + +FOREST LAWS, the general term for the old English restriction laws, +dealing with forests. One of the most cherished prerogatives of the king +of England, at the time when his power was at the highest, was that of +converting any portion of the country into a forest in which he might +enjoy the pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the +king and the people testify to the extent to which this prerogative +became a public grievance, and the charter by which its exercise was +bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance part of the greatest +constitutional code imposed by his barons upon King John. At common law +it appears to have been the right of the king to make a forest where he +pleased, provided that certain legal formalities were observed. The king +having a continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the +peace and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many +privileges this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation +wheresoever he would appoint.[1] Land once afforested became subject to +a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the formalities required to +constitute a valid afforestment, have been carefully ascertained by the +Anglo-Norman lawyers. "A forest," says Manwood, "is a certain territory +of woody grounds and fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and +fowls of forest, chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe +protection of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of +ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable marks, meres +and boundaries, either known by matter of record or by prescription; and +also replenished with wild beasts of venery or chase, and with great +coverts of vert, for the succour of the said beasts there to abide: for +the preservation and continuance of which said place, together with the +vert and venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges +belonging to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a +forest and to no other place."[2] And the same author distinguishes a +forest, as "the highest franchise of princely pleasure," from the +inferior franchises of chase, park and warren--named in the order of +their importance. The forest embraces all these, and it is distinguished +by having laws and courts of its own, according to which offenders are +justiceable. An offender in a chase is to be punished by the common law; +an offender in a forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a +park, only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished +according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege extended. +Thus beasts of forest (the "five wild beasts of venery") were the hart, +the hind, the hare, the boar and the wolf. The beasts of chase were also +five, viz. the buck, the doe, the fox, the marten and the roe. The +beasts and fowls of warren were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and +the partridge. + +The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court of +attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of attachments +(called also the wood-mote) is held every forty days for the foresters +to bring in their attachments concerning any hurt done to vert or +venison (_in viridi et venatione_) in the forest, and for the verderers +to receive and mark the same, but no conviction takes place. The +swainmote, held three times in the year, is the court to which all the +freeholders within the forest owe suit and service, and of which the +verderers are the judges. In this court all offences against the forest +laws may be tried, but no judgment or punishment follows. This is +reserved for the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls +of offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the +swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the court of +the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, "is commonly a man of greater +dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests; and therefore where +justice-seats are to be held some other persons whom the king shall +appoint are associated with him, who together are to determine _omnia +placita forestae_." There were two chief justices for the forests +_intra_ and _ultra Trentam_ respectively. The necessary officers of a +forest are a steward, verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and +woodwards. The verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by +the freeholders in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to +view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark them on +his rolls. A forester was "an officer sworn to preserve the vert and +venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild beasts within his +bailiwick." The regarders were of the nature of visitors: their duty was +to make a regard (_visitatio nemorum_) every third year, to inquire of +all offences, and of the concealment of such offences by any officer of +the forest. The business of the agister was to look after the pasturage +of the forest, and to receive the payments for the same by persons +entitled to pasture their cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and +the payment were called "agistment." The woodward was the officer who +had the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the court +of attachment. + +The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite territory +within which the code of the forest law prevailed to the exclusion of +the common law. The ownership of the soil might be in any one, but the +rights of the proprietor were limited by the laws made for the +protection of the king's wild beasts. These laws, enforced by fines +often arbitrary and excessive, were a great grievance to the unfortunate +owners of land within or in the neighbourhood of the forest. The +offence of "purpresture" may be cited as an example. This was an +encroachment on the forest rights, by building a house within the +forest, and it made no difference whether the land belonged to the +builder or not. In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at +discretion. And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into +arable land, he was guilty of the offence known as "assarting," whether +the covert belonged to himself or not. + +The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings, and their +extension to private estates by the process of afforestment, were among +the grievances which united the barons and people against the king in +the reign of John. The Great Charter of King John contains clauses +relating to the forest laws, but no separate charter of the forest. The +first charter of the forest is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. "As +an important piece of legislation," said Stubbs,[3] "it must be compared +with the forest assize of 1184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of +the charter of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are +remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the accession of +Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations have been made under +Richard and John. These latter are at once disafforested; but those of +Henry II. only so far as they had been carried out to the injury of the +landowners and outside of the royal demesne." Land which had thus been +once forest land and was afterwards disafforested was known as +_purlieu_--derived by Manwood from the French _pur_ and _lieu_, i.e. "a +place exempt from the forest." The forest laws still applied in a +modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforestment +existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other persons the +land was forest still, and the king's wild beasts were to "have free +recourse therein and safe return to the forest, without any hurt or +destruction other than by the owners of the lands in the purlieu where +they shall be found, and that only to hunt and chase them back again +towards the forest without any forestalling" (Manwood, _On the Forest +Laws_--article "Purlieu"). + +The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted to by +Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament, and the +royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were hyperbolically +said to include the whole county. The 4th earl of Southampton was nearly +ruined by a decision that stripped him of his estate near the New +Forest. The boundaries of Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to +60, and enormous fines imposed on the trespassers,--Lord Salisbury being +assessed in L20,000, Lord Westmoreland in L19,000, Sir Christopher +Hatton in L12,000 (Hallam's _Constitutional History of England_, c. +viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640) the royal forests were +determined for ever according to their boundaries in the twentieth year +of James, all subsequent enlargements being annulled. + +The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete disuse. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Coke, 4 _Inst._, 300. + + [2] Manwood's _Treatise of the Forest Laws_ (4th edition, 1717). + + [3] _Documents Illustrative of English History_, p. 338. + + + + +FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Although most people know what a forest (Lat. +_foris_, "out of doors") is, a definition of it which suits all cases is +by no means easy to give. Manwood, in his treatise of the _Lawes of the +Forest_ (1598), defines a forest as "a certain territory of woody +grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of +forest, chase and warren, to rest and abide in, in the safe protection +of the king, for his princely delight and pleasure." This primitive +definition has, in modern times, when the economic aspect of forests +came more into the foreground, given place to others, so that forest +may, in a general way, now be described as "an area which is for the +most part set aside for the production of timber and other forest +produce, or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or +to protect the locality against injurious influences." + +As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that the greater +part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time, covered with +forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped +according to climate, soil and configuration of the several localities. +When the old trees reached their limit of life, they disappeared, and +younger trees took their place. The conditions for an uninterrupted +regeneration of the forest were favourable, and the result was vigorous +production by the creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man, +and by degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area +under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided +interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic animals; +men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks. Subsequently +similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were employed to prepare +the land for agricultural purposes. More recently enormous areas of +forests were destroyed by reckless cutting and subsequent firing in the +extraction of timber for economic purposes. + +It will readily be understood that the distribution and character of the +now remaining forests must differ enormously (see PLANTS: +_Distribution_). Large portions of the earth are still covered with +dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass +land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of a +number of different species intermixed; but in some cases certain +species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining the upper hand, +thus forming more or less pure forests of one species only. The number +of species differs very much. In many tropical forests hundreds of +species may be found on a comparatively small area, in other cases the +number is limited. Burma has several thousand species of trees and +shrubs, Sind has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about +forty species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and +Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species. +Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the +effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it may be said +that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, wherever the climate +is not modified by considerable elevation, contain broad-leaved species, +palms, bamboos, &c. Here most of the best and hardest timbers are found, +such as teak, mahogany and ebony. The northern countries are rich in +conifers. Taking a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will +be found that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of +dense hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the +Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak, olive, +chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech, birch and +certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany silver fir and +spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central Germany, and the +countries around the Baltic contain forests consisting chiefly of Scotch +pine, spruce and birch, to which, in Siberia, larch must be added, while +the lower parts of the ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder +and poplar. In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical +vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it changes +into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen broad-leaved +species with pines on sandy soils. On going north in the Atlantic +region, the forest becomes temperate, containing deciduous broad-leaved +trees and pines, until Canada is reached, where larches, spruces and +firs occupy the ground. Around the great lakes on sandy soils the +broad-leaved forest gives way to pines. On proceeding west from the +Atlantic region the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this +into the prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive +forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation above +the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In Japan a tropical +vegetation is found in the south, comprising palms, figs, ebony, +mangrove and others. This is followed on proceeding north by subtropical +forests containing evergreen oaks, _Podocarpus_, tree-ferns, and, at +higher elevations, _Cryptomeria_ and _Chamaecyparis_. Then follow +deciduous broad-leaved forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches. +In India the character of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall +and elevation. Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of +Guttiferae, Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns, +bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious rainfall +deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal (_Shorea robusta_) and +a great variety of other valuable trees. Under a still smaller rainfall +the vegetation becomes sparse, containing acacias, _Dalbergia sissoo_ +and Tamarix. Where the rainfall is very light or _nil_, desert appears. +In the Himalayas, subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the +forests containing, according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, +chestnuts, magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia, +again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some two +hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles. Some of the +eucalypts attain an enormous height. + +_Utility of Forests._--In the economy of man and of nature forests are +of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through the produce +which they yield, and the latter through the influence which they +exercise upon climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the +soil, the healthiness and beauty of a country and allied subjects. The +_indirect_ utility will be dealt with first. A piece of land bare of +vegetation is, throughout the year, exposed to the full effect of sun +and air currents, and the climatic conditions which are produced by +these agencies. If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a +growth of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation, +it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the effect of sun +and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of air. These modifying +agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns of the trees intercept the rays +of the sun and the falling rain; they obstruct the movement of air +currents, and reduce radiation at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and +fruits, augmented by certain plants which grow in the shade of the +trees, form a layer of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against +rapid changes of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of +water in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all +directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies have +been observed from ancient times, and widely differing views have been +taken of them. Of late years, however, more careful observations have +been made at so-called parallel stations, that is to say, one station in +the middle of a forest, and another outside at some distance from its +edge, but otherwise exposed to the same general conditions. In this way, +the following results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the +temperature of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the +climate more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the +air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the precipitation +of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their effect in low lands +is _nil_ or very small; in hilly countries it is probably greater, but +definite results have not yet been obtained owing to the difficulty of +separating the effect of forests from that of other factors. (4) They +help to regulate the water supply, produce a more sustained feeding of +springs, tend to reduce violent floods, and render the flow of water in +rivers more continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation, +erosion, landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands +and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity of +air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds, and +afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They may, under +certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a country, and help in +its defence. (8) They increase the beauty of a country, and produce a +healthy aesthetic influence upon the people. + +The _direct_ utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, the +capital which they represent, and the work which they provide. The +principal produce of forests consists of timber and firewood. Both are +necessaries for the daily life of the people. Apart from a limited +number of broad-leaved species, the conifers have become the most +important timber trees in the economy of man. They are found in greatest +quantities in the countries around the Baltic and in North America. In +modern times iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, +replaced timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood; +nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain so. This +is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized nations. Whereas +the population of Great Britain and Ireland, during the period +1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports of timber, during the +same period, increased by 45%; in other words, every head of population +in 1900 used more timber than twenty years earlier. Germany produced in +1880 about as much timber as she required; in 1899 she imported +4,600,000 tons, valued at L14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly +increasing, although the yield capacity of her own forests is much +higher now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes +which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the wood pulp +annually imported into Britain consumes at least 2,000,000 tons of +timber. A fabric closely resembling silk is now made of spruce wood. The +variety of other, or minor, produce yielded by forests is very great, +and much of it is essential for the well-being of the people and for +various industries. The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in +countries subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could +not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood taken +from the forests. As regards industries, attention need only be drawn to +such articles as commercial fibre, tanning materials, dye-stuffs, lac, +turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha, &c. Great Britain and Ireland +alone import every year such materials to the value of L12,000,000, half +of this being represented by rubber. + +The _capital_ employed in forests consists chiefly of the value of the +soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily, of much +greater value than the former wherever a sustained annual yield of +timber is expected from a forest. In the case of a Scotch pine forest, +for instance, the value of the growing stock is, under the +above-mentioned condition, from three to five times that of the soil. +The rate of interest yielded by capital invested in forests differs, of +course, considerably according to circumstances, but on the whole it +may, under proper management, be placed equal to that yielded by +agricultural land; it is lower than the agricultural rate on the better +classes of land, but higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter +are specially indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the +production of agricultural crops. Forests require _labour_ in a great +variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation, tending +and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) industries which +depend on forests for their prime material. The labour indicated under +the first head differs considerably according to circumstances, but its +amount is smaller than that required if the land is used for +agriculture. Hence forests provide additional labour only if they are +established on surplus lands. Owing to the bulky nature of forest +produce its transport forms a business of considerable magnitude, the +amount of labour being perhaps equal to half that employed under the +first head. The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the +working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this respect +attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and around High Wycombe +in Buckinghamshire, where more than 20,000 workmen are employed in +converting the beech, grown on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs +and tools of many patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are +not available under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany +the people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total +population; those employed on transport of forest produce 1.1%; +labourers employed on the various wood industries, 8.6%; or a total of +12%. An important feature of the work connected with forests and their +produce is that a great part of it can be made to fit in with the +requirements of agriculture; that is to say, it can be done at seasons +when field crops do not require attention. Thus the rural labourers or +small farmers can earn some money at times when they have nothing else +to do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were +obtainable. + +Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a +particular country depends on its special conditions, such as (1) the +position of a country, its communications, and the control which it +exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) the quantity and +quality of substitutes for forest produce available in the country; (3) +the value of land and labour, and the returns which land yields if used +for other purposes; (4) the density of population; (5) the amount of +capital available for investment; (6) the climate and configuration, +especially the geographical position, whether inland or on the border +of the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether +forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that +question must be answered according to the special circumstances of each +case. + +The subjoined table shows the forests of various European states:-- + + +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | | Percentage | Percentage | Forest | + | | Area of | of Total | of Forest | Area per | + | Countries. | Forests, in | Area of | Area | Head of | + | | Acres. | Country | belonging | Population,| + | | | under | to the | in Acres. | + | | | Forest. | State. | | + +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Sweden | 49,000,000 | 48 | 33 | 9.5 | + | Norway | 17,000,000 | 21 | 28 | 7.6 | + | Russia, including| | | | | + | Finland | 518,000,000 | 40 | 61 | 5.9 | + | Bosnia and | | | | | + | Herzegovina | 6,400,000 | 50 | 78 | 4.0 | + | Bulgaria | 7,600,000 | 30 | 30 | 2.3 | + | Turkey | 11,200,000 | 20 | . . | 1.7 | + | Servia | 3,900,000 | 32 | 37 | 1.5 | + | Rumania | 6,400,000 | 18 | 40 | 1.3 | + | Spain | 21,200,000 | 17 | 84 | 1.2 | + | Hungary | 22,500,000 | 28 | 15 | 1.2 | + | Austria | 24,000,000 | 32 | 7 | .9 | + | Greece | 2,000,000 | 13 | 80 | .85 | + | Luxemburg | 200,000 | 30 | . . | .82 | + | Switzerland | 2,100,000 | 20 | 5 | .7 | + | Germany | 35,000,000 | 26 | 34 | .6 | + | France | 24,000,000 | 18 | 12 | .6 | + | Italy | 10,400,000 | 15 | 4 | .3 | + | Denmark | 600,000 | 6 | 24 | .25 | + | Belgium | 1,300,000 | 18 | 5 | .2 | + | Portugal | 770,000 | 3.5 | 8 | .15 | + | Holland | 560,000 | 7 | ? | .1 | + | Great Britain | 3,000,000 | 4 | 3 | .07 | + +------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +These data exhibit considerable differences, since the percentage of the +forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area per head of population +from .07 to 9.5 acres. Russia, Sweden and Norway may as yet have more +forest than they require for their own population. On the other hand, +Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even +Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area to meet +their own requirements; at the same time, they are all sea-bound +countries, and importation is easy, while most of them are under the +influence of moist sea winds, which reduces to a subordinate position +the importance of forests for climatic reasons. + +Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country is the state +of ownership--whether they belong to the state, corporations or to +private persons. Where, apart from the financial aspect and the supply +of work, forests are not required for the sake of their indirect +effects, and where importation from other countries is easy and assured, +the government of the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to +maintain or acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and +especially where the cost of transport over long distances becomes +prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure the +maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under forest. This +can be done either by maintaining or constituting a suitable area of +state forests, or by exercising a certain amount of control over +corporation and even private forests. Such measures are more called for +in continental countries than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved +by the above statistics. + +_Supply of Timber--Imports and Exports._--The following table shows the +net imports and exports of European countries (average data, calculated +from the returns of recent years). + +The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia, Sweden, +Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others either have only +enough for their own consumption, or import timber. Great Britain and +Ireland import now upwards of 10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about +4,600,000 tons, and Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France, +Portugal, Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia +Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports hardwoods, +and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal import considerable +quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia exports hardwoods and some +Kauri pine from New Zealand, but imports larger quantities of light pine +and fir timber. British India and Siam export teak and small quantities +of fancy woods. The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and +import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will not much +longer be a genuine exporting country, since they import already almost +as much timber from Canada as they export. Canada exports considerable +quantities of timber. The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 +sq. m., equal to 38% of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest +for every inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area +can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous forest +wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly all other +countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies in the several +provinces would only determine to stop the present fearful waste caused +by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular system of management. As +matters stand, the supplies of the most valuable timber of Canada, the +white or Weymouth pine (_Pinus strobus_), are nearly exhausted, the +great stores of spruce in the eastern provinces are being rapidly +destroyed, and the forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have +been attacked for export to the United States and to other countries. + + _Net Imports and Exports of European Countries._ + + +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | Quantities in Tons. | Value in L Sterling. | + | Countries. +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Imports. | Exports. | Imports. | Exports. | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | United Kingdom |10,004,000 | . . |26,540,000 | . . | + | Germany | 4,600,000 | . . |14,820,000 | . . | + | Belgium | 1,300,000 | . . | 5,040,000 | . . | + | France | 1,230,000 | . . | 3,950,000 | . . | + | Italy | 620,000 | . . | 2,100,000 | . . | + | Spain | 470,000 | . . | 1,500,000 | . . | + | Denmark | 470,000 | . . | 1,250,000 | . . | + | Switzerland | 204,000 | . . | 480,000 | . . | + | Holland | 180,000 | . . | 720,000 | . . | + | Servia | 110,000 | . . | 160,000 | . . | + | Portugal | 60,000 | . . | 200,000 | . . | + | Greece | 35,000 | . . | 130,000 | . . | + | Rumania | . . | 400,000 | . . | 840,000 | + | Norway | . . | 1,300,000 | . . | 2,200,000 | + | Austria-Hungary | | | | | + | with Bosnia and| | | | | + | Herzegovina | . . | 3,996,000 | . . |11,400,000 | + | Sweden | . . | 4,460,000 | . . | 7,930,000 | + | Russia with | | | | | + | Finland | . . | 6,890,000 | . . |10,440,000 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total |19,283,000 |17,046,000 |56,890,000 |32,810,000 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Net Imports | 2,237,000 | | |24,080,000 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + These net imports are received from non-European countries. They + consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany, eucalypts + and others. + +Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it may be said +that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available, but the only +countries which are able to supply coniferous timber for export on a +considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria and Canada. As +these countries have practically to supply the rest of the world, and as +the management of their forests is far from satisfactory, the question +of supplying light pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of +life of the wood industries, must become a very serious matter before +many years have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are +everywhere visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to +over-state the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for +instance, that 87% of all the timber imported into Great Britain +consists of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing +countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries little or +no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this statement does +not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which contain upwards of +12,000,000 acres of waste land, and 12,500,000 acres of mountain and +heath land used for light grazing. One-fourth of that area, if put under +forest, would produce all the timber now imported which can be grown in +Britain, that is to say, about 95% of the total. + +The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within the greater +part of the British empire:-- + + _Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire._ + + +-----------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | | Annual Average | Annual Average | + | Countries. | during the Years | during the Years | + | | 1884-1888. | 1900-1903. | + +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | Net | Net | Net | Net | + | | Imports. | Exports. | Imports. | Exports. | + +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | L | L | L | L | + |United Kingdom |15,000,000| . . |26,540,000| . . | + |Australasia | 1,284,000| . . | 568,000| . . | + |Africa | 72,000 | . . | 737,000| . . | + |West Indies, | | | | | + | Honduras and Guiana | . . | 207,000| . . | 71,000| + |India, Ceylon and | | | | | + | Mauritius | . . | 528,000| . . | 580,000| + |Dominion of Canada | . . | 4,025,000| . . | 4,789,000| + | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Total |16,356,000| 4,760,000|27,845,000| 5,440,000| + +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + |Net Imports |11,596,000| . . |22,405,000| . . | + |Total increase in | | | | | + | 16 years | . . | . . |10,809,000| . . | + |Average annual increase| | | | | + | of net imports | . . | . . | 675,562| . . | + +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + +_Forest Management._--In early times there was practically no forest +management. As long as the forests occupied considerable areas, their +produce was looked upon as the free gift of nature, like air and water; +men took it, used it, and even destroyed it without let or hindrance. +With the gradual increase of population and the consequent reduction of +the forest area, proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the +ownership of certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against +outsiders. Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in +protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws. By +degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient, and that +steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment, as well as to +limit the removal of timber to what the forests were capable of +producing permanently. The teaching of natural science and of political +economy was brought to bear upon the subject, so that now forestry has +become a special science. This is recognized in many countries, amongst +which Germany stands first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark +and Belgium. Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British +India, and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good Hope +and Japan. The United States of America have also turned their attention +to the subject. Most of the British colonies are, in this respect, as +yet in a backward state, and the matter has still to be fought out in +Great Britain and Ireland, though many writers have urged the importance +of the question upon the public and the government. There can be no +doubt that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a +rational and systematic treatment of their forests. + +For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under the +country headings; in this article only some of the more important +countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of their forestry is +important. A few notes on Germany and France will be given, because in +these countries forest management has been brought to highest +perfection; Italy is mentioned, because she has allowed her forests to +be destroyed; and a short description of forestry in the United Kingdom +and in India follows. A separate section is devoted to the United +States. + +_Germany_ is in general well-wooded. The winters being long and severe, +an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential as a sufficient supply +of food. This necessity has led, along with a passion for the chase, to +the preservation of forests, and to the establishment of an admirable +system of forest cultivation, almost as carefully conducted as field +tillage. The Black Forest stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy +of Baden and part of the kingdom of Wurttemberg, from the Neckar to +Basel and the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the +Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled with +birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with. Until +comparatively recent times large quantities of timber derived from these +forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland and also shipped to +England. Now the greater part of it is used locally for construction, or +it is converted into paper pulp. In the grand-duchy of Hesse the +Odenwald range of mountains, stretching between the Main and the Neckar, +contains the chief supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are +the large wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald. + +In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel, on the +borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging the Upper Moselle, +but they do not furnish such stately trees as the Black Forest and the +Odenwald. The Spessart, near Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the +most extensive forests of middle Germany, containing large masses of +fine oak and beech, with plantations of coniferous trees, such as +spruce, Scotch pine and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest +tracts, such as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the +Kranzberg near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom. +North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thuringian +Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are covered +with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech. + +Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia the +department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister at Berlin, +while each province, or part of a province, has an Oberforstmeister, +under whom a number of Oberforsters administrate the state and communal +forests. These, again, are assisted by a lower class of officials called +Forsters. The Oberforsters throughout Germany are educated at special +schools of forestry, of which in 1909 the following nine existed: + +In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Munden. + +In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg. + +In Saxony: at Tharand. + +In Wurttemberg: at Tubingen. + +In Baden: at Carlsruhe. + +In Hesse: at Giessen. + +In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach. + +The schools at Munich, Tubingen and Giessen form part of the +universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached to the +technical high school; the others are academies for the study of +forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them all to the +universities. The subordinate staff are trained for their work in +so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large number exist. In this +way the German forests have been brought to a high degree of +productiveness, but the material derived from them falls far short of +the requirements, although the forests occupy 26% of the total area of +the country; hence the net imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000 +tons a year, and they are steadily rising. + +_France._--The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The cork oak +is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The beech, ash, elm, +maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all important trees, while +the silver fir and spruce form magnificent forests in the Vosges and +Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and maritime pines are cultivated in the +south and south-west. About one-seventh of the entire territory is still +covered with wood. + +Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of the 16th +century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforcement of +restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of state forests was +enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous work on forest trees. +Reckless destruction of the forests, however, was in progress, and the +Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus to the work of devastation. The +usual results have followed in the frequency and destructiveness of +floods, which have washed away the soil from the hillsides and valleys +of many districts, especially in the south, and the frequent +inundations of the last fifty years are no doubt caused by the +deforesting of the sources of the Rhone and Saone. Laws were passed in +1860 and 1864, providing for the reforesting, "_reboisement_," of the +slopes of mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as +state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the +departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer of 1875, +when much injury was done by floods in the south of France, the Durance, +formerly the most dangerous in this respect of French rivers, gave +little cause for anxiety, as it is round the head waters of this river +that the chief plantations have been formed. While tracts formerly +covered with wood have been replanted, plantations have been formed on +the shifting sands or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of +_Pinus pinaster_, 150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the +mouth of the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since +1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has transformed +low marshy grounds into productive soil extending over an area of about +two million acres. The forests thus created provide annually some +600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh coal mines. + +The state forest department is administered by the director-general, who +has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board of administration, +charged with the working of the forests, questions of rights and law, +finance and plantation works. + +The department is supplied with officers from the forest school at +Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when M. Lorentz, who had +studied forestry in Germany, was appointed its first director. + +_Italy._--The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates that +within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern Europe, and +the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern latitudes. By the +republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa forestal legislation was +attempted at various periods from the 15th century downwards. These +efforts were not successful, as the governments were lax in enforcing +the laws. In 1789 Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling +without licence, and later orders were published by his successors in +the pontifical states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached +nearly down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como +contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same may also +be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna there is still a +large forest of stone pine, _Pinus pinea_, though it has been much +reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned with planted trees, the +olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia is rich in woods, which cover +one-fifth of the area, and contain a large amount of oak, _Quercus +suber, robur_ and _cerris_. In Sicily the forests have long been felled, +save the zone at the base of Mount Etna. + +The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent; at the end of +the 17th century the effects of denudation were first felt in the +destructive force given to mountain torrents by the deforesting of the +Apennines. The work of devastation continued until a comparatively +recent time. + +In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany, 30 m. from +Florence, was purchased by government for the purposes of a forest +academy, which was opened in 1869. As only 4% of the total forest area +belongs to the state, it is doubtful whether much good can now be done. + +_Great Britain and Ireland._--The British Isles were formerly much more +extensively wooded than at present. The rapid increase of population led +to the disforesting of woodland; the climate required the maintenance of +household fires during a great part of the year, and the increasing +demand for arable land and the extension of manufacturing industries +combined to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest +is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual +supply of timber which is imported with facility from America, northern +Europe and the numerous British colonies. + +Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands, with its +abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from such extremes of heat +and cold as are prevalent in continental Europe, a great variety of +trees are successfully cultivated. In England and Ireland oak and beech +are on the whole the most plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts; +in the south of Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common, +while the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous +vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests now exist, +woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees, coppice and +hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country, constituting a +mass of wood of considerable importance, giving a clothed appearance in +many parts, and affording illustrations of skilled arboriculture not to +be found in any other country. + +The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park, 14,000 acres; +the New Forest, &c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres; and the Dean Forest in +Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total extent of crown forests is +about 125,000 acres. A large proportion of the crown forests, having +been formed with the object of supplying timber for the navy, consists +of oak. The largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire, +Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the +earl of Mansfield's near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl's larch +plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a large +extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, belonging to the +earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Invercauld, the native pine +attains a great size, and there are also large tracts of indigenous +birch in various districts. Ireland was at one time richly clothed with +wood; this is proved by the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs +which occupy a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes +above alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled +state of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands. + +The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large imports +of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to the present time +because (1) the rate at which foreign timber has been laid down in +Britain is very low, thus keeping down the price of home-grown timber; +(2) foreign timber is preferred to home-grown material, because it is in +many cases of superior quality, while the latter comes into the market +in an irregular and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the +waste lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown that +the lowest point was reached about the year 1888, in consequence of the +remarkable development of means of communication, that prices then +remained fairly stationary for some years, and that about 1894 a slow +but steady rise set in, showing during the years 1894-1904 an increase +of about 20% all round. This was due to the gradual approach of the +coming crisis in the supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be +shown that even with present prices the growing of timber can be made to +pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic manner. +Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so as to produce a +better class of timber, and the forests must be managed according to +well-arranged working plans, which provide for a regular and sustained +out-turn of timber year by year, so as to develop a healthy and steady +market for locally-grown material. Unfortunately the private proprietors +of the waste lands are in many cases not in a financial position to +plant. Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the +proprietor must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived from +the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In these +circumstances the state may well be expected to help in one or all of +the following ways: (1) The equipment of forest schools, where economic +forestry, as elaborated by research, is taught; (2) the management of +the crown forests on economic principles, so as to serve as patterns to +private proprietors; (3) advances should be made to landed proprietors +who desire to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the +case of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state might +acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country, such as congested +districts, and convert them into forests. Action in these directions +would soon lead to substantial benefits. The income of landed +proprietors would rise, a considerable sum of money now sent abroad +would remain in the country, and forest industries would spring up, thus +helping to counteract the ever-increasing flow of people from the +country into the large towns, where only too many must join the army of +the unemployed. Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres of +land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns. In +Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized, and it is +well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Commissioners whether the +lands remaining on their hands, when buying and breaking up large +estates, should not be converted into state forests. Such a measure +might become a useful auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish +land question. No doubt success depends upon the probable financial +results. There are at present no British statistics to prove such +success; hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the +results have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial +point of view, is comparable with England. That country has 432,085 +acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth are stocked with +broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with conifers. Some of the +forests are situated on low lands, but the bulk of the area is found in +the hilly parts of the country up to an elevation of 3000 ft. above the +sea. The average price realized of late years per cubic foot of wood +amounts to 5d., and yet to such perfection has the management been +brought by a well-trained staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after +meeting all expenses, comes to 21s. an acre all round. There can be no +doubt that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even +better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered that +foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at any rate, +the price per cubic foot rise considerably. + +These things have been recognized to some extent, and a movement has +been set on foot to improve matters. The Commissioners of Woods and a +number of private proprietors had rational working plans prepared for +their forests, and instruction in forestry has been developed. There is +now a well-equipped school of forestry connected with the university of +Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction in +forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham College of +Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places. The Commissioners of +Woods have purchased an estate of 12,500 acres in Scotland, which will +be converted into a crown forest, so as to serve as an example. The +experience thus gained will prove valuable should action ever be taken +on the lines suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, +Reclamation of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last +subject in 1909. + +_India._--The history of forest administration in India is exceedingly +instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of the British +Empire, because it places before the reader an account of the gradual +destruction of the greater part of the natural forests, a process +through which most other British colonies are now passing, and then it +shows how India emerged triumphantly from the self-inflicted calamity. +As far as information goes, India was, in the early times, for the most +part covered with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country +along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving from +pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process went on +for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest destruction became +more rapid than ever, owing to the increase of population, extension of +cultivation, the multiplication of herds of cattle, and the universal +firing of the forests to produce fresh crops of grass. Then railways +came, and with their extension the forests suffered anew, partly on +account of the increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on +account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their routes. +Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of public works was +brought to notice, it was recognized that a grievous mistake had been +made in allowing the forests to be recklessly destroyed. Already in the +early part of the 19th century sporadic efforts were made to protect the +forests in various parts of the country, and these continued +intermittently; but the first organized steps were taken about the year +1855, when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time +conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma. Soon +afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an organized state +department, presided over by the inspector-general of forests, was +established. Since then the Indian Forest Department has steadily grown, +so that it has now become of considerable importance for the welfare of +the people, as well as for the Indian exchequer. + +The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position and +extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly of that portion +which still belonged to the state. Then a special forest law was passed, +which was superseded in 1878 by an improved act, providing for the legal +formation of permanent state forests; the determination, regulation, +and, if necessary, commutation of forest rights; the protection of the +forests against unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the +protection of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of +forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers, +and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers who +administered the department in its infancy were mostly botanists and +military officers. Some of these became excellent foresters. In order to +provide a technically trained staff arrangements were made in 1866 by +Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first inspector-general of forests, for the +training of young Englishmen at the French Forest School at Nancy and at +similar institutions in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated +at Nancy, and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized +in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's Hill. +In 1905 the school was transferred to the university of Oxford. The +imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909 of--officers not +specially trained before entering the department, 17; officers trained +in France and Germany, 23; officers trained at Cooper's Hill, 143--total +184. + +In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United Provinces, for +the training of natives of India as executive officers on the provincial +staff. Since then a similar school, though on a smaller scale, has been +established at Tharrawaddy in Burma. About 500 officers of this class +have been appointed. In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates, +foresters and forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school +at Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest College. + +The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According to the +latest available returns, the areas taken under the management of the +department are--reserved state forests, or permanent forest estates, +91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.; or a total of +232,941 sq. m., equal to 24% of the area over which they are scattered. +At present, therefore, the average charge of each member of the +controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.; that of each executive officer, +446 sq. m.; and that of each protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the +intention to increase the executive and protective staff considerably, +in the same degree as the management of the forests becomes more +detailed. Of the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch, +established in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq. +m. From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic +management into the forests, based upon working plans, but, as the +management had been provincialized, there was no central or continuous +control. This was remedied in 1884, when a central Working Plans Office, +under the inspector-general of forests, was established. This officer +has since then controlled the preparation and execution of the plans, a +procedure which has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to +about 38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable +lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance which is +not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle of a sustained +yield. While the danger of overworking the forests is thus being +gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is increased by suitable +silvicultural treatment and by fire protection. Formerly most of the +important forests were annually or periodically devastated by jungle +fires, sometimes lighted accidentally, in other cases purposely. Now +38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually protected against fire by the +efforts of the department, and it is the intention gradually to extend +protection to all permanent state forests. Grazing of cattle is of +great importance in India; at the same time it is liable to interfere +seriously with the reproduction of the forests. To meet both +requirements careful and minute arrangements have been made, according +to which at present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m. +are closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while +176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle. The areas +closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in years of drought +and scarcity. During famine years they are either opened to grazing, or +grass is cut in them and transported to districts where the cattle are +in danger of starvation. The service rendered in this way by a wise +forest administration should not be underrated, since one of the most +serious calamities of a famine--the want of cattle to cultivate the +land--is thus, if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During +1907 the government of India established a Research Institute, with six +members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture, forest +botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans, and chemistry +in connexion with forest produce and production. The institute is likely +to lead to further substantial progress in the management of the +forests. + +The financial results of forest administration in India for the years +1865 to 1905 show the progress made: + + +-----------+--------------+-----------------+ + | | Mean Annual | Percentage of | + | Period. | Net Revenue. | Annual Increase | + | | | during Period. | + +-----------+--------------+-----------------+ + | | Rupees. | | + | | | | + | 1865-1870 | 1,372,733 | . . | + | 1870-1875 | 1,783,248 | 30 | + | 1875-1880 | 2,224,687 | 25 | + | 1880-1885 | 3,385,745 | 52 | + | 1885-1890 | 5,066,671 | 50 | + | 1890-1895 | 7,370,572 | 44 | + | 1895-1900 | 7,923,484 | 7 | + | 1900-1905 | 9,004,367 | 12 | + +-----------+--------------+-----------------+ + +The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period 1880-1885. The +revenue since 1886 has been considerably increased by the annexation of +Upper Burma. + +Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are given free +of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the country. Thus, in +1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce +given free or at reduced rates was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a +total net benefit derived from the state forests during that year of Rs. +14,562,755, or in round figures one million pounds sterling. The +out-turn during the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber +and fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of other +forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total gross revenue of +24 million rupees. + +These results are highly creditable to the government of India, which +has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest management +into the British empire, thus setting an example which has been followed +more or less by various colonies. Even the movement in the United +Kingdom during late years is due to it. Apart from India, substantial +progress has been made in Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements +and the Federated Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward +in this respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in +Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is threatened +by destruction. + + LITERATURE.--The following works of special interest may be mentioned: + W. Schlich, _A Manual of Forestry_ (London) (vols. i., ii. and iii. by + W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W.R. Fisher; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1906, + of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv., 1907; 2nd + ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, _Forest Law_ (London, 1893); + Brown, _The Forester_ (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London, 1905); + Broilliard, _Le Traitement des bois_ (Paris, 1894); Huffel, _Economie + forestiere_ (Paris, 1904-1907); Lorey, _Handbuch der + Forstwissenschaft_ (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tubingen, 1903); Rossmassler, + _Der Wald_. (W. Sch.) + + +UNITED STATES + +_The Forest Regions._--The great treeless region east of the Rocky +Mountains separates the wooded area of the United States into two grand +divisions, which may be called the Eastern and the Western forests. The +Eastern forest is characterized by the predominance, on the whole, of +broad-leafed trees, the comparative uniformity of its general types over +wide areas, and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western +forest conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species +often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the forest is +frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the transitions from one +type to another are often exceedingly abrupt. Both divisions are +botanically and commercially rich in species. + +The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three members: + +1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large volume of +standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its virgin condition, +from fire. The characteristic trees are maples, birches and beech +(_Fagus atropunicea_), among the hardwoods and white pine (_Pinus +strobus_), spruce (_Picea rubens_ and _Picea mariana_) and hemlock +(_Tsuga canadensis_) among conifers. + +2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the Northern, and +more frequently burned over. Among its characteristic trees are the +longleaf (_Pinus palustris_) and other pines, oaks, gums, bald cypress +(_Taxodium distichum_) and white cedar (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_). + +3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively little from +adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern forests except in the +absence of conifers. Among its trees are the chestnut (_Castanea +dentata_), hickories, ashes and other hardwoods already mentioned. + +The Western division has two members: + +1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its trees and +the vast accumulations of merchantable timber. Among its characteristic +species are the redwood (_Sequoia sempervirens_) and the big tree (_S. +Washingtoniana_), the Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), sugar pine +(_Pinus lambertiana_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), giant +arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_) and Sitka spruce (_Picea sitchensis_). + +2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species are the +western yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Engelmann spruce (_Picea +engelmanni_) and lodgepole pine (_Pinus murrayana_). This forest is +frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less extent, +especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from fire. Subarid +in character, except to the north and at high elevations, the vast +mining interests of the region and its treeless surroundings give this +forest an economic value out of proportion to the quantities of timber +it contains. + +This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first of +the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the situation of the +national forests hereafter mentioned. + +The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the commercial +though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast, which occur along +the streams and on the lower slopes of the mountains and consist chiefly +of western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Sitka spruce (_Picea +sitchensis_), yellow cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and giant +arborvitae (_Thuja plicata_), usually of large size and uninjured by +fire; and the vast interior forests, swept by severe fires, and +consisting chiefly of white and black spruces (_Picea canadensis_ and +_nigra_), paper birch (_Betula papyrifera_) and aspen (_Populus +tremuloides_), all of small size but of great importance in connexion +with mining. Northern Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are +entirely barren. + +[Illustration: Forest Regions of the United States + +_The unshaded areas are treeless, except along the Streams_] + +_The National Forest Policy._--The forest policy of the United States +may be said to have had its origin in 1799 in the enactment of a law +which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for the use of the +navy, or of land upon which such timber was growing. It is true that +laws were in force under the early governments of Massachusetts, New +Jersey and other colonies, providing for the care and protection of +forest interests in various ways, but these laws were distinctly +survivals of tendencies acquired in Europe, and for the most part of +little use. It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous +shortage in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest +policy was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from 1817 +to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment, but +without permanent influence towards the preservation of the live oak +(_Quercus virginiana_ Mill.), which was the object in view. A long +period of inaction followed these early measures. In 1831 the +solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility for the care +and protection of the public timber lands, and in 1855 this duty was +transferred to the commissioner of the general land office in the +Department of the Interior. The effect of these changes upon forest +protection was unimportant. When, however, at the close of the Civil War +railway building in the United States took on an unparalleled activity, +the destruction of forests by fire and the axe increased in a +corresponding ratio, and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by +several of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government, +but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial from +the American Association for the Advancement of Science, authorized the +appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough) under the commissioner +of agriculture, to collect and distribute information upon forest +matters. His office became in 1880 the division of forestry in what is +now the United States Department of Agriculture. + +As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public interest in +tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed and later amended and +repealed the timber culture acts, which granted homesteads on the +treeless public lands to settlers who planted one-fourth of their +entries with trees. Though these measures were not successful in +themselves they directed attention towards forestry. The act which +repealed them in 1891 contained a clause which lies at the foundation of +the present forest policy of the United States. By it the president was +authorized to set aside "any part of the public lands wholly or in part +covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, +as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation, +declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof." +Some eighteen million acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the +time when, in 1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the +secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report upon "the +inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest lands of the +United States." Upon the recommendation of a commission named by the +Academy, President Cleveland established more than twenty-one million +acres of new reserves on the 22nd of February 1897. His action was +widely misunderstood and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in +forest questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the +United States since that time could never have been made. + +Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland reserves the +present national forest policy took definite shape. Under this policy +the national government holds and manages, in the common interest of all +users of the forests or its products, such portions of the public lands +as have been set aside by presidential proclamation in accordance with +the act of 1891. These lands are held against private acquisition under +the Homestead Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter +mentioned), the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the +United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain, but not +against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws. They are +selected from lands believed to be more valuable for forest purposes +than for agriculture, and are managed with the purpose of securing from +them the best and largest possible returns, present and future, whether +in the form of water for irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for +stock, or of any other beneficial product. The aggregate area of the +reserves, or national forests, has been steadily increased until they +now include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain. + +The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by the +commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to the secretary +of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of June 4, 1897, which was +largely shaped by the work of the commission. Until this act was passed +the national forests had been in theory closed against any form of use; +nor had the possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use +received much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such a +state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion would +have forced the opening to use of the resources thus arbitrarily locked +up, and in the absence of any administrative system providing for +conservative use, the national forests would inevitably have been +abolished, and the whole policy of government forest holdings would have +ceased. The act of June 4, 1897 was therefore of the first importance. +This act conferred upon the secretary of the interior general powers for +the proper management of the national forests through the general land +office of his department. It provided for the designation and sale of +dead, mature and large timber; authorized the secretary to permit free +use of timber in small quantities by settlers, miners and residents; +empowered him to "make such rules and regulations and establish such +service as will insure the objects of such reservations, namely, to +regulate their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon +from destruction"; and made violation of the act or of such rules and +regulations a misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish +forest reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the +forest, securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a +continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of +the United States. Lands found, upon due examination, to be more +valuable for other purposes than for forest uses might be eliminated +from any reservation, and all mineral lands within the reservations were +left open to private appropriation under the mineral laws. The rights of +settlers and claimants were safeguarded, and civil and criminal +jurisdiction, except so far as the punishment of offences against the +United States in the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the +States. + +While the administration of the national forests was entrusted to the +general land office, the same act assigned the surveying and mapping of +them to the United States Geological Survey, which has published +descriptions and maps of some of the more important. + +No attempt was made in the general land office to develop a technical +forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of passage of the act, +less than ten trained foresters in the United States, no means of +training more, and very little conception of what forestry actually +meant. The purpose of the administration was therefore mainly protection +against trespass and fire, particularly the latter. Regulations were +made giving effect to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth +above, but in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely +be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the use of +the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly developing in another +branch of the government service an organization qualified for actual +forest management. + +One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the division of +forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased to be merely a bureau +of information, and became an active agency for introducing the actual +practice of forestry among private owners and for conducting the +investigations upon which a sound American forest practice could be +based. The work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted +a powerful educational influence upon the country at large. The division +extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the Bureau of Forestry. It +drew into its employment for a time nearly all the men who were +preparing themselves in increasing numbers (at first abroad, then in the +newly-founded schools in the United States) for the profession of +forestry, and was soon recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively +on technical questions connected with the administration of the national +forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior for +the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans were +accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The general land +office, however, was not ready to attempt active forest management. +Though some timber was sold and the grazing of stock regulated to some +extent, the main object of the land office administration continued to +be protection against fire. Many of the regulations which it made could +not be enforced. + +The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government forest work +among three separate agencies grew more and more apparent, until, on the +1st of February 1905, control of the 63,000,000 acres of forest reserves +which up to that time had been set aside was transferred from the +general land office to the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its +new duties the designation of the bureau became the Forest Service. + +[Illustration: National Forests and National Parks of the United States.] + +Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were that forest +supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far as possible, from +qualified citizens of the state or territory in which each forest was +situated, and that all money received from the sale of any products or +the use of any land or resources of the national forests should be +covered into the treasury and constitute a special fund for their +protection, administration, improvement and extension. Five days later a +statute gave forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the +3rd of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had +opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worthless land +by private owners within the forests for an equal area of valuable +timber lands outside. + +The law has been modified since by the change of the old name "Forest +Reserves" to "National Forests." The act of June 11, 1906, opened to +homestead entry lands within national forests found by examination to be +chiefly valuable for agriculture. The administration and improvement of +the national forests are now provided for directly by congressional +appropriation. The power to create national forests conferred on the +president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the states of +Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and Colorado, but for no +others. + +The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all the resources +of the national forests. Mature timber was sold wherever there was a +demand for it and the permanent welfare of the forests and protection of +the streams permitted, but always so as to prevent waste, guard against +fire, protect young growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were +adopted which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay, +secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and eliminated +unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard the interests of the +government and provide for the maintenance of good technical standards. +The conduct of local business was entrusted to local officers. Large +transactions with general policies were controlled from Washington, but +with careful provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with +the work in the field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the +public were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created +capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the complex +business of making useful a forest property of vast extent, scattered +through sixteen different states of an aggregate area of over 1,500,000 +sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000. + +The growth since the 1st of July 1897 of the area of the national +forests, of the expenditures of the government for forestry, and of the +receipts from the national forests, is shown by the statement which +follows. Though the act of June 4, 1897, became effective immediately +upon its passage, the fiscal year 1899 was the first of actual +administration, because the first for which Congress made the +appropriation necessary to carry out the law. + + _Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal + Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration, and + Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909._ + + +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + | | Area of | | | | | | + | Fiscal | National Forests|Division of Forestry| General | Receipts from | Receipts from |Expenditures upon| + | Year.[1]| at Close of Year|(Bureau of Forestry,| Land Office. | National Forests.| National Forests,|National Forests,| + | | (June 30). | Forest Service). | | | per Acre. | per Acre. | + +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + | | Acres. | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | + | 1898 | 40,866,184 | 20,000.00 | . . | . . | . . | . . | + | 1899 | 46,168,439 | 28,520.00 | 175,000.00 | 7,534.83 | 0.00016 | 0.0038 | + | 1900 | 46,515,039 | 48,520.00 | 210,000.00 | 36,754.02 | .00078 | .0045 | + | 1901 | 46,324,479 | 88,520.00 | 325,000.00 | 29,250.88 | .00063 | .0070 | + | 1902 | 51,896,357 | 185,440.00 | 300,000.00 | 25,431.87 | .00049 | .0060 | + | 1903 | 62,211,240 | 291,860.00 | 304,135.00 | 45,838.08 | .00074 | .0054 | + | 1904 | 62,611,449 | 350,000.00 | 375,000.00 | 58,436.19 | .00093 | .0072 | + | 1905 | 85,693,422 | 632,232.36[2] | 217,907.64[2]| 73,276.15 | .00085 | .0059 | + | 1906 | 106,994,018 | 1,191,400.21 | . . | 767,219.96 | .00717 | .0089 | + | 1907 | 150,832,665 | 1,800,595.20 | . . | 1,571,059.44 | .01041 | .0097 | + | 1909 | 167,677,749 | 2,948,153.08 | . . | 1,807,276.66 | .00931 | .0151 | + +---------+-----------------+--------------------+--------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + +Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber. In the +fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less than half the +receipts. The following statement concerning the timber sales of the +fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring out the change that followed +the transfer of control to the forest service in the midst of the fiscal +year 1905:-- + + +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+ + | Fiscal | Amount of | Amount of | Receipts from | + | Year. | Timber Sold. | Timber Cut. | Timber Sales. | + +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+ + | | Bd.-ft. | Bd.-ft. | $ | + | 1904 | 112,773,710 | 58,435,000 | 58,436.19 | + | 1905 | 113,661,508 | 68,475,000 | 73,270.15 | + | 1906 | 328,230,326 | 138,665,000 | 245,013.49 | + | 1907 | 1,044,855,000 | 194,872,000 | 686,813.12 | + +--------+---------------+-------------+---------------+ + +These figures show (1) a large excess each year in the amount of timber +sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much timber sold at +the end of the four-year period as at the beginning and three times as +much cut; and (3) a much higher price obtained per thousand board-feet +at the end of the period than at the beginning. Each of these matters +calls for comment. The sales are of stumpage only; the government does +no logging on its own account. + +1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for, because many +of the sales extend over several years. With increasing sales the amount +sold each year for future removal has exceeded the amount to be removed +during that year under sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a +term of years are made because the national forests contain much +overmature timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too +inaccessible to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent speculation the +time allowed for cutting is never more than five years, and cutting must +begin at once and be continued steadily. + +2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much forest is ripe +for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by trained men makes it +safe to cut more freely. The increase is marked both in small and in +large sales, but a score of sales for less than $5000 are made against +one for more. The total cut is still far below the annual increment of +the forests. As the demand grows restrictions must increase in order to +husband the present supply until the next crop matures. + +3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures to have +risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars per thousand +board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one year are not exclusively +for the timber cut in that year, since payments are made in advance. In +the year 1907 the average price obtained was something less than $2.50 +per thousand. It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen +greatly, although conditions new to the American lumbermen are imposed. +Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of young growth +in felling and logging, and the piling of brush, to be subsequently +burned by the forest officers if burning is necessary, are among these +conditions. Timber to be cut must first be marked by the forest +officers. Sales of more than $100 in value are made only after public +advertisement. + +Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been introduced. The +vast area of the national forests, the comparatively sparse population +of the West, the rough and broken character of the forests themselves, +and the newness of the problems which their management presents, make +the general application of intensive methods for the present +impracticable. Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is +most used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate +diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed. The +tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and effective +application of the selection principle, as a better trained field force +is developed and as market conditions improve. + +One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by fires on the +national forests. During the unusually dry season of 1905 there were +only eight fires of any importance, and the area burned over amounted +only to about .16 of 1% of the total area. In 1900 about .12 of 1% was +burned. This was accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the +public, and by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush +on cut-over areas. + +Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from the +national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is one of the +most important industries of the West. Formerly cattle and sheep grazed +freely on all parts of the public domain. In the early days of the +national forests the wisdom of permitting any grazing at all upon them +was sharply questioned. Unrestricted grazing had led to friction between +individuals, the deterioration of much of the range through +overstocking, and serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The +forests of the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain +many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high mountain +meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and other forage plants +which they produce in great quantity can be used without detriment to +the forests themselves, and with great benefit to the stock industry, +which often can find summer pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern +California grazing is now permitted on all national forests unless the +watersheds furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and +leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and the part +of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed. Planted areas and +cut-over areas are closed to stock until the young growth is safe from +harm, and goats are allowed only in the brushland of the foothills. + +The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of forest +growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes, improved range, +better stock, stable conditions in the stock industry, and the best use +of the range in the interest of progress and development. The first +right to graze stock on the forests is given to residents, small owners +and those who have used the range before. Thus the crowding out of the +weaker by the stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has +been stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate +charge for the use of the national forest range. The following statement +shows the amount of stock grazed on the national forests 1904-09, and +the receipts for the grazing charge:-- + + +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+ + | Year.| Number of | Number of | Receipts. | + | |Cattle and Horses.|Sheep and Goats.| | + +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+ + | | | | $ | + | 1904 | 610,091 | 1,806,722 | . . | + | 1905 | 692,124 | 1,709,987 | . . | + | 1906 | 1,015,148 | 5,763,100 | 514,692.87 | + | 1907 | 1,200,158 | 6,657,083 | 863,920.32 | + | 1909 | 1,581,404 | 7,819,594 | 1,032,185.70 | + +------+------------------+----------------+---------------+ + +A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting on the +national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices and incomplete +utilization of forest products, clear cutting with subsequent planting +is not practicable. There are, however, many million acres of denuded +land within the national forests which require planting. Such planting +is still confined chiefly to watersheds which supply cities and towns +with water. The first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since +then similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado, Utah, +Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the Black Hills national +forest, where large areas of cut-over and burned-over land are entirely +without seed trees, and in the sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908 +about 2,000,000 seedlings had been planted, on over 2000 acres--a small +beginning, but the work was entirely new and presented many hard +problems. + +The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated at seven +stations, located in southern California, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico +(2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is raised for local planting and for +shipment elsewhere. These nurseries are small. Their annual productive +capacity is between 8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is +practically an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large +variety of species are grown and various methods are tried. + +The organization of the administrative work of the national forests is +by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total number of +forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres (on April 7, +1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the U.S. with 167,672,467 +acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626 and one in Porto Rico with +65,950 acres). In charge of each forest is a forest supervisor. Under +the supervisors are forest rangers and forest guards, whose duties +include patrol, marking timber and scaling logs, enforcing the +regulations and conducting some of the minor business arising from the +use of the forests. Guards are temporary employes; rangers are employed +by the year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions +from the central office at Washington. In this office there are four +branches--operation, grazing, silviculture and products--each of which +directs that part of the work which belongs to it, dealing directly with +the supervisor. For inspection purposes, however, the forests are +separated into six districts, in each of which is located a chief +inspector with a corps of assistants. The inspectors are without +administrative authority, but assist by their counsel the supervisors, +and through inspection reports keep the Washington office informed of +the condition of all lines of administrative work in progress. +Administrative officers alternate frequently between field and office +duties. + +The number of forest officers in the several grades on the 1st of +January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106 forest +supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest rangers and 283 +forest guards. The total number of employes of the forest service on the +same date, including the clerical force, was 2034. + +Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest service +conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive educational +work, and co-operates with private owners who contemplate forest +management upon their own tracts. This last work is undertaken because +of the need of bringing forestry into practice, the lack of trained +foresters outside of the employ of the government, and the lack of +information as to how to apply forestry and what returns may be +obtained. Co-operation takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on +occasion, of the making of working plans. The educational work of the +service is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which +is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry to +the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests. The +investigations which the service conducts extend from studies of the +natural distribution and classification of American forests and of their +varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber production and +laboratory researches which bear upon the economical utilization of +forest products. As examples of these researches may be mentioned tests +of the strength of timber, studies of the preservative treatment of wood +for various uses, wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood +chemistry. + +_Forest Instruction._--Most of the men now in the forest service +received their training in the United States. There are several +professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which was +opened as a department of Yale University in September 1900, offers a +two-years' graduate course with abundant field work, and also conducts a +summer school of forestry, especially adapted to the training of forest +rangers and special students, at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university +of Michigan and Harvard University also offer a two-years' graduate +course in forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently +established a four-years' undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore +Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools, offers +a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number of the +agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among these are +Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington and Mississippi +agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and Iowa State College. +Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special mention as a college which has +done valuable work in teaching forestry without attempting to turn out +professional foresters. + +_Forestry among the States._--Among the states forestry has hardly +reached the stage of practical application on the ground. New York holds +1,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commission to care for its +forest preserve, and to protect the forest land throughout the state +from fire. The constitution of the state, however, prohibits the cutting +of timber on state land, and thus confines the work entirely to +protection of the forest and to the planting of waste areas. +Pennsylvania is at present showing the most efficient activity in +working out a forest policy. It has state forests of 820,000 acres, a +good fire law more and more satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries +for growing planting material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings +were set out. It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on +the state forests, and it has just established a state professional +school of forestry. + +Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers, six +have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation with the +forest service, and there is scarcely one which is not actively +interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent damage from +forest fires, have been enacted by practically all the states, but +their enforcement has unfortunately been lax. Public sentiment, however, +is making rapid progress. Among the best laws are those of Maine, New +Hampshire, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York +law, for example, provides for the appointment of one or more +fire-wardens in each town of the counties in which damage by fire is +especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns are +_ex-officio_ fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general supervision +of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose services is paid +by the state, receive compensation only for the time actually employed +in fighting fires. They may command the service of any citizen to assist +them. Setting fire to woods or waste lands belonging to the state or to +another, if such fire results in loss, is punishable by a fine not +exceeding $250 or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and +damages are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond +question the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the +measures taken against it are of vital importance. + +The following table shows the amount of forest land held by the +different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:-- + + _Area of State Forest Reservations, 1907._ + + Connecticut 1,360 acres + Hawaii 117,532 " + Indiana 2,000 " + Maryland 3,540 " + Michigan 39,000 " + Minnesota 42,800 " + New Jersey 2,474 " + New York 1,439,998 " + Pennsylvania 820,000 " + Wisconsin 254,072 " + +_Forestry on Private Lands._--The practice of forestry among private +owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances was that of Jared +Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic cutting of timber land to +supply charcoal for an iron furnace at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The +successful planting of waste lands with timber trees in Massachusetts +dates from about ten years later. But such examples were comparatively +rare until recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber +with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more common +than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially frequent. It +was begun among lumbermen by the late E.S. Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who +made a practice of restricting the cut of spruce from his forests to +trees 10, 12 or sometimes even 14 in. in diameter, with the result that +much of his land yielded, during his life, a second crop as plentiful as +the first. Many owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but +until very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry on a +large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks during the +summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W.S. Webb and Hon. W.C. Whitney, of a +combined area of over 100,000 acres, under the superintendence of the +then Division of Forestry. In these forests spruce, maple, beech and +birch predominate, but the spruce alone is at present of the first +commercial importance. The treatment is a form of the selection system. +Under it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in +thirty-five years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work had +been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great satisfaction to +the owners and the lumbering contractors, as well as to the decided +benefit of the forest. The lumbering is regulated by the following +rules, and competent inspectors are employed to see that they are +rightly carried out: (1) No trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2) +All trees marked shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the +woods, and none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All +merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the small +end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more than 6 in. higher +than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall be used for bridges, +corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose except building camps, dams +or booms, unless it is absolutely necessary on account of lack of other +timber. (7) All merchantable spruce used for skidways must be cut into +logs and hauled out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage +to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must discharge +the men who did it. + +These two instances of forestry have been most useful and effective +among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in the north-east. Among +those which have followed their example are the Berlin Mills Paper +Company in northern New Hampshire, the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in +northern Michigan, and the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New +York, all of which have employed professional foresters. + +The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the estate of +George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N.C. This was the first case of +systematic forestry under regular working plans in the United States. It +was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres, and has since been extended until +it now covers about 100,000 acres. A professional forester with a corps +of trained rangers under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania +Railroad has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants +and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale. + +The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private owners +is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908 670 wood lots and +timber tracts had been examined by agents of the forest service, of +which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in extent, and planting plans had +been made for 436 owners covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert +advice is also given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the +state foresters. + +_American Practice._--The conditions under which forestry is practised +in Europe and in America differ so widely that rules which are received +as axiomatic in the one must often be rejected in the other. Among these +conditions in America are the highly developed and specialized methods +and machinery of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation +and consequent greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number of +small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of low-grade wood +in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest properties, cut-over as +well as virgin, notably in the north-western pineries, and the firmly +established habits of lumbermen, are factors of great importance. From +these and other considerations it follows that such generally accepted +essentials of European methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield, +a permanent force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the +like, are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at the +present day in private forestry. Methods of forest management, to find +acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible to existing +methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity, the observance of +which will yet secure the safety of the forest, must open the way for +more refined methods in the future. For the present a periodic or +irregular yield, temporary means of transport, constantly changing +crews, and an almost total ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of +the most important trees--all combine to enforce the simplest +silvicultural treatment and the utmost concentration of purpose on the +two main objects of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue +and the perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed +in practice by complete success. + +The forests with which the American forester deals are rich in species, +usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction, and, over a large +part of their range, greatly dependent for their composition and general +character upon the action of forest fires. Of the commercially valuable +trees there may be said to be, in round numbers, a hundred out of a +total forest flora of about 500 species, but many trees not yet of +importance in the lumber trade will become so hereafter, as has already +happened in many cases. The attention of the forester must usually be +concentrated upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and +never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems which +must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are fortunately +less complicated than the presence of so many kinds of trees in forests +of such diverse types would naturally seem to indicate. + +The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which the +American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest fires have +had more to do with the character and distribution of forests in America +than any other factor except rainfall. With an annual range over +thousands of square miles, in many portions of the United States they +occur regularly year after year on the same ground. Trees whose thick +bark or abundant seeding gives them peculiar powers of resistance, +frequently owe their exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the +action of fire. On the economic side fire is equally influential. The +probability, or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first +cut, commonly determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree +standing. Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the +introduction of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another +of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut, and +afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot afford to hold. +This evil, which only the progress of public sentiment can control, is +especially prevalent in certain portions of the white pine belt. + +_Forest Associations._--Public sentiment in favour of the protection of +forests is now widespread and increasingly effective throughout the +United States. As the general understanding of the objects and methods +of forestry becomes clearer, the tendency, formerly very marked, to +confound ornamental tree planting and botanical matters with forestry +proper is rapidly growing less. At the same time, the number and +activity of associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with +notable rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the +United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters, is +composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American Forestry +Association is the oldest and largest. It has been influential in +preparing the ground work of popular interest in forestry, and +especially in advocating and securing the adoption of the federal forest +reservation policy, the most important step yet taken by the national +government. It publishes as its organ a monthly magazine called +_Forestry and Irrigation_. The Pennsylvania Forestry Association has +been instrumental in placing that state in the forefront of forest +progress. Its organ is a bi-monthly publication called _Forest Leaves_. +Other states which have associations or societies of special influence +in forest matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado, +New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted in Nebraska in +1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers who had settled on the +treeless prairies, has been taken up as a means of interesting school +children in the planting of trees, and has spread until it is now +observed in every state and territory. It continues to serve an +admirable purpose. + +_Lumbering._--According to the census report for 1905 the capital +invested in logging operations in the United States was $90,454,596, the +number of employes engaged 146,596, and their wages $66,990,000; +sawmills represented an invested capital of $381,621,000, and employed +223,674 persons, whose wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills +represented a capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons +whose wages were $66,434,000. + + +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+ + | | | Equivalent|Estimated|Estimated|Total Wood| + | Product. | Output 1906. | Wood | Woods | Mill | Volume | + | | | Volume. |Waste.[3]|Waste.[4]| Consumed.| + +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+ + | | | Million | Million | Million | Million | + | | | cub. ft. | cub. ft.| cub. ft.| cub. ft. | + | Lumber-- | | | | | | + | Conifers | 30,200,000 thousand bd. ft.| 2517 | 1173 | 2170 | 5860 | + | Hardwoods | 7,300,000 " " | 612 | 577 | 461 | 1650 | + | Shingles | 11,900,000 " " | 107 | 54 | 109 | 270 | + | Pulpwood | 2,900,000 cords | 261 | 79 | . . | 340 | + | Wood distillation | 1,200,000 " | 108 | 12 | . . | 120 | + | Heading | 146,000,000 sets | 32 | 33 | 45 | 110 | + | Staves-- | | | | | | + | Tight cooperage | 267,000,000 | 22 | 36 | 32 | 90 | + | Slack cooperage |1,097,000,000 | 27 | 22 | 21 | 70 | + | Poles | 3,500,000 | 35 | 15 | . . | 50 | + | Veneer | 300,000 thousand bd. ft.| 50 | 30 | . . | 80 | + | Round mine timbers| 165,000,000 cub. ft. | 165 | 35 | . . | 200 | + | Hewn cross ties | 77,500,000 | 207 | 503 | . . | 710 | + | | +-----------+---------+---------+----------+ + | | | 4143 | 2569 | 2838 | 9550 | + +-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+----------+ + +All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are +controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar unit of +measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-foot, is generally +defined as a board one foot long, one foot wide and one inch thick, but +in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in. of manufactured lumber in +any form. To purchase logs by this measure one must first know about +what each log will yield in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or +table is used, which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and +lengths in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for +nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable waste in +slabs and sawdust costing him nothing. + +The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for certain +purposes in the United States in 1906. + +In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is used each +year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and the total annual +consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft. + +The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the rank of the +important timber trees with reference to the amount of timber cut, and a +shifting of the important centres of production. Among coniferous trees, +white pine has yielded successively to yellow pine and Douglas fir, +while the scene of greatest activity has shifted from the Northern +forest to the Southern, and from there is rapidly shifting to the +Pacific Coast. The total cut of coniferous lumber has increased +steadily, but that of the hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was +15% less than in 1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming +more and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed +from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region. + +_Conifers._--The coniferous supply of the country is derived from four +forest regions: (1) The Northern forest; (2) the Southern forest; (3) +the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky Mountain forest. + +1. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coniferous +lumber production in the United States. The principal timber tree of +this region is the white pine, usually known in Europe as the Weymouth +pine. It has an average height when mature of 110 ft., with a diameter a +little less than 3 ft., but the virgin timber is approaching exhaustion. +White pine was one of the first trees to be cut extensively in the +United States, and Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre +of production. In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was +144 million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock 11 million. +Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce had risen +to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a million feet. +Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed from the north woods to +the Lake States, and for many years this region was the scene of the +most vigorous lumbering activity in the world. The following figures +show the cut for the Lake States from 1873 to 1906. It is certain that +the remarkable decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show +will continue still farther. + + 1873 3,993,780,000 | 1890 8,597,659,352 + 1874 3,751,306,000 | 1891 7,879,948,349 + 1875 3,968,553,000 | 1892 8,594,222,802 + 1876 3,879,046,000 | 1893 7,326,263,782 + 1877 3,595,333,496 | 1894 6,821,516,412 + 1878 3,629,472,759 | 1895 7,050,669,235 + 1879 4,806,943,000 | 1896 5,725,763,035 + 1880 5,651,295,000 | 1897 6,233,454,000 + 1881 6,768,856,749 | 1898 6,155,300,000 + 1882 7,552,150,744 | 1899 6,056,508,000 + 1883 7,624,789,786 | 1900 5,485,261,000 + 1884 7,935,033,054 | 1901 5,336,000,000 + 1885 7,053,094,555 | 1902 5,294,000,000 + 1886 7,425,368,443 | 1903 4,792,000,000 + 1887 7,757,916,784 | 1904 4,220,000,000 + 1888 8,388,716,460 | 1905 3,777,000,000 + 1889 8,183,050,755 | 1906 3,032,000,000 + +Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees of the +Northern forest is the hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_). It is used chiefly +for construction purposes and furnishes a comparatively low grade of +lumber. + +The spruce (_Picea rubens_) is used chiefly for lumber, but it is in +large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper pulp. For the +latter purpose hemlock, poplar (_Populus tremuloides_ and _P. +grandidentata_) and several other woods are also employed, but on a +smaller scale. The total consumption of wood for paper in the United +States for 1906 was 3,660,000 cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of +this, however, 720,000 cords were imported from Canada. + +2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow pine. This is +the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban +pines. Of these the longleaf pine (_Pinus palustris_ Mill.), called +pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important. Its timber is probably +superior in strength and durability to that of any other member of the +genus _Pinus_, and in addition to its value as a timber tree it is the +source of naval stores in the United States. The average size of the +mature longleaf pine is 90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter. +Shortleaf (_Pinus echinata_) and loblolly (_P. taeda_) are other +important members of this group. Their wood very closely resembles that +of the longleaf pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The +trees are also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however, +of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was +11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its maximum, +but is certainly near it. + +Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest is the bald +cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), which grows in the swamps. The cut in +1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of 69% over 1899. + +3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the Pacific +Coast. The Douglas fir (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), also known as Douglas +spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost tree in Oregon and +Washington, and the redwood in California. When mature the Douglas fir +averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft. in diameter, and the redwood 225 +ft. in height and 8 ft. in diameter. Other important trees of the +Pacific Coast are sugar pine (_Pinus lambertiana_), western red cedar +(_Thuja plicata_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), Sitka spruce +(_Picea sitchensis_), western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_) and western +yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_). These trees will all be of increasing +importance. + +Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of powerful +machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous weights. This is +especially true in California, where the logs of redwood and of the big +tree (_Sequoia Washingtoniana_) are often more than 10 ft. in diameter. +Logging is usually done by wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The +journey to the mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great +size, built on piles over tide water and so arranged that their product +is delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored +alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their way over +land to the markets of the central and eastern states and into foreign +markets. Among the lumber-producing states, Washington has in seven +years jumped from fifth place to first, and its output has increased +from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in 1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906. +Oregon and California have increased their output from 734,000,000 each +in 1899 to 1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of +the total output of these three states (7,259,000,000 ft.) 4,880,000,000 +ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood. + +4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest are the +western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas fir and the +Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely variable in size and +value, reaches in this region average dimensions of perhaps 80 ft. in +height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and +the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by 2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses +chiefly absorb the annual timber product, which is considerable in +quantity, and of vast importance to the local population. The lumber +output of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very rapidly +both in the north and in the south-west. One of the largest mills in the +United States is in Idaho. + +The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous +species during the years 1899-1906: + + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+ + | | | | | Per Cent Increase| + | Kind. | 1899. | 1904. | 1906. | (+) or Decrease | + | | | | | (-) since 1899. | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+ + | |Million|Million|Million| | + | | ft. | ft. | ft. | | + | Yellow Pine | 9,659 |11,533 |11,661 | + 20.7 | + | Douglas Fir | 1,737 | 2,928 | 4,970 | + 186.2 | + | White Pine | 7,742 | 5,333 | 4,584 | - 40.8 | + | Hemlock | 3,421 | 3,269 | 3,537 | + 3.4 | + | Spruce | 1,448 | 1,304 | 1,645 | + 13.6 | + | Western Pine | 944 | 1,279 | 1,387 | + 46.9 | + | Cypress | 496 | 750 | 839 | + 69.3 | + | Redwood | 360 | 519 | 683 | + 83.2 | + | Cedar | 233 | 223 | 358 | + 53.7 | + | +-------+-------+-------+------------------+ + | |26,040 | 27,138|29,664 | + 14 | + +--------------+-------+-------+-------+------------------+ + +_Hardwoods._--The hardwood supply of the country is derived almost +entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and comes from each of +the three great Eastern forest regions. + +The following table shows the cut of the important species of hardwoods +for 1899 and 1906: + + +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + | | | | Per Cent | + | Kind. | 1899. | 1906. | Increase (+) | + | | | | or Decrease (-).| + +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + | | Thousand | Thousand | | + | | Feet. | Feet. | | + | Oak | 4,438,027 | 2,820,393 | - 36.5 | + | Maple | 633,466 | 882,878 | + 39.4 | + | Poplar | 1,115,242 | 693,076 | - 37.9 | + | Red gum | 285,417 | 453,678 | + 59.0 | + | Chestnut | 206,688 | 407,379 | + 97.1 | + | Basswood | 308,069 | 376,838 | + 22.3 | + | Birch | 132,601 | 370,432 | + 179.4 | + | Cottonwood | 415,124 | 263,996 | - 36.4 | + | Beech | (a) | 275,661 | | + | Elm | 456,731 | 224,795 | - 50.8 | + | Ash | 269,120 | 214,460 | - 20.8 | + | Hickory | 96,636 | 148,212 | + 53.4 | + | Tupelo | (a) | 47,882 | | + | Walnut | 38,681 | 48,174 | + 24.5 | + | Sycamore | 29,715 | (a) | | + | All other | 208,504 | 87,637 | - 58.0 | + +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + | Total | 8,634,021 | 7,315,491 | - 15.3 | + +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + a Not separately reported. + +Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output, has fallen off +36.5%. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second among the hardwoods, has +fallen off 38% and now occupies third place; and elm, the great stand-by +in slack cooperage, has fallen 50.8%. On the other hand less valuable +species like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59% respectively. + +The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods grow +naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern United +States where the population has always been the densest, and as a +consequence of this, a large proportion of the original hardwood land +has been cleared up and put under cultivation. The hardwood supply of +the future must be obtained chiefly from the Appalachian region, where +the conditions are less favourable to agriculture. + +In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hardwoods are used +each year for railroad ties, telephone and other poles, piles, fence +posts and fuel, and there is a great amount of waste in the course of +lumbering and manufacture. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sargent, _Silva of North America_ (Boston, 1891-1897), + _Manual of Trees of North America_ (Boston, 1903); Lemmon, _Handbook + of West American Cone-Bearers_ (San Francisco, 1895); Bruncken, _North + American Forests and Forestry_ (New York, 1900); Fernow, _Economics of + Forestry_ (New York, 1902); Pinchot, _The Adirondack Spruce_ (New + York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, _The White Pine_ (New York, 1896). + See also the various publications of the U.S. forest service, + including especially the following general works: _Forest Influences_; + _Primer of Forestry_; the _Timber Supply of the United States_; the + _Waning Hardwood Supply_; _Forest Products of the United States in + 1906_; _Exports and Imports of Forest Products in 1906_; _Federal and + State Forest Laws_; _Regulations and Instructions for the Use of the + National Forests_; _The Use of the National Forests_; also part v. of + the _Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports of the United + States Geological Survey_, and vol. ix. of the _10th Census Report on + the Forests of North America_; and _Reports_ of the State Forestry + Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine, Pennsylvania, Michigan, + Ohio, &c., and of the State Geological Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland + and North Carolina. (G. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its + designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus, the + fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1, 1897-June 30, 1898. + + [2] Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1, + 1905. + + [3] Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does + not include defective trees left or trees used for road purposes. + + [4] Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings. + + + + +FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC (1804-1872), marshal of France, was born at Paris +on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the army from St Cyr in 1824. He +took part in the earlier Algerian campaigns, and became captain in 1835. +Four years later he was given command of a battalion of _chasseurs a +pied_ and in 1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac +made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the _coup +d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III. made him a +general of division shortly afterwards. He held a superior command in +the Crimean War, and in the Italian campaign of 1859 distinguished +himself very greatly in the action of Montebello (20th May). In 1862 +Forey was placed in command of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico, +with the fullest civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful +campaign by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his +reward the marshal's baton. From December 1863 to 1867 he held high +commands in France, but in the latter year he was struck with paralysis +and had to retire. Marshal Forey died at Paris on the 20th of June 1872. + + + + +FORFAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of the county +of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117. It lies at the east end of +the Loch of Forfar in the valley of Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of +Dundee by road and 21-1/4 m. by the Caledonian railway. It is also +situated on the same company's main line to Aberdeen and sends off a +branch to Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house, the +county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and others), the +town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free library), the +infirmary, poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded by Peter Reid, a +merchant in the burgh who also gave the public park. The burgh unites +with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin and Inverbervie (the Montrose group of +burghs) in returning one member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1-1/4 +m. long by 1/4 m. wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and +perch. On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood a +castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret, queen of +Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen and jute manufactures, +but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-making and iron-founding are also +carried on. + +Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for the first +parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old castle, which +stood on a mound on the northern side of the town. The parliaments of +William the Lion, Alexander II. and Robert II. also assembled within its +walls. The town, which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt +down about the middle of the 13th century. Edward I. captured the +castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized it, +put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site being now +marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of James VI. the weekly +market was held on Sunday, but after the union of the crowns parliament +enacted that it should be held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I. +during the Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of +regard for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played +a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a crown +commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable creatures, some +of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the same year one John Ford for +his services as a witch-finder was admitted a burgess along with Lord +Kinghorne. The witches' bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking +whilst being led to execution, is still preserved in the county hall. +One mile to the E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of +Robert Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation it +was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episcopalians, until +they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822. + + + + +FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the +shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by Perthshire, S. by the Firth of +Tay and E. by the North Sea. It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873.7 +sq. m. The island of Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire. + +Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and may be +divided physically into four well-marked sections. In the most northerly +of these many of the rugged masses of the Grampians are found; this belt +is succeeded by Strathmore, or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from +6 to 8 m. broad, which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and +runs south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of +Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated heights, +which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the Firth. The +mountains are all in the northern division and belong to the Binchinnin +group (sometimes rather inexactly called the Braes of Angus) of the +Grampian ranges. Among the highest masses, most of which lie on or near +the confines of the bordering counties, are Glas Maol(3502 ft.), on the +summit of which the shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet, +Cairn-na-Glasha (3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag +Leacach (3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105), Mount +Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of 2000 ft. are +numerous. The Sidlaw Hills--the greater part of which, however, belongs +to Perthshire--are much less lofty and of less striking appearance. They +have a breadth of from 3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county +being Craigowl Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill +(1242). None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any +importance. The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards, then +turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a course of 45 +m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth, Ericht and Lunan, +and on the left the Newton, Melgam and Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the +fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.), so named from the fact that when the +stream is in flood the spray rises in a dense cloud like smoke (_reek_). +Near old Airlie Castle are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie. +The North Esk, formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at +Invermark, after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea 3 +m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West Water and +Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives the title of earl +of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family. The South Esk rises in +the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and not far from its source forms the +Falls of Bachnagairn; after flowing towards the south-east, it bends +eastwards near Tannadice and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the +length of its course being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen +on the right and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of +Southesk to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the +two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt Loch Lee (1 +m. long by 1/4 m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape and about 3/4 m. +across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies Dundee with drinking +water. The glens of the Forfarshire Grampians are remarkable for their +beauty, and several of them for the wealth of their botanical specimens. +The largest and finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of +Forter Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie's +shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance to which +stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie; Glen Esk and +Glen Prosen. + + _Geology._--A great earth fracture traverses this county from near + Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between Cortachy and + the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old Red Sandstone, but + north-east of that place it forms the junction line of Silurian and + Old Red; and in a general way we may say that on the N.W. side of the + fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks are found, while the remainder + of the county is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone. On the margin of + the disturbance the Silurian rocks are little-altered grey and green + clay slates with bands of pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we + find the same rocks metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with + pebbly quartzites. Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock + and Mount Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone + extends from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire; here + some 20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being + formed of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in + the sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower + beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably + the remains of an old vent through which some of the contemporaneous + lavas, &c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been subjected to + a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast. The principal + direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal fold occupies + Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose the northern extension + of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold. Two fish-bearing beds occur + in the county; from the lower one many large _Eurypterids_ have been + obtained. The well-known paving flags of Arbroath belong to the lower + part of the formation. The Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in + one spot about a mile north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the + ice travelled south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw + Hills; abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in + the form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great + transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a + mile in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are + found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and 25 + ft. above the present sea-level. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--On the whole the climate is healthy and +favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature for the year +is 47.3 deg. F., for January 38 deg. and for July 59 deg. The average +annual rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably drier than the +uplands. In the low-lying districts of the south the harvest is nearly +as early as it is in the rest of Scotland, but in the north it is often +late. The principal wheat districts are Strathmore and the neighbourhood +of Dundee and Arbroath; and the yield is well up to the best Scottish +average. Barley, an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats, +however, though still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes +are mostly grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips also +are largely raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste land, has +been turned into sheep walks and deer forests. The black-faced sheep are +the most common in the mountainous country; cross-bred sheep in the +lowlands. Though it is their native county (where they date from 1808), +polled Angus are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of +Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle are +imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of the towns +there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised successfully, Clydesdales +being the commonest breed, but the small native garrons are now little +used. Pigs also are reared. Save perhaps in the case of the crofts, or +very small holdings of less than 10 acres, farm management is fully +abreast of the times. + +_Other Industries._--The staple industries are the jute and flax +manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but they flourish also +at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at Dundee, Arbroath and +Montrose. The manufactures of jams, confectionery, leather, machinery, +soap and chemicals, are all of great and growing value. Sandstone +quarries employ many hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose +is the centre, are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at +the mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit. + +Two railway companies serve the county. The North British, entering from +the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast north-eastwards, sending +off at Montrose a branch to Bervie. The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to +Forfar, whence it diverges due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes +its north-easterly course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from +Perth by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from +Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth Junction via +Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it touch with Montrose. + +_Population and Government._--The population was 277,735 in 1891, and +284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English, and 13 Gaelic only. +The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901, 22,398), Brechin (8941), +Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie (5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar +(11,397), Kirriemuir (4096), Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427). +Forfarshire returns one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and +there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar, +the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In addition to +numerous board schools there are secondary schools at Dundee, Montrose, +Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir, and technical schools at +Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the elementary schools earn grants for +higher education. The county council and the Dundee and Arbroath town +councils expend the "residue" grant in subsidizing science and art and +technical schools and classes, including University College, the textile +school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the workshop +schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath, besides cookery, +dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and veterinary science classes +at different places. + +_History._--In the time of the Romans the country now known as +Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation there are +evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses. Traces of Roman +camps and stone forts are common, and there are vitrified forts at +Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of Laws near Monifieth and at other +points. Spearheads, battle-axes, sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian +bronze pins, and other antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm +and stress before the land settled down into order, towards which the +Church was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was +frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is supposed to +have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (A.D. 84); the Northumbrian +King Egfrith and the Pictish king Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685, +the former being slain; conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno +and other spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the +parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and Scots had +a bitter encounter. In later times the principal historical events, +whether of peace or war, were more immediately connected with burghs +than with the county as a whole. There is some doubt whether the county +was named Angus, its title for several centuries, after a legendary +Scottish prince or from the hill of Angus to the east of the church of +Aberlemno. It was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a +hereditary sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter +of 1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the 1st earl of +Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in her own right. +On the death of the 1st and only duke of Douglas, who was also 13th earl +of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged in the dukedom of Hamilton. +Precisely when the shire became known by the name of the county town has +not been ascertained, but probably the usage dates from the 16th +century. Among old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle +at the mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck; the +stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of Finhaven; the +two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of Melgund Castle, which are +fairly complete; the small castle of Newtyle, and the old square tower +and gateway of the castle of Craig. + + See A. Jervise, _Memorials of Angus and Mearns_ (Edinburgh, 1895); + _Land of the Lindsays_ (Edinburgh, 1882); _Epitaphs and Inscriptions_ + (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, _Lives of the_ _Lindsays_ + (London, 1835); Sir W. Fraser, _History of the Carnegies_ (Edinburgh, + 1867); A.H. Millar, _Historical Castles and Mansions_ (Paisley, 1890); + G. Hay, _History of Arbroath_ (Arbroath, 1876); D.D. Black, _History + of Brechin_ (Edinburgh, 1867). + + + + +FORFEITURE (from "forfeit," originally an offence, and hence a fine +exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the O. Fr. _forfait_, +from the late Lat. _foris factum_, a trespass, that which is done +_foris_, outside), in English law, the term applied (1) to loss or +liability to the loss of property in consequence of an offence or breach +of contract; (2) to the property of which the party is deprived. + +Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indictment for treason +or felony was followed not only by forfeiture of the life of the +offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and goods. In the case of +treason all the traitor's lands of whomsoever holden were forfeited to +the king; in the case of felony (including _felo-de-se_, or suicide), +the felon's lands escheated (_exceciderunt_) to his immediate lord, +subject to the king's right to waste them for a year and a day. This +rule did not apply to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The +goods of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of +the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures +was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the king's +justices throughout England; and from time to time conflicts arose from +attempts by these justices to extend the law of treason--under which the +king levied all the forfeitures--at the expense of felony, in which the +lord of the felon benefited by the escheats. As regards theft, the +king's rights overrode those of the owner of the stolen property, until, +in the reign of Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the +goods to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys's +_Diary_, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration of the +working of the old law. We find that on the suicide of his +brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally and +obtained a grant of the brother-in-law's estate in favour of his widow +and children should the inquest find a verdict of _felo-de-se_. It was +common practice for persons anticipating conviction for treason or +felony to assign all their property to others to avoid the forfeiture; +and in some instances the accused refused to plead to the indictment and +endured the _peine forte et dure_, until death supervened, to avoid +these consequences of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures +arising within particular areas were frequently granted by charter to +corporations or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such +charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448. All +forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and attainder for +treason and felony were abolished as from the 4th of July 1870, except +forfeitures consequent upon the now disused process of outlawry, and the +forfeitures included in the penalties of praemunire. + +The term "forfeit" is also applied to penalties imposed by statute for +acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor felonious. In such +statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of the crown unless the statute +indicates another destination; and unless a particular method of +enforcing the forfeiture is indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the +crown and has priority as such. The words "forfeit and pay" are often +used in imposing a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where +they are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict the +offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture. + +Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels, e.g. of +a British merchant-ship when her character as such is fraudulently +dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76), or of goods smuggled +in contravention of the customs acts or books introduced in violation of +the copyright acts. Recognisances are said to be forfeited when the +conditions are broken and an order of court is made for their +enforcement as a crown debt against the persons bound by them. + +The term "forfeiture" is now most commonly used with reference to real +property, i.e. with reference to the rights of lords of the manor or +lessors to determine the estate or interest of a copyholder or lessee +for breach of the customary or contractual terms of tenure. It is also +applied to express the deprivation of a limited owner of settled +property, real or personal, for breach of the conditions by which his +rights are limited; e.g. by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or +alienate his interest. As a general rule, the courts "lean against +forfeitures" of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the +superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them. By +legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant relief upon +terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of certain classes of +covenant, e.g. to pay rent or to insure. + + + + +FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin _fabricare_, to +construct), in English law, "the fraudulent making or alteration of a +writing to the prejudice of another man's right," or "the false making, +or making _malo animo_, of any written instrument for the purpose of +fraud or deceit." This definition, it will be seen, comprehends all +fraudulent tampering with documents. "Not only the fabrication and false +making of the whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion, +alteration or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true +instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount to +forgery,--and this though it be afterwards executed by another person +ignorant of the deceit" (Russell on _Crimes and Misdemeanours_, vol. +ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale in a lease, so that it appears to +be a lease of the manor of Sale instead of the manor of Dale, is a +forgery. And when a country banker's note was made payable at the house +of a banker in London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the +name of such London banker to that of another London banker with whom +the country banker had subsequently made his notes payable. As to the +fraud, "an intent to defraud is presumed to exist if it appears that at +the time when the false document was made there was in existence a +specific person, ascertained or unascertained, capable of being +defrauded thereby; and this presumption is not rebutted by proof that +the offender took or intended to take measures to prevent such person +from being defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he +had a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document" +(Stephen's _Digest of the Criminal Law_). Thus when a man makes a false +acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it, intending to take +it up and actually taking it up before it is presented for payment, he +is guilty of forgery. Even if it be proved as a matter of fact that no +person could be defrauded (as when A forges a cheque in B's name on a +bank from which B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will +be presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had withdrawn his +account, the absence of fraudulent intention would be inferred. A +general intention to cheat the public is not the kind of fraud necessary +to constitute forgery. Thus if a quack forges a diploma of the college +of surgeons, in order to make people believe that he is a member of that +body, he is not guilty of forgery. + +The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to time dealt +with in an enormous number of statutes. It was first made a statutory +offence in 1562, and was punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, +having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the +forfeiture of land and perpetual imprisonment. It was made capital, +without benefit of clergy in 1634. The most notable cases of those who +have suffered the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W. +Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield's name on a bond, and Henry +Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for +the appropriation by means of forged instruments of money entrusted to +the bank, in 1824. "Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his +_Criminal Code_, has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain +provisions against the offence" (Sir J.T. Coleridge's notes to +Blackstone). Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the +legislature against forgery, and says that "through the number of these +general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible to be +conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether in the name of +a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital crime." These acts +were consolidated in 1830. The later statutes, fixing penalties from +penal servitude for life downwards, were consolidated by the Forgery Act +1861. It would take too much space to enumerate all the varieties of the +offence with their appropriate punishments. The following condensed +summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen's _Digest of the +Criminal Law_: + + 1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum + are-- + + (a) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c. + + (b) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills, + bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c. + + (c) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque. + + (d) Forgeries of registers of birth, &c., or of copies thereof and + others. + + 2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years' penal servitude are-- + + (a) Forgeries of debentures. + + (b) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &c. + + (c) Forgeries of instruments purporting to be made by the accountant + general and other officers of the court of chancery, &c. + + (d) Drawing bill of exchange, &c., on account of another, per + procuration or otherwise, without authority. + + (e) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing it to + be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c. + + 3. Forgeries punishable with seven years' penal servitude:--Forgeries + of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates, and of + documents to be used in evidence, &c. + +By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of trade marks is +an offence punishable on conviction by indictment with imprisonment not +exceeding two years or to fine, or both, and on conviction by summary +proceedings with imprisonment not exceeding four months or with a fine. + +The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the Forged +Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local authorities to make +compensation by a cash payment out of their funds for any loss arising +from a transfer of their stocks, shares or securities through a forged +transfer. + +_United States._--Forgery is made a crime by statute in most if not all +the states, in addition to being a common law cheat. These statutes have +much enlarged the common definition of this crime. It is also made a +crime by a Federal statute (U.S. Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes +forgery of national banknotes, letters patent, public bid, record, +signature of a judge, land warrants, powers of attorney, ships' papers +or custom-house documents, certificates of naturalization, &c.; the +punishment is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with +or without hard labour. + +In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts of several +banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to produce one additional +note or instrument with intent to pass all as genuine, is a forgery of +each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch. 38, S 108). The alleged instrument +must be apparently capable of defrauding (_Goodman_ v. _People_ [1907], +228, Ill. 154). + +In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of credit +issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by any other +officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank bill of any bank, is +punishable by imprisonment for life or any term of years (Rev. Laws +1902, ch. 209, SS 4 and 5). + +In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting, +alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument (Penal Code, +S 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who with intent to defraud +sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip, share certificate, is +guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely making any instrument which +purports to be issued by a corporation bearing a pretended signature of +a person falsely indicated as an officer of the company, is forgery just +as if such person were in truth such officer (id. S 519). Counterfeiting +railroad tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that +the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id. S 511). So +also is the forging a fictitious name (_People_ v. _Browne_ [1907], 103 +N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the first degree may be +twenty years, in the second degree ten years, in the third degree five +years. + +In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, uttering or +publishing any written instrument other than bank bills, cheques or +drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonment "by separate or +solitary confinement at labour for a term not exceeding ten years" (L. +1860, March 31); forging bank bills, &c., for a term not exceeding five +years. Defacing, removing, or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating +in any river is punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two +years or a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered +mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment by +solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.). + +In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the body of and +signature to an instrument which may be the subject of forgery (1906; +_State_ v. _Bradley_, 116 Tenn. 711). + +In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, S 24, authorizes licensees +to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written prescription of a +legally qualified physician stating that it "is given and necessary for +medicinal use." It was held that a prescription containing no such +statement was invalid and the alteration thereof was not forgery (1906; +_State_ v. _McManus_, 78 St. 433). + + AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen, + _Digest of Criminal Law_; _History of Criminal Law_; L.O. Pike, + _History of Crime in England_, 1873-1876; Russell, _On Crimes_; + Archbold, _Criminal Pleadings_. + + + + +FORGET-ME-NOT, or SCORPION-GRASS (Ger. _Vergissmeinnicht_, Fr. +_gremillet_, _scorpionne_), the name popularly applied to the small +annual or perennial herbs forming the genus _Myosotis_ of the natural +order _Boraginaceae_, so called from the Greek [Greek: mys], a mouse, +and [Greek: ous], an ear, on account of the shape of the leaves. The +genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North America and Australia, +and is characterized by oblong or linear stem-leaves, flowers in +terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue, pink or white flowers, a +five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver- or funnel-shaped corolla, having +its mouth closed by five short scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets. +The common or true forget-me-not, _M. palustris_, is a perennial plant +growing to a height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem +clothed with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat +shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla rotate, +broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow centre. The +divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third the length of the +corolla, whereas in the other British species of _Myosotis_ it is deeply +cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite with poets, and the symbol of +constancy, is a frequent ornament of brooks, rivers and ditches, and, +according to an old German tradition, received its name from the last +words of a knight who was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower +for his lady. It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and, +as it flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for garden +borders; a variety, _M. strigulosa_, is more hairy and erect, and its +flowers are smaller. In _M. versicolor_ the flowers are yellow when +first open and change generally to a dull blue; sometimes they are +permanently yellowish-white. Of the species in cultivation, _M. +dissitiflora_, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome abundant sky-blue +flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it +does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be +renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, or _M. +alpestris_, 2 to 3 in., intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring +shady situations and gritty soil; _M. azorica_ (a native of the Azores) +with purple, ultimately blue flowers about half an inch across, has a +similar habit but larger flowers; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or +white, used for spring bedding, should be sown annually in August. + + + + +FORGING, the craft of the smith, or "blacksmith," exercised on malleable +iron and steel, in the production of works of constructive utility and +of ornament. It differs from founding (q.v.) in the fact that the metal +is never melted. It is essentially a moulding process, the iron or steel +being worked at a full red, or white, heat when it is in a plastic and +more or less pasty condition. Consequently the tools used are in the +main counterparts of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All +the operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones: (1) +Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section ("fullering" +and "swaging"); (2) enlargement of a smaller to a larger portion +("upsetting"); (3) bending, or turning round to any angle of curvature; +(4) uniting one piece of metal to another ("welding"); (5) the formation +of holes by punching; and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include +all the operations that are done at the anvil. In none of these +processes, the last excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool +involved, and therefore there is no violence done to the fibre of the +malleable metal. Nor have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except +the cutting-off tools or "setts." The essential fact of the flow of the +metal, which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost +sight of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must be +exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best +calculated to secure maximum strength. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + + Fullering and swaging. + + Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material + between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or + finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape, nearly + hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be reduced from larger to + smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a fuller or round-faced stake, set + in the anvil, or, in some cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows + are dealt upon that portion of the face which lies exactly opposite + with a fullering tool A, grasped by a rather loosely-fitting handle + and struck on its head by a sledge. The position of the piece of work + is quickly changed at brief intervals in order to bring successive + portions under the action of the swages until the reduction is + completed; the upper face, and if a bottom fuller is used the under + face also, is thus left corrugated slightly. These corrugations are + then removed either by a flatter, if the surfaces are plane (fig. 2), + or by hollow swages, if the cross section is circular (fig. 3). Spring + swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead of separate "top and + bottom tools." Frequently swaging is practised at once, without the + preliminary detail of fullering. It is adopted when the amount of + reduction is slight, and also when a steam hammer or other type of + power hammer is available. This process of drawing down or fullering + is, when practicable, adopted in preference to either upsetting or + welding, because it is open to no objection, and involves no risk of + damage to the material, while it improves the metal by consolidating + its fibres. But its limitations in anvil work lie in the tediousness + of the operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in + diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar. Then + there are other alternatives. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + + Upsetting. + + If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of its + length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of great + length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part to be enlarged is + heated, the parts adjacent remaining cold, and an end is hammered, or + else lifted and dropped heavily on the anvil or on an iron plate, with + the result that the heated portion becomes both shortened and enlarged + (figs. 5 and 6). This process is only suitable for relatively short + lengths, and has the disadvantage that the fibres of wrought iron are + liable to open, and so cause weakening of the upset portion. But + steel, which has no direction of fibre, can be upset without injury; + this method is therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power + presses to an equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to + upsetting is generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section, + or to encircle the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then + to impart any shape desired to the ring in swages. + + + Bending. + + Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise of + leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is always, + when practicable, preferable to cutting out a curved or angular shape + with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of the fibre in iron is + preserved by bending, and the risk of an imperfect weld is avoided. + Hence it is a simple and safe process which is constantly being + performed at the anvil. An objection to sharp bends, or those having a + small radius, is that the fibres become extended on the outer radius, + the cross section being at the same time reduced below that of the bar + itself. This is met by imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to + the part to be bent, sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction + due to extension of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the + corners of dip cranks. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + + Welding. + + The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting + autogeneously while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable. + When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to be united, + welding is the only method practicable at the anvil. It is also + generally the best to adopt when union has to be made between pieces + at right angles, or when a piece on which much work has to be done is + required at the end of a long plain bar, as in the tension rods of + cranes and other structures with eyes. The art of welding depends + chiefly on having perfectly clean joint faces, free from scale, so + that metal can unite to metal; union would be prevented by the + presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is essential to have a + temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to overheat the metal. + A dazzling white, at which small particles of metal begin to drop off, + is suitable for iron, but steel must not be made so hot. A very few + hammer blows suffice to effect the actual union; if the joint be + faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering will weld it. The forms of + weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and 9), the butt (fig. 10), the + V (fig. 11) and the glut, one form of which is shown in fig. 12; the + illustrations are of bars prepared for welding. These forms give the + smith a suitable choice for different conditions. A convexity is + imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the expulsion of slag + and dirt during the closing of the joint; these undesirable matters + become entangled between concave faces. The ends are upset or enlarged + in order to leave enough metal to be dressed down flush, by swaging or + by flattering. The proportional lengths of the joint faces shown are + those which conform to good practice. The fluxes used for welding are + numerous. Sand alone is generally dusted on wrought iron, but steel + requires borax applied on the joint while in the fire, and also dusted + on the joint at the anvil and on the face of the latter itself. + Electric welding is largely taking the place of the hand process, but + machines are required to maintain the parts in contact during the + passage of the current. Butt joints are employed, and a large quantity + of power is absorbed, but the output is immensely greater than that of + hand-made welds. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + Punching. + + When holes are not very large they are formed by punching, but large + holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round and welding it, + so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes are often punched simply as a + preliminary stage in the formation of a larger hole by a process of + drifting. A piece of work to be punched is supported either on the + anvil or on a ring of metal termed a bolster, laid on the anvil, + through which the burr, when severed, falls. But in making small holes + through a thick mass, no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways + and forming an enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron + stanchions that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has + to be punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under + power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time. + + + Cutting-off. + + The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or cold + metal. In the first case the chisels used, "hot setts," have keener + cutting angles than those employed for the second, termed "cold + setts." One sett is held in a hole in the anvil face, the "anvil + chisel," the other is handled and struck with a sledge. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron +possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many forgings +therefore must be made differently according as they are in iron or in +steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed to run transversely +to the axis of greatest tensile or bending stress, but must be in line +therewith. For this reason many forgings, of which a common eye or loop +(fig. 13) is a typical example, that would be stamped from a solid piece +if made in steel, must be bent round from bar and welded if in wrought +iron. Further, welding which is practically uniformly trustworthy in +wrought iron, is distrusted in steel. The difference is due to the very +fibrous character of iron, the welding of which gives much less anxiety +to the smith than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently made +without any flux, those in steel never. Though mention has only been +made of iron and steel, other alloys are forged, as those of aluminium, +delta metal, &c. But the essential operations are alike, the differences +being in temperature at which the forging is done and nature of the +fluxes used for welding. For hardening and tempering, an important +section of smith's work, see ANNEALING. + +_Die Forging._--The smith operating by hand uses the above methods only. +There is, however, a large and increasing volume of forgings produced in +other ways, and comprehended under the general terms, "die forging" or +"drop forging." + +Little proof is needed to show that the various operations done at the +anvil might be performed in a more expeditious way by the aid of +power-operated appliances; for the elementary processes of reducing, and +enlarging, bending, punching, &c., are extremely simple, and the most +elaborate forged work involves only a repetition of these. The fact that +the material used is entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is +most favourable to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white +hot mass of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a +few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be stamped in +steel dies under a coining press. But much detail is involved in the +translation of the principle into practice. The parallel between coining +dies and forging dies does not go far. The blank for the coin is +prepared to such exact dimensions that no surplus material is left over +by the striking of the coin, which is struck while cold. But the blank +used in die forging is generally a shapeless piece, taken without any +preliminary preparation, a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may +be square or round irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be +square, or round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the +welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of the +impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die, the metal yields +like lead, and flows and fills the dies. + +Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding a forging. +A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the concavity of the +forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow over between the +joints, prevent the dies from being closed on the forging. There are two +methods adopted for removing this "fin," or "flash" as it is termed, one +being that of suppression, applicable to circular work, the other that +of stripping, applied to almost all other cases. + + The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the + dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few + blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when + formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section is + being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar. + + Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has been + formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced right + through with an opening of the same shape and area as the forging, and + then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer. The forging is thus + knocked through the die, leaving the severed or stripped fin behind. + The forging is then returned to the dies and again treated, and the + stripping may be repeated twice, or even oftener, before the forging + can be completed. + + [Illustration: Fig. 14.] + + Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate the bottom dies of a set for forging in a + particular form of eye, the top dies being of exactly the same shape. + The first operation takes place in fig. 15, in which a bar of metal is + reduced to a globular and cylindrical form, being constantly rotated + meanwhile. The shank portion is then drawn down in the parallel recess + to the left. The shape of the eye is completed in fig. 16, and the + shank in the recess to the left of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is + stamped between top and bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is + formed by punching, the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the + centre for the hole to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is + located by a conical projection in the top die. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained + here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive + application. + + An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a + quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in dies + within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the cost of + the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the + question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of + dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required. From + this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings, + ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over + the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which are + produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimensions + than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage when + forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer's + machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there. + Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at + all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in + consequence of their slight inaccuracies. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + + Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies much + of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when thousands + of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a hundred, or + even to a dozen, similar forgings. In such cases economy is secured by + using dies of a very cheap character; or, by employing such dies as + supplementary to anvil work for effecting neat finish to more precise + dimensions than can be ensured at the anvil. In the first case use is + made of dies of cast iron moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of + having their matrices laboriously cut in steel with drills, chisels + and milling tools. In the second, preliminary drawing down is done + under the steam hammer, and bending and welding at the anvil, or under + the steam hammer, until the forgings are brought approximately to + their final shape and dimensions. Then they are reheated and inserted + in the dies, when a few blows under the steam or drop hammer suffice + to impart a neat and accurate finish. + + The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large + dimensions. The system is most successful for the smallest forgings + and dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of + cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers as + are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles + manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings, in + which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is + utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped from steel + plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute by far the + largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are massive, and a + single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press employed bends the + steel plate between the dies to shape at once. Fairly massive forgings + are also produced in these presses. + + Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the + skilled smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only + craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the shops. + The men who attend to the machines are not smiths, but unskilled + helpers. (J. G. H.) + + + + +FORK (Lat. _furca_), an implement formed of two or more prongs at the +end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type of which is the +table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and horticulture the fork +is used for pitching hay, and other green crops, manure, &c.; commonly +this has two prongs, "tines"; for digging, breaking up surface soil, +preparing for hand weeding and for planting the three-pronged fork is +used. The word is also applied to many objects which are characterized +by branching ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs, +which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to give a +standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams of a river, or the +junction where a tributary runs into the main river; and in the human +body, to that part where the legs branch off from the trunk. + +The _furca_, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form of the +letter [Lambda], was used by the Romans as an instrument of punishment. +It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal, and his hands were +fastened to it, condemned slaves were compelled to carry it about with +them, and those sentenced to be flogged would be tied to it; +crucifixions were sometimes carried out on a similar shaped instrument. +From the great defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the +Caudine Forks (_Furculae Caudinae_), a narrow gorge, where the +vanquished were compelled to pass under the yoke (_jugum_), as a sign of +submission, the expression "to pass through or under the forks" has been +loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The "forks" in any +allusion to this defeat should refer to the topographical name and not +to the _jugum_, which consisted of two upright spears with a third +placed transversely as a cross-bar. + + + + +FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1749-1818), German musician, was born on the +22nd of February 1749 at Meeder in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, +and as a practical musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved +some eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly upon +his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical science +and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J.S. Bach, whose music +he did much to popularize. His library, which was accumulated with care +and discrimination at a time when rare books were cheap, forms a +valuable portion of the royal library in Berlin and also of the library +of the Koniglicher Institut fur Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the +university church of Gottingen, obtained the degree of doctor of +philosophy, and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He +died at Gottingen on the 20th of March 1818. The following is a list of +his principal works: _Uber die Theorie der Musik_ (Gottingen, 1777); +_Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek_ (Gotha, 1778); _Allgemeine Geschichte +der Musik_ (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most important work. He also +wrote a _Dictionary of Musical Literature_, which is full of valuable +material. To his musical compositions, which are numerous, little +interest is to-day to be attached. But it is worth noting that he wrote +variations on the English national anthem "God save the king" for the +clavichord, and that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which +appeared at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he +conceived they ought to be written. + + + + +FORLI (anc. _Forum Livii_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, +the capital of the province of Forli, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, 108 +ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town); 43,321 (commune). Forli +is situated on the railway between Bologna and Rimini. It is connected +by steam tramways with Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the +Apennines with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the +principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good carved and +inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The facade has been +considerably altered, but the campanile, erected in 1178-1180, still +exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built of brickwork, and is +one of the finest of Lombard campanili. The pictures in this church are +the work of Marco Palmezzano (1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the +municipal picture gallery also contain works by him. The latter has +other interesting pictures, including a fresco representing an +apprentice with pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work +in Forli of Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style +was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and who was the +master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza chapel in SS. Biagio e +Girolamo are from the former's designs, though executed by the latter. +The church also contains the fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The +cathedral (Santa Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The +Palazzo del Podesta, now a private house, is a brick building of the +15th century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about +1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio Biondo, +the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient Rome +(1388-1463), was a native of Forli. + +Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia, hardly +anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forli in league with +Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of the province of Romagna +resided there. In 1275 Forli defeated Bologna with great loss. Martin +IV. sent an army to besiege it in 1282, which was driven out after +severe fighting in the streets; but the town soon afterwards +surrendered. In the 14th and 15th centuries it was under the government +of the Ordelaffi; and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a +determined resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario. +Forli finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.) + + + + +FORLIMPOPOLI (anc. _Forum Popillii_), a village of Emilia, Italy, in the +province of Forli, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail, 105 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (commune). The ancient Forum +Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia, was destroyed by Grimuald in +672. Whether its site is occupied by the present town is not certain; +the former should perhaps be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E., +where were found most of the inscriptions of which the place of +discovery is certain. Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal +Albornoz in 1360, and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed +the well-preserved medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four +circular towers at the corners. (T. As.) + + + + +FORLORN HOPE (through Dutch _verloren hoop_, from Ger. _verlorene Haufe_ += "lost troop"; _Haufe_, "heap," being equivalent in the 17th century to +"body of troops"; the French equivalent is _enfants perdus_), a +military term (sometimes shortened to "forlorn"), used in the 16th and +17th centuries for a body of troops thrown out in front of the line of +battle to engage the hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of +skirmishers, though they were always solid closed bodies. These troops +ran great risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines +of battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or +ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to facilitate +the attacks of their own main body by striking the first blow against or +meeting the first shock of the fresh and unshaken enemy. In the +following century (18th), when lines of masses were no longer employed, +a thin line of skirmishers alone preceded the three-deep line of battle, +but the term "forlorn hope" continued to be used for picked bodies of +men entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming +party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense "forlorn hope" is +often used at the present time. The misunderstanding of the word "hope" +has led to various applications of "forlorn hope," such as to an +enterprise offering little chance of success, or, further still from the +original meaning, to the faint or desperate hope of such success. + + + + +FORM (Lat. _forma_), in general, the external shape, appearance, +configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of which +it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent arguments,--the +_matter_ may be good, while the style, grammar, arrangement,--the +_form_--is bad. The term, with its adjective "formal" and the derived +nouns "formality" and "formalism," is hence contemptuously used for that +which is superficial, unessential, hypocritical: chap. xxiii. of +Matthew's gospel is a classical instance of the distinction between the +formalism of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be +compared the popular phrases "good form" and "bad form" applied to +behaviour in society: so "format" (from the French) is technically used +of the shape and size, e.g. of a book (octavo, quarto, &c.) or of a +cigarette. The word "form" is also applied to certain definite objects: +in printing a body of type secured in a chase for printing at one +impression ("form" or "forme"); a bench without a back, such as is used +in schools (perhaps to be compared with O. Fr. _s'asseoir en forme_, to +sit in a row); a mould or shape on or in which an object is +manufactured; the lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of +regulated order comes the application of the term to a class in a school +("sixth form," "fifth form," &c.); this sense has been explained without +sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same class +sitting on a single form (bench). + +The word has been used technically in philosophy with various shades of +meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic [Greek: idea], +[Greek: eidos], the permanent reality which makes a thing what it is, in +contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject to change. +Whether Plato understood these forms as actually existent apart from all +the particular examples, or as being of the nature of immutable physical +laws, is matter of discussion. For practical purposes Aristotle was the +first to distinguish between matter ([Greek: hyle]) and form ([Greek: +eidos]). To Aristotle matter is the undifferentiated primal element: it +is rather that from which things develop ([Greek: hypokeimenon], [Greek: +dynamis]) than a thing in itself ([Greek: energeia]). The development of +particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation, +the acquiring of particular _forms_ of which the knowable universe +consists (cf. CAUSATION for the Aristotelian "formal cause"). The +perfection of the form of a thing is its entelechy ([Greek: +entelecheia]) in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of +function (_De anima_, ii. 2, [Greek: he men hyle dynamis to de eidos +entelecheia]). Thus the entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of +the differentiation process is to be sought in a "prime mover" ([Greek: +proton kinoun]), i.e. pure form entirely separate ([Greek: choriston]) +from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own +activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in +matter ([Greek: hos eromenon], [Greek: ou kinoumenon]). The Aristotelian +conception of form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases +unintelligently, adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its +origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely +foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of +Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its "subsistent +forms" (_formae separatae_) from the material with its "inherent forms" +which exist only in combination with matter. Bacon, returning to the +physical standpoint, maintained that all true research must be devoted +to the discovery of the real nature or essence of things. His induction +searches for the true "form" of light, heat and so forth, analysing the +external "form" given in perception into simpler "forms" and their +"differences." Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot +things, and discover that which is present in all, excluding all those +qualities which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples +investigated: the "form" of heat is the residuum common to all. Kant +transferred the term from the objective to the subjective sphere. All +perception is necessarily conditioned by pure "forms of sensibility," +i.e. space and time: whatever is perceived is perceived as having +spacial and temporal relations (see SPACE AND TIME; KANT). These forms +are not obtained by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they +strictly speaking innate: they are obtained "by the very action of the +mind from the co-ordination of its sensation." + + + + +FORMALIN, or FORMALDEHYDE, CH2O or H.CHO, the first member of the series +of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is most readily prepared by passing +the vapour of methyl alcohol, mixed with air, over heated copper or +platinum. In order to collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed +and absorbed, either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, +although only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium +formate. At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing a +pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant, a 40% +solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol, sold as _formalin_, +being employed as a deodorant, fungicide and preservative. It is not +possible to obtain the aldehyde in a pure condition, since it readily +polymerizes. It is a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to +form _hexamethylene tetramine_, (CH2)6N4, and easily "condenses" in the +presence of many bases to produce compounds which apparently belong to +the sugars (q.v.). It renders glue or gelatin insoluble in water, and is +used in the coal-tar colour industry in the manufacture of +para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines. Several polymers have been +described. _Para-formaldehyde_, or trioxymethylene, obtained by +concentrating solutions of formaldehyde _in vacuo_, is a white +crystalline solid, which sublimes at about 100 deg. C. and melts at a +somewhat higher temperature, changing back into the original form. It is +insoluble in cold water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed +to separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform +(Korber, _Pharm. Zeit._, 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach and H. +Barschall (_Chem. Zentr._, 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three polymers by +acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions of formaldehyde, +and a fourth by heating one of the forms so obtained. The strength of +solutions of formaldehyde may be ascertained by the addition of excess +of standard ammonia to the aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine +being formed), the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration +with standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the oxidation of +methane at high temperatures, see W.A. Bone (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1902, +81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde also appears to be a +reduction product of carbon dioxide (see _Annual Reports of the Chemical +Society_). + + + + +FORMAN, ANDREW (c. 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was educated at +the university of St Andrews and entered the service of King James IV. +about 1489. He soon earned the favour of this king, who treated him with +great generosity and who on several occasions sent him on important +embassies to the English, the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he +became bishop of Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his +appointment as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised to +make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his own land +Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant archbishopric of St +Andrews and was made papal legate in Scotland, but it was some time +before he secured possession of the see owing to the attempts of Henry +VIII. to subject Scotland to England and to the efforts of his rivals, +Gavin Douglas, the poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and +their supporters. Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many +benefices, the holding of which had made him unpopular, and through the +good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of Albany, obtained the +coveted archbishopric and the primacy of Scotland. Afterwards he was one +of the vice-regents of the kingdom and he died on the 11th of March +1521. As archbishop he issued a series of constitutions which are +printed in J. Robertson's _Concilia Scotiae_ (1866). Mr Andrew Lang +(_History of Scotland_, vol. i.) describes Forman as "the Wolsey of +Scotland, and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden." + + See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of _The + Archbishops of St Andrews_, by J. Herkless and R.K. Hannay (1909). + + + + +FORMAN, SIMON (1552-1611), English physician and astrologer, was born in +1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton, Wiltshire. At the age of +fourteen he became apprentice to a druggist at Salisbury, but at the end +of four years he exchanged this profession for that of a schoolmaster. +Shortly afterwards he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied +chiefly medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in +Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane, London, +but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account underwent more than +one term of imprisonment. Ultimately, however, he obtained a diploma +from Cambridge university, and established himself as a physician and +astrologer at Lambeth, where he was consulted, especially as a +physician, by many persons of rank, among others by the notorious +countess of Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a +boat on the 12th of September 1611. + + A list of Forman's works on astrology is given in Bliss's edition of + the _Athenae Oxonienses_; many of his MS. works are contained in the + Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth Library. _A + Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public Library, Plymouth_, + was published in 1853. + + + + +FORMERET, a French architectural term for the wall-rib carrying the web +or filling-in of a vault (q.v.). + + + + +FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL (1711-1797), Franco-German author, was +born of French parentage at Berlin on the 31st of May 1711. He was +educated for the ministry, and at the age of twenty became pastor of the +French church at Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of +a congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor +of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739 professor of +philosophy. On the organization of the academy of Berlin in 1744 he was +named a member, and in 1748 became its perpetual secretary. He died at +Berlin on the 7th of March 1797. His principal works are _La Belle +Wolfienne_ (1741-1750, 6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view +of enforcing the precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; _Bibliotheque +critique, ou memoires pour servir a l'histoire litteraire ancienne et +moderne_ (1746); _Le Philosophe chretien_ (1750); _L'Emile chretien_ +(1764), intended as an answer to the _Emile_ of Rousseau; and _Souvenirs +d'un citoyen_ (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense number of +contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the Berlin Academy. + + + + +FORMIA (anc. _Formiae_, called Mola di Gaeta until recent times), a town +of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 48 m. +W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 (town); 8452 (commune). It is situated +at the N.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. +It lay on the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by +wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property here and along +the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are numerous remains of ancient +villas along the coast and on the slopes above it. The so-called villa +of Cicero contains two well-preserved _nymphaea_ with Doric +architecture. Its site is now occupied by the villa Caposele, once a +summer residence of the kings of Naples. There are many other modern +villas, and the sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly +behind the town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens. +The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is also +covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned by a large +tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is a large villa with +substructions in "Cyclopean" work. The ancient Formiae was, according to +the legend, the home of the Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony +([Greek: Hormiaidia to euormon], Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a +Volscian town, and, like Fundi, received the _civitas sine suffragio_ +from Rome in 338 (or 332 B.C.) because the passage through its territory +had always been secure. This was strategically important for the Romans, +as the military road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312 +B.C., still easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the +high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked, +between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 B.C., with Fundi, it received the full +citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under the control of +a _praefectus_ sent from Rome, though it retained its three aediles. +Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero possessed a favourite villa here, +and was murdered in its vicinity in 43 B.C., but neither the villa nor +the tomb can be identified with any certainty. It was devastated by +Sextus Pompeius, and became a colony, with _duoviri_ as chief +magistrates, under Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was +dependent upon it. + + See T. Ashby, "Dessins inedits de Carlo Labruzzi," in _Melanges de + l'ecole francaise de Rome_ (1903), 410 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +FORMIC ACID, H2CO2 or H.COOH, the first member of the series of +aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula CnH_(2n)O2. It is +distinguished from the other members of the series by certain +characteristic properties; for example, it shows an aldehydic character +in reducing silver salts to metallic silver, and it does not form an +acid chloride or an acid anhydride. Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an +acid character, a property not possessed by the nitriles of the other +members of the series; and, by the abstraction of the elements of water +from the acid, carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no +parallel in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is, +as shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much stronger +acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs naturally in red ants +(Lat. _formica_), in stinging nettles, in some mineral waters, in animal +secretions and in muscle. It may be prepared artificially by the +oxidation of methyl alcohol and of formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of +oxalic acid (J. Gay-Lussac, _Ann. chim. phys._, 1831 [2] 46, p. 218), +but best by heating oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of +100-110 deg. C. (M. Berthelot, _Ann._, 1856, 98, p. 139). In this +reaction a glycerol ester is formed as an intermediate product, and +undergoes decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same +time. + + C3H5(OH)3 + H2C2O4 = C3H5(OH)2.OCHO+CO2 + H2O + C3H5(OH)2O.CHO + H2O = C3H5(OH)3 + H2CO2. + + Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid or its + salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means of + hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with alcoholic + potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_, + vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition being shown by + chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, _Ann._, 1832, 1, p. 198). + Formates are also produced by the action of moist carbon monoxide on + soda lime at 190-220 deg. C. (V. Merz and J. Tibicira, _Ber._, 1880, + 13, p. 23; A. Geuther, _Ann._, 1880, 202, p. 317), or by the action of + moist carbon dioxide on potassium (H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, _Ann._, + 1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissan (_Comptes rend._, 1902, 134, p. 261) + prepared potassium formate by passing a current of carbon monoxide or + carbon dioxide over heated potassium hydride, + + KH + CO2 = KHCO2 and KH + 2CO = KHCO2 + C. + + A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either by + neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being then + dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous oxalic acid + (Lorin, _Bull. soc. chim._, 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper salt + may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130 deg. C. L. + Maquenne (_Bull. soc. chim._, 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial + acid, _in vacuo_, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75 deg. C. + + Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystallizes + at 0 deg. C., melts at 8.6 deg. C. and boils at 100.8 deg. C. Its + specific gravity is 1.22 (20 deg./4 deg.). It is miscible in all + proportions with water, alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, + the acid decomposes into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and + potassium salts, when heated to 400 deg. C., give oxalates and + carbonates of the alkali metals, but the magnesium, calcium and + barium salts yield carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with + concentrated sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon + monoxide; when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic + acid and finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as + _formates_, and are mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead + being the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily + decomposed. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, + with simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt, + when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives + aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the metal, + with liberation of carbon dioxide and formation of free formic acid; + and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some formamide, HCONH2. + The esters of the acid may be obtained by distilling a mixture of the + sodium or potassium salts and the corresponding alcohol with + hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. + + _Formamide_, HCONH2, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with + ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140 deg. C., + + 2HCO.ONH4 + CO(NH2)2 = 2HCONH2 + (NH4)2CO3; + + by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at 230 + deg. C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of potassium + cyanate (H. Basarow, _Ber._, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid which + boils _in vacuo_ at 150 deg., but at 192-195 deg. C. under ordinary + atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon monoxide + and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the formation of + mercuric formamide, (HCONH)2Hg. + + + + +FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic, bounded N. by +Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by the Chaco Territory, and W. by +Salta, with the Pilcomayo and Bermejo forming its northern and southern +boundaries. Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping +gently to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very +little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and Paraguay +rivers, where attempts have been made to form settlements. The +unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes of wild Indians. The +climate is hot, the summer temperature rising to a maximum of 104 deg. F. +Timber-cutting is the principal occupation of the settlers, though +stock-raising and agriculture engage some attention in the settlements +on the Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small +settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in 1900. The +settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, which it was +estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The nomadic Indians are +estimated at 8000. + + + + +FORMOSA (called _Taiwan_ by the Chinese, and following them by the +Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in +1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean, between the Southern and +the Eastern China Sea, separated from the Chinese mainland by the +Formosa Strait, which has a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part. +The island is 225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line +measuring 731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.--being thus nearly the same +size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands forming the +Japanese empire proper--and extends from 20 deg. 56' to 25 deg. 15' N. +and from 120 deg. to 122 deg. E. It forms part of the long line of +islands which are interposed as a protective barrier between the Asiatic +coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause of the immunity from +typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. +Along the western coast is a low plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme +width; on the east coast there is a rich plain called Giran, and there +are also some fertile valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, +extending up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan, +between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes; but the +rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin forest. In the +plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial clay, covered in the +valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The scenery of Formosa is +frequently of majestic beauty, and to this it is indebted for its +European name, happily bestowed by the early Spanish navigators. + +On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased to be Japan's +highest mountain, and took the third place on the list. Mount Morrison +(14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed Niitaka-yama (New High +Mountain), stands first, and Mount Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they +give the name of Setzu-zan (Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount +Morrison stands nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic, +but consists of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr +Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to a height of +6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval forests of palms, +banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns, interlacing creepers and +dense thickets of rattan or stretches of grass higher than a man's +stature. The next interval of 1000 ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and +chamoecyparis; then follow pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad +plateau, and then alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top, +which consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount Morrison, +being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous object. Mount +Sylvia lies in 24 deg. 30' N. lat. There are many other mountains of +considerable elevation. In the north is Getsurobi-zan (4101 ft.); and on +either side of Setzu-zan, with which they form a range running due east +and west across the island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan +(7027 ft.). Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan +(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins a chain of +three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928), and Niitaka-yama. +These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and +Niitaka-yama, stand almost exactly under 121 deg. E. long., in the very +centre of the island. But the backbone of the island lies east of them, +extending S. from Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other +peaks and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and still +lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan (3752 +ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and Kado-zan (9055 +ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan (4985 ft.). These, it +will be observed, are all Japanese names, and the heights have been +determined by Japanese observers. In addition to these remarkable inland +mountains, Formosa's eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the +bases of the hills on the seaside taking the form of almost +perpendicular walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks +of steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous +character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to the +sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has many +streams, but the only two of any considerable length are the Kotansui, +which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth at Toko after a course of +some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters +the sea at a point 57 m. farther north after a course of 90 m. + +The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the driest and +best months are October, November and December; in the south, December, +January, February and March. The sea immediately south of Formosa is the +birthplace of innumerable typhoons, but the high mountains of the island +protect it partially against the extreme violence of the wind. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation of the island is characterized by +tropical luxuriance,--the mountainous regions being clad with dense +forest, in which various species of palms, the camphor-tree (_Laurus +Camphora_), and the aloe are conspicuous. Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no +fewer than 65 different kinds of timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu; +and his specimens are now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree +which supplies the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not +uncommon, and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are +especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers, more +especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European greenhouses +have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and other ornamental +plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance. In the lowlands of the +western portion, the Chinese have introduced a large number of +cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice is grown in such quantities as +to procure for Formosa, in former days, the title of the "granary of +China"; and the sweet potato, taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are +also cultivated. Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute, +hemp, oil and rattans are all articles of export. + +The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but at least +three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys (probably +_Macacus speciosus_), squirrels, and flying squirrels are fairly +common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent. A poisonous but +beautiful green snake is often mentioned by travellers. Pheasants, +ducks, geese and snipe are abundant, and Dr C. Collingwood in his +_Naturalist's Rambles in the China Seas_ mentions _Ardea prasinosceles_ +and other species of herons, several species of fly-catchers, +kingfishers, shrikes and larks, the black drongo, the _Cotyle sinensis_ +and the _Prinia sonitans_. Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The +horse is hardly known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is +regularly bridled and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers +and neighbouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial +mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant +coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the _Kurosiwo_ current, +the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an important article of +diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines along the coast--a species +of _Cyrena_, a species of _Tapes_, _Cytheraea petechiana_ and _Modiola +teres_ being most abundant. + +_Population._--The population of Formosa, according to a census in 1904, +is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows: aborigines 104,334, +Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770. The inhabitants of Formosa may be +divided into four classes: the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as +there has not been much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of +whom immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the dialect of +that district, while others were Hakkas from the vicinity of Swatow; the +subjugated aborigines, who largely intermingled with the Chinese; and +the uncivilized aborigines of the eastern region who refuse to recognize +authority and carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized +aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs, were +called Pe-pa-hwan (_Anglice_ Pepo-hoans), while their wilder brethren +bear the name of Chin-hwan or "green savages," otherwise Sheng-fan or +"wild savages." They appear to belong to the Malay stock, and their +language bears out the supposition. They are broken up into almost +countless tribes and clans, many of which number only a few hundred +individuals, and their language consequently presents a variety of +dialects, of which no classification has yet been effected: in the +district of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission +distinguished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The +people themselves are described as of "middle height, broad-chested and +muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet, the eyes large, the +forehead round, and not narrow or receding in many instances, the nose +broad, the mouth large and disfigured with betel." The custom of +tattooing is universal. In the north of the island at least, the dead +are buried in a sitting posture under the bed on which they have +expired. Petty wars are extremely common, not only along the Chinese +frontiers, but between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the +slain are carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young +men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they may be +inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had least intercourse +with the Chinese show a considerable amount of skill in the arts of +civilization. The use of Manchester prints and other European goods is +fairly general; and the women, who make a fine native cloth from hemp, +introduce coloured threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce +ornamental devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women. + +The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku), which is on +the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about 118,000, including +5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have two ports; one, Tamsui, at the +mouth of the river Tamsui-yei, 10 m. distant on the north-west coast, +the other Kelung (called by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east +shore, with which it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The +foreign settlement at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is +called Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient Pekiang) +is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful. There are +coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui (called Tansui by the Japanese) +is usually termed Hobe by foreigners. It is the site of the first +foreign settlement, has a population of about 7000, but cannot be made a +good harbour without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there +is no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23 deg. N. lat.), a +port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the sugar +trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats, and a hotbed of +malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese and 200 Japanese. At a +distance of some 2-1/2 m. inland is the former capital of Formosa, the +walled city of Tainan, which has a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300 +Japanese, and a few British merchants and missionaries. Connected with +Anping by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port. +It has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides of a +large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous Chinese town +called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages on the east coast are +Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do not call for special notice. +Forty-seven m. east of the extreme south coast there is a little island +called Botel-tobago (Japanese, Koto-sho), which rises to a height of +1914 ft. and is inhabited by a tribe whose customs differ essentially +from those of the natives on the main island. + +_Administration and Commerce._--The island is treated as an outlying +territory; it has not been brought within the full purview of the +Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered by a +governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the forces, by a +bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural governors, below +whom are the heads of twenty territorial divisions called _cho_; its +finances are not included in the general budget of the Japanese empire; +it is garrisoned by a mixed brigade taken from the home divisions; and +its currency is on a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which +the Japanese had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese +settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether, as is +done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public opinion. But, +influenced by medical views and by the almost insuperable difficulty of +enforcing any drastic import veto in the face of Formosa's large +communications by junk with China, the Japanese finally adopted the +middle course of licensing the preparation and sale of the drug, and +limiting its use to persons in receipt of medical sanction. Under the +administration of the Japanese the island has been largely developed. +Among other industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400 +oz. of gold representing a value of L168,626 were obtained from the +mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large quantities near +Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north of the island. + +An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned, the four +main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan; (2) from Tainan to +Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from Shoka to Kelung; these four +forming, in effect, a main trunk road running from the south-west to the +north-east, its course being along the foot of the mountains that border +the western coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to +traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line of 259 +m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also are projected, +but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of capital constitutes a +fatal obstacle to rapid development. + +There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the total +business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the staple exports. The +greater part of the former goes to Amoy for re-shipment to the west, but +it is believed that if harbour improvements were effected at Tamsui so +as to render it accessible for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be +made thence direct to New York. The camphor trade being a government +monopoly, the quantity exported is under strict control. + +_History._--The island of Formosa must have been known from a very early +date to the Chinese who were established in the Pescadores. The +inhabitants are mentioned in the official works of the Yuan dynasty as +_Tung-fan_ or eastern barbarians; and under the Ming dynasty the island +begins to appear as Kilung. In the beginning of the 16th century it +began to be known to the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the +latter at least made some attempts at establishing settlements or +missions. The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the +island; in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where +subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was maintained +for thirty-seven years. On the expulsion of the Ming dynasty in China, a +number of their defeated adherents came over to Formosa, and under a +leader called in European accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the +Dutch and taking possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the +Chinese of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the island then +began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close of the 17th +century a long era of conflict ensued between the Chinese and the +aborigines. A more debased population than the peoples thus struggling +for supremacy could scarcely be conceived. The aborigines, _Sheng-fan_, +or "wild savages," deserved the appellation in some respects, for they +lived by the chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the +Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no right except +that of might. The former were not implacably cruel or vindictive. They +merely clung to their homesteads, and harboured a natural resentment +against the raiders who had dispossessed them. Their disposition was to +leave the Chinese in unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the +most valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be +found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they ventured too +far in search of these products, fell into ambushes of hill-men who +neither gave nor sought quarter, and who regarded a Chinese skull as a +specially attractive article of household furniture. A violent rebellion +is mentioned in 1788, put down only after the loss, it is said, of +100,000 men by disease and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels +of silver. Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it +is true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of +administrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening of +partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a section of +the _Sheng-fan_, who thenceforth became known as Pe-pa-hwan +(_Pepohoan_). + +In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly known to +Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place on its coasts, and +the dangers that the crews had to run from the cannibal propensities of +the aborigines, and the almost equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese. +Among the most notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig "Ann," +with fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed at +Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened to European +commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable for a port of trade, +and the harbour of Tamsui was selected instead. From 1859 both +Protestant and Presbyterian missions were established in the island. An +attack made on those at Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation +of Fort Zelandia and Anping by British forces; but this action was +disapproved by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from the +Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the Japanese for the +purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder of a shipwrecked crew +who had been put to death by one of the semi-savage tribes on the +southern coast, the Chinese government being either unable or unwilling +to punish the culprits. A war was averted through the good offices of +the British minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment +of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the island +during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872 there is recorded a +proverb among the official classes, "every three years an outbreak, +every five a rebellion"; but subsequent to 1877 some improvement was +manifested, and public works were pushed forward by the Chinese +authorities. In 1884, in the course of belligerent proceedings arising +out of the Tongking dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were +bombarded by the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for +some months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town of +Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained by the +French fleet during the winter and spring of 1884-1885. The troops were +withdrawn on the conclusion of peace in June 1885. + +In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki at +the close of the Japanese war. The resident Chinese officials, however, +refused to recognize the cession, declared a republic, and prepared to +offer resistance. It is even said they offered to transfer the +sovereignty to Great Britain if that power would accept it. A formal +transfer to Japan was made in June of the same year in pursuance of the +treaty, the ceremony taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the +Chinese commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were thus +left to take possession as best they could, and some four months elapsed +before they effected a landing on the south of the island. Takau was +bombarded and captured on the 15th of October, and the resistance +collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious Black Flag general, and the +back-bone of the resistance, sought refuge in flight. The general state +of the island when the Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of +Giran on the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by +semi-barbarous folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type, +and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous +feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and murderous violence. By +many of these Chinese settlers the Japanese conquerors, when they came +to occupy the island, were regarded in precisely the same light as the +Chinese themselves had been regarded from time immemorial by the +aborigines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving +secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties of the +Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of the country, +which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find almost inaccessible +refuge, but also by the unwillingness of experienced officials to +abandon their home posts for the purpose of taking service in the new +territory. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. Imbault-Huart, _L'Ile Formose, histoire et + description_ (Paris, 1893), 4^o; J.D. Clark, _Formosa_ (Shanghai, + 1896); W.A. Pickering, _Pioneering in Formosa_ (London, 1898); George + Candidius, _A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the Indies_ + ..., vol. i.; Churchill's _Collection of Voyages_ (1744); Robert + Swinhoe, _Notes on the Island of Formosa_, read before the British + Association (1863); W. Campbell, "Aboriginal Savages of Formosa," + _Ocean Highways_ (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, _Description de l'ile de + Formose, mem. rel. a l'Asie_ (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes, _Notes of a Six + Years' Residence in Formosa_ (London, 1881); Y. Takekoshi, _Japanese + Rule in Formosa_ (transl. by G. Braithwaite) (London, 1907). + + + + +FORMOSUS, pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen V. (or VI.). He +first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, he was sent on an +embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards sided with a faction +against John VIII., he was excommunicated, and compelled to take an oath +never to return to Rome or again to assume his priestly functions. From +this oath he was, however, absolved by Marinus, the successor of John +VIII., and restored to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in +891 he was chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a +struggle against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a +powerful party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf, +king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus himself +shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances and to +consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had +already been consecrated by Stephen V., and died in 894. In the +following year Arnulf succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned +him emperor. But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf +was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany. +Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April 896. The +discords in which he had been involved continued after his death. The +validity of his acts was contested on the pretext that, having been +originally bishop of Porto, he could not be a legitimate pope. The +fundamental factor in these dissensions was the rivalry between the +princes of Spoleto and the Carolingian house, represented by the king of +Germany. The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., and +treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal throne; but +Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at a council presided +over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus was declared valid and all +his acts confirmed. (L. D.*) + + + + +FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of _forma_, shape, pattern, &c., especially +used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a stereotyped form of +words to be used on stated occasions, for specific purposes, ceremonies, +&c. In the sciences, the word usually denotes a symbolical statement of +certain facts; for example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition +of a substance (see CHEMISTRY); a botanical formula gives the +differentia of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement +and number of the teeth of an animal. + + + + +FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO (1756-1799), Spanish satirist and scholar, +was born at Merida (Badajoz) on the 23rd of February 1756, studied at +the university of Salamanca, and was called to the bar at Madrid in +1783. During the next few years--under the pseudonyms of "Tome Cecial," +"Pablo Segarra," "Don Antonio Varas," "Bartolo," "Pablo Ignocausto," "El +Bachiller Reganadientes," and "Silvio Liberio"--Forner was engaged in a +series of polemics with Garcia de la Huerta, Iriarte and other writers; +the violence of his attacks was so extreme that he was finally forbidden +to publish any controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal +post at Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where he +died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner's brutality is almost unexampled, +and his satirical writings give a false impression of his powers. His +_Oracion apologetica por la Espana y su merito literario_ (1787) is an +excellent example of learned advocacy, far superior to similar efforts +made by Denina and Antonio Cavanilles; and his posthumous _Exequias de +la lengua castellana_ (printed in the _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_, +vol. lxiii.) testifies to his scholarship and taste. + + + + +FORRES (Gaelic, _far uis_, "near water"), a royal and police burgh of +Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901) 4317. It is situated on +the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town and is crossed by a suspension +bridge about a mile to the W., 11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland +railway, and 6 m. by road from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one +of the most ancient towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald +(892-900), son of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of +poisoning, and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said +to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name to +Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in 1297 by the +adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal residence from 1189 to +1371 and was occupied occasionally by William the Lion, Alexander II. +and David II. It was burned down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The +ruins on the hill, however, are those of a later edifice and are +surmounted by a granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of +Surgeon James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his life +tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The public +buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious house on the site +of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum, containing among other +exhibits several valuable fossils, and named after Dr Hugh Falconer +(1808-1865), the distinguished palaeontologist and botanist, a native of +the town; the mechanics' institute; the agricultural and market hall; +Leanchoil hospital and Anderson's Institution for poor boys. The cross, +in Decorated Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on +the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite public +resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which was erected +in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern slopes a well-known +hydropathic. An excellent golf-course extends from Kinloss to Findhorn. +The industries comprise the manufacture of chemicals and artificial +manures, granite polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making, +carriage-building and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable +trade in cattle. + +Sueno's Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured +monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town. Its +origin and character have given rise to endless surmises. It is carved +with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and captives on one +side, and on the other with a cross and Runic ornamentation. One theory +is that it is a relic of the early Christian church, symbolizing the +battle of life and the triumph of good over evil. According to an older +tradition it was named after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who +won a victory on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it +commemorates the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene's view +is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of +Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied stone is called +the Witches' Stone, because it marks the place near Forres where Macbeth +is said to have encountered the weird sisters. + +Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs, +the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness. The town is +amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest rainfall in the +county. + +Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of Altyre, +the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther south is Relugas +House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, romantically +situated on a height near the confluence of the Divie and the Findhorn. +Not far away stand the ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left +bank of the Findhorn, 3-1/2 m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle, +partly ancient and partly modern. The Brodies--the old name of their +estate was Brothie, from the Irish _broth_, a ditch, in allusion to the +trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of the house--were +a family of great consequence at the period of the Covenant. Alexander +Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth laird, was one of the commissioners +who went to the Hague to treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a +Scottish lord of session and an English judge. He and his son were +regarded as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south +is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands the earl +of Moray's mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies the site of the +castle which was built by Thomas Randolph, the first earl. Attached to +it is the great hall, capable of accommodating 1000 men, with an open +roof of fine dark oak, the only remaining portion of the castle that was +erected by Archibald Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a +council in it in 1562. Earl Randolph's chair, not unlike the coronation +chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands some 2-1/2 +m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by David I., and +remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its suppression at the +Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from 1526 to 1540, was its greatest +abbot. His hobby was gardening, and it is believed that many of the 123 +varieties of pears and 146 varieties of apples for which the district is +famous were due to his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the +abbey for a short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in +1562. + + + + +FORREST, EDWIN (1806-1872), American actor, was born at Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of Scottish and German descent. +He made his first stage appearance on the 27th of November 1820, at the +Walnut Street theatre, in Home's _Douglas_. In 1826 he had a great +success in New York as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the +_Gladiator_ in 1836, but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English +audience, and his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly +afterwards--when he stood up in a private box and hissed him,--was fatal +to his popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted in +the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine, daughter +of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce suit in 1852 was a +_cause celebre_ which hurt his reputation and soured his temper. His +last appearance was as Richelieu in Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th +of December 1872. He had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left +by will to found a home for aged actors. + + See Lawrence Barrett's _Edwin Forrest_ (Boston, 1881). + + + + +FORREST, SIR JOHN (1847- ), West Australian statesman and explorer, son +of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia, was born near Bunbury, +on the 22nd of August 1847, and educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he +became connected with the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in +1869 led an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D. +Leichardt, penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as +123 deg. E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to Adelaide, +along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother Alexander Forrest +(born 1849), he explored eastwards from Champion Bay, following as far +as possible the 26th parallel, and striking the telegraph line between +Adelaide and Port Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in +about five months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine +achievement (see AUSTRALIA: _Exploration_). John Forrest also surveyed +in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers Ashburton and Lady +Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district. In 1876 he was made deputy +surveyor-general, receiving the thanks of the colony for his services +and a grant of 5000 acres of land; for a few months at the end of 1878 +he acted as commissioner of crown lands and surveyor-general, being +given the full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the +colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government, Sir John +Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G. in 1901) became its +first premier, and he held that position till in 1901 he joined the +Commonwealth government, first as minister for defence, later as +minister for home affairs and postmaster-general, resigning the office +of federal treasurer in July 1907. His influence in West Australia was +one of an almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his +personality and his success in enforcing his views (see WESTERN +AUSTRALIA: _History_). In 1897 he was made a member of the Privy +Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret Hamersley. He +published _Explorations in Australia_ (1876) and _Notes on Western +Australia_ (1884-1887). + + + + +FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-1877), Confederate cavalry general in the +American Civil War, was born near Chapel Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of +July 1821. Before his father's death in 1837 the family had removed to +Mississippi, and for some years thereafter it was supported principally +by Nathan, who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal +education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling of his +war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very fair success, +and is said to have possessed considerable ability as a mathematician. +He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in Mississippi, and a slave +dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until 1859, when he took to cotton +planting in north-western Mississippi, where he acquired considerable +wealth. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a +private, raised a cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and +in February 1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and +refusing, like Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of +the Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with all +the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel and regimental +commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction, receiving a severe +wound. Shortly after this he was promoted brigadier-general (July 1862). +At the head of a mounted brigade he took a brilliant part in General +Bragg's autumn campaign, and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was +continually active in raiding the hostile lines of communication. These +raids have been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole +their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time, and apart +from the question of their utility, Forrest's raids were uniformly bold +and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the history of the +cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan, he was the finest +cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the most remarkable of his +actions was his capture, near Rome, Georgia, after five days of marching +and fighting, of an entire cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight +(April 1863). He was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September, +after which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the +army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest was made +a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of 1863-1864 he was as +active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he raided as far north as +Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864 he assaulted and captured Fort +Pillow, in Tennessee on the Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a +large part of the garrison and according to survivors many were +massacred after the fort had surrendered. The "Massacre of Fort Pillow" +has been the subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting +testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself had +no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated a +superior Federal force at Brice's Cross Roads, Miss., and throughout the +year, though the greatest efforts were made by the Federals to crush +him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and Alabama with almost +unvarying success. He was once more with the main Confederate army of +the West in the last disastrous campaign of Nashville, and fought +stubborn rearguard actions to cover the retreat of the broken +Confederates. In February 1865 he was made a lieut.-general, but the +struggle was almost at an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the +ablest of the Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few +Confederates, now under Forrest's command, and stormed Selma, Alabama, +on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his whole +command, under the agreement between General Richard Taylor and General +E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May. After the war he lived in +Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation in 1867, and for some years was +president of the Selma, Marion and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis, +Tennessee, on the 29th of October 1877. + +The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions of his +technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his arm of the +service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He never commanded a +large force of all arms. He was uneducated, and had neither experience +of nor training for the strategical handling of great armies. Yet his +personality and his natural soldierly gifts were such that General +Sherman considered him "the most remarkable man the Civil War produced +on either side." Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose +greatness lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that +Forrest, had he had the advantage of a thorough military training, +"would have been the great central figure of the war." + + See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902). + + + + +FORSKAL, PETER (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was born +in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Gottingen, where he published a +dissertation entitled _Dubia de principiis philosophiae recentioris_ +(1756). Thence he returned to his native country, which, however, he had +to leave after the publication of a pamphlet entitled _Pensees sur la +liberte civile_ (1759). By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V. +of Denmark, who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an +expedition to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at Jerim +in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763. + + His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the care of + editing his MSS., and published in 1775 _Descriptiones animalium, + avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium, quae in itin. + Orient. observavit Petrus Forskal_. In the same year appeared also his + account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower Egypt, under the + title of _Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica_. + + + + +FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG (1843-1901), Swedish historian and political +writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished mathematician, was +born at Gefle, where his father was professor, on 14th January 1843. At +the age of sixteen he became a student in Upsala University, where he +distinguished himself, and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of +doctor, he was appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty, +however, Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity, +was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post after +another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was appointed head of +the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to the department of inland +revenue, of which he continued to be president until the time of his +death. In addition to the responsibilities which these offices devolved +upon him, Forssell was constantly called to serve on royal commissions, +and his political influence was immense. In spite of all these public +duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence, Forssell +also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of his historical +writings the most important were: _The Administrative and Economical +History of Sweden after Gustavus I._ (1869-1875) and _Sweden in 1571_ +(1872). He was also for several years, in company with the poet Wirsen, +editor of the _Swedish Literary Review_. He published two volumes of +_Studies and_ _Criticisms_ (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death +of the historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat +on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great, and he +understood so little the economy of strength, that he unquestionably +overtaxed his vital force. His death, however, which occurred with great +suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901 while he was staying at San +Bernardino in Switzerland, was wholly unexpected. There was little of +the typical Swedish urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was +somewhat dry and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life +administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain want of +sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were distinct, and held +with great firmness; for example, he was a free-trader, and his +consistent opposition to what he called "the new system" had a +considerable effect on Swedish policy. He was not exactly an attractive +man, but he was a capable, upright and efficient public servant. In 1867 +he married Miss Zulamith Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known +pomologist of Upsala; she survived him, with two sons and two daughters. + (E. G.) + + + + +FORST (originally FORSTA or FORSTE), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old +Lutheran church; there are two schools and two hospitals in the town. +The chief industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning, +dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on. Founded +in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke of Saxe-Merseburg, +becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740. It was ceded to Prussia in +1815. + + + + +FORSTER, FRANCOIS (1790-1872), French engraver, was born at Locle in +Neufchatel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In 1805 he was apprenticed to an +engraver in Paris, and he also studied painting and engraving +simultaneously in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. His preference was +ultimately fixed on the latter art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the +first "grand prix de gravure," the king of Prussia, who was then with +the allies in Paris, bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500 +francs for two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in +Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works of Raphael. +In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy. He died at Paris on the +27th of June 1872. Forster occupied the first position among the French +engravers of his time, and was equally successful in historical pieces +and in portraits. Among his works may be mentioned--The Three Graces, +and _La Vierge de la legende_, after Raphael; _La Vierge au bas-relief_, +after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros; St +Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Durer and Henry IV., after Porbus; +Wellington, after Gerard; and Queen Victoria, after Winterhalter. + + + + +FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German historian and poet, was +the second son of Karl Christoph Forster (1751-1811), and consequently a +brother of the painter, Ernest Joachim Forster (1800-1885). Born at +Munchengosserstadt on the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he +received his early education at Altenburg, and after a course of +theology at Jena, devoted some time to archaeology and the history of +art. At the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the +army, quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs added +to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the war he was +appointed professor at the school of engineering and artillery in +Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings he was dismissed from +this office in 1817. He then became connected with various journals +until about 1829, when he received an appointment at the royal museum in +Berlin, with the title of court councillor (_Hofrat_). He was the +founder and secretary of the _Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein_ in Berlin, +and died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Forster's principal +works are: _Beitrage zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1816); +_Grundzuge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates_ (Berlin, 1818); _Der +Feldmarschall Blucher und seine Umgebungen_ (Leipzig, 1820); _Friedrich +der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist_ (Berlin, 1822); _Albrecht +von Wallenstein_ (Potsdam, 1834); _Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von +Preussen_ (Potsdam, 1834-1835); _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im 18. +Jahrhundert_ (Potsdam, 1836-1839); _Leben und Taten Friedrichs des +Grossen_ (Meissen, 1840-1841); _Wallensteins Prozess_ (Leipzig, 1844); +and _Preussens Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste +preussische Geschichte_, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three +concluding volumes of this work contain the history of the war of +liberation of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel's works, +adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote a number +of poems and an historical drama, _Gustav Adolf_ (Berlin, 1832). + + Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as + _Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzahlungen und Legenden_ (Berlin, 1838). The + beginning of an autobiography of Forster, edited by H. Kletke, has + been published under the title, _Kunst und Leben_ (Berlin, 1873). + + + + +FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794), German traveller and author, was +born at Nassenhuben, a small village near Danzig, on the 27th of +November 1754. His father, Johann Reinhold Forster, a man of great +scientific attainments but an intractable temper, was at that time +pastor of the place; the family are said to have been of Scottish +extraction. In 1765 the elder Forster was commissioned by the empress +Catherine to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov, +which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian language and +the elements of a scientific education. After a few years the father +quarrelled with the Russian government, and went to England, where he +obtained a professorship of natural history and the modern languages at +the famous non-conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon +compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years he and his +son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in London--a +practical education, however, exceedingly useful to the younger Forster, +who became a thorough master of English, and acquired many of the ideas +which chiefly influenced his subsequent life. At length the turning +point in his career came in the shape of an invitation for him and his +father to accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world. +Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth Forster's +peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voyage (_A Voyage round the +World_, London, 1777; in German, Berlin, 1778-1780), is almost the first +example of the glowing yet faithful description of natural phenomena +which has since made a knowledge of them the common property of the +educated world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for +some time by differences with the admiralty, during which Forster +proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment for his father as +professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise that it was conferred +upon himself. The elder Forster, however, was soon provided for +elsewhere, being appointed professor of natural history at Halle. At +Cassel Forster formed an intimate friendship with the great anatomist +Sommerring, and about the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who +gave him a leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently +emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus at +Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Gottingen, where he became +betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the illustrious philologist, +a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited to be Forster's wife. To +be able to marry he accepted (1784) a professorship at the university of +Wilna, which he did not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of +Polish circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife's +letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he +resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition +projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment of this +undertaking became librarian to the elector of Mainz. He actively +promoted the incorporation of the left bank of the Rhine with France and +in 1793 went to Paris to carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however, +the Germans seized Mainz, and Forster--already disheartened by the turn +of events in France--was cut off from all return. Domestic sorrows were +added to his political troubles and he died suddenly at Paris on the +10th of January 1794. + +Forster's masterpiece is his _Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant, +Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich_ (1791-1794), one of the +ablest books of travel of the 18th century. His style is clear and +vivid; his method of describing what he sees extraordinarily plastic; +above all, he has the art of presenting objects to us from their most +interesting and attractive side. The same qualities are also more or +less conspicuous in his minor writings. By his translation (from the +English) of the _Sakuntala_ of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German +interest in Indian literature. + + Forster's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843. + The _Ansichten vom Rhein_, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best + edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published + (Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster's _Kleine Schriften_, which + originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence was + published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his _Briefwechsel mit + Sommerring_ by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See J. Moleschott, _G. + Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks_ (1854; 3rd ed., 1874); K. Klein, + _G. Forster in Mainz_ (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann, _G. Forster_ + (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893). + + + + +FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876), English biographer and critic, was born on +the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father, who was a Unitarian and +belonged to the junior branch of a good Northumberland family, was a +cattle-dealer. After being well grounded in classics and mathematics at +the grammar school of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to +Cambridge, but after only a month's residence he removed to London, +where he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the +Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary pursuits. +He contributed to _The True Sun, The Morning Chronicle_ and to _The +Examiner_, for which he acted as literary and dramatic critic; and the +influence of his powerful individuality soon made itself felt. His +_Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1836-1839) appeared partly +in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with +a _Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History_. Its merits +obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became a prominent figure in +that distinguished circle of literary men which included Bulwer, +Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor, Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is +said to have been for some time engaged to Letitia Landon, but the +engagement was broken off, and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In +1843 he was called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer. +For some years he edited the _Foreign Quarterly Review_; in 1846, on the +retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some months of the +_Daily News_; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the _Examiner_. From 1836 +onwards he contributed to the _Edinburgh Quarterly_ and _Foreign +Quarterly_ Reviews a variety of articles, some of which were republished +in two volumes of _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1858). In 1848 +appeared his admirable _Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith_ (revised in +1854). Continuing his researches into English history under the early +Stuarts, he published in 1860 the _Arrest of the Five Members by Charles +I.--A Chapter of English History rewritten_, and _The Debates on the +Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English Freedom_. +These were followed by his _Sir John Eliot: a Biography_ (1864), +elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the _Lives of Eminent +British Statesmen_. In 1868 appeared his _Life of Landor_, and, on the +death of his friend Alexander Dyce, Forster undertook the publication of +his third edition of Shakespeare. For several years he had been +collecting materials for a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies +in this direction to write his standard _Life of Charles Dickens_. He +had long been intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that +John Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared in +1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the close of 1875 +the first volume of his _Life of Swift_ was published; and he had made +some progress in the preparation of the second at the time of his death +on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855 Forster had been appointed +secretary to the lunacy commission, and from 1861 to 1872 he held the +office of a commissioner in lunacy. His valuable collection of +manuscripts, including the original copies of Charles Dickens's novels, +together with his books and pictures, was bequeathed to South +Kensington Museum. + + An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the + official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests. + + + + +FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886), British surgeon, was born in 1823 in +Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather before him had been +local medical practitioners. He entered Guy's hospital in 1841, was +appointed demonstrator of anatomy in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and +surgeon, 1870. He became a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844, +fellow in 1849 and president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold +operator. In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in +England for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known +papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia, +intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and colloid +cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book on _Surgical +Diseases of Children_ in 1860, founded on his experience as surgeon to +the hospital for children and women in Waterloo Road. He died suddenly +in London on the 2nd of March 1886. + + + + +FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886), British statesman, was born of Quaker +parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire on the 11th of July 1818. He was +educated at the Friends' school at Tottenham, where his father's family +had long been settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He +declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming in due time +a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford, Yorkshire (from which +after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale), he soon made himself +known as a practical philanthropist. In 1846-1847 he accompanied his +father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the +famine in Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression +on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's _Life of +William Penn_, defending the Quaker statesman against Macaulay's +criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of the famous +Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a Quaker, and her husband was formally +excommunicated for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to +announce the sentence "shook hands and stayed to luncheon." Forster +thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England, for which, +indeed, he was in later life charged with having too great a partiality. +There were no children of the marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother, +William Arnold, died in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted +them as their own. + +One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909), the +well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament, who eventually became +a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he was secretary to the admiralty +(1900-1903), and then secretary of state for war (1903-1905), and was +the author of numerous educational books published by Cassell & Co., of +which firm he was a director. + +W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public affairs by +speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture before the Leeds +Philosophical Institution on "How we Tax India." In 1859 he stood as +Liberal candidate for Leeds, but was beaten. But he was highly esteemed +in the West Riding, and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford. +In 1865 (unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again +returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the +American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary for the +colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then that he first became a +prominent advocate of imperial federation. In 1866 his attitude on +parliamentary reform attracted a good deal of attention. His speeches +were full of knowledge of the real condition of the people, and +contained something like an original programme of Radical legislation. +"We have other things to do," he said, "besides extending the franchise. +We want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid of +pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class which is +more to be dreaded than the holders of a L7 franchise--I mean the +dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see whether we cannot +make for the agricultural labourer some better hope than the workhouse +in his old age. We want to have Old England as well taught as New +England." In these words he heralded the education campaign which +occupied the country for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform +Bill had passed, the necessity of "inducing our masters to learn their +letters" (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr Forster and Mr +Cardwell, as private members in opposition, brought in Education Bills +in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when the Liberal party returned to +office, Mr Forster was appointed vice-president of the council, with the +duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The +Elementary Education Bill (see EDUCATION) was introduced on the 17th of +February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. The +Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education League had +already formulated in the provinces the two opposing theories, the +former standing for the preservation of denominational interests, the +latter advocating secular rate-aided education as the only means of +protecting Nonconformity against the Church. The Dissenters were by no +means satisfied with Forster's "conscience clause" as contained in the +bill, and they regarded him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own +side; while they resented the "25th clause," permitting school boards to +pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the +rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th of March, +when the second reading came on, the controversy had assumed threatening +proportions; and Mr Dixon, the Liberal member for Birmingham and +chairman of the Education League, moved an amendment, the effect of +which was to prohibit all religious education in board schools. The +government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the +amendment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the +Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed. Extremists +on both sides abused Forster, but the government had a difficult set of +circumstances to deal with, and he acted like a prudent statesman in +contenting himself with what he could get. An ideal bill was +impracticable; it is to Forster's enduring credit that the bill of 1870, +imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of +national education in England without running absolutely counter to the +most cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal agencies +already in existence. + +Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act of 1872, but +for several years afterwards his life was uneventful. In 1874 he was +again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting attacks, and he took +his full share of the work of the Opposition Front Bench. In 1875, when +Mr Gladstone "retired," he was strongly supported for the leadership of +the Liberal party, but declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington. +In the same year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen +University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming large, he +visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches on the subject +were marked by studious moderation, distasteful to extremists on both +sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office in 1880 he was made chief +secretary for Ireland, with Lord Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried +the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see +it thrown out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the +agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy autumn and +winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion in grappling with the +situation in Ireland (see IRELAND) were indefatigable, his labour was +enormous, and the personal risks he ran were many; but he enjoyed the +Irish character in spite of all obstacles, and inspired genuine +admiration in all his coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he +introduced a new Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the +growth of the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it +to be "the most painful duty" he had ever had to perform, and one which +would have prevented his accepting his office if he had known that it +would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its provisions being one +enabling the Irish government to arrest without trial persons +"reasonably suspected" of crime and conspiracy. The Irish party used +every opportunity in and out of parliament for resenting this act, and +Forster was kept constantly on the move between Dublin and London, +conducting his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in +the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and anxiety to +meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing with such antagonists, +and the strain was intense and continuous. He was nicknamed "Buckshot" +by the Nationalist press, on the supposition that he had ordered its use +by the police when firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell +was arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed. From that +time Forster's life was in constant danger, and he had to be escorted by +mounted police when he drove in Dublin. Early in March 1882 he visited +some of the worst districts in Ireland, and addressed the crowd at +Tullamore on the subject of outrages, denouncing the people for their +want of courage in not assisting the government, but adding, "whether +you do or not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages, +and stop them we will." Forster's pluck in speaking out like this was +fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the revelations +connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the dangers he had +confronted were properly realized, and it became known that several +plans to murder him had only been frustrated by the merest accidents. On +the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone announced that the government intended to +release Mr Parnell and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both +Lord Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and the +following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was, +with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It was characteristic of the +man that Forster at once offered to go back to Dublin temporarily as +chief secretary, but the offer was declined. His position naturally +attracted universal attention towards him, particularly during the +debates which ensued in parliament on the "Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr +Gladstone's influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of +the damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and Forster's +pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans to accuse him of +a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the next session that he +delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in the debate on the address, +denouncing him for his connexion with the Land League, and quoting +against him the violent speeches of his supporters and the articles of +his newspaper organs. It was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's +charging him, not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or +murder, but with conniving at them, ejaculated "It's a lie"; and, +replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving +Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration. +Though, during the few remaining years of his life, Forster's political +record covered various interesting subjects, his connexion with these +stormy times in Ireland throws them all into shadow. He died on the 6th +of April 1886, on the eve of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to +which he was stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other +questions on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian +Liberalism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor +was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the Birmingham +programme. When the Redistribution Act divided Bradford into three +constituencies, Forster was returned for the central division, but he +never took his seat in the new parliament. + +Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative of the +English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic, independent, +incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed not only with great +sympathy with progress, but also with a full faculty for resistance to +mere democraticism. He was tall (the Yorkshiremen called him "Long +Forster") and strongly though stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes +and straightforward manners and methods, was a typical North-country +figure. His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and +force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing to the +government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum, spoke of Mr +Gladstone as able "to persuade most people of most things, and himself +of almost anything," and though the phrase was much resented by Mr +Gladstone's _entourage_, the truth that underlay it may be taken as +representing the very converse of his own character. His personal +difficulties with some of his colleagues, both in regard to the +Education Act of 1870 and his Irish administration, must be properly +understood if a complete comprehension of his political career is to be +obtained. For an account of them we need only refer to the _Life of the +Right Hon. W.E. Forster_, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid. (H. Ch.) + + + + +FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born +at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class honours in classics at +Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Gottingen (under Ritschl) and at New +College, Hampstead, and entered the Congregational ministry. Having held +pastorates at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he +became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, in 1901. In +1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching at Yale +University, published as _Positive Preaching and Modern Mind_. Among his +other publications may be mentioned _Religion in Recent Art_, and +articles in the _Contemporary Review_, _Hibbert Journal_, and _London +Quarterly_. He was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and +Wales in 1905. + + + + +FORTALEZA (usually called CEARA by foreigners), a city and port of +Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceara, on a crescent-shaped +indentation of the coast-line immediately W. of Cape Mucuripe or +Mocoripe, 7-1/2 m. from the mouth of the Ceara river, in lat. 3 deg. 42' +S., long. 38 deg. 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, including a +large rural district, 40,902. The city stands on an open sandy plain +overlooking the sea, and is regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved, +gas-lighted streets and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the +climate the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities. +The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong sea +winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of yellow-fever, +small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered to be healthy. A +small branch of the Ceara river, called the Pajehu, traverses the city +and divides it into two parts, that on its right bank being locally +known as Outeiro. Fortaleza is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854, +but it has no cathedral, one of its ten churches being used for that +purpose. Its public buildings include the government house, legislative +chambers, bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high +school), Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the +insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1-3/4 m. from the +railway station in the city, with which it is connected by rail. The +port is the principal outlet for the products of the state, but its +anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most dangerous on the +northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are compelled to anchor well out +from shore and discharge into lighters. Port improvements designed by +the eminent engineer Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for +many years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturite railway, +built by the national government partly to give employment to starving +refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects the city and its +port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends to Senador Pompeu, +178 m. distant. The exports include sugar, coffee, rubber, cotton, rum, +rice, beans, fruits, hides and skins. + +Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort established +at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took the name of Villa +do Forte da Assumpca, but it was generally spoken of as Fortaleza. In +1810 it became the capital of Ceara, and in 1823 it was raised to the +dignity of a city under the title of Fortaleza da Nova Braganca. + + + + +FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 706. +It is delightfully situated at the south-western extremity of Loch Ness, +about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the rivers Oich and Tarff and the +Caledonian Canal. A branch line connects with Spean Bridge on the West +Highland railway via Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was +built in 1716 for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and +was enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the Jacobites +in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden, when it received +its present name in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the +victorious general. The fort was used as a sanatorium until 1857, when +it was bought by the 12th Lord Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to +the English order of Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its +site a pile of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey +and school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the +higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and gentry. +The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery, hospice and +scriptorium--the four forming a quadrangle connected by beautiful +cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were many Catholic Scots and English +peers and gentlemen whose arms are emblazoned on the windows of the +spacious refectory hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft. +high. + + + + +FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county, Iowa, U.S.A., +on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W. from Des Moines. Pop. +(1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state census) 14,369, (2269 being +foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is served by the Illinois Central, the +Chicago Great Western, the Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort +Dodge, Des Moines & Southern railways, the last an electric interurban +line. Eureka Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and +attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering bluffs. +The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western railway steel +bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country. Fort Dodge is the +seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908), a commercial and +business school, with preparatory, normal and classical departments, and +courses in oratory and music; among its other institutions are St Paul's +school (Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus +Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of Lourdes convent +and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and Reynold's Park are the city's +principal parks. Immediately surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming +country. To the E. of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area +of about 50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United +States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries and +deposits of clay in the vicinity--the clay being, for the most part, +obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products of the +surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable +importance. It has various manufactures, including gypsum, plaster, +oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery, foundry and machine-shop +products, and shoes. In 1905 the value of all the factory products was +$3,025,659, an increase of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was +erected on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in +1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to Fort Dodge +in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867), who was a +lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War of 1812, served +with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted Volunteers in the +Black Hawk War, resigned from the military service in March 1833, was +governor of Wisconsin Territory from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848, +and was a delegate from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to +1845, and a United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort +was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out. It was chartered +as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds near Fort Dodge was taken in +1868 the block of gypsum from which was modelled the "Cardiff Giant," a +rudely-fashioned human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga +county, New York, where it was "discovered" late in 1869. It was then +exhibited in various parts of the country as a "petrified man." The hoax +was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C. Marsh of Yale; and George +Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed to the fraud, his object having been +to discredit belief in the "giants" of Genesis vi. 4. (See "The Cardiff +Giant: the True Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in +the _Century Magazine_, vol. xlii., 1902.) + + + + +FORT EDWARD, a village of Washington county, New York, U.S.A., in the +township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, 56 m. by rail N. of +Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of whom 385 were foreign-born; +(1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of the township, including the village +(1900), 5216; (1905), 5300; (1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the +foot of a steep hill, is at the junction of the main line and the Glens +Falls branch of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by +electric line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting Lake +Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here. The river +furnishes good water-power, which is used in the manufacture of paper +and wood pulp, the leading industry. Shirts and pottery (flower pots, +jars and drain tile) are manufactured also. The village is the seat of +the Fort Edward Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls, +which was founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village +owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their way to +Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this place, the head of +navigation for small boats on the Hudson, to Lake George or Lake +Champlain, and hence it was known as the Great Carrying Place. Governor +(afterwards Sir) Francis Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against +Canada, built here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years +afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a settlement and +protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius, but this was destroyed by +the French and Indians in 1745. In 1755, a third fort was built by +General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774), as preliminary to the expedition +against Crown Point under General William Johnson, and was named Fort +Lyman; in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward, Duke +of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was the headquarters of +General Philip Schuyler while he and his troops were blocking the march +of General Burgoyne's army from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of +Burgoyne's forces was distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort +Edward Hill, on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band +whose assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered +Jane McCrea (c. 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting friends +in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day to the British +camp and there to be married to David Jones, a loyalist serving as a +lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible that she was shot +accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian escorts, but her death did +much to rouse local sentiment against Burgoyne and his Indian allies, +and caused many volunteers to join the American army resisting +Burgoyne's invasion. A monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea +Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where +she was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward. Fort +Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the township of +Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated in 1852. + + See R.O. Bascom, _The Fort Edward Book_ (Fort Edward, 1903). + + + + +FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476), English lawyer, the second son of +Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in Devonshire, was born at +Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire. He was educated at Exeter +College, Oxford. During the reign of Henry VI. he was three times +appointed one of the governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a +king's sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the +king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for his wisdom, +gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great favour with +the king, who is said to have given him some substantial proofs of +esteem and regard. He held his office during the remainder of the reign +of Henry VI., to whom he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served +that unfortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of +treason in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently +fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, who +appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor of England. In +1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret and her court in their exile +on the Continent, and returned with them afterwards to England. During +their wanderings abroad the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the +young prince Edward his celebrated work _De laudibus legum Angliae_. On +the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission to Edward +IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated Westminster, October +13, 1471. He died at an advanced age, but the exact date of his death +has not been ascertained. + + Fortescue's masterly vindication of the laws of England, though + received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom it + was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of Henry + VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was subsequently + many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned work by Fortescue, + written in English, was published in 1714, under the title of _The + Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy_. In the Cotton + library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title of which it + is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many passages show + plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV. A revised edition + of this work, with a very valuable historical and biographical + introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer, under the + title _The Governance of England_. All of Fortescue's minor writings + appear in _The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected and + Arranged_, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his + descendant, Lord Clermont. + + AUTHORITIES.--Plummer's Introduction to _The Governance of England_; + _Life_ in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdner's _Paston Letters_; Foss's + _Lives of the Judges_. + + + + +FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English statesman, was the eldest +son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539), and of his second wife, +Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or Rede of Borstall in +Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded.[1] He was +restored in blood and to his estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551. +Through his father's mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he +was a second cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early +a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct the +Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign. On the accession +of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great wardrobe. He was +returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford, in 1586 for Buckingham +borough, in 1588 and 1597 for Buckingham county, and in 1601 for +Middlesex. In 1589 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a +member of the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November +1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative +employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought large estates +in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up much state and a large +household. He took a prominent part in public business, was a member of +the court of the star chamber and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on +various important commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer +explained the queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in +parliament. On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain +restrictions should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably to +limit the appointment of Scotchmen to office,[2] but his advice was not +followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of the +exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he retained his +two other offices and entertained James several times at Henden and +Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for Buckinghamshire, was defeated by +Sir Francis Goodwin, whose election, however, was declared void by the +lord chancellor on the ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he +lay, and Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This +incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor's +jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament, which was +repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the king. The matter after +much debate was ended by a compromise, which, while leaving the +principle unsettled, set aside the elections of both candidates and +provided for the issue of a new writ. Fortescue was then in February +1606 returned for Middlesex, which he represented till his death on the +23rd of December 1607. He was buried in Mursley church in +Buckinghamshire, where a monument was erected to his memory. His long +public career was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and +country with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments +too were considerable--Camden styles him "vir integer, Graece, +Latineque apprime eruditus,"[3] and his scholarship is also praised by +Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured gifts of +books and manuscripts to the latter's library. Fortescue married (1) +Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme, by whom, besides a +daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and Sir William; and (2) Alice, +daughter of Christopher Smyth of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he +had one daughter. His descent in the male line became extinct with the +death of Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_; Lord + Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues_; _Hist. Notices of + the Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme_, by A. Napier, p. 390; D. + Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), p. 556; _Add. MSS._ 12497 f. 143 + ("Sir John Fortescue's meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir + Julius Caesar]"); _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS._; + Spedding's _Life of Bacon_; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for + Bucks, _Records of Bucks_, vol. i. p. 86. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death on + the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont's _Hist. of the Family of + Fortescue_, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself, + he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533 + (Bucks. Architect. and Archaeolog. Soc. _Records of Bucks_, i. p. + 89). + + [2] David Lloyd's _State Worthies_ (1670), 556. + + [3] _Annales_, 613. + + + + +FORTEVIOT, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on the Water of +May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6-3/4 m. S.W. of Perth. Pop. of +parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote antiquity, having been a +capital of the Picts, when the district was known as Fortrenn, and +afterwards of the Scots. The army led by Edward Baliol camped here +before the battle of Dupplin (1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl +of Mar, was slain along with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of +Findo-Gask adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road, +station and outpost, besides the "auld hoose" of Gask in which the +Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one of her most +popular songs. The new house in which she died dates from 1801. + + + + +FORT GEORGE, a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland. It lies 12 +m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small branch line +connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield junction. It +occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme end of the southern +shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the Firth of Inverness), which +is here only 1 m. wide. There is communication by ferry with Fortrose on +the opposite coast of the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly +after the plan of one of Vauban's works, and named in honour of George +II. Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much impressed +with it and thought it would, when finished, be "the most considerable +fortress and best situated in Great Britain." It covers 16 acres and +contains accommodation for nearly 2200 men. It is the depot of the +Seaforth Highlanders, and a military training-ground of some size and +importance because the surrounding country gives ample facilities for +exercise and manoeuvres. General Wade's road is maintained in good +order. Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of +detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put forward. +About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown, in growing +repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort and Inverness stands +Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl of Moray. + + + + +FORTH, a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river is formed by +two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan +as it is called after it leaves Loch Ard, both rising in the north-east +of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire, and uniting 1 m. west of Aberfoyle. From +this point till it receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a +Perthshire stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between +the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the +Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1-1/2 m. due west of +Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the shires of Stirling +and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely tortuous character of its course +between Gartmore and Alloa--the famous "links of the Forth,"--the actual +length of the river is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct +line (30 m.) between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the +firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general +direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the south, and +the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie, Teith, Allan and +Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan and Bannock. The alluvial +plain extending from Gartmore to the county town is called the Carse of +Stirling. The places of interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen, +Stirling, Cambuskenneth, Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the +Highland line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable +beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip and +Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa, and there +are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for South Alloa) and +Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 4-1/2 m. above Stirling, where +the river is navigable at high water by vessels of 100 tons. There is, +however, a brisk shipping trade at Alloa, where the dock accommodates +vessels of at least 300 tons. + +The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea, that is, to +an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May, from the East +Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Haddingtonshire--a distance of +48 m. Thus, according to some calculations, the Forth measures from +source to sea 114 m. The width of the firth varies from 1/2 m. at +Kincardine and 1-1/2 m. at Queensferry to 6-1/2 m. at Leith and 17-1/2 +m. at the mouth. The chief affluents are, on the south, the Carron, +Avon, Almond, Leith, Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven, +Kiel and Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth, +Bo'ness, Granton and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and Kirkcaldy; +but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very numerous on both +coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge (see Bridges) in 1890 the +ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland have greatly diminished in +importance. The fisheries are still considerable, though the oyster +trade is dwindling. The larger islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of +an abbey, Inchkeith, with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle +of May, with a lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret's Hope, with the +naval base of Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to the west +of the Forth Bridge. + +The Forth was the _Bodotria_ of Tacitus and the Scots Water of the +chroniclers of the 11th and 12th centuries; while Bede (d. 735) knew the +firth as _Sinus orientalis_ (the Eastern Gulf), and Nennius (fl. 796) as +_Mare Friesicum_ (the Frisian Sea). + + + + +FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. "Fortification" is the military art of +strengthening positions against attack. The word (Lat. _fortis_, strong, +and _facere_, to make) implies the creation of defences. Thus the boy +who from the top of a mound defies his comrades, or shelters from their +snowballs behind a fence, is merely taking advantage of ground; but if +he puts up a hurdle on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified +his position. + +Fortification consists of two elements, viz. _protection_ and +_obstacle_. The protection shields the defender from the enemy's +missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close quarters, +and delays him under fire. + +_Protection_ may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct +protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough to stop +the enemy's missiles. The value of this is reduced in proportion as the +defender has to expose himself to return the enemy's fire, or to resist +his attempts to destroy the defences. Indirect protection is given by +_distance_, as for instance by a high wall placed on a cliff so that the +defender on the top of the wall is out of reach of the enemy's missiles +if these are of short range, such as arrows. This kind of defence was +very popular in the middle ages. In the present day the same object is +attained by pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town +they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town as long as +he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect protection of great +importance is concealment. + +The _obstacle_ may consist of anything which will impede the enemy's +advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters. In the earliest +forms of fortification the protecting wall was also the obstacle, or it +may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement, a swamp, a thorn hedge, a +spiked palisade, or some temporary expedient, such as crows' feet or +chevaux de frise. The two elements must of course be arranged in +combination. The besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their +protected position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at +leisure. But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of +modern firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the +obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence. + +Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the enemy's methods +of attack and the weapons he uses. The obstacle, on the other hand, +should be of such a nature as to bring out the best effects of the +defender's weapons. It follows from this that a well-armed force +operating against a badly-armed uncivilized enemy may use with advantage +very simple old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with +it altogether if the obstacle is a good one. + +When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of protection is +very great. In fact, it may be said that in proportion as missile +weapons have grown more effective, the importance of protection and the +difficulty of providing it have increased, while the necessity for a +monumental physical obstacle has decreased. + +The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in appreciating +and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem, such as the weapons +in use, nature of the ground, materials available, temper of assailants +and defenders, strategical possibilities, expenditure to be incurred, +and so forth. Few of these conditions are in themselves difficult to +understand, but they are so many and their reactions are so complex that +a real familiarity with all of them is essential to successful work. The +keynote of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first +point usually lost sight of by the makers of "systems," especially by +those who during a long period of peace have time to give play to their +imaginations. + +Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely _permanent +fortification_ and _field fortification_. Permanent fortifications are +erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of +constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials. +Field fortifications are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps +assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable, and with +materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood +and light timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as +_semi-permanent fortification_. This is employed when in the course of a +campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best +imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample +resources and skilled civilian labour being available. + +The _objects of fortification_ are various. The vast enceintes of +Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war they might give +shelter to the whole population of the country except the field army, +with their flocks and herds and household stuff. The same idea may be +seen to-day in the walls of such cities as Kano. In the middle ages +feudal lords built castles for security against the attacks of their +neighbours, and also to watch over towns or bridges or fords from which +they drew revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely +for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property. The +feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-founding was +fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the 17th and 18th +centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm of fortified towns, +large and small, played a great part in delaying the march of victorious +armies. + +In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for such +purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts. Fortresses are +used either to protect points of vital importance, such as capital +cities, military depots and dockyards, or at strategic points such as +railway junctions. Combinations of fortresses are also used for more +general strategic purposes, as will be explained later. + + +I. HISTORY + + + Ancient methods. + +The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn _hedge_, a type +which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive conditions. Thus, +Alexander found the villages of the Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges, +and the same arrangements may be seen to-day among the least civilized +tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is the _bank_ of +earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments of sods or +hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the hedge, as, besides +being a better obstacle against assault, it gives the defenders an +advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight. Such banks formed the +defences of the German towns in Caesar's time, and they were constructed +with a high degree of skill. Timber being plentiful, the parapets were +built of alternate layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter +were built in at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were +thus very difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being +set on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree +trunks or hurdle-work. + +After the bank the most important step in advance for a nation +progressing in the arts was the _wall_, of masonry, sun-dried brick or +mud. The history of the development of the wall and of the methods of +attacking it is the history of fortification for several thousand years. + +The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security against +escalade. The second-was thickness, so that the defenders might have a +platform on the top which would give them space to circulate freely and +to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick enough at the top for purposes +of defence, would be very expensive if built of solid masonry; therefore +the plan was early introduced of building two walls with a filling of +earth or rubble between them. The face of the outer wall would be +carried up a few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give +protection against arrows and other projectiles. + +The next forward step for the defence was the construction of _towers_ +at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking fire along the +front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison in case of a +successful escalade, and from them the platform could be enfiladed. + +The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main requirements +were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus the finest examples of +the system known to history are also amongst the earliest. One of these +was Nineveh, built more than 2000 years B.C. The object of its huge +perimeter, more than 50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft. +high and 30 ft. thick; and there were 1500 towers. + +After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was made for +a very long time, from a constructional point of view. Many centuries +indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of man evolved engines and +methods of attack fit to cope with such colossal obstacles. + +The earliest form of attack was of course _escalade_, either by ladders +or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable materials. When the +increasing height of walls made escalade too difficult, other means of +attack had to be invented. Probably the first of these were the _ram_, +for battering down the walls, and _mining_. The latter might have two +objects: (a) to drive an underground gallery below the wall from the +besiegers' position into the fortress, or (b) to destroy the wall itself +by undermining. + +The use of missile _engines_ for throwing heavy projectiles probably +came later. They are mentioned in the preparations made for the defence +of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the 8th century B.C. They are +not mentioned in connexion with the siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre +and Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of the +ram and of movable towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls. + + + Classical times. + +The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary for a +systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for the Greeks +practically to create this science. Taking it up in the 5th century B.C. +they soon, under Philip of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high +degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods which were +afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexander's siegecraft was extremely +practical. His successors endeavoured to improve on it by increasing the +size of their missile and other engines, which, however, were so +cumbrous that they were of little use. When the Romans a little later +took up the science they returned to the practical methods of Alexander, +and by the time of Caesar's wars had become past-masters of it. The +highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder was +probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire. The beginning +of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period at which to take a +survey of the arts of fortification and siegecraft as practised by the +ancients. + + + Conditions at opening of the Christian era. + + In fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea. The + towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the best + resistance to the ram. The wall was usually reinforced by a ditch, + which had three advantages: it increased the height of the obstacle, + made the bringing up of the engines of attack more difficult, and + supplied material for the filling of the wall. In special cases, as at + Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled and trebled. + Citadels were also built on a large scale. + + The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town was on + high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep slopes + falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point was a + castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed in + accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where the + enemy's approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking towers + stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers were made + high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the river, it was + defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades defended by + towers were built out from either bank above and below the bridge, + between which chains or booms could be stretched to bar the passage. + + The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus when + a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills, the + enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in the + intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger, but + would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence from the + hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two strong + masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with earth and + stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable, the outside + of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the parapet walk + perhaps being but a little above the level of the town. Palisades were + used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the gates. + + There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of Roman + warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work of attack + and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were specially apt. No + modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed to rely on machinery, + steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope to emulate the feats of the + legionaries. In earthworks they excelled; and in such work as building + and moving about colossal wooden towers under war conditions, they + accomplished things at which nowadays we can only wonder. + + The attack was carried on mainly by the use of "engines," under which + head were included all mechanical means of attack--towers, missile + engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different kinds, + "tortoises" (see below), &c. Mining, too, was freely resorted to, also + approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced by the Greeks. + + The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a + gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the + destruction of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large + chambers under the foundations. These were supported while the + excavation was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the + chambers were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall + collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by countermines. + With these they would undermine and destroy the besiegers' galleries, + or would break into them and drive out the workers, either by force of + arms or by filling the galleries with smoke. + + Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two kinds. For + dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the wall, steel-pointed + heads were used; when this was done, another head, shaped like a ram's + head, was substituted for battering down the filling of the wall. + + For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but the + most important means of attack against a high wall were the movable + towers of wood. These were built so high that from their tops the + parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and stones; and + drawbridges were let down from them, by which a storming party could + reach the top of the wall. The height of the towers was from 70 to 150 + ft. They were moved on wheels of solid oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in + diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground floor contained one or two + rams. The upper floors, of which there might be as many as fifteen, + were furnished with missile engines of a smaller kind. The archers + occupied the top floor. There also were placed reservoirs of water to + extinguish fire. These were filled by force pumps and fitted with hose + made of the intestines of cattle. Drawbridges, either hanging or + worked on rollers, were placed at the proper height to give access to + the top of the wall, or to a breach, as might be required. Apollodorus + proposed to place a couple of rams in the upper part of the tower to + destroy the crenellations of the wall. + + The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong + timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the + defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers, + plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order to + gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In that + case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles, + described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed on + account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and their + frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort, with brick + walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one of the + towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subsequently + raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which + projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy + mats made of ships' cables. The mats protected the men working at the + walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually raised by the + use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy beams and planks, + over which were laid bricks and clay, and the whole was covered with + mats and hides to prevent the bricks from being dislodged. This + structure was completed without the loss of a man, and could only have + been built by the Romans, whose soldiers were all skilled workmen. + + Although these towers were provided with bridges by which storming + parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object was usually + to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from the walls and + towers. Under this protection breaching operations could be carried + on. The approaches to the wall were usually made under shelter of + galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed on wheels and + moved into position as required. When the wall was reached, a shelter + of stronger construction, known as a "rat," was placed in position + against it. Under this a ram was swung or worked on rollers; or the + rat might be used as a shelter for miners or for workmen cutting away + the face of the wall. The great rat at Marseilles, which extended from + the tower already described to the base of the tower of the city, was + 60 ft. long, and built largely of great beams 2 ft. square, connected + by iron pins and bands. It was unusually narrow, the ground sills of + the side walls being only 4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to + keep down the weight of the structure, which, massive as it was, had + to be movable. The sloping roof and sides of timber were protected, + like those of the tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool + mattresses. Huge stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from + the wall upon this rat without effect, and under its cover the + soldiers loosened and removed the foundations of the tower until it + fell down. + + In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures, it + was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of + the ground. For this purpose an "approach tortoise" was often used. + This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery and the + rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an open front + with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up for filling the + ditch was distributed. + + The missile engines threw stones up to 600 lb. weight, heavy darts + from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege of + Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 lb. The ranges varied, according + to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds. for direct fire + and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jerusalem Titus + employed three hundred catapults of different sizes and forty + balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 lb. weight. At + Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium catapults, 23 large and + 52 small balistae, and a great number of scorpions and other small + missile engines. + + Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers were + used in great variety. + + In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in the + construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes. A kind + of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used to hoist a + cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall. A long spar with + a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from a lofty frame, + served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and overhanging + galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow in replying with + similar devices. Fenders were let down from the wall to soften the + blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught and held by cranes. + Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the rats and overturn them. + Archimedes used the same idea in the defence of Syracuse for lifting + and sinking the Roman galleys. Wooden towers were built on the walls + to overtop the towers of the besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire + were employed. The tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or + a portion of it, at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with + reflectors, is supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With + a reflector having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small + mirrors each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and + wood was set on fire at 160 ft. + + The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long since + reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the + destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized defences + were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger, and the + attack was stronger than the defence. + + + Middle ages. + +Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the twin sciences of +fortification and siegecraft long enough for the Crusaders to learn from +them what had been lost in the West. Byzantium, however, always a +storehouse of military science, while conserving a knowledge of the +ancient methods and the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas +to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the Byzantines favoured +multiplied enceintes or several concentric lines of defence. This of +course is always a tendency of decadent nations. + +In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and the +Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the defences of +Carcassonne, Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century. Viollet-le-Duc's +description and illustrations of the defences of Carcassonne will give a +very good idea of the methods then in use:-- + + "The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is still + preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those described + by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated than the + ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks. The curtain + walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces of small cubical + masonry alternating with courses of brick; the middle portion being + filled, not with earth but with rubble run with lime. The towers were + raised above these curtains, and their communication with the latter + might be cut off, so as to make of each tower a small independent + fort; externally these towers are cylindrical, and on the side of the + town square; they rest, also towards the country, upon a cubical base + or foundation. We subjoin (fig. 1) the plan of one of these towers + with the curtains adjoining. A is the plan of the ground-level; B the + plan of the first storey at the level of the parapet. We see, at C and + D, the two excavations formed in front of the gates of the tower to + intercept, when the drawbridges were raised, all communication between + the town or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower. + From the first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or + battlemented portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed + interiorly against the side of the flat wall. The external + ground-level was much lower than that of the tower, and also beneath + the ground-level of the town, from which it was reached by a + descending flight of from ten to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower + and its two curtains on the side of the town; the bridges of + communication are supposed to have been removed. The battlemented + portion at the top is covered with a roof, and open on the side of the + town in order to permit the defenders of the tower to see what was + going on therein, and also to allow of their hoisting up stones and + other projectiles by means of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same + tower on the side towards the country; we have added a postern, the + sill of which is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate + the use of a scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is + defended, as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or + postern being provided with a work of this kind." + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Plan of one of the Towers at Carcassonne.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.] + +Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost disappeared. Its +perfect development was only possible for an army like that of the +Romans. The Huns and Goths knew nothing of it, and the efforts of +Charlemagne and others of the Frankish kings to restore the art were +hampered by the fact that their warriors despised handicrafts and +understood nothing but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages +the towns of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences, +which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the sieges of +that period dragged themselves out through long years, and if ultimately +successful were so as a rule only through blockade and famine. It was +not until the 11th century that siegecraft was revived in the West on +the ancient lines. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One of the Towers at Carcassonne, outside view.] + + + Castles. + +By this time a new departure of great importance had been made in the +seigneurial castle (q.v.), which restored for some centuries a definite +superiority to the defence. Built primarily as strongholds for local +magnates or for small bodies of warriors dominating a conquered country, +the conditions which called them into existence offered several marked +advantages. The defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town, +and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be expected that a +town would develop itself in the manner most suitable for defence; nor +indeed that any position large enough for a town could be found that +would be naturally strong all round. But the site of a castle could be +chosen purely for its natural strength, without regard, except as a +secondary consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and +as its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position +entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened that the +existence of such a position was the _raison d'etre_ of the castle. A +small hill with steep sides might well be unapproachable in every +direction by such cumbrous structures as towers and rats, while the +height of the hill, added to the height of the walls, would be too much +for the besiegers' missiles. If the sides of the hill were precipitous +and rocky, mining became impossible, and the site was perfect for +defence. A castle built under such conditions was practically +impregnable; and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in +the 11th and 12th centuries. They could only be reduced by blockade, and +a blockade of long duration was very difficult in the feudal age. + +A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the Chateau Gaillard, +built by Richard Coeur-de-Lion in 1196. This great castle, with ditches +and escarpments cut out of the solid rock, and extensive outworks, was +completed in one year. In the article CASTLE will be found the plan of +the main work, which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon +(or keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle, +giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature in +advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of the +machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which at that time +was usually given by wooden hoardings. After the death of Richard, +Philip Augustus besieged the chateau, and carried it after a blockade of +seven months and a regular attack of one month. In this attack the tower +at A was first mined, after which the whole of that outwork was +abandoned by the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by +surprise; and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the +pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers prevented +the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter of the donjon, and +they had to lay down their arms. + +Chateau Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general of his time, +exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of the designs of +the 12th century. It is easy to understand how at each step gained by +the besiegers the very difficulties which had been placed in the way of +their further advance prevented the garrison from reinforcing strongly +the points attacked. + +In the 13th century many influences were at work in the development of +castellar fortification. The experience of such sieges as that of +Chateau Gaillard, and still more that gained in the Crusades, the larger +garrisons at the disposal of the great feudal lords, and the importance +of the interests which they had to protect in their towns, led to a +freer style of design. We must also take note of an essential difference +between the forms of attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the +medieval chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers, +preferred in siege works the certain if laborious methods of breaching +and mining. The latter, who considered all manual labour beneath them +and whose only ideal of warfare was personal combat, affected the tower +and its bridge, giving access to the top of the wall rather than the rat +and battering-ram. They were also fond of surprises, which the bad +discipline of the time favoured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Donjon, Chateau Gaillard.] + +We find, therefore, important progress in enlarging the area of defence +and in improving arrangements for flanking. The size and height of all +works were increased. The keep of Coucy Castle, built in 1220, was 200 +ft. high. Montargis Castle, also built about this time, had a central +donjon and a large open enclosure, within which the whole garrison could +move freely, to reinforce quickly any threatened point. The effect of +flanking fire was increased by giving more projection to the towers, +whose sides were in some cases made at right angles to the curtain +walls. + +We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long after +medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication of defences, to +guard against surprise and localize successful assaults. Great attention +was paid to the "step by step" defence. Flanking towers were cut off +from their walls and arranged for separate resistance. Complicated +entrances with traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence +was from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the lower +storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring. Machicouli +galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either by stone walls +built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings built in war time, +for which the walls were prepared beforehand by recesses left in the +masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were protected by shutters. Great care +and much ingenuity were expended on details of all kinds. + +Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence had made +provision for countermining, by building chambers and galleries at the +base of the towers and walls. Further protection for the towers against +the pioneer attack was given by carrying out the masonry in front of the +tower in a kind of projecting horn. This was found later to have the +further advantages of doing away with the dead ground in front of the +tower unseen from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and +therefore the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is +seen in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ of +the idea of the bastion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.] + + The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the 13th + century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of the best + work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-le-Duc) + show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a bird's-eye + view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick black line shows + the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then the moat. It will be + noted that the wall of the lists as well as the main wall is defended + by towers. There are only two gates. That on the east is defended by + two great towers and a semicircular barbican. The gate of the castle, + on the west, has a most complicated approach defended by a labyrinth + of gates and flanking walls, which cannot be shown on this small + scale, and beyond these is a huge circular barbican in several + storeys, capable of holding 1500 men. On the side of the town the + castle is protected by a wide moat, and the entrance is masked by + another large semicircular barbican. An interesting feature of the + general arrangement is the importance which the lists have assumed. + The slight wooden barricade of older times has developed into a wall + with towers; and the effect is that the besieger, if he gains a + footing in the lists, has a very narrow space in which to work the + engines of attack. The castle, after the Roman fashion, adjoins the + outer wall of the town, so that there may be a possibility of + communicating with a relieving force from outside after the town has + fallen. There were also several posterns, small openings made in the + wall at some height above the ground, for use with rope ladders. + +The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients. Mining was +the most effective form of attack, and the approach to the walls was +covered by engines throwing great stones against the hoardings of the +parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were sheltered behind light mantlets +moved on wheels. Barrels of burning pitch and other incendiary +projectiles were thrown as before; and at one siege we read of the +carcasses of dead horses and barrels of sewage being thrown into the +town to breed pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a +capitulation. + +With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As Professor +C.W.C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical application of the three +powers of tension, torsion and counterpoise (in the missile engines) had +its limits. If these engines were enlarged they grew too costly and +unwieldy. If they were multiplied it was impossible on account of their +short range and great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on +a single portion of the wall. + + + Introduction of gunpowder. + +It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a small +space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the first two +centuries after the introduction of gunpowder. The number of existing +fortifications that had to be modified was infinite, so also was the +number of attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers had not yet +begun to publish descriptions of their "systems"; also the new names and +terms which came into use with the new works were spread over Europe by +engineers of different countries, and adopted into new languages without +much accuracy. + +Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any effect on +the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw so very light a +projectile that they had no effect on masonry and were more useful for +the defence than the attack. Later, larger pieces were made, which acted +practically as mortars, throwing stone balls with high elevation, and +barrels of burning composition. In the middle of the 15th century the +art of cannon-founding was much developed by the brothers Bureau in +France. They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened the +guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely defeated by +the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450 Charles VII. was +furnished with so powerful a siege train that he captured the whole of +the castles in Normandy from the English in one year. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.] + +But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. +with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The astonishing rapidity +with which castles and fortified towns fell before him proved the +uselessness of the old defences. It became necessary to create a new +system of defences, and, says Cosseron de Villenoisy, "thanks to the +mental activity of the Renaissance and the warlike conditions prevailing +everywhere, the time could not have been more favourable." There is no +doubt that the engineers of Italy as a body were responsible for the +first advance in fortification. There, where vital and mental energy +were at boiling-point, and where the first striking demonstration of the +new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such as Leonardo +da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied themselves over the +problem of defence. + +It has been claimed that Albert Durer was the first writer on modern +fortification. This was not so; Durer's work was published in 1527, and +more than one Italian engineer, certainly Martini of Siena and San +Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machiavelli, writing between 1512 and +1527, had offered some most valuable criticisms and general principles. +Durer, moreover, had little influence on the progress of fortification; +though we may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the +"polygonal" system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Durer's +work was to some extent a connecting link between the old fortification +and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the old towers; and he +provided both them and the curtains with vaulted chambers for guns +(casemates) in several tiers, so as to command both the ditch and the +ground beyond it. His projects were too massive and costly for +execution, but his name is associated with the first practical gun +casemates. + +Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the design of +fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened the influence of +the castles. First, their owners were slow to adopt the new ideas and +abandon their high strong walls for low extended parapets, and, +secondly, they had not the men necessary for long lines of defence. At +the same time the corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active +part in warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large +numbers. + +When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry from a distance +two results followed: it was necessary to modify the masonry defences so +as to make them less vulnerable, and to improve the means of employing +the guns of the defence. For both these purposes the older castles with +their restricted area were little suited, and we must now trace the +development of the fortified towns. + + + The bulwark. + + Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appearance + of the new weapons was the bulwark (_boulevard, baluardo_ or + _bollwerk_). This was an outwork usually semicircular in plan, built + of earth consolidated with timber and revetted with hurdles. Such + works were placed as a shield in front of the gates, which could be + destroyed even by the early light cannon-balls; and they offered at + the same time advanced positions for the guns of the defence. They + were found so useful for gun positions for flanking fire that later + they were placed in front of towers or at intervals along the walls + for that purpose. + + This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now to + consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected both the + construction and trace of the walls. + + + The wall. + + The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls + should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened. + One method of doing this in the case of old works was by placing + bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the lists or outer walls, + being surrounded by moats, were already partially screened and + suitable for conversion into the main defence; and as with improved + flanking defence great height was no longer essential, the tops of the + walls were in some cases cut down. In new works it was natural to sink + the wall in a ditch, the earth from which was useful for making + ramparts. + + As regards resistance to the effect of shot, it was found that thin + masonry walls with rubble filling behind them were very easily + destroyed. A bank of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of + the shot, but once a breach was made the earth came down, making a + slope easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood, + timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank, and + answered very well (fig. 7). + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counterforts. + The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built _inward_ from + the wall into the rampart instead of _outward_ (fig. 8). Their effect + was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more difficult of + ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening the wall was an + arched gallery built behind it under the rampart (fig. 9). This + construction was in harmony with the idea, already familiar, of a + passage in the wall from which countermines could be started; but it + has the obvious weakness that the destruction of the face wall takes + away one of the supports of the arch. The best arrangement, which is + ascribed to Albert Durer, was the "counter-arched revetment." This + consisted of a series of arches built between the counterforts, with + their axes at right angles to the face of the wall. Their advantage + was that, while supporting the wall and taking all the weight of the + rampart, they formed an obstacle after the destruction of the wall + more difficult to surmount than the wall itself and very hard to + destroy. The counter-arches might be in one, two or three tiers, + according to the height of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter + without the earth of the rampart and showing also a countermine + gallery). + + + The rampart. + + A more important question, however, than the improvement of the + passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active defence + by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room for the + working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question of + modifying the existing defences at as little cost as possible. With + this object the roofs of towers were removed and platforms for guns + substituted, but this only gave room for one or two guns. Also the + loopholes in the lower storeys of towers were converted into + embrasures to give a grazing fire over the ditch; this became the + commonest method of strengthening old works for cannon, but was of + little use as the resulting field of fire was so small. In some cases + the towers were made larger, with a semicircular front and side walls + at right angles to the curtain. Such towers built at Langres early in + the 16th century had walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery defence + with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Durer in theory, and + the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the best examples of + this. The Italian engineers also showed much ingenuity in arranging + for the defence of ditches with masonry caponiers. These were + developed from external buttresses, and equally with the casemated + flanking towers of Durer contained the germs of the idea of + "polygonal" defence. + + The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted, was + the rampart; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall, + which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered + plenty of space for the disposal of the guns. + + + The ditch. + + The _ditch_, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and + medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic. + Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying earth for a + rampart and allowing the wall to be sunk for concealment, it was found + also to have a definite use as an obstacle. Hitherto the wall had + sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being useful mainly to prevent + the besieger from bringing up his engines of attack. + + When the wall (or escarp) was lowered, the obstacle offered by the + ditch was increased by revetting the far side of it with a + _counterscarp_. Beyond the counterscarp wall some of the earth + excavated from the ditch was piled up to increase the protection given + to the escarp wall. This earth was sloped down gently on the outer + side to meet the natural surface of the ground in such a manner as to + be swept by the fire from the ramparts and was called the _glacis_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + Now, however, a new difficulty arose. In all times a chief element in + a successful defence has consisted in action by the besieged outside + the walls. The old ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on + the far side leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a + convenient place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble + without being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their + attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented sorties + from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the introduction of + the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of it, behind the + glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty was met by + widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft., in which there + was room for troops to assemble. This was known as the _covered way_. + + With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of modern + fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + The trace. + +Up to the gunpowder period the _trace_ of fortifications, that is, the +plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very simple. It was +merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted to the site and provided +with towers at suitable intervals. The foot of the wall could be seen +and defended everywhere, from the tops of the towers and the machicoulis +galleries. The introduction of ramparts and artillery made this more +difficult in two ways. The rampart, interposed between the defenders and +the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical defence. Also with the +inferior gun-carriages of the time very little depression could be given +to the guns, and thus the top of the enceinte wall, with or without a +rampart, was not a suitable position for guns intended to flank the +ditch in their immediate neighbourhood. The problem of the "trace" +therefore at the beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line +of defence so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the +besieged, both to oppose the besiegers' breaching batteries and later to +defend the breaches. At the outset the latter role was the more +important. + +In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this problem we +must remember that for economical reasons they had to make the best use +they could of the existing walls. At first for flanking purposes +casemates on the ditch level were used, the old flanking towers being +enlarged for the purpose. Masonry galleries were constructed across the +ditch, containing casemates which could fire to either side, and after +this casemates were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of +the fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that the +flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be dependent on +outworks, and that greater freedom was required for guns than was +consistent with casemate defence. The _bulwark_ (which in its earliest +shape suggests that it was in some sort the offspring of the barbican, +placed to protect an entrance) gave plenty of space for guns, but was +too detached for security. The enlarged tower, as an integral part of +the lines, gave security, and its walls at right angles to the curtain +gave direct flanking fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The +blending of the two ideas produced the _bastion_, an element of +fortification which dominated the science for three hundred years, and +so impressed itself on the imagination that to this day any strong +advanced position in a defensive line is called by that name by +unscientific writers. The word had been in use for a long time in +connexion with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes, +the earliest forms being _bastille_, _bastide_, _bastillon_, and in its +origin it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the +construction than to its defensive intention. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Bastion at Troyes.] + + The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces and + flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers often + acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion were more + or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a contemporary MS. by + Viollet-le-Duc, shows a bastion added to the old wall of Troyes about + 1528. On the other hand, in fig. 14 (taken from an English MS. of + 1559, which again is based on the Italian work of Zanchi published in + 1554), we find _a a_ spoken of as "bulwarks" and _b b_ as + "bastilions." The triangular works between the bastilions are + described as "ramparts," intended to protect the curtains from + breaching fire. (We may also notice in this design the broad ditch, + the counterscarp with narrow covered way, and loopholes indicating + counterscarp galleries.) + +Towards the end of the 16th century the term "bulwark" began to be +reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance in front of the +main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it thus reverted to its +original defensive intention. The term "bastion" henceforth denoted an +artillery position connected by flanks to the main wall; and the +question of the arrangement of these flanks was one of the main +preoccupations of engineers. Flanks retired, casemated or open, or +sometimes in several tiers were proposed in infinite variety. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual +modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on account +of the expense involved, the era of theoretical "systems" had begun, +based on the mutual relations of flank and face. These can be grouped +under three heads as follows:-- + + 1. The _cremaillere_ or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding + each other in regular order (fig. 15). + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + 2. The _tenaille_ trace: Flanks back to back between the faces (fig. + 16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the _star_ + trace (fig. 17). + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + 3. The _bastioned_ trace: Flanks facing each other and connected by + curtains (fig. 18). + +In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless +casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete. Guns on +the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and therefore there +are "dead" angles in the ditch. In the bastioned trace there is no +"dead" ground, provided the flanks are so far apart that a shot from the +rampart of a flank can reach the ditch at the centre of the curtain. + + + The bastioned trace. + +Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who objected to +casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of salvation. They were +soon in the majority; perhaps because the symmetry and completeness of +the idea captivated the imagination. At all events the bastioned trace, +once fairly developed, held the field in one form or another practically +without a rival until near the end of the 18th century. The Italian +engineers, who were supreme throughout most of the 16th century, started +it; the French, who took the lead in the following century, developed +it, and officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century, +when the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary +importance. + + It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple + of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component parts + of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its outworks. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + + In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round the + place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular. + + ABC is an _exterior angle_ or angle of the polygon. + + BC is an _exterior side_. + + _zz_ is an _interior side_. + + _abcdefghijk_ is the trace of the _enceinte_. + + _bcdef_ is a _bastion_. + + _zdef_ is a _demi-bastion_. + + _de_ is a _face_ of the bastion. + + _ef_ is a _flank_ of the bastion. + + _fg_ is the _curtain_. + + _bf_ is the _gorge_. + + (Two demi-bastions with the connecting curtain make the bastioned + front, _defghi_.) + + _zd_ bisecting the _exterior angle_ ABC is the _capital_ of the + bastion. + + _xy_ is the _perpendicular_, the proportionate length of which to the + exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element of + the trace. + + _ef_C is the angle of _defence_. + + BC_f_ is the _diminished angle_. + + _cde_ is the _flanked angle_ or _salient angle_ of the bastion. + + _e_ is the _shoulder_ of the bastion. + + _def_ is the _angle of the shoulder_. + + _efg_ is the _angle of the flank_. + + The line of the escarp is called the _magistral line_ since it + regulates the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without + much detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of + the parapet, are often the only ones shown,--the crest of the parapet, + as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being + usually emphasized by a thick black line. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.] + + Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an + imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the + different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the + explanation of its figuring and lettering. + + 1. _Flat bastion:_ Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines of + defence were too long for musketry range. + + 2. _Demi-bastion:_ Used generally on the bank of a river. + + 3. _Tenaille bastion:_ Used when the flanked angle is too acute; that + is, less than 70 deg. + + 4. _Redans:_ Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet of + the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front. + + A, B. _Ravelins._ + + C. _Demi-lunes:_ So called from the shape of the gorge. They differ + from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions instead of + the curtains. + + D. _Counter-guards:_ Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then going + out of fashion. + + E. _Simple tenaille._ + + F. _Double tenaille_ (see L and M). + + (If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown + alternatively, it is called a _swallow-tail_. If the double tenaille + is reduced as at G, it is called a _bonnet de pretre_. Such works + were rarely used.) + + H. _Hornwork:_ Much used for gates, &c. + + I. _Crown-work._ + + K. _Crowned hornwork._ + + L. M. New forms of _tenaille_: (N.B.--These are the forms which + ultimately retained the name.) + + N. New form of work called a _demi-lune lunettee_, the ravelin N being + protected by two counterguards, O. + + P. _Re-entering places of arms._ + + Q. _Traverses._ + + R. _Salient places of arms._ + + S. _Places of arms_ without _traverses_. + + T. Orillon, to protect the flank V. + + X. A _double bastion_ or _cavalier_. + + Y. A _retrenchment_ with a ditch, of the breach Z. + + &. _Traverses_ to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from + enfilade. + +Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find in the early +examples of the use of the bastion that there is no attempt made to +defend its faces by flanking fire, the curtains being considered the +only weak points of the enceinte. Accordingly, the flanks are arranged +at right angles to the curtain, and the prolongation of the faces +sometimes falls near the middle of it. When it was found that the faces +needed protection, the first attempts to give it were made by erecting +_cavaliers_, or raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in +the bastions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in +Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we have +faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces long enough to +contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able to defend both curtain +and faces. The weak points of this trace, due to its being arranged on a +small pentagon, are that the terreplein or interior space of the +bastions is rather cramped, and the salient angles too acute. + + + The 16th century. + +In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589 we find a +distinct advance. Speckle's actual constructions in fortification are of +no great importance; but he was a great traveller and observer, and in +his work, published just before his death, he has evidently assimilated, +and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put forward up +to that time. + +Two specimens from Speckle's work are well worth studying as connecting +links between the 16th and 17th centuries. + + Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no + outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a battery + in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large, but the + faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the flanks. + To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers in the + middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank should be + noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of which is + arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great saliency of the + bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement is simple and + strong. + + In the second example, known as Speckle's "reinforced trace" (fig. + 23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century. The + ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are in + prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle's other favourite + ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own + particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering place + of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries did not find + favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily destroyed by + the besiegers' batteries crowning the salients of the covered way. + + Speckle's book is of great importance as embodying the best work of + the period. His own ideas are large and simple, but rather in advance + of the powers of the artillery of his day. + +[Illustration: FIG 22.] + + + The 17th century. + +At the beginning of the 17th century we find the Italian engineers +following Paciotto in developing the complete bastioned trace; but they +got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything to +symmetry and system. The era of geometrical fortification (or, as Sir +George Clarke has called it, "drawing-board" fortification) had already +begun with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in +finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical +bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the oval, club, +heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one of the first to +think of prolonging the resistance of a place by means of outworks such +as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that Busca was the first to discuss +the proportions and functions of all the component parts of a front; and +Floriani, about 1630, was the last of the important Italians. The +characteristics of a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at +this time were, according to the same authority, that the works were +well adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed, +while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German schools will be +referred to later. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Speckle's Reinforced Trace.] + +The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting the +principles already established to actual sites. In the first half of the +century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as having contributed +valuable studies to the advancement of the science. In putting forward +their designs they discussed very fully such practical questions as the +length of the line of defence, whether this should be governed by the +range of artillery or musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in +them of orillons, casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions, +&c. + +It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which is one of the +most important periods in the history of fortification, chiefly because +it was illuminated by the work of Vauban. It was at this time also that +a prodigious output of purely theoretical fortification began, which +went on till the French Revolution. Many of the "systems" published at +this time were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge of the +subject, some of them priests who were engaged in educating the sons of +the upper classes, and who had to teach the elements of fortification +among other things. They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable +for their clearness of style; and with their industry and ingenuity the +elaboration of existing methods was a very congenial task. Most of these +essays took the form of multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an +impossible scale, and they culminated in such fantastic extravagances as +the system of Rhana, published in 1769 (fig. 24). These proposals, +however, were of no practical importance. + + + Vauban. + +The work of the real masters who knew more than they published can +always be recognized by its comparative simplicity. The greatest of +these was Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (q.v.). Born in 1633, and +busied from his eighteenth year till his death in 1707 in war or +preparations for war, he earned alike by his genius, his experience, his +industry and his personal character the chief place among modern +military engineers. His experience alone puts him in a category apart +from others. Of this it is enough to say that he took part in +forty-eight sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer without +a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than 160 places. +Vauban's genius was essentially practical, and he was no believer in +systems. He would say, "One does not fortify by systems but by common +sense." Of new ideas in fortification he introduced practically none, +but he improved and modified existing ideas with consummate skill in +actual construction. His most original work was in the attack (see +below), which he reduced to a scientific method most certain in its +results. It is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should +be chiefly known to us by three so-called "systems," known as his +"first," "second" and "third." How far he was from following a system is +shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight fronts constructed +by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of which are quite alike and most +of which vary very considerably to suit local conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +Vauban's "first system," as variously described by other writers even in +his own time, is pieced together from some of the early examples of his +work. The "second system" is the "tower bastion" defence of Belfort and +Landau (1684-1688), obviously suggested by a design of Castriotto's one +hundred years earlier; and the "third system" is the front of +Neu-Breisach (1698), which is merely Landau slightly improved. In other +works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower bastion idea. + +It will be convenient to take the "first system," as reproduced in the +Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25) as typical +of much of Vauban's work. It may be observed that he sometimes uses the +straight flank, and sometimes the curved flank with orillon. Parapets in +several tiers are never used, nor cavaliers. The ravelin is almost +always used. It is small, having little artillery power and giving no +protection to the shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and +occasionally a keep. + +The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a shield to +the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by him. Fig. 25 +shows two forms. In both the parapet of the tenaille had to be kept low, +so that the flanks might defend a breach at the shoulder of the opposite +bastion, with artillery fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the +escarp. Traverses are used for the first time on the covered way to +guard against enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which +Vauban attached considerable importance, is large. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Vauban's First System.] + + For the construction of the trace an average length of about 400 yds. + (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the site) may be + taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except for polygons of + less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the bastions + two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords of arcs + struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described with + the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and + cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of the + ravelin; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon the + faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The main ditch + has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the + counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions. + The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout. + + As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command of 25 + ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft. + over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The parapets + are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works he used + demi-revetments. + +Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the so-called +"third system." It is worth introducing, simply as showing that even a +mind like Vauban's could not resist in old age the tendency to duplicate +defences. Here the main bastions and tenaille are detached from the +enceinte. The line of the enceinte is broken with flanks and further +flanked by the towers. The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section +through the face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm, +and a hedge as an additional obstacle. + + + 18th and 19th centuries. + +After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable additions +to the system were few. Among his successors in the early part of the +18th century Cormontaingne (q.v.) has the greatest reputation, though +his experience and authority fell far short of Vauban's. He was a clear +thinker and writer, and the elements of the system were distinctly +advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged ravelin with flanks, the +ends of which were intended to close the gaps at the end of the +tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with flanks. He provides a very +large re-entering place of arms, also with a keep, the ditches of which +are carefully traced so as to be protected from enfilade by the salients +of the ravelin and bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent +retrenchment of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with +many alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as a +text-book for the school of Mezieres. This school was established in +1748, and from this time forward there was an official school of +thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne's work, therefore, represents +the modifications of Vauban's ideas accepted by French engineers in the +latter part of the 18th century. The school of Mezieres was afterwards +replaced by that of Metz, which carried on its traditions. Such schools +are necessarily conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual +improvement in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the +bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of the +Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us that, before the +Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification was to write one's +self down ignorant. How far the general form of the bastion with its +outworks had become crystallized is evident from a cursory comparison of +fig. 27 with Vauban's early work. This figure is the front of the Metz +school in 1822, by General Noizet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Neu-Breisach.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Noizet.] + +Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines of the +system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from +Cormontaingne's time onwards were given to improvements of detail, and +mainly to retard breaching operations as long as possible. We find +enormous pains being bestowed on the study of the comparative heights of +the masonry walls and crest levels; with the introduction here and there +of glacis slopes in the ditches, put in both to facilitate their +defence and to protect portions of the escarps. + +Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first of these is +Chasseloup-Laubat (q.v.), who served throughout the wars of the Republic +and Empire, and constructed the fortress of Alessandria in Piedmont. + + Chasseloup's main proposals to improve the bastioned system were two: + + First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached through + the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward the + ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the further + advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-fire over + the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the ravelin + liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this system would + have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able commander with a + strong force; but under the opposite conditions it has a dangerous + element of weakness. + + Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those + admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend his + exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his + bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the flank + of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence, and + the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length, being + defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the + tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it + combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal + systems without getting the full advantages of either. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Chasseloup-Laubat. + + Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup's system, of ordinary length, + as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting detail, viz. + the Chasseloup mask--a detached mask with tunnels for the casemate + guns to fire through, the intention of which is to save them from + being destroyed from a distance. + +The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French Engineers, +born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827. Two leading ideas are +due to him. The first is that of the "independence of parapets." A +glance at any of the plans that have already been shown will show that +hitherto the crests of parapets had always been traced parallel to the +escarp or magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was +necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with reference +to the flanking arrangements, there was no such necessity as regards the +parapets. By making the crest of the parapet quite independent of the +escarp line he obtained great freedom of direction for his fire. The +second idea is that of the "inner glacis." This was a glacis parapet +placed in the main ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to +prevent the escarp of the body of the place from being breached in the +usual way by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way. + +The need for Choumara's improvements has passed by, but he was in his +time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a resounding note: +"What is chiefly required in fortification is simplicity and strength. +It is not on a few little contrivances carefully hidden that one can +rely for a good defence. _The fate of a place should not depend on the +intelligence of a corporal shut up in a small post prepared for his +detachment._" + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sedan in 1705.] + + Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study a + couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one regular. + Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the end of the + 17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and there, but the + work is for the most part apparently early 17th century. It will be + observed that on the river side of the town the defence consists of + very irregular bastions with duplicated wet ditches (see the Dutch + style, below); and on the other side, where water is not available, + strength is sought for by pushing a succession of hornworks far out. + + Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early + manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course never + thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good nor + bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the + system. + + It must here be remarked that the reproach of "geometrical" + fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and his + immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which + worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already pointed + out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his fellows + excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the engineer. + + The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the + fortification problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range + and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an + obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of + protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the + bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was + the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability + and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the + authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French + school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while the + conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they could + admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not help being + original, were struggling against the whole weight of official + opposition. + + Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not + geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the + attack, on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As + to the policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us + think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and + that a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of + retreat. There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of + outworks, difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral + effect of their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and + Candia might well say, "Oh, if only when we had held on to that + bastion for so many months we had had a second and a third line of + permanent retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place + for ever." And who shall say that they were wrong? Let us at all + events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men who + had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves in + comparison with them are the theorists. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.] + + + The Dutch school. + +From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods of fortification +acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout resistance offered to +the Spaniards by some of their fortresses, the three years' defence of +Ostend being perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged defences, +which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the besieged, were +credited to the quality of their defences. In point of fact the Dutch +owed more to nature, and more still to their own spirit, than to art; +but they showed a good deal of skill in adapting recent ideas to their +needs. + +Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch works at this +time, viz. want of time, want of money and abundance of water. When the +Netherlands began their revolt against Spain, they would no doubt have +been glad enough of expensive masonry fortresses on such models as +Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for +such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately for them +they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted walls. +Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or canals were +available for inundations. A wide and shallow ditch, while making a good +obstacle, was also the readiest means of obtaining earth for the +ramparts. High command was, owing to the flatness of the country, +unnecessary and even undesirable, as it did not allow of grazing fire. + +What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns gives little +evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an existing enceinte, +sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide a broad wet ditch. No +further provision was usually made on the sides of the town which were +additionally protected by a river or inundation. On the other sides the +wet ditch was made still broader, and sometimes contained a +counterguard, sometimes ravelins and lunettes. These were quite +irregular in their design and relation to each other. At the foot of the +glacis would be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a +peculiarly Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a +river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line, +strengthened by several redans. + +Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want of a +first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches, and +further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities of palisading, +for which purpose the timber of old ships was used. They also recognized +the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches, as, for instance, that when +frozen they no longer provide an obstacle; and they studied the means, +not only of causing inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well +as to fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this +work. + +Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence at this +time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon Stevin, Maurice +and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag. The fortress of Coevorden, +constructed by Prince Maurice, of which fig. 31 shows a front, is a +well-known example of this, and the section shows clearly some typical +features of the school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Coevorden.] + + The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace, but + we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design. + There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding the + rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work, which + partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard, served + several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the rampart + should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch, and the + fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead ground at the + foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire over the ditch, + which was very important, and which the rampart supported by a + plunging fire. + + + Coehoorn. + +Coehoorn (q.v.), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban, was the +greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was distinguished as +a fighting engineer, both in attack and defence; but in the attack he +differed from him in relying more on powerful artillery fire than +systematic earthworks. He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His "first +system," which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is reproduced for the +sake of comparison with the Coevorden front designed a hundred years +earlier. Among other points will be noticed the combination of wet and +dry ditches; the very broad main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep +of the ravelin; the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent +low parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Coehoorn's First System.] + + + German school. + +The "tenaille" system and the "polygonal" system which grew out of it +are mainly identified with the _German school_. That school, says von +Zastrow, does not, like that of France, represent the authoritative +teaching of an official establishment, but rather the general practice +of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of Durer, +Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in execution by +Montalembert. "The German engineers desired a simple trace, a strong +fortification with retrenchments and keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and +an organization suitable for an offensive defence." + +These had always been the German principles. Already in the 16th century +the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and Peitz had large bomb-proof +casemates sufficient for a great part of the garrison. The same thing is +seen in the defences of Giogau, Schweidnitz, &c., built by Frederick the +Great. These works show various applications of the tenaille system. In +1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalembert, and his +influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel. + +Whether through the influence of Albert Durer or not cannot be said, but +while the bastion was being developed in France the tenaille and the +accompanying casemates from the first found acceptance in Germany, and +thence in eastern and northern Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618, +produced a sort of tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of +Rimpler. Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d'Aach +(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion and +tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion being usually +distinguished by short faces and long flanks. + +Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the Turks in +1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a great influence. +He had been struck by the weakness of the early Italian bastions at +Candia, and published a book in 1673 called _Fortification with Central +Bastions_, which was practically the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks +that Rimpler inspired Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to +illustrate his ideas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.] + +Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the Prussian +service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence. He appears to +have been the first who frankly advocated the tenaille alone, chiefly on +the ground that the flank, which was the most important part of the +bastioned system, was also the weakest. Fig. 33 shows his system, +published in 1712. + + + Montalembert and Carnot. + +It was, however, ultimately a Frenchman, Marc Rene Montalembert (q.v.), +who was the great apostle of the tenaille, though in his later years he +leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected to the bastioned trace +on many grounds; principally that the bastion was a shell trap, that the +flanks by crossing their fire lost the advantage of the full range of +their weapons, and that the curtain was useless for defence. He took the +view that the bastions with their ravelins constituted practically a +tenaille trace, spoilt by the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by +the presence of the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted +of redans, with salient angles of 60 deg. or more, flanking each other at +right angles; from which he gave to his system the name of +"perpendicular fortification." + +Lazare Carnot (q.v.), the "Organizer of Victory," was, in +fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797 a +tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.] + + In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he + recommended a bastioned trace; but for wet ditches and for irregular + ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797 + trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose + faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients. + There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends + overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between the + _tenaille trace_ and the _tenaille_, it should be noted that the + latter is a low detached parapet placed in front of the escarp of the + body of the place, partly as a shield, and partly as an additional + line of defence. It is used in front of the curtain in the bastioned + trace, and in the re-entering angle in the tenaille trace.) + + Other important features of Carnot's work were: a continuous general + retrenchment, or interior parapet, following more or less the lines of + the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place of the escarp + revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last (of which Carnot + was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently outwards from a crest + raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level of the ground, sloped + inwards from the ground-level to the bottom of the ditch. The + advantage of the additional obstacle of the counterscarp was thus lost + to the defence. On the other hand, the besiegers' saps, as they + progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a plunging fire from the + parapet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall.] + +Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great believer in the mortar; but +while Coehoorn introduced the small portable mortar that bears his name, +Carnot expected great results from a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron +balls at each discharge. He endeavoured to prove mathematically that the +discharge of these mortars would in due course kill off the whole of the +besieging force. These mortars he emplaced in open fronted +mortar-casemates, in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one +of these mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the +retrenchment and a detached wall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Montalembert, 1786.] + + + The polygonal trace. + +The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful defence it +was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that of the enemy. +This idea led him to the adoption of casemates in several tiers; in +preference to open parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds, +high angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects of bastions +he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking purposes two forms of +trace were preferable; either the tenaille form, connecting the ravelins +with the body of the place, or the form in which the primary flanking +elements, instead of facing each other with overlapping fire, as with +the bastions, should be placed back to back in the middle of the +exterior side. Fig. 36 is an example of this. The central flanking work +resulting from this arrangement is the caponier of the early Italians, +reintroduced and developed; and with it Montalembert laid the foundation +of the polygonal system of our own time. + +Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming necessity for +detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly proposed to use +his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille system for large places. +In abandoning the bastioned trace he was already committed to the +principle of casemate defence for ditches; and the combination of this +principle with his desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him +in the course of years of controversial writing into somewhat +extravagant proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds. +side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his caponier +sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one above the other. +Confiding in the power of such an artillery, he freely exposed the upper +parts of his casemates to direct fire. + +Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas to fortification +than any other man. His designs must be considered in some ways +unworkable and unsound, but all the best work of the 19th century rests +on his teaching. The Germans, who already used the tenaille system and +made free provision of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal +trace and the idea of the entrenched camp. + +The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or slightly +broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers. The caponier is +the vital point of the front, and is protected in important works by a +ravelin and keep. The essence of the system is its simplicity, which +allows of its being applied to any sort of ground, level or broken, and +to long or short fronts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Front at Posen.] + + + 1815-1855, entrenched camps. + +The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one in the +history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive works that +were constructed at this time were obsolete almost as soon as they were +finished; but this was inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world +was travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic Confederation +began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering that they had not +derived much strategic advantage from their existing fortresses, the +Germans took up Montalembert's idea of entrenched camps, utilizing at +the same time his polygonal system with modifications for the main +enceintes. The Prussians began with the fortresses of Coblenz and +Cologne; later Posen, Konigsberg and other places were treated on the +same lines. The Austrians constructed, among other places, Linz and +Verona. The Germanic Confederation reinforced Mainz with improved works, +and reorganized entirely Rastatt and Ulm. The Bavarians built +Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these works were conceived in the +spirit of Rimpler and Montalembert, they showed the differences of +national temperament. The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon +powerful artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the +enemy's view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth and +gave more attention to detail. + +The German development of the polygonal system at this time is not of +great importance, since the great masonry caponiers were designed +without sufficient consideration for the increasing powers of artillery. +One example (fig. 37) is given for the sake of historical comparison. It +is a front of Posen. + + "The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long. + It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a _detached + bastion_.... The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the + bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet. + + + Posen. + + "The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and sweeps + both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has two + floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and on the top is a + parapet completely commanding alike the outworks and the body of the + place. It contains barrack accommodation for a battalion of 1000 men, + and has a large inner courtyard closed at the gorge by a detached + wall. The caponier is itself flanked by three small caponiers at the + head, and one at the inner end of each flank. + + "The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall; that + of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and + arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion + there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated traverse + for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion are + parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from it as + the faces. + + "Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as keeps of + the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter case they + have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery, which serves as + a base for countermine galleries, and is connected with the detached + bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counterscarp is not revetted + if the ditch is wet. + + "The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160 deg., in order + that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients + of the detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry + of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view." (R.M.A. + _Text-book of F. & M.E._, 1886.) + + + The detached fort. + +We have now reached a period when the "detached fort" becomes of more +importance than the organization of the enceinte. The early conception +of the role of detached forts in connexion with the fortress was to form +an entrenched camp within which an army corps could seek safety if +necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who added to the permanent +defences of Toulon a large camp defended by field parapets attached to +one side of the fortress. The substitution of a ring of detached forts, +while giving it the greater safety of permanent instead of field +defences, gave also a wider area and freer scope for the operations of +an army seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same +time made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment. The +use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body of the place +from bombardment had not yet been made necessary by increased range of +artillery. + +When these detached forts were first used by Germany the scope of the +idea had evidently not been realised, as they were placed much too close +to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for instance, were only some 400 or +500 yds. in advance of the ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in +most of these forts as in the new enceintes; i.e. a lunette, with a +casemated keep at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work, +the rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery +fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to flank +its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring works with +guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable arrangement, which +is still sometimes used. The front ditches of the lunettes were flanked +by caponiers. Some of the larger forts were simple quadrangular works +with casemate barracks and caponier ditch defence. + +In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely fresh +departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to provide an +entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose works should require +the smallest possible garrison. With this object Linz was surrounded +with a belt of circular towers spaced about 600 yds. apart. The towers, +25 metres in diameter, were enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and +contained 3 tiers of casemates. The masonry was concealed from view by +the ditch and glacis. On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over +which a battery of 13 guns fired _en barbette_. In order to find room +for so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed +parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting. + +This new departure was received with a certain amount of approval at the +time, which is somewhat difficult to account for, as a more faulty +system could hardly be devised; but the experiment was never repeated. + +The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made in Germany +during this period is due to General von Brese-Winiari, +inspector-general of the Prussian engineers. + +France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for +fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor improvements +on the old lines. Belgium, having some money in hand, rebuilt and +improved in detail a number of bastioned fortresses which had fallen +into disrepair. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38. The Fortress of Antwerp.] + +In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with entrenched +camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed, and detached forts were +added at a cost, according to von Zastrow, of L8,000,000. The Belgian +and German frontiers of France being considered fairly protected by the +existing fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and +Italian frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts +at Belfort, Besancon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at Lyons +was, according to the same writer, L1,000,000 without the armament. Here +and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified on account of the advanced +defences. That of Paris, which was influenced by political +considerations, was a simple bastioned trace with rather long fronts and +without ravelins or other outworks; the escarp was high and therefore +exposed, and the counterscarp was not revetted. + +As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of clearness of +conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses in miniature, square +or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts and containing defensible +barracks. Those of Lyons were much more carefully designed, but the +authors wavered between two ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but +evidently hankering after the new caponiers, they produced a type which +it is difficult to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or +five-sided figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole +interior space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the +polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had defensible +barracks in the gorge. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.] + + + Period from 1855 to 1870. + +During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given to the +science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the arrival of the +rifled gun. One immediate result of these was the condemnation of +masonry exposed to artillery fire. The most important work of the period +was the new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859. This is +chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest expression of the +medieval enceinte, at a time when the war between the polygonal and +bastioned traces was still raging, though the boom of the long-range +guns had already given warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also +associated with the name of General Brialmont (q.v.), of the Belgian +engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as the greatest writer on +fortification of the latter half of the 19th century. + + + Antwerp. + +We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859 defences of +Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its sections, as +showing almost the last word of fortification before the arrival of high +explosives. + +The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre of the +national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for 100,000 men. The +length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The detached forts, which on the +sides not defended by inundation are about 1-1/4 m. apart and from 2 to +3 m. in front of the enceinte, are powerful works, arranged for a +garrison of 1000 men. They have each a frontal crest-line of over 700 +yds. and are intended for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Sections of fig. 39.] + + The general arrangement of the fronts of the enceinte should be + compared with the earlier German type of Posen. It will be noticed + that while the large casemated caponier at Posen breaks the enceinte + and flanks it both without and within, at Antwerp the caponier is + detached--a much sounder arrangement--and flanks the front only. The + defence of the faces rests on the width of the wet ditches and on the + flanking power of the caponier; there is no attempt to add to it by + fausse-braie or detached wall. The dimensions are everywhere very + generous, allowing free movement for the troops of the defence; the + covered way is 22 yds. wide and there is a double terreplein on the + face. The parapet of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the + casemate guns in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is + protected by earth, _a la_ Haxo. + +In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery with +some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by Radetzky in 1848 +were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from the ramparts. Those now +added, of which fig. 41 is an example, were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Austrian Fort at Verona.] + +In the same year the land defences of some of the British dockyards were +taken in hand. These first serious attempts at permanent fortification +in England were received with approval on the continent, as constituting +an advance on anything that had been done before. The detached forts +intended to keep an enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works +with small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the +ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries. The forts +were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to support each other +by their fire. + + + Period from 1870 to 1885. + +The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded to in the +section below dealing with the "Attack of Fortresses." As regards their +effect on the designs of fortification the most important thing to note +is the distance to which it was thought necessary to throw out the +detached forts. These distances were of course influenced by the +character of the ground, but for the most part they were very largely +increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr was 18,000 yds. from the +enceinte; at Verdun the distances varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at +Belfort the new forts were from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to +4500; and at Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased +distances was of course to increase very largely the length of the zone +of investment, and therefore the strength necessary for the besieging +force. + +As regards the character of the works, the typical shape adopted both in +France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled lunette, shallow from front +to rear. The German type had one parapet only, which was organized for +artillery and heavily traversed, the living casemates being under this +parapet. The ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached +wall (see fig. 42). + +The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being placed over +living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section of fig. 43 by a +dotted line), and commanding the front one. There was a long controversy +as to whether the artillery of the fort should be on the upper or the +lower parapet, the advocates of the upper parapet attaching great +importance to the command that the guns would have over the country in +front. The other school, objecting to having guns on the skyline, +preferred to sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet, +as in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be +observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches, like those +of the German fort, being defended by caponiers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--German Fort about 1880.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--French Fort about 1880.] + +While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very active +controversy had already begun on the general question as to whether guns +should be employed in forts at all. Some declared that the accuracy and +power of artillery had already developed so far, that guns in fixed and +visible positions must needs be put out of action in a very short time. +The remedy proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts +into "wing-batteries" which should be less conspicuous; but soon the +broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed positions +and moving them from one to another by means of previously prepared +roads or railways. Others declared that there was no safety for the guns +outside the forts, and that the use of steel turrets and disappearing +cupolas was the only solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who +had by this time become the first European authority on fortification +questions, ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger +school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed themselves +eagerly in a shower of pamphlets. + +It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced, namely, the +obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive bursting charge. With +its appearance we say good-bye to the old school and enter upon the +consideration of the fortification of to-day. + + +II. MODERN PERMANENT FORTIFICATION + + High-angle fire with long shell. + +Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885. The Germans +had begun experiments a year or two before this, with long shell +containing large charges of gun-cotton. But it was the experiments at +Fort Malmaison in France in 1886 that set the military world speculating +on the future of fortification. The fort was used as a target for 8-in. +shell of five calibres length containing large charges of melinite. The +reported effects of these made a tremendous sensation, and it was +thought at first that the days of permanent fortification were over. +Magazine casemates were destroyed by a single shell, and revetment walls +were overturned and practicable breaches made by two or three shells +falling behind them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were +not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had enough earth +over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but not enough to prevent it +from coming into contact with the masonry, and the latter was not thick +enough to resist the explosion of the big charges. Other experiments +were made in the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and +Austria. The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 lb. of high +explosive. + +After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about adapting +their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments were enormously +strengthened, and designed so that their weight resisted overturning. +Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft. thick, and in many cases the +surface of the concrete was left bare so as to expose a hard surface to +the shell without any earth tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded +guns gained ground, and is now practically accepted all over the +continent of Europe. In many cases the main armament, in some only the +safety armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts. + +[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la +fortification_, by permission. + +FIG. 44.--Metz in 1899.] + +But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature on the subject, +and the whole policy of fortification as well as its minutest details +were discussed _ab ovo_. The extremists of both sides revelled in their +opportunity. Some declared that, with the use of heavy guns and armour, +fortresses could be made stronger than ever. Others held that modern +fortresses were far too expensive, that their use led to strategic +mistakes, and (arguing from certain well-known examples) that +extemporized field defences could offer as good a resistance as +permanent works. + +European military opinion generally is now more or less agreed on the +following lines:-- + + 1. Important places must be defended by fortresses. + + 2. Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the + bombardment of the place. + + 3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate. + + 4. A few guns (called "safety armament") should be in the forts, and + these must be protected by armour. + + 5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the + forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers in + concealed positions. + + 6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry + positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being provided + for the infantry. + + 7. There should be ample communications--radial and + peripheral--between the place and the forts, both by road and rail. + + 8. Special lines of communication--such as mountain passes--should be + closed by barrier forts. + +These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in detail, but +first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz in 1899 (fig. 44). + + + Metz. + + Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily + recognized. First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now + _declassee_. Next the detached forts, begun by the French engineers in + 1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be readily recognized by their + bastioned trace. Among them are Fort Manteuffel, formerly St Julien, + and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly Queuleu. These were not altered in + their general lines. + + [Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la + fortification_, by permission. + + FIG. 45.--Fort Goeben, Metz.] + + This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the + enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal type + such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a very + important point, was converted into a fortified position, with two + forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running north to + Fort Alvensleben. + + The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts can be + clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by other + batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate + important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal + battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries. + + There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in connexion + with this line. + + Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899 at about + 9000 yds. from the place. + + + Fortresses. + +Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of groups of +fortresses, the places which, as mentioned above, are intrinsically +worth being defended as fortresses are:-- + + (a) Centres of national, industrial or military resources. + + (b) Places which may serve as _points d'appui_ for manoeuvres. + + (c) Points of intersection of important railroads. + + (d) Bridges over considerable rivers. + + (e) Certain lines of communication across a frontier. + +Examples of (a) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again for (a) and +(b), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz in the hands of the +Germans may serve both as a base of supplies and a _point d'appui_ for +one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head giving the Germans a secure +retreat across the Rhine if beaten in the plains of Alsace, and an +opportunity of resuming the offensive when they have re-formed behind +the river. + +[Illustration: From Plessix and Legrand's _Manuel complet de la +fortification_, by permission. + +FIG. 46.--St Quentin position, Metz.] + + + The ring of detached forts. + +The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the range of +the siege artillery and the distance at which it can usually be +established from the forts, and is variously given by different +continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. (4500 to 10,000 yds.). The +bombarding range of siege howitzers with heavy shells is considered to +be about 8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within +say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance of 6000 +yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers extend the +minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds. In practice, however, it +must happen that the position of the forts is determined to a very large +extent by the lie of the ground. Thus some good positions for forts may +be found within 4000 or 5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable +on the same front within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of +expense might necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples +of the actual distances of existing forts have already been given. +Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-10(1/2), +Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. _Strategic pivots_ are in a different +category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected from +bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown out from 9 to 12 +km., to get advantage of ground. Such are Langres, Epinal and Belfort. + + _The Enceinte._--The desirability of this is almost universally + allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for + any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is + the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should + be provisionally fortified to assist in a "step-by-step" defence: and + behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a + last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last + moment. It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of + an enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be + the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is + the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large + modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to + construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of + the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief + advantages claimed for an enceinte. + + In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in + France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft. + high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can + only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in face + of modern artillery, it is a _reductio ad absurdum_. + + _The Safety Armament._--If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed + in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very + necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently in + position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance, forcing + him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the advance + of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in secure + positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from such + positions they must have armour to shield them from the concentrated + fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger could bring to + bear from the first. + + + The question of artillery positions. + +Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important part of the +defence, and there is room for much discussion as to whether it should +have positions prepared for it beforehand or should be placed in +positions selected as the attack develops itself. On the one hand the +preparation of the positions beforehand, which in many cases means the +use of armour and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense +of the defence, and ties the defender somewhat in the special +dispositions that become desirable once the attack has taken shape. +Moreover, such expenditure must be incurred on all the fronts of the +fortress, whereas the results would only be realized on the front or +fronts actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour are +involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with extemporized +protection, and this becomes a serious consideration when one remembers +how much work of all kinds is necessary in preparing a fortress against +attack. Again, to avoid the danger of a successful attack on the +intervals between the forts before their defences have been fully +completed, the fire of the guns in the intermediate positions might be +urgently required. The solution in any given case would no doubt depend +on the importance of the place. In most cases a certain amount of +compromise will come in, some preparation being made for batteries, +without their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind must +in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be overlooked that +as, whatever theories may exist about successive lines of defence, the +onus of the defence will now lie on the fort line, just as it formerly +did on the enceintes, so that line should be fully prepared, and should +not have to commence its fight in a position of inequality. + +[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats et de +la fortification permanente depuis Vauban_, by permission of M. le +Commandant G. Meeus. + +FIG. 47.] + + _Defence of Intervals of Forts._--The frontal fire of the batteries in + the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts + will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on + infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically a + complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between + the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously + attacked. The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with + good communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there + must be some _points d'appui_ in the shape of redoubts or infantry + forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores near + the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts. If they + are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built in peace + time. + + _Communications_ are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate + the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials + required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully + utilize the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include + both railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the + different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of + forts; also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment + is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must + be got from earth parapets or plantations. + + + Barrier forts. + +The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the necessary +line of communication cannot be easily diverted. For instance, in a +comparatively flat country a barrier fort commanding a road or railway +is of little use because roads may be found passing round it, or a line +of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. But in +mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will be +necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before he can advance; and +the impossibility of surrounding it, the few positions from which siege +artillery can be brought into play, and the fact that there is +practically only one road of approach to be denied, make these positions +peculiarly suitable for forts with armoured batteries. Italy makes +considerable use of such forts for the defence of frontier passes. + + _General Brialmont's Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a + Country._--Before going into details, it is worth while to state the + full claim of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont, + the most thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:-- + + A. Fortify the capital. + + B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a + strategic barrier. + + C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of + communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by one or two + places arranged so as to make a fortified district. + + [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats et de + la fortification depuis Vauban_, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus. + + FIG. 48.] + + D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across + mountains or marshes. + + E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for the + army watching it. + + F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications. + + G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the + principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to establish + himself. + + H. Fortify coasts and harbours. + + Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the + officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the + active armies. + + + Types of detached forts. + +So many types of detached forts have been proposed by competent +authorities, as well as actually constructed in recent years, that it is +impossible here to consider all of them, and a few only will be +reproduced of those which are most representative of modern continental +thought. + + Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns for + the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give + precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are taken + from the _Progres de la defense des etats, &c._, published in 1898. + The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section 1 + is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the + defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment + preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the + counterscarp galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face + of the counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been + made to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps + drive the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials + into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may save + the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious fumes, + but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the view. + + The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing it + with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the + rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a + counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks have no + counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the slope, and the + covered way which is utilized for a wire entanglement which is under + the fire of the parapet. The gorge has a very slight bastioned + indentation, which allows for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a + couple of machine guns placed in a single casemate on either side. + + The abolition of the covered way as such is noteworthy. It marks an + essential difference between the fort and the old enceinte profiles; + showing that offensive action is not expected from the garrison of the + fort, and is the duty of the troops of the intermediate lines. + + The great central mass of concrete containing all the casemates and + the gun-cupolas, a very popular feature, is omitted in this design, + advantage being taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to + spread the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge, with a + communication across the centre of the fort. This arrangement gives + more freedom to the disposition of the cupolas. The thickness of the + concrete over the casemate arches is more than 8 ft. Communication + between the faces and the counterscarp galleries is obtained by + posterns under the ditch. The armament, which is all protected by + cupolas, is powerful. It consists of two 150-mm. (6 in.) guns, four + 120-mm. (4.7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (8.4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm. + (8.4 in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is + also a shielded electric light projector in the centre. + + This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont's designs before + 1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets and + various _chicanes_ which would not long survive bombardment. This type + is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive. + + The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a + keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture + of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the necessity + of keeps for all important works. History of course gives instances of + citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture the main work + with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the progress of + the general attack. It affords still more instances in which the keeps + have made no resistance, or none of any value. Some think that the + existence of a keep encourages the defenders of the main work; others + that it encourages the idea of retreat. The British school of thought + is against keeps. In any case they add largely to expense. + + In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends + for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the + main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically + useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from + establishing themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a + reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying + bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and + inner gorge parapets. + + As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the ditch + and the armament are similar to the design last considered. This + parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The casemates are + all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all round + giving access to the parapet and the cupolas. + + [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats, + &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus. + + FIG. 49.--Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.] + + Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is a + simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on the + gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air to + the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the artillery + fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each face are + two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which purpose, + it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the angles are + look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp, and is + defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no covered + way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where it is + uncovered, is about 10 ft. + + Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen defences are + very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original thought, and + effectiveness combined with economy. There is one special feature + worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which Lyngby is one. + These works are intended for the artillery fight only, their main + armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in. howitzers, + all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is trifling, + consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun. There is no + provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp or + counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient. + + It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own + defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to + withdraw them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers, + however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line, + some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries. The + object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery + at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance + to the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries, + being withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require + expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the + advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend on + the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and what + that may be, war alone can tell us. + + In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of + defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use of + layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness of + concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened underneath + with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps of + concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates look out + on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the magazines are + under the cupolas. + + The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking an + important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be + considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example + of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent as + _batteries traditores_, which seem to be growing in popularity. + + This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a medium + armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but to command + the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the intervals. The + fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accommodation. It + contains eight 4.7-in. guns. Two of these are in a cupola concealed + from view, though not protected, by a bank of earth in front. The + other six are in an armoured battery behind the cupola. It may be + remarked that as the cupola gets no real protection from the covering + mass of earth, it would be better to be able to utilize the fire of + its guns to the front. The _batterie traditore_, if properly protected + overhead, would be very difficult to silence, and its flanking fire + would probably be available up to the last moment. There is very much + to be said both for and against the policy of so emplacing the guns. + The immediate defence of the work, with the aid of a broad wet ditch, + is easy; but the great mass of concrete, which is intended to form an + indestructible platform and breastwork for the infantry, would seem to + be a needless expense. + + [Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats, + &c._, by permission of Commandant G. Meeus. + + FIG. 50.--Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.] + + [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_. + + FIG. 51.] + + Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian lieutenant field-marshal Moritz + Ritter von Brunner (1839-1904), is selected as a type of the + intermediate fort which is intended only to be a strong point in the + infantry line of defence between the main forts. It has a protected + armament, but this, which consists only of four small Q.F. guns in + cupolas, is for its own defence, and not to take part in the artillery + duel. There is also a movable armament of four light Q.F. guns on + wheels, for which a shelter is provided between the two observatory + cupolas. The garrison would be a half company of infantry, for whom + casemates are provided in the gorge. The gorge ditch is flanked by a + caponier, but there is no flank defence for the front ditch. This is + defended by a glacis parapet. At the bottom of the ditch is a wire + entanglement and the glacis slope is planted with thorns. The + thickness of concrete on the casemates is 2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This + is a strong and simple form of infantry work, but considering its role + it appears to be needlessly expensive. + + Fig. 53 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country. A + powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson shield + commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling casemates is + surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries. There + are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties of + the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in mind. + +_Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle._--After considering the +above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the details in +which modern construction has been modified to provide against the +increasing power of artillery. + +[Illustration: From Brialmont's _Progres de la defense des etats, &c._, +by permission of Commandant G. Meeus. + +FIG. 52.] + + + Bomb-proof protection. + +The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature of the +soil--the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers the greatest +resistance to penetration, clay the least. Since, however, the +penetration of heavy shells fired from long ranges with high elevation +may be 20 ft. or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth +alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again a moderate +quantity of earth over a casemate increases the explosive effect of a +shell by "tamping" it, that is by preventing the force of the explosion +from being wasted in the open air. We find therefore that in most modern +designs the tops of casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few +inches of earth over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment. + +For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed to fire, +concrete (q.v.) has entirely replaced masonry and brickwork, not because +of its convenience in construction, but because it offers the best +resistance. The exact composition of the concrete is a matter that +demands great care and knowledge. It should be, like an armour plate, +hard on the surface and tough within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of +concrete for casemate arches, very generally prescribed on the continent +in important positions, is meant to meet the danger of several +successive shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any +siege calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough. +A good deal is expected from the use of "reinforced concrete" (that is +concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment walls and casemates. + + + Parapets. + +Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that is the +superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so that the whole +rampart can be swept by the fire of the defenders from the crest, and +there is no dead ground in front of it. It is also common to build the +crest of the parapet in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete +banquette, so that bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders +have to man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be +further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give head +cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest. + +[Illustration: From General Rocchi's _Traccia per lo studio della +fortificazione_, by permission. + +FIG. 53.] + + + Obstacles. + +The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great expense of +a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A counterscarp of very +solid construction is generally used. It is low and gives cover to a +wire entanglement in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel +unclimbable fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the +covered way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are +attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of +revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against the action +of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to overturn them, by +thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows most of these dispositions. + + + Search-lights. + +Electric search-lights are now used in all important works and +batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas. They are of +great value for discovering working parties at night, and lighting up +the foreground during an attack; and since only the projector need be +exposed, they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not be +over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no way compare +with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other mechanical +contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks in war. They may give +rise to a false confidence; an important light may fail at a critical +moment; and in foggy weather they are useless. + + + Armour. + +The use of armour (see also ARMOUR-PLATES) for coast batteries followed +closely upon its employment for ships, for those were the days of short +ranges and close fighting, and it seemed natural not to leave the +battery in a position of inferiority to the ship in the matter of +protection. In England the coast battery for a generation after the +Crimean War was a combination of masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont +employed armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which commanded the +Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however, engineers were very slow to +adopt armour. Apart from all questions of difficulty of manufacture, +expense, &c., the idea was that sea and land fronts were radically +different. It was pointed out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady +platform, had not enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same +spot; so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot +would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on the other +hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which could strike +successive blows on the same spot, and break down the resistance of the +strongest shield. But in time continental opinion gradually began to +turn in favour of iron protection. Practical types of disappearing and +revolving cupolas were produced, and many engineers were influenced in +their favour by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually +it was argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to +obtain a resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a +work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long as +possible against a superior force; and that from this point of view +armour cannot but add strength to defensive works. + +[Illustration: From Deguise's _La Fortification permanente_, by +permission of J. Polleunis. + +FIG. 54.] + +The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of theory. +Practically every European state uses iron or steel casemates and +cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other types of forts so armed have +been shown. Recent French types have not been published, but it is known +that cupolas are employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an +uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his views. These +countries have had to proceed gradually, by improving existing +fortresses, and with such resources as could be spared from the needs of +the active armies. Among the smaller states Rumania and Belgium have +entered most freely into the new way. In England, which is less directly +interested, opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the +publication in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having +witnessed officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St +Chamond turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly +against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly the +theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the constructions +under experiment, he added: "The cost of the French turret was about +L10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for this sum about six movable +overbank guns of greater power could be provided." In view of the weight +that belongs of right to his criticisms it is as well to point out that +while this remark is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six +gun detachments, with arrangements for supply, &c.; a consideration +which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum. The whole +object of protection is to enable a few men and guns successfully to +oppose a larger number. + + At the time when Sir George Clarke's first edition came out, such + extravagances were before the public as Mougin's fort; "a mastless + turret ship," as he called it, "buried up to the deck-level in the + ground and manned by mechanics." Such ideas tended to throw discredit + on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether the system be right + or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken account of. Nowhere has it + been applied more boldly than in Rumania. The defences of Bucharest + (designed by Brialmont) consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with + intermediate batteries. The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and + 11,000 to 12,000 yds. from the centre of the place. The typical + armament of a main fort is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for + indirect fire), two 8.4-in. howitzers in cupolas, one 4.7-in. howitzer + in a cupola, six small Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total + armament of the place (all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns, + seventy-four 8.4-in. howitzers, eighteen 4.7-in. howitzers, 127 small + calibre Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns + in casemates for flanking the ditches. The "Sereth Line" will be + described later. + +_Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &c._--The broad +difference between casemates or shielded batteries and turrets and +cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter revolve and in +some cases disappear. The casemate thus has the disadvantages that the +arc of fire of the gun, which has to fire through a fixed embrasure or +port-hole, is very limited, and that the muzzle of the gun and the +port-hole, the weak points of the system, are constantly exposed to the +fire of the enemy. The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative +cheapness and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well +suited for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and +the Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such places as +the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron casemates are also +useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55). + +[Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_, by permission. + +FIG. 55.] + +_Turrets and Cupolas._--The difference between a turret and a cupola is +that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat top and +presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened dome, the +vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The turret appears to +be little used. The object of both forms is at once to give an all-round +arc of fire to the guns and to allow of the weak point of the structure, +the port-hole and muzzle of the gun, being turned away from the enemy in +the intervals of firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete, +which is strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron +about 12 to 15 in. thick. + + + Cupolas. + + There are four types of cupolas, viz. (a) Disappearing, (b) + Oscillating, (c) Central pivot, (d) On roller rings. + + (a) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing guns, + on account of the expense of the various systems. They can be used for + medium guns. The details of the best foreign systems are secret. (b) + The oscillating turret is a Mougin type, in which the turret is + supported in the centre by a knife-edge on which it can swing. The + oscillation is controlled by powerful springs. The effect of it is + that after firing, the front of the cupola with the port-hole swings + downwards under cover, and is held there until the gun is ready to + fire again. (c) Schumann's centre pivot is understood to be approved + in Germany. It has been adopted in Rumania and Belgium for howitzer + cupolas. It is only suitable for a single piece; d is strong and + steady--the best cupola for coast batteries; c and d are best for + rapid fire because they can be loaded without lowering. They are + suited for long guns. + + The following types are illustrated as being generally representative + of the different classes of cupola. + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).] + + Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp's typical cupola for one 6-in. + gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small + space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the + possibility of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are + muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition of a + ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is + controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to prevent + the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola. To facilitate + the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle pivotings the + breech has of course to be moved through a much larger arc than with + ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight. The cupola + rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can be turned + through a complete circle in about one minute. + + [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_. + + FIG. 57.--Gruson Spherical Mortar.] + + Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar, + _Kugelmorser_). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is + replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar + (8.4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close + completely the opening of the collar in any position. + + Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4.7-in. Q.F. howitzer. + + Fig. 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector. + + Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5.7-cm. gun. This is + drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into action slides + on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs about 2-1/2 tons, + and with carriage and platform about 4 tons. + + The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than it + appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for the + lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace with + improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first made popular + by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such purposes as the + collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and compound plates for the + tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most recent Krupp-Gruson + designs being of nickel steel. + + The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with + suitable enlargements in the port-hole; in others by sights affixed to + the cupola itself (which of course can give horizontal direction + only); in others training and elevation are given in accordance with + the readings on electric dials, or instructions by telephone or + speaking tube. There is of course nothing unreasonable in this in the + case of indirect fire guns and howitzers, for if not firing from + cupolas they would be behind the shelter of some wood or quarry. + + _Schumann's System: "Armoured Fronts."_--Lieut.-Colonel Maximilian + Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian engineers, who took a very + prominent part in the design and advocacy of armoured defences, + eventually produced a system which dispensed entirely with forts and + relied on the fire of protected guns. It consists of several lines of + batteries for Q.F. guns and howitzers in cupolas. He considered that + such batteries would be able to defend their own front, and the + infantry garrison was not to be called into action except in the case + of the enemy breaking through at some point of the line. + + This system was actually adopted by Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth + Line. There are three routes by which the Russians can enter the + country across the Sereth river: through Focshani, Nemolassa and + Galatz. These three routes are barred by bridge-heads, those at + Focshani, the most important, being on the left bank of the Milkov, a + tributary of the Sereth. + + The Focshani works consist of 71 batteries arranged on a semicircular + front about 12 m. long and from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the + bridges. The batteries are placed in three lines, which are about 500 + yds. apart, and are subdivided into groups. The normal group consists + of 5 batteries, of which 3 are in the first line, 1 in the second, and + 1 in the third. The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F. + guns in travelling cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small + Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The third-line batteries have one + 120-mm. gun in a cupola, and two 210-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson + shields. The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis + planted with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement. + + [Illustration: From Leithner's _Bestandige Befestigung_. + + FIG. 58.--Cupola for 4.7-in. Howitzer.] + + The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost + about L1,100,000. But the system of "armoured fronts" is never likely + to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative + continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter as + follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security + against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the + defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most serious + of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should expect + half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with a gun, + to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But imagine the + feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone in his box, + his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment and nights of + watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around; he knows nothing + of the progress of the attack, but expects everything, and feels every + moment the door of his box being opened and the bayonet entering his + back. No wise commander would submit his troops to such a test. + +_Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems._--Before leaving the subject +of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of those who, while +recognizing the necessity for places permanently organized for defence, +prefer to treat them more from the point of view of perfected field +defences. It is to the credit of English military science that Sir +George Clarke may be taken as the representative of this school of +thought. His study of fortification, as he tells us, began with a +history of the defence of Plevna (q.v.). He was led to compare the +resistance made behind extemporized defences at such places as +Sevastopol, Kars and Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the +most complete manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the +conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend on +great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast expense, but on +organization, communications and invisibility. In his 1907 edition he +says:-- + + "Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the following + categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in peace time and + forming the key points of the position. (2) Gun emplacements, + magazines and shelters for men in rear of the main line, all concrete + structures and platforms to be completed, though some earthwork may be + left until the position is placed in a state of defence. (3) Field + works, trenches, &c., guarding the intervals between the permanent + defences in the main line, or providing rear positions. These should + be deliberately planned in time of peace ready to be put in hand at + short notice. The essence of a well-fortified position is that the + weapons of the defender shall obtain the utmost possible scope of + action, and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances + of effecting injury." + +[Illustration: Drawn from illustration in Leithner's _Bestandige +Befestigung_, by permission. + +FIG. 59.--Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.] + + + Infantry redoubts. + +Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 continental +ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement as to the three +categories of defences would be accepted anywhere now: the differences +of opinion come in when we reach the stage of classifying under the +first head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time. In most +countries these would include forts with guns for the artillery duel, +forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with or without armour, and +forts for infantry only. Sir George Clarke will have no armour for guns +except in certain special cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and +howitzers requiring permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.) +must either be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions. +The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry. They are +redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men, with casemate +accommodation for three-fourths of that number. Fig. 61 shows the +design:--two rows of casemates, one under the front parapet, one under a +parados; frontal musketry defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements, +mines, &c., with or without escarp and counterscarp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Transportable Cupola for 5.7-cm. Gun (Friedr. +Krupp A.G.).] + + "The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be about + 2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the conformation of + the ground. Where there are good artillery positions falling within + the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals will be + permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence where + the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a continuous + chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour of groups of + redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case, the redoubts + in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back in approximately + horse-shoe form." + +[Illustration: From Sir George S. Clarke's Fortification, by permission +of John Murray. + +FIG. 61.] + +The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in future will +undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore it is of great +interest to compare with the above types two studies put forward by +Schroeter (_Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegfuhrung_), one in his first +edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the other in the second in 1905 (fig. +63). In both these the defensive arrangements are merely trenches of +field profile with entanglements, the command and the obstacle being +less than in Sir George Clarke's work; and it will be noticed that in +the 1905 type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much +less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been +introduced. But these works of Schroeter's are merely infantry +supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular type +with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very complete +arrangement of field defences and communications; while Sir G. Clarke's +redoubts are the only permanent works giving casemate protection in the +front line. + +[Illustration: From Schoeter's Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegfuhrung, +by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn. + +FIG. 62.] + +The comparative merits of either design for an infantry redoubt are not +of much importance. It is agreed that the main line of defence must +consist of a more or less continuous line of field defences and +obstacles, and that at some points in the line there should be infantry +supporting points with bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big +shells. The open question is, what additional works, if any, are +required for the artillery, whether for the medium and heavy guns that +will take part in the "artillery duel," or for the lighter natures that +will help in the close fight and defence of the intervals. Is it best +for the defenders to rely on armoured protection or on concealment for +his guns? + + + Opposing views as to armour, gun positions, &c. + +Official opinion outside England has certainly sanctioned armour, since +all over the continent it is to some extent adopted in practice. +National practice is usually based on the advice of the most +distinguished officers of the day, and therefore it is unsafe to condemn +it hastily. Sir George Clarke and those who are with him--and they are +many, both in Great Britain and abroad--object entirely to armour. He +says (_Fortification_, ed. 1907, p. 96): "The great advantage possessed +by the attack in all ages has been the employment of a mobile artillery +against armaments cribbed, cabined and confined by fortification. It is +necessary to perpetuate this advantage?" Of course the effect of +long-range weapons, in increasing the length of front that can be held +by a given force, has given much greater freedom of action to the +defence and this should be taken full advantage of. + +[Illustration: From Schroeter's _Die Festung in der heutigen +Kriegfuhrung_, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn. + +FIG. 63.] + +The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is not at present +strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), "If the high angle fire ... is ever +to find a favourable opportunity, it will surely be against a cupola, +the site of which can generally be determined with accuracy." On the +other hand he says (p. 90), "During the long and costly experiments +carried on at Bucharest in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the +Krupp 21 cm. mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area" (about 430 +sq. ft.) "without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the +targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting conditions +were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned back to the firing +point; but it must have been evident to the least instructed observer +that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells on an invisible area 2 metres +square would have been absolutely futile." These facts are adduced to +prove that it is not necessary to give great thickness to concrete +casemates, to resist successive bursts of shells in the same place; but +surely they are equally applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), "The +experience gained at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as +regards the use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour +were sunk by opening their sea-valves.... Fire was subsequently directed +upon them from 11 in. howitzers at ranges up to about 7500 yds. This was +deliberate practice from siege batteries at stationary targets; but the +effect was distinctly disappointing." The cupolas therefore can hardly +be considered ideal targets: and the probability is that they would hold +their own against both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There +are other and stronger arguments against the general use of them, all of +which are clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke. + +The worst objections to the cupola are the military disadvantages of +isolation and immobility, and the multiplication of mechanical +arrangements. For a successful round from a disappearing cupola, the +elevating and traversing arrangements, the elevating and loading gear of +the gun, and the telephone communication, must all be in good order. At +night the successful co-operation of the searchlight is also in many +cases necessary. + +The teaching of history is all against immobile mechanical defences. +Initiative, surprise, unforeseen offensive action, keeping the besieger +in ignorance of the dispositions of the garrison, and of what progress +he is making: all these, with their influence on the morale of both +sides, tend towards successful defences and do not point towards the use +of armour. + +It may further be said that the use of armour as a general rule is +unnecessary, because a concealed battery is a protected one; and with +the long ranges now usual for heavy guns and howitzers, there is not +generally much difficulty about concealment. + +In the opinion, however, of the present writer an exception must be made +for guns intended to flank the line of defence, which would generally +need bomb-proof over-head cover. Further, when we leave theory and come +to the consideration of actual problems of defence, it will often be +found that it is necessary to place guns in certain positions where good +concealment cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection must be +given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of the attack. + + +III. THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES + +In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction of +gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to follow, viz. the +gradually increasing power of artillery, the systematizing of the works +of attack, and in recent times the change that has been brought about by +the effect of modern small-arm fire. + +Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars, to destroy +hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of burning composition. +Early in the 15th century we find cannon throwing metal balls, not only +against hoarding and battlements, but also to breach the bases of the +walls. It was only possible to work the guns very slowly, and archers or +crossbowmen were needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from +the crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period the +artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and in much +the same manner. The guns of the defence were inaccurate, and being +placed high on the walls were made ineffective by bad mountings, which +did not allow of proper depression. The besieger therefore could place +his guns close to the walls, with only the protection of a few large +gabions filled with earth, set up on the ground on either side of the +muzzle. + +In the course of the 15th century the power of artillery was largely +increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it in an +astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed. The guns of +the defence having gained equally in effectiveness, greater protection +was needed for the attack batteries; bastions and outworks were +introduced to keep the besieger at a distance from the inner walls; and +the walls were sunk in ditches so that they could only be breached by +batteries placed on the edge of the glacis. + +Early in the 16th century fortresses were being rapidly remodelled on +these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at once very much +increased. The tendency of the assailants was still to make for the +curtain, which had always been considered the weak point; but the +besiegers now found that they had to bring their guns right up to the +edge of the ditch before they could make a breach, and in doing so had +to pass over ground which was covered by the converging fire from the +faces of the bastions. Towards the end of the century the attack of the +curtain was delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front +increased by the introduction of ravelins. + +The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at first +replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found inadequate; but a +still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the siege guns to their +positions, emplacing them and maintaining communication with them under +fire. In addition to this, the guns of the defence until they could be +overpowered (a slow process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of +the fortress; and unless the besiegers could find some means of +maintaining a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to +be destroyed by sorties from the covered way. + + + Siegecraft before Vauban. + +Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the artillery. +The besiegers found that they had first to bring up enough guns to +overpower those of the defence; then to advance their guns to positions +from which they could breach the walls; and throughout these operations +to protect them against sorties. Breaches once made, the assault could +follow on the old lines. + +The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the battery +positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the first to make +systematic use of them, having probably inherited the idea from the +Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom, however, strongly disliked +digging, and at first great leaders like Bayard and Montluc had +themselves to use pick and shovel, to give their men an example. In due +course the necessity of the trenches was recognized, but the soldiers +never took kindly to them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner +reminiscent of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry +as workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation. + +Through the 16th and most of the 17th century, therefore, we find the +attack being conducted by means of trenches leading to the batteries, +and supported by redoubts often called "places of arms" also made by +trench work. During this period the result of a siege was always +doubtful. Both trenches and batteries were arranged more or less at +haphazard without any definite plan; and naturally it often happened +that offensive action by the besieged against the trenches would +disorder the attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken +from a late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of +the general practice of that day when Vauban's methods were not yet +generally known. + +Another weak point about the attack was that after the escarp walls had +been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has been described, there +was no clear idea as to how they should be breached. The usual process +was merely an indiscriminate pounding from batteries established on the +crest of the glacis. Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned +after they had been carried as far as the attempt to breach. + +It is in no way strange that this want of method should have +characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had begun to +assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had to be assimilated. +Guns were gradually growing in power; sieges were conducted under all +sorts of conditions, sometimes against medieval castles, sometimes +against various and widely-differing examples of the new fortification; +and the military systems of the time were not favourable to the +evolution of method. It is the special feature of Vauban's practical +genius for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and +made the issue of a siege under normal conditions, a mere matter of +time, usually a very short time. + + + Vauban's teaching. + +The whole of Vauban's teaching and practice cannot be condensed into the +limits of this article, but special reference must be made to several +points. The most important of these is his general arrangement of the +attack. The ultimate object of the attack works was to make a breach for +the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary to establish +breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and before this could be +done it was necessary to overpower the enemy's artillery. This +preliminary operation is nowadays called the "artillery duel." In +Vauban's day the effective range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us +that it was customary to establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the +place, but that at that range they did little more than make a great +deal of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the +preliminary operations of investment, &c., had been completed, was to +establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place, to +counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front of attack; +and to protect these batteries against sorties. After the artillery of +the defences had been subdued--if it could not be absolutely +silenced--it was necessary to push trenches to the front so that guns +might be conveyed to the breaching positions and emplaced there in +batteries. Throughout these processes it was necessary to protect the +working parties and the batteries against sorties. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Siege-works of the 17th century.] + +For this purpose Vauban devised the _Places d'armes_ or _lignes +paralleles_. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the siege +of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which was captured in +thirteen days after the opening of the trenches. The object of these +parallels was to provide successive positions for the guard of the +trenches, where they could be at hand to repel sorties. The latter were +most commonly directed against the trenches and batteries, to destroy +them and drive out the working parties. The most vulnerable points were +the heads of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that +the guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads of +the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so from the +covered way. This was provided for as follows. + +The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds. from the +place, this being considered the limiting range of action of a sortie. +The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, the +excavated earth being thrown forward to make a parapet 3 or 4 ft. high. +In front of the first parallel and close to it were placed the batteries +of the "first artillery position." + + + The attack. + +While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy's artillery, +for which purpose most of them were placed in prolongation of the faces +of the fortress so as to enfilade them, the "Approach Trenches" were +being pushed forward. The normal attack included a couple of bastions +and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress as could +support them; and the approach trenches (usually three sets) were +directed on the capitals of the bastions and ravelin, advancing in a +zigzag so arranged that the prolongations of the trenches always fell +clear of the fortress and could not be enfiladed. + +Fig. 65, taken from Vauban's _Attack and Defence of Places_, shows +clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries. + + After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly half-way + to the most advanced points of the covered way, the "second parallel" + was constructed, and again the approach trenches were pushed forward. + Midway between the second parallel and the covered way, short branches + called _Demi-parallels_ were thrown out to either flank of the + attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis came the third + parallel. Thus there was always a secure position for a sufficient + guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working parties could fall + back and the guard would advance. + + Trenches were either made by _common trenchwork, flying trenchwork or + sap_. In the first two a considerable length of trench was excavated + at one time by a large working party extended along the trench: flying + trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being distinguished from + common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by the help of which + protection could be more quickly obtained. Both these kinds of + trenchwork were commenced at night, the position of the trench having + been previously marked out by tape. The "tasks" or quantities of earth + to be excavated by each man were so calculated that by daybreak the + trench would afford a fair amount of cover. Flying trenchwork was + generally used for the 2nd parallel and its approaches, and as far + beyond it as possible. In proportion as the attack drew nearer to the + covered way, the fire of the defenders' small-arms and wall-pieces + naturally grew more effective, though by this time most of their + artillery would have been dismounted by the fire of the siege + batteries. It therefore became necessary before reaching the 3rd + parallel to have recourse to sap. + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Regular Attack (Vauban).] + + + Sapping. + + Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing + forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the + sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a trench 1 + ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench he had a + shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the gabions in + position one after another as the sap-head progressed. Other men + following strengthened the parapet with fascines, and increased the + trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig. + 66, taken from Vauban's treatise on the attack, shows the process + clearly. The sap after being completed to this extent could be widened + at leisure to ordinary trench dimensions by infantry working parties. + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.--Sapping (Vauban).] + + As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged his + sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which increased + rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all concerned to + do their best, and reckoned that under average conditions he could + depend on a rate of progress for an ordinary sap of about 50 yds. in + 24 hours. + + It is interesting to compare the more recent method of sapping with + that above described (fig. 67 taken from the _Instruction in Military + Engineering_, 1896). It is no longer possible to place gabions in + position at the sap-head under fire. Accordingly the leading sapper + excavates to the full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and the rate of progress + is retarded proportionately, so that an advance of only 15 to 30 yds. + in 24 hours can be reckoned on instead of 50. The head of the sap is + protected by a number of half-filled sandbags, which the leading + sapper throws forward as he goes on. + + The nearer the approaches drew to the covered way, the more oblique + became the zig-zags, so that little forward progress was made in + proportion to the length of the trench. The approaches were then + carried straight to the front, by means of the "double sap," which + consisted of two single saps worked together with a parapet on each + side (fig. 68). To protect these from being enfiladed from the front, + traverses had to be left at intervals, usually by turning the two saps + at right angles to right or left for a few feet, then forward, and so + on as shown in fig. 69, the distance apart of these traverses being of + course regulated by the height from which the enemy's fire commanded + the trench. + + + Later stages of the attack. + +The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From the +third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis by means of +the double sap. It was then pushed right and left along the glacis, a +little distance from the crest of the covered way. This was called +"crowning" the covered way, and on the position thus gained breaching +batteries were established in full view of the escarp. While the escarp +was being breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack +throughout, a mine gallery (see _Mining_ below) was driven under the +covered way and an opening made through the counterscarp into the ditch. +The sap was then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the +breach, the defenders' resistance being kept under by musketry and +artillery fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus +captured successively, and where the bastions had been retrenched the +same methods were used against the retrenchment. + +[Illustration: From _Military Engineering_, by permission of the +Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. + +FIG. 67.--"Deep" Sap.] + +Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least expenditure of +ammunition. This was done by making, with successive shots placed close +together (which was feasible even in those days from a position so close +as the crest of the covered way) horizontal and vertical cuts through +the revetment wall. The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being +thus detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the earth +from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention of Vauban. He +showed how, in enfilading the face of a work, by using greatly reduced +charges a shot could be made to drop over the crest of the parapet and +skim along the terreplein, dismounting guns and killing men as it went. + + + 18th-century principles of defence. + +The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method and thorough +organization. There was a deadly certainty about his system that gave +rise to the saying "Place assiegee, place prise." He left nothing to +chance, and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress of saps +across the ditch and up the breach to the loss and delay that might +follow an unsuccessful assault. His contemporary and nearest rival +Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges by heavy artillery fire and attacks +across the open; but in the long run his sieges were slower than +Vauban's. + +So much a matter of form did the attack become under these conditions, +that in comparing the supposed defensive powers of different systems of +fortification it was usual to calculate the number of days that would be +required in each case before the breach was opened, the time being +measured by the number of hours of work required for the construction of +the various trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of +course that no place under any circumstances could hold out more than a +given number of days; and naturally, when the whole question had become +one of formula, it is not surprising to find that places were very often +surrendered without more than a perfunctory show of resistance. + +The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since it was +impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected progress of the +besiegers' trenches, no real resistance was possible until after they +had reached the covered way, and this idea is at the root of the +extraordinary complications of outworks and multiplied lines of ramparts +that characterized the "systems" of this period. No doubt if a successor +to Vauban could have brought the same genius to bear on the actual +defence of places as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that +the essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the +body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want of such a +man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves contentedly to the +loss of the open ground outside their walls, and relied either upon +successive permanent lines of defence, or if these did not exist, upon +extemporized retrenchments, usually at the gorge of the bastion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Double Sap.] + +It is curious that such experienced soldiers as most of them were should +not have realized the fatal effect upon the minds of the defenders which +this almost passive abandonment of line after line must needs produce. +Even a civilian--Machiavelli--had seen into the truth of the matter +years before when he said (_Treatise on the Art of War_, Book vii.): +"And here I ought to give an advice ... to those who are constructing a +fortress, and that is, not to establish within its circuit +fortifications which may serve as a retreat to troops who have been +driven back from the first line.... I maintain that there is no greater +danger for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire +in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a secure +retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does in fact abandon +it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress." + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Direct advance by Double Sap.] + +It must, however, be remembered that in those days when soldiers were +mostly of a separate or professional caste, the whole thing had become a +matter of business. Fighting was so much regulated by the laws and +customs of war that men thought nothing of giving up a place if, +according to accepted opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they +could no longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set +in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now and then +when some officer of very unusual resolution was in command. This is the +real reason for the feeble resistance so often made by fortresses in the +17th and 18th centuries, which has been attributed to inherent weakness +in fortifications. Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a +place until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at +least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation of the +powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign he was trying +to impress upon his governors the importance of their charge. The +limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for history at that time could +have afforded plenty of instances of places that had been successfully +defended for many months after breaches were opened, and assault after +assault repulsed on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the 17th +and 18th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs, +established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison which +surrendered without giving too much trouble after a breach had been +opened should have honourable consideration; while if they put the +besiegers to the pains of storming the breach, they were liable to be +put to the sword. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).] + + + Peninsular War. + +It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft of +Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest, but because +the system he introduced was practically unaltered until the end of the +19th century. The sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his +lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposition of +siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained in the Crimea, +the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish War. The sieges in the +Napoleonic wars were few, except in the Iberian peninsula. These last +differed from those of the Vauban period and the 18th century in this, +that instead of being deliberately undertaken with ample means, against +fortresses that answered to the requirements of the time, they were +attempted with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date +works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had rudimentary +outworks, and escarps that could be seen and breached from a distance. +At that time, though the power of small arms had increased very slightly +since the last century, there had been a distinct improvement in +artillery, so that it was possible to breach a visible revetment at +ranges from 500 to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for +engineers, siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be +carried out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great +importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical +advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp from a +distance--a new departure--and launching assaults from trenches that had +not reached the covered way. Under these circumstances the direct +attacks on breaches failed several times, with great loss of life. +Wellington in one or two earlier despatches reflected on his engineers +for not establishing their batteries on the crest of the glacis. The +failures are, however, clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a +conclusion without proper preparation. + + So much has been written of late years in criticism of the + fortification to what may be called the Vauban period that it is + important to note what were the preparations considered necessary for + a siege at that time (_Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814_). + Sir John Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data + accumulated by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of + Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work of + entrenching, sapping, &c., on the front attacked was much the same + whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the other hand + the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting men inside + the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to be sufficient + to allow three or four complete shifts or "reliefs" for all work and + duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other duties, he + calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place situated in + open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080 effectives, + and remarks further that this force would be greatly exhausted after a + month's service. The same place held by 10,000 would call for a + besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties increasing, but not + working parties). Thus the besieger should if possible have a + superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000, 6 to 1 if 10,000 + and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery, he should have + as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those of the defender + on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweeping every line + subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses, &c. Later in + the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the covered way and + places of arms, and finally, after the covering of the covered way, + fifty additional battering guns would be required. It is apparent from + this that the practical engineers of the day looked upon a siege as a + serious matter, and did not find permanent fortifications wanting in + defensive strength. + + + Crimea. + +During the long peace that followed the Napoleonic wars, one advance was +made in siegecraft. In England in 1824 successful experiments were +carried out in breaching an unseen wall by curved or indirect fire from +howitzers. At Antwerp in 1830 the increasing power and range of +artillery, and especially of howitzers, were used for bombarding +purposes, the breaches there being mostly made by mines. Then came one +of the world's great sieges; that of Sevastopol in 1854-1855 (see +CRIMEAN WAR). The outstanding lesson of Sevastopol is the value of an +active defence; of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench +and countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in proportion +to the increased power of the rifle. + + In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of Sevastopol + with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is essential to + remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal. Sir John Jones + has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and besieged should + be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery for the attack. The + following quotations may be added: + + "The siege corps should be sufficiently strong--(1) To invest the + fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the + efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to + execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete + investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has repeatedly + shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously increased if the + garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies from outside, and + to rid themselves of their sick and wounded." (Lewis). Again as + regards artillery: "In a regular attack, where every point is gained + inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without overpowering the + defensive artillery"; and "it is useless to attempt to sap near a + place till its artillery fire is subdued..." (Jones). + + These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol that + (a) there was no investment--in fact the Russians came nearer to + investing the Allies; (b) the Russians had the preponderance in guns + almost throughout; (c) the Russian force in and about Sevastopol was + numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must add to this that + Todleben had been able to get rid of most of his civilian population, + and those who remained were chiefly dockyard workmen, able to give + most valuable assistance on the defence works. The circumstances were + therefore exceptionally favourable to an active defence. The weak + point about the extemporized earthworks, which eventually led to the + fall of the place, was the want of good bomb-proof cover near the + parapets. + + + Franco-German War. + +The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty. The Germans +were not anxious to undertake siege operations when it could be avoided. +In several cases minor fortresses surrendered after a slight +bombardment. In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans +contented themselves with establishing a blockade or detaching a small +observing force. By far the most interesting siege was that of Belfort +(q.v.). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau employed the active defence so +successfully by extemporizing detached redoubts and fortifying outlying +villages, that he obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small +force at first) to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded +in holding the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the +enceinte, for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect +fire, withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the +ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French found +great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous positions outside +the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a disadvantage in being fired +through embrasures. These had served their purpose when artillery fire +was very inaccurate, but had now for a long time been recognized by the +best engineers as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Duppel in +1864 had mounted their siege guns on "overbank" carriages; that is, high +carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the parapet of +the battery without embrasures. The guns in the Paris forts which were +further handicapped by conspicuous parapets and the bad shooting of the +gunners were easily silenced. + +At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The escarp of +Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method. The breaching +battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck the face of the wall +at an angle (horizontally) of 55 deg., the effect being observed and +reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds from 60-pounder guns +sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide. + + Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will be + observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in + the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was crossed + by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a parapet or + screen of sandbags. + + "Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds. wide, + and 6 to 9 ft. deep.... It was determined to effect the passage by a + cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by breweries near at + hand.... The formation of the bridge was begun at nightfall. A pioneer + swam across, hauled over a cable, and made it fast to the hedge on the + berm. Four men were stationed in the water, close to the covered way, + the casks were rolled down to them one after the other, and fitted + with saddles, so as to form piers ... these piers were successively + boomed out along the line of the cable.... In two hours the bridge was + finished, and the lunette was entered.... The work had not been + discovered by the besieged, and the formation of lodgments inside the + lunette was already begun, when the noise made by some troops in + passing the bridge attracted attention, and drew a fire which cost the + besiegers about 50 men. A dam was afterwards substituted for the + bridge, as it was repeatedly struck by shells." (_R.E. Professional + Papers_, vol. xix.) + + It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time. Such + operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending guns + remained in action. + + + Modern siege warfare. + +On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically nothing +from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish war taught less, Plevna +(q.v.) having been defended by field works and attacked by the +old-fashioned methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century +military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the sieges of the future +would work out. As guns and projectiles continued to improve the +"attaque brusquee" proposed by von Sauer had many adherents. It was +thought that a heavy bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the +way for an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special +appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the strength of +the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works, would be greater +than ever when the field works were backed by permanent works, good +communications and the resources of a fortress. One thing was +obvious--namely, that as long as the artillery of the place, of even the +smallest calibres, remained unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and +sapping would be enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed +a clear conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture +delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair example of +the vagueness of idea then prevailing: "For the attack, the following is +the actual procedure: Accumulation and preparation of material for +attack before the fortress: advance of attacking artillery, covered by +infantry. Artillery duel. Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of +the capability for defence of the position attacked; when possible by +long-range artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers. +Occupation of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines of the +fortress." That seemed quite a simple prescription, but the necessary +drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur great uncertainty as to +the future of the attack remains. + +[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the +Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + +FIG. 71.--Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.] + + Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege + batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed each + other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided human + eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the + parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly the + task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets and + embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege batteries + were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the construction of + such batteries, with traverses, &c., involved much work. The height of + parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft., a + great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the gun-platforms about + 4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this was only possible + where rock or water were not near the surface. + + The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of earth + necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very easily + deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is especially + the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted earth, and + clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These facts were + taken note of in England more than on the Continent in the design of + instructional siege batteries. + + The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the + long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule + be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even + from balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct + fire batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets + unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light + splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of common + shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure and by + daylight. + + The most important point about the modern battery is the gun platform + for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require very solid + construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not long ago it + was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance than the + attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required a concrete + bed, which could not be made at short notice. The Japanese, however, + at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 11 in. howitzers. It may be + remarked that difficulties which loom largely in peace are often + overcome easily enough under the stress of war. + + Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The old + powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to batteries, + and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such propellants as + cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open. They are + very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode like + gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof magazines + for them in connexion with the batteries. + + In future sieges the question of supply will be more important than it + has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up of supplies + from the base of operations, the task of distribution at the front is + a very large one. The Paris siege manoeuvres of 1894 furnish some + instructive data on this point. The main siege park was at Meaux, 10 + m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average distance from the + 1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked was 5000 yds. + The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral batteries + covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st artillery + position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds. To connect + Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of narrow gauge + railway largely along existing roads. The line was single, with + numerous branches and sidings. They ran 11 regular trains to the front + daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The amount of artillery material + sent up was over 5000 tons, without any projectiles; but it can easily + be imagined that large demands were also made on transport for other + purposes. For instance, one complete bakery train was sent up daily. + The amount of ammunition sent up would be limited only by the power of + transporting it. A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of + from 500 to 1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of + firing. + + But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future + (putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of + the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour the + artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery + duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers' guns do not succeed + in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery + position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed + positions, will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will + be necessary for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points, + and to fight for those that offer better positions for fire and + observation. In doing this they will have to face the defenders' + infantry, entrenched, backed by their unsilenced guns, and having + secure places of assembly from which to deliver counter-attacks. The + distance to which they can work forward and establish themselves under + these conditions will depend on the ground. It will then be for the + engineers to cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present + conditions, will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough + to cause the failure of the siege. + + As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be "deep," as long as + the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap + already described was first introduced, it was known as a "deep sap"; + but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep + sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got + below the surface of the earth. + + Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the whole + of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench to the + rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by + splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a + foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should + be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is + completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet in + places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the + guard of the trenches. + + The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders' + trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be + made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better of + the defenders in a contest with shells from short-range mortars. + + Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary + eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so in + the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle of + a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground give + the utmost opportunity to the defenders' fire, and the least chance of + concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable latitude of + choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course, the same + latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the _raison + d'etre_ of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the whole + country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be + unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the + difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will + provide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated + by searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be + crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great + the task will be for the besieger. + + There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed, the use + of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is expected of + balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to correspond to + peace expectations. They must be kept at a considerable distance from + the enemy's guns, a distance which will increase as the means of + range-finding improve; and as the height from which they can observe + usefully is limited, so is the observers' power to search out hidden + objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a captive balloon at a + height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from an enemy's howitzer + battery: and suppose the battery placed behind a steep hill-side or a + grove of trees, at such a distance that a shell fired with 30 deg. + elevation can just clear this screen. The line of sight from the + observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal at {2000/3 x + 4000}, that is 1/6, or roughly 10 deg. It is obvious, therefore, that + the observer cannot see the battery. + + Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking the + effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale a + balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100 + guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number of + highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in + existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and + the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an enemy + were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions. + + Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly + are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps + marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery + fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give + better results than ever before, and the question of communication and + transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs + detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and supplies + that will have to be handled. + + The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn and + revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great attention. + It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges in the future, + when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient resources, will + depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in trench work, on mining + and countermining in connexion with the trenches, and on the use of + light mortars made to throw large charges of high explosive for short + distances with great accuracy. + + For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of the + greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its + military importance, the reader is referred to the article + RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. + + DEFINITIONS.--The following definitions may be useful, but have no + place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is mainly + devoted. + + _Investment._--This most necessary, almost indispensable operation of + every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged, + so as to cut off its communications with the outside world. + _Preliminary investment_ which is carried out by cavalry and light + troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing + the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. _Close + investment_ should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of + communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term + "_blockade_" is sometimes loosely used instead of investment. + + _Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation._--These now obsolete + terms were in great use until the 19th century. The _circumvallation_ + was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing + position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of + attack by a relieving army. The line of _contravallation_ was the line + of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the + town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison. + + _Observing Force._--When circumstances make the reduction of a + particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force + is often detached to "observe" it. The duty of this force will be to + watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids on the + lines of communications. + + _Bombardment._--This operation, common to all ages, consists in a + general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole + target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target. + In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment--whether of + ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters + tending to breed pestilence--upon a population closely crowded within + its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military + importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern conditions + it cannot do much real harm. + + +IV. MILITARY MINING + +It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient +resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining operations +dates from the end of the 15th century. When Shakespeare makes Fluellen +say, at Henry V.'s siege of Harfleur, "th'athversary is digt himself +four yards under the countermines; I think 'a will plow up all, if there +is not better directions," he is anticipating the development of +siegecraft by nearly 100 years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is +credited with the first practical use of explosive mines. He employed +them with great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards, +when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably the +first to make permanent provision for their use in countermines. +Countermining had been a measure of defence against the earlier methods +of attack-mining; the object being to break into the besiegers' +galleries and fight hand to hand for the possession of them. When the +explosive mine was introduced, it became the object of the defenders to +establish their countermines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy +them by the effect of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have +passed this branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods +of mining have not advanced much, and the increased power of high +explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least advantage in moving +masses of earth. + +When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a certain +distance of the enemy's works without having subdued their fire, he may +find that the advance by sap becomes too slow and too dangerous. He can +then advance underground by means of mine galleries, and by exploding +large charges at the heads of these galleries can make a series of +craters. These craters are then occupied by infantry, and are connected +with each other and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming +a new parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger can +advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp. His mines will +now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the counterscarp and +afterwards the escarp. This is done by placing suitable charges at +intervals behind the scarps at such a height above the foundations that +the pressure of the earth above the mine will more than counterbalance +the resistance of the masonry. + + + Mines and countermines. + +But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There is as a +general rule this broad difference between the mines of the defence and +those of the attack, that the defenders do not wish the surface of the +ground broken, lest increased opportunities of getting cover should be +offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence, therefore, is to +destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming craters, and for this +purpose they generally endeavour to get underneath the attack galleries. +The defenders may, however, wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to +explode mines under the attack parallels, in which case there is of +course no objection to disturbing the surface. + + "At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object of the + defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations as early + as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the siege. + Every endeavour must be made to push forward countermines so as to + meet and check the attack. On the approach of the opponents to each + other careful listening for the enemy must be resorted to. To this end + it is necessary at _irregular_ intervals to suspend all work for some + minutes at a time, closing doors of communication and employing + experienced listeners at the heads of the countermines. This matter is + a most important one, as a premature explosion of the defender's mines + is a double loss to the defender, a loss of a mine and an advantage to + the enemy in more than one way. As soon as the overcharged mines of + the besieger have been fired, a heavy fire should be brought to bear + on the craters, and if possible sorties should be made to prevent the + enemy occupying them. At the same time every effort should be made + underground to surround with galleries, and as it were isolate, the + craters so as to prevent the besieger making a new advance from them. + The efforts of the attack at this stage will probably be directed to + the formation of what are called "Boule shafts" (i.e. shafts partially + lined in which charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), + and to meet these in time the defender may resort to the use of boring + tools, and so place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the + countermines. His great object must be to prevent as long as possible + the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions, when + the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater than, + that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence." + (Lewis, _Text-book on Fortification, &c._, 1893.) + +The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of being able +to establish beforehand a system of countermine galleries in masonry. +Many systems have been worked out for this purpose. A good typical +arrangement is that of General Marescot, published in 1799, shown in +fig. 72. + +[Illustration: From _Textbook of Fortification_, by permission of the +Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + +FIG. 72.] + +The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from the +counterscarp gallery _e_ to three of the points _a_) fall gently to the +front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface--the deeper they are +the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines. Branch galleries +(marked _c b + d c_) run obliquely upward from them to right and to +left, leading to the mines, which are placed at various depths, +according to circumstances. + +Two main points must be observed in any system of countermines: the +branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as not to present their +sides to the action of the enemy's mines; and the distance between the +ends of the branches from adjacent main galleries should be such that +the enemy cannot pass between them unheard. This distance will vary with +the nature of the soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient +size for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries +may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other branch +galleries, called _listeners_, will be pushed out from main and branch +galleries. The section to fig. 1 of fig. 72 shows openings left for the +purpose. + +Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches. A +permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour, is shown in +fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity was expended in the +18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments. + + + Different kinds of mines. + +The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which is desired. +When the charge is strong enough to produce a crater, the radius of the +circular opening on the surface of the ground is called the _radius of +the crater_. The line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest +surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the _line of least +resistance_ (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the diameter of +which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is called a one-lined +crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R., a _two-lined crater_ and +so on. _Common mines_ are those which produce a two-lined crater. +_Over-charged mines_ produce craters greater than two-lined, and +_undercharged mines_ less. A _camouflet_ does not produce a crater; it +is used when the object is to destroy an enemy's gallery without +breaking the surface. Fig. 73 shows sections of the different kinds of +mines, with their craters and the effect they will produce downwards and +horizontally in ordinary earth. + +[Illustration: Action of a Common Mine + +Probable spheroids of rupture for overcharged Mines + +From _Instructions in Military Engineering_, by permission of the +Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. + +FIG. 73.--Mines.] + +Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place a +long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will destroy all +galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius, without much +disturbing the surface of the ground. + + Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively + recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in one of his + galleries and his position approximately determined by the sound, it + is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that + direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to + load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own + mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations of + war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most + skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made less + dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a hole + several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction. With + suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore hole + 20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then pushed up + to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small camouflet + chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this chamber the + charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No tamping of course + is required. + +Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results. It will +certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may do so +indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence, namely +that when ground has been much mined it becomes charged with poisonous +gases. Some explosives are less noxious than others in this way, and it +will be advantageous for the attack, but not necessarily for the +defence, to make use of these. + + _Calculation of Charges._--The quantity of powder required for a + charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.^3, and the following + formulae are used: + + l = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in + pounds, s = a variable dependent on the nature of the soil. + + s + For a common mine c = -- l^3 + 10 + s + For an overcharged mine c = -- {l + .9(r - l)}^3. + 10 + + s + For an undercharged mine c = -- {l - .9(l - r)}^3. + 10 + + The values to be given to s are: + + Nature of Soil. Value of s. + Very light earth 0.80 + Common earth 1.00 + Hard sand 1.25 + Earth mixed with stones 1.40 + Clay mixed with loam 1.55 + Inferior brickwork 1.66 + Rock or good new brickwork 2.25 + Very good old brickwork 2.50 + +Military mining is carried on by means of vertical _shafts_ and +horizontal or inclined _galleries_. When the soil is very stiff, very +little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but +usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames. + + Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used at + intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases + are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they + take up more timber. + + + Shafts and galleries. + + There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British service, + namely the _common gallery_ whose interior dimensions with cases are 5 + ft. 6 in. X 2 ft., and the _branch gallery_ which is 4 ft. X 2 ft. The + _shaft_ has about the same dimensions as a branch gallery. Formerly it + was sometimes necessary in the systematic attack of a fortress to get + guns down into the ditch. For this purpose a "great gallery" was used, + 6 ft. 6 in. in height and 6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions. + + _Miners' Tools._--These are few and simple. The pick and shovel differ + from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable for + the confined space in which they are used. There is also a + _push-pick_, an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel + head 6 in. long and 3-1/2 in. wide. The _miner's truck_, used for + drawing the earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the + shaft, is a small wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. + Formerly the noise of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven + wooden floor of the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy. + To obviate this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens + nailed to the floor. The _miner's bucket_ is a small canvas bucket + with a couple of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up + the shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to + it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the + surface. By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and + time and labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the + truck to the bucket. + + _Ventilation_ is an important point. The breath of the miners and the + burning of their candles (when electric light is not available) + vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a + gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing some + means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing fresh air, + by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to the head of + the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by, there is great + danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil into the + gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of special + apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped, so that the + wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all. Ventilation + can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the surface of the + ground. + + Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a mine, + a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the side of + the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of the + direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the + explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or boxes, + precautions being taken against damp. + + + Charging mines. + + The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine + is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which + may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably be necessary + to untamp the mine in order to renew the fuze; an operation attended + by considerable danger. The loading of the mine should therefore be + done by the officer in charge with his own hands. He has to work in a + very cramped position and practically in the dark (unless with + electric light) as of course no naked lights can be allowed near + powder. Everything should therefore be prepared beforehand to + facilitate the loading of the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham + a 1000 lb. mine, at the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded + in 30 minutes. The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in + sandbags, and emptied into a box of the required size. + + Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer who + loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to + make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery are + not liable to damage in the process of tamping. + + _Tamping._--This operation consists in filling up the head of the + gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no + possibility of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The + distance depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For + a common mine it should extend to about 3/2 L.L.R. from the charge, + when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to + about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of timber + across the shaft or gallery among the other filling. + + _Firing._--This may be done electrically, or by means of _safety_ or + _instantaneous fuze_ or _powder hose_. + + Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being + exploded at any given moment. For this purpose _electric fuzes_ (for + powder) or _electric detonators_ (for guncotton or other high + explosive) are employed. The current that fires them is passed through + copper wire leads. + + The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of about + 3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile a + minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in + conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading from + the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze. + + Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by making a + tube of strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with + powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second. + + _Explosives._--The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black + variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and + prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because their + action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape + through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick + shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than + gunpowder in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them + give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent high + explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively + innocuous in this respect. + + + Effects of mines. + +Some formulae have been given above for the calculation of charges. It +will, however, simplify matters for the reader to record some actual +instances of charges fired both in peace and war. + + In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual leading + the way, and the following results among others were obtained by him + at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 lb. placed 13 ft. below + the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined crater, or + "common mine"). Galleries were destroyed at distances equal to the + L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions. Double the charge, + placed at double the depth, i.e. 324 lb. with an L.L.R. of 27 ft. made + no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries below it and on each + side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge of 3828 lb. with L.L.R. + of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed a gallery distant 61 + ft. horizontally. + + Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experiments at + La Fere about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer and + inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His experiments + were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries at greater + distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by means of very + large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he called "globes of + compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 lb. of powder placed + only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or "compressed" a gallery + distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of the crater was 34 ft. 8 in. + + At Frederick the Great's siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very large + charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 lb. with an L.L.R. of 16 + ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle's + _Frederick the Great_ may recall his description of the contest of the + rival engineers on this occasion. + + At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 lb. of powder + placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of 15 + ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 lb. of guncotton, calculated as + being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under the + same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence of + tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a + disadvantage. + + + The Petersburg Mine, 1864. + + Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the siege of + Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The circumstances + were all abnormal, and the untechnical account of it in _Battles and + Leaders of the Civil War_ (vol. iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining + tools or materials and no military miners were available; and no one + had any confidence in the success of the attempt except its + originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession, + his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and General + Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrenchments were 130 yds. + apart. The mine gallery was started behind the Federal lines and + driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a field redoubt in the + Confederate lines. There two branches were made right and left, each + about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines aggregating 8000 lb. of + powder were placed. The first attempt to fire them failed, and an + officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter the gallery to seek the + cause of the failure. A defective splice in two lengths of fuze was + thus discovered and repaired. At the second attempt all the mines were + fired simultaneously with success, and made a gigantic crater 170 ft. + long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. The occupants of the redoubt, at + least several hundred men (they have been stated at 1000), were blown + up and mostly killed. The assault which followed, however, failed + completely, for want of organization. The infantry was drawn up in + readiness to advance, but no outlets had been provided from the + parallel, and this and other causes delayed the occupation of the + crater and gave the defending artillery a moment's respite. Thus the + assailants gained the crater but could not advance beyond it in face + of the defenders' fire, nor could they establish themselves within it, + on its steep clay sides, for want of entrenching tools. A good many + troops were sent forwards in support, but being in many cases of + inferior quality, they could not be induced to go forward, and huddled + in disorder in the already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were + captured when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack + and the total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000. + +The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing to advance +the science of military mining, but a good deal has been done in peace +to improve the means. Electric lighting and electric firing of mines +will be a great help; modern drilling machines may be used to go through +rock; ventilating arrangements are much improved; and the use of bored +mines is sure to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught +nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but the +siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in future, in +the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose trench, so in +fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than ever. It appears that +they will be essential to destroy both the ditch-flanking arrangements +of forts and the escarp or other permanent obstacle beyond the ditch. + + +V. FIELD FORTIFICATION + +_Field Fortifications_, now more often spoken of as field defences, are +those which are constructed at short notice, with the means locally +available, usually when the enemy is near at hand. Subject to the +question of time, a very high degree of strength can be given to them, +if the military situation makes it worth while to expend sufficient +labour. A century or more ago, the dividing line between permanent and +field fortification was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high +masonry escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent +fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized. Works without +masonry, in other ways made as strong as possible with deep ditches and +heavy timbers,--such as would require about six weeks for their +construction--were known as _semi-permanent_, and were used for the +defence of places which acquired strategic importance in the course of a +war, but were not immediately threatened. The term _field_ fortification +was reserved for works constructed of lighter materials, with parapets +and ditches of only moderate development. Redoubts of this class +required a fortnight at most for their construction. + +In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches were +essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would be equally +clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally admitted, and +where the resources exist, the use of our present means of +construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, reinforced concrete +and wire, in conjunction with the defensive power of modern firearms, +makes it possible to extemporize in a very short time works having much +of the resisting power of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can +be expanded from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too +exposed, in the presence of the enemy. + +Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions, a very +limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration will show that +its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected by the change from +machine-thrown projectiles to those fired by rude smooth-bore guns. +There is therefore nothing in the history of this branch of the subject +that is worth tracing, from the earliest ages to about the end of the +18th century. One or two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is +probably one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile +weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth while to +seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been found desirable to +have some means of checking the onrush of an enemy physically or +numerically superior. Hence the use by savage tribes, to this day, of +pits, pointed stakes hidden in the grass, entanglements and similar +obstacles. In this direction the ages have made no change, and the most +highly civilized nations still use the same obstacles on occasion. + +Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protection of +camps at night, where small forces are operating against an enemy more +numerous but inferior in arms and discipline. In daylight such an enemy +is not feared, but at night his numbers might be dangerous. Hence the +Roman practice of making each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for +palisades; and the simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British +for their camps in the Sudan. + +Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have always been +used. Except wire, there is practically no new material. As to methods, +the laagers of the Boers are preceded by the wagon-forts of the +Hussites, and those no doubt by similar arrangements of British or +Assyrian war chariots; and so in almost every direction it will be found +that the expedient of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the +countless yesterdays. The only really marked change in the arrangements +of field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing +rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to consider briefly +what were the principles of field fortification at the end of the 18th +century. That period has been chosen because it gives us the result of a +couple of centuries of constant fighting between disciplined troops with +fairly effective firearms. The field defences of the 19th century are +transitional in character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show +only faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not till +quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted began to take +shape. + +The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the Peninsular +War were _command_ and _obstacle_; now they are _protection_ and +_concealment_. + + + Old type of field defences. + +The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of smooth-bore +muskets and guns as in those of javelins and arrows. When the enemy +could get close up to a work without serious loss, and attack in close +order, the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front of them. +Moreover, since they could not rely on their fire alone to repulse the +attack, they needed a two-deep line, with reserves close at hand, to +meet it with the "arme blanche." For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft. +high, with a steep slope, perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must +climb after passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after +firing their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the +parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had also the +advantage that the attackers could not tell what was going on inside the +redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered from their fire as well from +view until the last moment. + +The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended +principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little power +of defence at the time, unless they held practically as many men as +would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles on the other hand +had a greater value, against the inelastic tactics of the time, than +they have now. A good position therefore was one which offered good +fire-positions for redoubts and plenty of facilities for creating +obstacles. Strong redoubts which could resist determined assaults; good +obstacles in the intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, +and troops in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes--these +were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore. + +The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns before the +attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be made of a suitable +thickness--from 4 or 5 ft. upwards--according to the time available, the +resisting nature of the soil, and the severity of the bombardment +expected. + +The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained from the +ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this obstacle. The +garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt were to be +sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with this object +great pains were bestowed on the principle of "defilade." The object of +defilade, which was a great fetish in theoretical works, was so to +arrange the height of the parapet with reference to the terreplein of a +work that a straight line (not, be it observed, the trajectory of the +projectiles) passing from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most +commanding point of the enemy's position, over the crest of the parapet, +should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of the +work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date after the +development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless taught with great +rigour till within the last twenty years. + +The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with an addition +of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of the parapet. If a +wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary, the surplus earth could +be used to form a glacis. + +The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to allow the +garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter of some difficulty +if a small irregularly shaped work had to contain a strong garrison. +Consideration of the plan and sections of these works will show that the +banquette for infantry with its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off +a good deal from the interior space within the crest-line. Guns were +usually placed at the salients, where they could get the widest field of +fire. They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through +embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to fire over +the parapet (_en barbette_). + +As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to elaborate +theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was made between forts +and redoubts, the former being those which were arranged to flank their +own ditches, while the redoubts did not. Redoubts again were classed as +"closed," those which had an equally strong defence all round; and +"half-closed," those which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade +for the gorge or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge +defence) were named according to their trace, as _redans_ and +_lunettes_. A redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It +was frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or +breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming an +obtuse angle, and two flanks. + +The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected, were +designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-bastioned fronts, +star traces, and so forth, and in the same books intricate calculations +were entered into to balance the _remblai_ and _deblai_, that is, the +amount of earth in the parapets with that excavated from the ditches. In +practice such niceties of course disappeared, though occasionally when +the ground allowed of it star forts and bastioned fronts were employed. + +On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt to the +ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the foreground, +and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter without adding +the complications of flanking defences. Sir John Jones, speaking of the +traces of the several works in the Torres Vedras lines, says:-- + + + Torres Vedras. + + "The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a, + limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and two + pieces of artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and six pieces + of artillery, the importance of the object to be attained being the + only guide in forming the dimensions. Many of the redoubts first + thrown up, even some of the smallest, were shaped like stars, under + the idea of procuring a flank defence for the ditches; but this + construction was latterly rejected, it being found to cut up the + interior space, and to be almost fallacious with respect to flank + defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in some cases equal + to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even when, from the + greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus gained, the + angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it demanded + more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably to be expected to + aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and further, this + construction prevented the fire of the work being more powerful in + front than in rear. + + [Illustration: FIG. 74.--Torres Vedras Works.] + + In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to + consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing + himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to + insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity. + In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of + adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients. In + the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the + establishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too + simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most + fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or + musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present + the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object + to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of + proceeding. + + This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to isolated + works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those considered + the key of any position. No labour or expense should be spared to + render such works capable of resisting the most furious assaults, + either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a flank defence + in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula shows that an + unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field profile, if + skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be carried.... + Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior space, which + renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small works, apply + to works of large dimensions.... Under this view the great work on + Monte Agraca (fig. 75) must be considered as very defective, the flank + defence being confined to an occasional break of a few feet in the + trace, caused by a change of direction in the contour of the height, + whilst the interior space is more than doubly sufficient for the + number of its allotted garrison to encamp. + + [Illustration: FIG. 75.--Monte Agraca, Torres Vedras.] + + _Interior and other Defences._--This work, however, had some of its + salient points ... cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply + revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the + interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within + it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient + points formed into an independent post. These interior defences and + retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic amongst + the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part of + indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by the + entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such + interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of + a large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or + tower, placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent + earthen works, and merit far more attention than they generally + receive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Torres Vedras Works.] + + The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently found + occupying salient knolls ... readily converted into admirable interior + posts of that nature. The profile of the several works varied on every + face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked or + cannonaded; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches + should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the + crest of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the + counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless exposed + to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft.; and some, on + high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility be brought + against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft. in + thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the + use of the defenders' bayonets." + + Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works. + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.] + +The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration because +they offer very good historical examples, and also because of the value +of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones, who as a captain was the +engineer in charge of their construction. At the same time it must be +remembered that they differ from ordinary field-works in having an +unusual degree of strength, plenty of time and civilian labour having +been available for their construction. In this respect they approximate +more to semi-permanent works, the main reason why they did not receive +under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and parapet being +that in addition to the large number of works required, much labour was +expended in abatis, inundations, scarping hill-sides and constructing +roads. + +Some further remarks of Sir John on the _situations of the works_ are +very instructive:-- + + "Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations on the + summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing appearance; + but it was in reality a defect ... for the fire of their artillery on + the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose half its + powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face of the hill + sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of most uncertain + effect. + + "The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave confidence + to the young troops which composed their garrisons, protected them + from a cannonade, and screened their interior from musketry, unless + fired at a high angle, and consequently at random. These + considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites selected + for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot induce an + approval of them as a general measure." + +The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts were the +most important features of lines of defence, and that they combined +physical obstacle and protection with good musketry and artillery +positions. The value of concealment was not ignored, but it was as a +rule subordinated to other considerations. + + + 19th century. + +The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the Crimean +War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle began to assert +itself, and it was found that a simple breastwork defended by a double +rank of men could protect itself by its fire against an ordinary +assault. This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to any +defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls, hedges or any +natural cover. About the period of the Franco-German War other +considerations came in. The increased velocity of artillery projectiles +reduced in some ways their destructive effects against earth parapets, +because the shell had an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on +striking a bank of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it +impossible for troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some +distance behind the parapet. + +These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that time. The +reason was partly a want of touch between the engineers and the +non-technical branches of most armies, and partly that original writers +from the Napoleonic wars to the present day have been more occupied with +the primary question of the value of field defences as a matter of +tactics than with their details considered from the standpoint of +fortification. + +There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed against +all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so essential to +success. Those writers who treated of the arrangements of defences +devoted themselves to theoretical details of trace quite after the old +style; discussing the size and shape of typical redoubts, their distance +apart and relation to lines of trenches, &c. The profiles--the thick +parapet with command of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the +inadequate cover behind the parapet--remained as they had been for a +century. + +The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind slight +defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It proved the great +resisting power of extemporized lines; but more than that, we begin to +find new arrangements for protection against shell fire (see plans and +sections in Greene's _The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey_). The +trace of the works and the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres +Vedras; but a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof +shelters show the necessity for a different class of protection. The +parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a better; +the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the necessities of +the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers of musketry fire, as +for instance one from the crest of the glacis, one from the parapet, and +one from a traverse in rear of it. This, however, is a development which +will not be necessary in future, thanks to magazine rifles. + + + Principles of modern field defences. + +From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly increased, +and certain new principles, causing the field defences of the present +day to differ radically from those of the 18th century, remained to be +developed. These may be considered under the following heads: the nature +of protection required, the diminished need of obstacle, and the +adaptation of works to ground. + +The principle that _thickness_ of parapet is no longer required, to +resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896. The +distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on parapets +comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the crest of a +parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way, and displace a +bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the contents of the shell, +whether shrapnel or explosive, that is the source of danger and not the +shell itself. Thus the enemy's object is to burst his common shell +immediately behind the parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in +front of it, in order to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet +is thick enough if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same +thickness will _a fortiori_ keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of +shell. For this purpose 3 ft. is enough. + +Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the parapet, deep +enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel, and narrow enough to +minimize the chance of a common shell dropping into it. This protection +is increased by frequent traverses across the trench. + +The most essential point of all is _concealment_. In gaining this we say +good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection is now given by the +trench rather than the parapet; command and the ditch-obstacle (which +furnished the earth for the high parapet) are alike unnecessary. +Concealment can therefore be studied by keeping the parapet down to the +lowest level above the surface from which the foreground can be seen. +This may be 18 in. or less. + +The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders are not +abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night work, or when the +assailant is so strong as to be able to force home his attack in face of +protected rifle fire, what is needed is not a deep ditch immediately in +front of the parapet, difficult to climb, but also difficult to flank, +but an obstacle that will detain him under fire at short range. It may +be an entanglement, an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check +the rush and make him move slowly. + +In the _adaptation of works to ground_, the governing factor is the +power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in Peninsular +times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence of lines by guns +in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple line of trench could not +resist a strong attack without such support. Now, however, infantry +behind a slight trench, with a good field of fire should be able to +defend themselves against any infantry attack. + +This being so, the enemy's artillery seeks to locate the trenches and to +cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the defenders to +keep down under cover. If they can succeed in doing this, it is possible +for the attacking infantry to advance, and the artillery fire is kept up +until the last moment, so that the attack may have the narrowest +possible space to cover after the defenders have manned their parapets +and opened fire. Fig. 78 shows the action of various natures of +projectiles. + +[Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the Controller +of H.M. Stationery Office. + +FIG. 78.--Effect of Projectiles.] + +We need not here discuss the role of the defenders' artillery in +replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor for the +moment consider how far the defence of the trenches while under +artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover. The main question +is--what is, in view of the nature of the attack, the best disposition +of lines of trench; and do they require the addition of redoubts? + +The most important point, with the object of protection, is that the +trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best defence against +artillery. With the object of resistance by their own fire they must +have a good view, or, as it is generally described, no _dead ground_ in +front of them. For this purpose 300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the +ground is even and affords no cover. + +This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness of the +zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has of late +years very much affected the choice of ground for a line of trenches. + + + Siting of trenches. + + For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down + until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the + "military crest" (Fr. _crete militaire_), _i.e._ the highest point on + the hill from which the whole of the slopes in front can be seen. Thus + in the three sections of ground shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b + and c respectively. The simplicity of this prescription made it + attractive and it came to be rather abused in the text-books. There + were, even before the improvements in artillery, objections to it, + because on most slopes the military crest would be found at very + different elevations on different parts of the line, so that by a + strict adherence to the rule some of the trenches would be placed near + the top of the hill, and some in dangerous isolation near the bottom. + Moreover a rounded hill has no military crest. + + [Illustration: FIG. 79.] + + Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of the + fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and the + whole question is extremely difficult. + + For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not vary + along the line, the positions at _a_ and _b_, fig. 79, are bad because + they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery. That + at _b_ is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that + the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire down + it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the very + last moment. The position _c_ has the advantage of not being on the + sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 80.] + + Such a position as that at _d_, fig. 80, is good, but protected or + concealed communications must be made for the supports coming from _e_ + over the brow of the hill. + + [Illustration: FIG. 81.] + + Another possible position for the infantry line is at _f_, fig. 81, + with the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite + concealed from the enemy's artillery. The drawback is that no + retirement up the exposed slope would be possible for them, except at + night. The fire from _f_ will be _grazing_, which will be a great + advantage as compared with the _plunging_ fire that would be obtained + from a position up the hill. + + It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration + to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on + the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and + only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the + advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid for + in some degree by exposure to the enemy's artillery; and at least as + much consideration--possibly as much labour--must be given to + communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches themselves. + Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment but also gives + cover to the enemy's approach. The lie of the ground will itself + dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the predispositions + of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the general + trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a more difficult + target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of cross and + flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care should, + however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique or enfilade + fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by traversing. + + [Illustration: FIG. 82.] + + + Trenches. + + Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the freshly + turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches or grass. + In this connexion it should be remembered that after a day or two cut + leaves and grass wither and may become conspicuous against a green + surface. Where the ground is so even that a good view of the + foreground is possible from the surface level, the trench may be made + without a parapet; but this entails great labour in removing and + disposing of the excavated earth. A common device is to conceal the + parapet as well as possible and to make a dummy trench some distance + away to draw fire. + + Besides the direct concealment of trenches, care must be taken that + the site is not conspicuous. Thus a trench should not be placed along + the meeting line of two different kinds of cultivation, or along the + edge of a belt of heather on a hill-side, or where a difference of + gradient is sharply defined; or where any conspicuous landmark would + help the enemy's artillery to get the range. + + [Illustration: FIG. 83.] + + Trenches are broadly distinguished as "fire trenches" and "cover + trenches," according as they are for the firing line or supporting + troops. The following simple types are taken from the 1908 edition of + _Military Engineering_ (part 1): "Field Defences." + + Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour is + saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take 1-1/2 to 2 + hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved by 2 or + 3 hours' more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without parapet, with + cover trench and communication. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by + permission of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 84.] + + The addition of a loophole of sandbags on the top for concealment + (called _head-cover_), gives increased protection, but at the cost of + greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead cover can only + be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still greater + height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench not used for + firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection by putting + over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches of earth: or + by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be had. A better + plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches immediately behind + and communicating with the fire trench. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission + of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 85.] + + + Redoubts. + + The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly they + were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power of a + line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was always imagined + as one of the older type, with a high conspicuous parapet. Of course a + redoubt of such a nature would be readily identified and made + untenable. But the idea of a redoubt does not necessarily imply + command. Its object is that it shall be capable of all-round defence. + There can be no doubt that as there is always a possibility of lines + being pierced somewhere, it is desirable, unless the whole line is to + be thrown into confusion and forced back, to have some point at which + the defenders can maintain themselves. This is not possible unless at + such points there is provision for defence towards both flanks and + rear, that is to say, when there are redoubts, which can hold on after + certain portions of the line have been lost and thereby can localize + the enemy's success and simplify the action of supporting troops. In + order that redoubts may exercise this function, all that is necessary + is that their defenders should be able to see the ground for a furlong + in front of them in every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need + be in no way more conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire + trenches, and in that case there is no fear of their drawing special + attention from the enemy's artillery. Whatever theories may have been + put forward en the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and + in the Russo-Japanese War, where the experience of South Africa was + already available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides. + + [Illustration: FIG. 86.] + + The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more conspicuous + than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground that will + give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted angles. + Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches and improving + the overhead cover; and special use may here be made of obstacles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 87.] + + Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of those + required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and field + casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt, and figs. + 87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a work can + easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives excellent + cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against howitzer + common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate fire to + bear on it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 88.] + + Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind it for + a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would require a + concealed position, which can often be found a little in rear of the + firing line. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_ (1908), by + permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 89.] + + + Boer, Russian and Japanese types. + + In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by a type + of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the surface, giving + only just room for a man to stand; but undercut or hollowed out below, + so that he could sit down with very good cover. Such a section is + only possible in very firm soil. Apart from this, the type is really + only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper should have room for + officers and N.C.O's to move along within it. The Boers showed great + skill in concealing their trenches. One good point was that there was + generally something making a background immediately behind the men's + heads, so that they did not stand out in relief when raised above the + parapet. + + [Illustration: From _Russo-Japanese War: British Officers' Reports_, + vol. ii., by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + + FIGS. 90 and 91.] + + In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset were of + old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better types were + evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from Port Arthur; + the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the top. The Japanese + appear to have taken their type mainly from the latest British + official books, but applied them with great skill to the ground + studying especially invisibility. In their prepared positions they + used large redoubts manned by several companies. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission + of the Controller H. M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 92.--Gun-pit.] + + _Cover for Guns._--Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the + shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface + of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank + is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and + 3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up + to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for + the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the + shelter is called a gun-pit. + + In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun. Shelter + can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but it is + generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground. + + + Obstacles. + + The commonest forms of _obstacle_ now used are _abatis_ and _wire + entanglements_. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The + branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are buried and pegged + firmly down. Wire entanglement may be added to this with advantage. An + abatis should be protected from artillery fire, which is sometimes + done by placing it in a shallow excavation with the earth thrown up in + front of it. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering: Field Defences_, by permission + of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 93.--Abatis.] + + Wire may be used as a _high_ or _low entanglement_ or as a fence or + trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire + entanglement consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long, + driven firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected + horizontally and diagonally with barbed wire. + + [Illustration: FIG. 94.--Crows' Feet.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 95.--Plan and section of Trous-de-loup.] + + _Palisades_ are still used, and need no description. They were + formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible. + _Fraises_ are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasionally + in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with deep + ditches, and are palisades placed so as to project horizontally from + the escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom of the ditch. _Military + pits_ both _deep_ and _shallow_ (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called + _trous de loup_) are not so much used as formerly, because the + obstacle is hardly worth the labour expended on it. Both, however, + were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. _Crows' feet_, formerly much + used as a defence against cavalry, are practically obsolete. They + consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their bases in such a + manner that however they were thrown down one point would always be + pointing upwards (fig. 94). _Chevaux-de-frise_ (q.v.) were formerly a + much-used type of obstacle. + + The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object + with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of view + barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is that it + gives no cover whatever to the enemy. + + _Fougasses_ have always for convenience been classed as obstacles. A + fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping pit. + Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over the + shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96, + gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form, + charged with 80 lb. of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a + surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder hose, + fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter of + chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable. + + _Dams_ are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of their + use. They are constructed by military engineers as small temporary + dams would be in civil works. + + + Illumination. + + A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles, is + that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric + searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting the enemy's + movements at some distance; but their use will naturally always be + restricted. Star shells and parachute lights fired from guns are not + of much use for the immediate foreground, and do not burn very long. + They were formerly chiefly of use in siege works, to light up an + enemy's working parties. Germany has introduced lightballs fired from + pistols, which will probably have a considerable future. + + Various civilian forms of _flare-light_ would be very useful to + illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field. + _Bonfires_ are very useful when material is available. They require + careful treatment, _e.g._ they must be so arranged that they can be + lighted instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means + of a trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once + (this can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum); + they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them + easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind them + so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack. + + + Blockhouses. + + Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played in + the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned permanent + fortification they were used as keeps in such positions as re-entering + places of arms and built of masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been + used in the Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built + cruciform, so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of + bullet-proof log-cabins they have played a great part in warfare + between pioneer settlers and savages. + + [Illustration: From _Mil. Engineering_, by permission of the + Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 96.--Fougasse.] + + In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to give partial + protection against field artillery; the walls being built of two + thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and covered + with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the walls up + to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in positions where + it is not likely that artillery will be brought against them: but they + may be made tenable for a while even under artillery fire if they are + surrounded by a trench and parapet. + + Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such + points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy by + cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loopholed wall, + arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the + garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some + arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular blockhouses + were very popular in South Africa. They were made of sheets of + corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework, the space + between the sheets being filled with small stones. The loopholes were + made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls. Fig. 97 shows a + section of one of these blockhouses. + + [Illustration: By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office. + + FIG. 97.--Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.] + + + Woods. + + The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field + defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized, + trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood concealed the + numbers of the defenders. A wood was therefore generally considered a + useful addition to a line of defence. It was customary to hold the + front edge of the wood, the irregularities of the outline being + utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while obstacles were disposed + some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully prepared position, clearings + would be made parallel to the front and some distance back from it, + for support positions, and great attention was paid (in theory at + least) to clearing communications, erections, signposts, &c., so that + the defending troops might move freely in any desired direction. + + Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is hard to + dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication, at the best, + is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered a strong + defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent ranging + mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not easily made, + because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that no + reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against the + modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood, the + position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action. If + a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that in + most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the + best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the + fighting line at the outset. + + + Villages. + + The defence of villages is another question which has been much + affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages were + very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and strong points for a + detached force to hold. There were indeed always drawbacks. The + preparations for defence entailed a good deal of labour, and the + defending force was scattered in houses and enclosures, so that + control and united action were difficult. But the value of the + ready-made protection afforded by walls was so great--and sometimes + even decisive--that villages were occupied as a matter of course. This + is certainly now changed, but precisely to what extent it will be + impossible to say, until after the next European war. A village under + fire is not now an ideal defensive position. A single shrapnel + penetrating the outer wall may kill all the occupants of a room; a + single field-howitzer shell may practically ruin a house. At the same + time, a house or line of houses may (without any preliminary labour at + all) give very good protection against shell fire to troops _behind_ + them. Further, the value to the defence of the slightest cover, once + the infantry attack has developed, is so great that the ruins of walls + and houses occupied at the right moment may prove an impregnable + stronghold. This class of fighting, however, does not properly come + under the present heading. For the details of the defence of walls, + houses, &c., see the official _Mil. Engineering_ (1908). + + _Entrenching under Fire._--Progress in this direction has been delayed + by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable + entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry + soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic + inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the + pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or + corkscrew. A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom + satisfactory for any. + + + Extemporized cover. + + The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry, + when their advance is checked by the enemy's fire, to maintain the + ground they have won by extemporizing cover where none exists. The + need of this was first felt in the American Civil War, and towards the + close of it a small entrenching spade 22 in. long and weighing only + 1-1/2 lb. was introduced by Brigadier-General H.W. Benham into the + Army of the Potomac. Since that time a great number of patterns have + been tried, including shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular + of these has been the Linnemann spade, which is used by most + continental armies and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool + is a rectangular spade with straight handle. The length over all is a + little less than 20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of + it has a saw edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the + blade is enclosed in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or + the waist-belt. In the British army the Wallace combined pick and + shovel was used for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was + always great doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool + was such as to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in + carrying it. But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to + have finally established the necessity of it, and also the fact that + it must generally be used lying down. For this purpose and for + convenience in carrying it on the person, a very light short-handled + tool is required. + + The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can make a + little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of his + head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check in the + advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward, the + supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus + commenced. + + + General remarks. + + There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of + training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it, it is tiring and + tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its importance. + At the same time it is a commonplace of recent history that men who + have been in action a few times develop a great affection for the + shovel. The need of trenches grows with the growth of firearms, and + the latest feature of modern tactics is the use of them in attack as + well as in defence. The observation has often been made--with what + truth as a general proposition we cannot here discuss--that modern + battles tend more and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is + said, entrenches itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining + as much ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall + and entrench; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment before + dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced to gaining + ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground, where the rifle and + gun have full play, the trench is to the modern soldier very much what + the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms, an absolute essential. + + The most important point in connexion with modern field fortification + is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting + power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the + frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its + position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before. + This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite + possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification as + that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger than + itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out and + compel its surrender. + + +VI. CONCLUSION + +In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in outlining +the practice of our own time it has been necessary to dwell chiefly on +the material means of defence and attack. The human element has had to +be almost ignored. But here comes in the paradox, that the material +means are after all the least important element of defence. Certainly it +is inconceivable that the designer of a fortress should not try to make +it as strong as is consistent with the object in view and the means at +his disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly +for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that the best +defences recorded in history owed little to the builder's art. The +splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte, of early Italian +design, was already obsolete but whose capture cost the Turks 100,000 +men; the three years defence of Ostend in 1601; the holding of Arcot by +Clive, are instances that present themselves to the memory at once. The +very weight of the odds against them sometimes calls out the best +qualities of the defenders; and the _man_ when at his best is worth many +times more than the _rampart_ behind which he fights. But it would be a +poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to evoke +these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison will rise to the +occasion, and the weakness of the place has very often been found an +excuse for giving it up with little or no resistance. + +Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French saying, "tant vaut +l'homme, tant vaut la place." Among modern men we think of Todleben (not +governor, but the soul of the defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams +at Kars, Denfert-Rochereau at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The +sieges of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which the +event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the governor; in +some cases distinguished by courage, skill and foresight, in others by +incapacity, cowardice or treachery. The reader is referred to Carnot's +_Defense des places fortes_ for a most interesting summary of such +cases, one or two of which are quoted below. + + + The spirit of the defence. + +Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September 1673 and +defended by Philippe de Proce, sieur Dupas. The duke of Luxemburg +visited the place some hours before it was invested, and arranged with +Dupas to relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. But the +governor lost his head when he saw the enemy encamped round the place, +and surrendered it before he had even lost the covered way. He was +subsequently tried by a council of war and sentenced to be degraded +before the troops and imprisoned for life. The reason the court gave for +not condemning him to death was that they could find no regulation which +condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that period the +decapitation of a governor who was considered to have failed in his duty +was not uncommon.) This man, however, was not wanting in physical +courage. He was in prison at Grave when it was besieged a year later, +obtained leave to serve as a volunteer in the defence, fought well and +was killed. + +A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the young +governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was entertaining a +party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell appeared and summoned him to +surrender. The attacking force had no firearm more powerful than a +carbine, but the governor, overawed by Cromwell's personality, yielded. +Charles I., who was usually merciful to his officers, caused this +governor to be shot. + +A defence of another kind was that of Quilleboeuf in 1592. Henry IV. had +occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before the works had been +well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake it. Bellegarde undertook its +defence, with 115 soldiers, 45 gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had +ammunition but not much provisions. With these forces and a line of +defence a league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on +the 17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The relieving +forces were astonished to find that he had been defending not a +fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the places where it +had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft. wide and deep. + +At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already alluded to +had been recognized, but many commanders retained the old spirit of +chivalry in their reluctance to say the "loth word." The gallant Marshal +d'Esse, who feared nothing but the idea of dying in his bed, was lying +ill at his country house when he was sent for by the king. He was +ordered to take command at Therouanne, then threatened by Charles V., +and made his farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of +Grenville: "Sire, je m'y en vais donc de bon et loyal coeur; mais j'ai +oui dire que la place est mal envitaillee, non pas seulement pourvue de +palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la terre; mais +lors, quand entendrez que Therouanne est prise, dites hardiment que +d'Esse est gueri de sa jaunisse et mort." And he made good his word, for +he was killed at the breach by a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish +soldier. + +Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of the +inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of Rochelle (1627) +and Saint-Jean de Lone (1636), but these are too long to quote. We may, +however, mention Livron, which is curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one +of his favourites, Saint Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the +Dauphine. Being entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to +achieve some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of +Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the inhabitants. +But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the women of the town +conceived such a contempt for him that they came in crowds to empty +their slops at the breach by way of insult. This annoyed him very much, +and he ordered a fresh assault. The women alone sustained this one, +repulsed it lightheartedly, and the siege was raised. + + + Arcot. + +The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest than any +other branch of military history. It is full of the personal element, of +the nobility of human endurance and of dramatic surprises. And more than +any battles in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage +of men fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120 +Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two 18-pounders and 8 lighter guns, he +held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000 native troops. "The +fort" (says Orme) "seemed little capable of sustaining the impending +siege. Its extent was more than a mile in circumference. The walls were +in many places ruinous; the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of +artillery; the parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers +were decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one piece +of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others dry and in +some choked up," &c. These feeble ramparts were commanded almost +everywhere by the enemy's musketry from the houses of the city outside +the fort, so that the defenders were hardly able to show themselves +without being hit, and much loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his +tiny garrison, which timbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the +enclosure, Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really +severe assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and after +which the enemy hastily decamped. + +Such feats as this make arguments about _successive lines of defence_ +and the _necessity of keeps_ seem very barren. History, as far as the +writer knows, shows no instances where successive lines have been held +with such brilliant results. + +Clive's defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted rules of +war were untenable, brings us to another point which has been already +mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honourably make terms when +there was an open breach in their main line of defence. This is a +question upon which Carnot delivers himself very strongly in +endeavouring to impress upon French officers the necessity of defence to +the last moment. Speaking of Cormontaingne's imaginary _Journal of the +Attack of a Fortress_ (which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes +by the words "It is now time to surrender"), he says with great scorn: +"Crillon would have cried, 'It is time to begin fighting.' He would have +said as at the siege of Quilleboeuf, 'Crillon is within, the enemy is +without.' Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered walls of +Mezieres, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would have said, +'It is time to surrender.' Thus when Guise was repairing the breaches +of Metz under the redoubled fire of the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if +he had been there, would have said, 'It is time to surrender.'" Carnot +of course allows that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is +for the accepted principle, not for the man. + + + Resisting "to the last." + +It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks by Sir John +Jones, made in answer to Carnot's book. He says in the notes to the +second volume of the _Journals of the Sieges in Spain_: "When the breach +shall be pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon the +ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed, as by so doing he +spills the blood of many brave men without a justifiable object, his +life and the lives of the garrison should be made the forfeit. A system +enforced by terror must be counteracted by still greater terror. +Humanity towards an enemy in such a case is cruelty to one's own +troops.... The principle to be combated is not the obligation to resist +behind the breach--for where there is a good retrenchment the bastion +should be disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can +as safely be so--but the doctrine that surrender shall not take place +when successful resistance becomes hopeless." + +Carnot's word is "fight to the last." Sir John Jones says the commander +has no right to provoke further carnage when resistance is hopeless. The +question of course is, When is resistance hopeless? Sir John Jones's +reputation leaves little doubt that if he had been commanding a fortress +on British soil he would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as +there was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these two men +of similar temper are found in opposition is quite simple. When Carnot +wrote, the French army occupied most of the important fortresses of +Europe, and it was to the interest of the emperor that if attacked they +should be held to the last moment, in order to cause the enemy as much +delay and loss as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the +engineers who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his +arguments were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen whose lives +were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance. + +A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the ideas in +which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic era. In +the 18th century fortresses were many, good roads few, and campaigns for +the most part leisurely. To the European nations of that time, +inheritors of a perennial state of war, the idea of concentrating the +national resources on a short and decisive campaign had not occurred. +The "knock-out blow" had not been invented. All these conditions are now +so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been set up, both +for the defence of places and the general employment of fortification. + +As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a garrison as a +penalty for holding out too long would meet with no sympathy in the +present day. On the other hand, the issue of modern wars is worked out +so rapidly that if a fortress is well defended, with the advantage of +the present weapons, there is always a chance of holding out till the +close of the war. If the place is worth holding, it should as a rule be +held to the bitter end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs; +moreover, the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions +imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large number of +his troops. + + + Permanent defences. + +In concluding this article some elementary considerations in connexion +with the use of permanent defences may be noticed, though the general +question of strategic fortification is outside its scope. The objects of +fortification differ, as has been shown, from age to age. In former +times a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical Norsemen might +find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron might look on +his castle as so much capital invested; a wealthy medieval town might +prove the value of its walls more than once in a generation; a country +without a standing army might gain time for preparation by means of +fortresses barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the +question stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize their +full fighting strength at a few hours' notice? It can only be answered +when the circumstances of a particular country are examined. + + + The use and abuse of fortresses. + +If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations of equal +fighting strength and equal resources standing ready in arms to defend a +common frontier, and that the theatre of war presents no difficulties on +either side, then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as an +adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses do not decide the +issue of a campaign; they can only influence it. It is better, +therefore, to put all the money the fortress would have cost, and all +the man-power that its maintenance implies, into the increase and +equipment of the active army. For the fate of the fortress must depend +ultimately on the result of the operations of the active armies. +Moreover, the very assumption that resources on both sides are equal +means that the nation which has spent money on permanent fortifications +will have the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself +beforehand to a defensive role. + +This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the tendency to +over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In practice there will +always be occasion for some use of fortification. A mountain range may +lend itself to an economical defence by a few men and some inexpensive +barrier forts. A nation may have close to its frontier an important +strategic centre, such as a railway junction, or a town of the first +manufacturing importance, which must be protected. In such a case it may +be necessary to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again, +if one nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other, it +may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by fortresses so +as to force invasion into a district where concentration against it is +easiest. + +As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary if it +stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the active +armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting strength of the +country has been practically destroyed, it is not of much use to stand a +siege in the capital. There can be but one end, and it is better, as +business men say, to cut losses. If the fighting strength is not +entirely destroyed and can be recruited within a reasonable time, say +two or three months, then it appears that under modern conditions the +capital might be held for that time by means of extemporized defences. +The question is one that can only be decided by going into the +circumstances of each particular case. + +The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive neighbours is in +a different category. If she stands alone she will be eaten up in time, +fortifications or no fortifications; but if she can reckon on assistance +from outside, it may be worth while to expend most of the national +resources on permanent defences. + +These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as +illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual problems that +soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too complex to be dealt with +in generalities, and no mere treatise can supply the place of knowledge, +thought and practice. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The more important works on the subject are: Durer, + _Unterricht zur Befestigung_ (Nuremberg, 1527); Speckle, _Architectur + von Festungen_ (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, _L'Architecture mil. ou la + f. nouvelle_ (Paris, 1637); Pagan, _Les Fortif._ (Paris, 1689); de + Ville, _Les Fortif._ (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, _Introduction a la + fortification_ (Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, _Science des + Ingenieurs, &c._ (Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban, + Montalembert, Cormontaingne; Mandar, _De l'architecture des + forteresses_ (Paris, 1801); Chasseloup-Laubat, _Essais sur quelques + parties de l'artil. et de la fortification_ (Milan, 1811); Carnot, + _Defense des places fortes_ (Paris, 1812); Jones, _Journals of Sieges + in Spain_ (3rd ed., London, 1846); T. Choumara, _Memoire sur la + fortification_ (1847); A. von Zastrow, _Geschichte der bestandigen + Befestigung_ (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of Sir C. Pasley; Noizet, + _Principes de fortif._ (Paris, 1859); Dufour, _De la fortif. + permanente_ (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, _L'Architecture + militaire au moyen age_ (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy, _Essai + historique sur la fortification_ (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont + (_q.v._); Delambre, _La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la + tactique et la strategie_ (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, _Angriff und + Verteidigung fester Platze_ (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, _Die Festung in + der heutigen Kriegfuhrung_ (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner, + _Die bestandige Befestigung und der Festungskrieg_ (Vienna, + 1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen, _Grundriss der Befestigungslehre_ (Berlin, + 1900-1909); Plessix and Legrand, _Manuel complet de fortification_ + (Paris, 1900, new edition 1909); Ritter v. Brunner, _Die bestandige + Befestigung_ (Vienna, 1909), _Die Feldbefestigung_ (Vienna, 1904); + Rocchi, _Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione permanente_ + (Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, _Fortification_ (1907); V. Deguise, + _La Fortification permanente contemporaine_ (Brussels, 1908); Royal + Military Academy, _Text-book of Fortification_, pt. ii. (London, + 1893); British official _Instruction in Military Engineering_, pts. + i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908). (L. J.) + + + + +FORTLAGE, KARL (1806-1881), German philosopher, was born at Osnabruck. +After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin, he became professor of +philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he held till his death. +Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to Fichte and Beneke (q.v.), +with whose insistence on psychology as the basis of all philosophy he +fully agreed. The fundamental idea of his psychology is impulse, which +combines representation (which presupposes consciousness) and feeling +(i.e. pleasure). Reason is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine +in its nature, God is the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his +instruments. + + Fortlage's chief works are: _Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit + Kant_ (Leipzig, 1852); _System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft_ + (2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); _Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise fur das + Dasein Gottes_ (Heidelberg, 1840); _Beitrage zur Psych. als + Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1875). + + + + +FORT LEE, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the N.E. +part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson river, opposite the +northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905) 3433; (1910) 4472. It is +connected with the neighbouring towns and cities by electric railways, +and by ferry with New York City, of which it is a residential suburb. +The main part of the borough lies along the summit of the Palisades; +north of Fort Lee is an Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of +Independence the Americans erected here a fortification, first called +Fort Constitution but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General +Charles Lee. The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the +village that grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until +the 20th of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene +with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of Fort +Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the crossing of the +Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made it necessary for Greene to +abandon this post and join Washington in the famous "retreat across the +Jerseys." An attempt to recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony +Wayne in 1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument, +designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a +Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908. The borough of +Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904. + + + + +FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on +the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the state, and about 20 m. +S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901; (1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were +foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910) 8900. Fort Madison is served by the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (which has repair shops here) and the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The city has various +manufactures, including canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements; +the value of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of +50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of Iowa's +penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site of the city in +1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently settled in 1833, Fort Madison +was laid out as a town in 1836, and was chartered as a city in 1839. + + + + +FORTROSE (Gaelic for _t'rois_, "the wood on the promontory"), a royal +and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated on the south-eastern coast of +the peninsula of the Black Isle, 8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26-1/4 m. +by rail. It is the terminus of the Black Isle branch of the Highland +railway; there is communication by steamer with Inverness and also with +Fort George, 2-1/2 m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose +consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1 m. apart, +which were united into a free burgh by James II. in 1455 and created a +royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable antiquity, a +monastery having been established in the 6th century by St Moluag, a +friend of Columba's, and St Peter's church built in the 8th century. In +1124 David I. instituted the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and +the town acquired some fame for its school of theology and law. The +cathedral is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of +Ross (her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and +finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at Melrose is +said to account for the Perpendicular features of his portion of the +work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform in plan, and built of +red sandstone, but all that is left are the south aisles of the nave and +the chancel, with the chapter-house, a two-storeyed structure, standing +apart near the north-eastern corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace +were destroyed by order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great +fort at Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of +1460. These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but +other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination +poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some consequence, and +the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie, in the churchyard of which is +an ancient Celtic cross, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and there +is a golf course in Chanonry Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness +district group of parliamentary burghs. + + + + +FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county, Kansas, +U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of Kansas City, Missouri. +Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946; (1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were +negroes; (1910 census) 10,463. It is the point of intersection of the +Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways, and has in +consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a rolling plain. Among +its institutions are an Epworth house (1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the +Goodlander home, and a Carnegie library. Near the city there is a +national cemetery. Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral +fields, and its trade in bituminous coal is especially important. +Building stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also +found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water is procured +from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is a mineral-water +bath house. The city is also a trading centre for a rich farming region, +and is a horse and mule market of considerable importance. Among its +manufactures are mattresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry +products. In 1905 the total value of the city's factory product was +$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city owns and +operates its waterworks. The fort after which the city is named was +established by the Federal government in 1842, at a time when the whole +of eastern Kansas was still parcelled out among Indian tribes; it was +abandoned in 1855. The town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was +chartered as a city in 1860. + + + + +FORT SMITH, a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county, on the +extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about 440 ft. above +sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, at its junction with +the Poteau, and at the point where the Arkansas breaks through the +Boston mountains. Pop. (1890) 11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were +of negro descent and 684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975. +Transportation is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St +Louis & San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the +Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley and the +Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business centre of the city +facilitates freight transfers. Some of the business streets are +unusually broad, and the streets in the residential district are well +shaded. Fort Smith is the business centre of a fine agricultural country +and of the Arkansas coal and natural gas region. It has extensive +wholesale jobbing interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in +its own manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products, +chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and bricks. In +1905 the total value of the factory product was $2,329,454, an increase +of 66.2% since 1900. The public schools have a rich endowment: the +proceeds of lands (about 200 acres) once belonging to the local +military reservation, which--except the part occupied by a national +cemetery--was given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of +the city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there is a +Carnegie library. A United States army post was established here in +1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county was created in 1851. +Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a +city in 1845. All transportation was by river and wagon until 1876, when +the railway was completed from Little Rock. The military post, in +earlier years the chief depot for the western forts, was abandoned in +1871. During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with the +Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April 1861, and was +reoccupied by the Union forces in September 1863. There was considerable +unrest due to border "bushwhacking" throughout the war, and several +skirmishes took place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than +doubled in 1905. + + + + +FORTUNA (FORTUNE), an Italian goddess of great antiquity, but apparently +not native at Rome, where, according to universal Roman tradition, she +was introduced by the king Servius Tullius as Fors Fortuna, and +established in a temple on the Etruscan side of the Tiber outside the +city, and also under other titles in other shrines. In Latium she had +two famous places of worship, one at Praeneste, where there was an +oracle of _Fortuna primigenia_ (the first-born), frequented especially +by women who, as we may suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their +children or their own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well +known from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna was +never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented the hopes +and fears of men and especially of women at different stages of their +life and experience; thus we find her worshipped as time went on under +numerous cult-titles, such as _muliebris_, _virilis_, _hujusce diei_, +_equestris_, _redux_, &c., which connected her supposed powers with +individuals, groups of individuals, or particular occasions. Gradually +she became more or less closely identified with the Gr. [Greek: Tyche], +and was represented on coins, &c., with a cornucopia as the giver of +prosperity, a rudder as the controller of destinies, and with a wheel, +or standing on a ball, to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this +semi-Greek form she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and +Pliny (_N.H._ ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all +places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis, and as +_Panthea_ was supposed to combine the attributes of all other deities. + + The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher's + _Mythological Lexicon_ (s.v.); see also Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus + der Romer_, p. 206 foll. (W. W. F.*) + + + + +FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished in the 4th century +A.D. He was the author of a treatise on metres, dedicated to one of his +pupils, a youth of senatorial rank, who desired to be instructed in the +Horatian metres. The manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental +ideas of metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed +analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used are Caesius +Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the grammarian of the [Greek: +Techne] of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a common name in the African +provinces, it is probable that the author was a countryman of Juba, +Terentianus Maurus and Victorinus. + + Editions of the _Ars_ in H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi., and + separately by him (1885). + + + + +FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European chap-book. He was a +native, says the story, of Famagusta in Cyprus, and meeting the goddess +of Fortune in a forest received from her a purse which was continually +replenished as often as he drew from it. With this he wandered through +many lands, and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the +treasures which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had +the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired. Of this +hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to Cyprus, where he +led a luxurious life. On his death he left the purse and the hat to his +sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they were jealous of each other, and by +their recklessness and folly soon fell on evil days. The moral of the +story is obvious: men should desire reason and wisdom before all the +treasures of the world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus +occupies in Karl Simrock's _Die deutschen Volksbucher_, vol. iii., +upwards of 158 pages. The scene is continually shifted--from Cyprus to +Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France; and a large +number of secondary characters appear. The style and allusions indicate +a comparatively modern date for the authorship; but the nucleus of the +legend can be traced back to a much earlier period. The stories of +Jonathas and the three jewels in the _Gesta Romanorum_, of the emperor +Frederick and the three precious stones in the _Cento Novelle antiche_, +of the Mazin of Khorassan in the _Thousand and one Nights_, and the +flying scaffold in the _Bahar Danush_, have all a certain similarity. +The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus appeared at +Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators are disposed to +regard this as the original form. Innumerable versions occur in French, +Italian, Dutch and English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in +1553, and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter's comedy appeared in +a German translation in _Englische Komodien und Tragodien_, 1620. Ludwig +Tieck has utilized the legend in his _Phantasus_, and Adelbert von +Chamisso in his _Peter Schlemihl_; and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished +narrative poem entitled "Fortunatus and his Sons." + + See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt's _Fortunatus und seine Sohne, eine + Zauber-Tragodie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang_, &c. (Berlin, + 1819); Joseph Johann Gorres, _Die deutschen Volksbucher_ (1807). + + + + +FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609), bishop of +Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time, was born near Ceneda in +Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan and Ravenna, with the special object +of excelling as a rhetorician and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to +France, where he was received with much favour at the court of Sigbert, +king of Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an +_epithalamium_. After remaining a year or two at the court of Sigbert he +travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons of distinction, +and composing short pieces of poetry on any subject that occurred to +him. At Poitiers he visited Queen Radegunda, who lived there in +retirement, and she induced him to prolong his stay in the city +indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed the friendship of the famous Gregory +of Tours and other eminent ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of +Poitiers in 599, and died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were +collected in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the _Vexilla +regis prodeunt_, Englished by J.M. Neale as "The royal banners forward +go"), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour of his patroness +Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of a nunnery at Poitiers. He +also wrote a large poem in 4 books in honour of St Martin, and several +lives of the saints in prose. His prose is stiff and mechanical, but +most of his poetry has an easy rhythmical flow. + + An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower at + Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A. Luschi + (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne's _Patrologiae cursus + completus_, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch (Berlin, + 1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and Leroux (1885). + + + + +FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and traveller, was born +at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of September 1813. He was employed +in the botanical garden at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal +Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of +the Chinese War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in +China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of many +beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in 1848 on behalf of +the East India Company, had much more important consequences, +occasioning the successful introduction into India of the tea-plant. In +subsequent journeys he visited Formosa and Japan, described the culture +of the silkworm and the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many +trees, shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The +incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting +books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880. + + + + +FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO (1838-1874), Spanish painter, was +born at Reus on the 11th of June 1838. His parents, who were in poor +circumstances, sent him for education to the primary school of his +native town, where he received some instruction in the rudiments of art. +When he was twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care +of his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a collection +of wax figures, with which he was travelling from town to town. In the +working of this show the boy took an active part, modelling and painting +many of the figures; and two years later, when he reached Barcelona, the +cleverness of his handiwork made so much impression on some people in +authority there that they induced the municipality to make him an +allowance of forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go +through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy of +Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio Lorenzale, and +in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that entitled him to complete his +studies in Rome. Then followed a period of more than two years, during +which he laboured steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had +access at Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the war +between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny was sent by the +authorities of Barcelona to paint the most striking incidents of the +campaign. The expedition lasted for about six months only, but it made +upon him an impression that was powerful enough to affect the whole +course of his subsequent development, and to implant permanently in his +mind a preference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He +returned to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned by the +city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture of the camps +of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the Spanish army. After making a +large number of studies he went back to Rome, and began the composition +on a canvas fifteen metres long; but though it occupied much of his time +during the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself +instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great size, in +which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities of technique and +modulations of colour. He visited Paris in 1868 and shortly afterwards +married the daughter of Federico Madrazo, the director of the royal +museum at Madrid. Another visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two +years' stay at Granada, but then he returned to Rome, where he died +somewhat suddenly on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of +malarial fever, contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and +Portici in the summer of 1874. + +The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life is +distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a marvellous +cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but the qualities of +his art are those that are attainable by a master of technical resource +rather than by a deep thinker. His insight into subtleties of +illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity was remarkable in the +extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious to the point of +extravagance. At the same time in such pictures as "La Vicaria" and +"Choosing a Model," and in some of his Moorish subjects, like "The Snake +Charmers" and "Moors playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be +endowed with a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a +thorough understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love +of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the +fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman. + + See Davillier, _Fortuny, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance, &c._ + (Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, _Fortuny_ (_Artistes celebres_ series) + (Paris, 1889). (A. L. B.) + + + + +FORT WAYNE, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Indiana, U.S.A., +102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where the St Joseph and St +Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890) +35,393; (1900) 45,115, of whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +63,933. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort +Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake +Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the +Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban electric +lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft. above sea-level) and +level, and its land area was in 1906 a little more than 6 sq. m. The +streets are laid out on a rectangular plan and bordered by a profusion +of shade trees. The city has several parks, including Lawton Park (31 +acres), in which there is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry +Ware Lawton (1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side +Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre), and Old +Fort Park (1/4 acre), which is on the site of Old Fort Wayne. The +educational institutions include the German Concordia Collegium +(Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having 220 students in 1908, and the +state school for feeble-minded youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie +library. Fort Wayne is one of the most important railway centres in the +Middle West, and several railways maintain here their principal car and +repair shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing +industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state in the +value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway companies. The +other manufactories include foundries and machine shops, iron and steel +mills, knitting mills, planing mills, sash and door, car-wheel, +electrical machinery, and woodenware factories and flour mills. In 1905 +the total value of the factory product of the city was $15,129,562, +showing an increase of 34.3% since 1900. + +The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood, +and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or Great Miami Village), +was situated on the E. bank of the St Joseph river, within the limits of +the present city. On the E. bank of the St Mary's a French trading post +was built about 1680. In 1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was +moved to the E. bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in +1760 and Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than +three months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September +1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the Maumee river the +stockade fort which was named in his honour, the site of which forms the +present Old Fort Park. By the treaty of Greenville, concluded by General +Wayne on the 3rd of August 1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area, +including the tract of the Miami towns, was ceded to the United States, +and free passage to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was +guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians. By the +treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H. Harrison on the 7th of +June 1803, the tract about Vincennes reserved to the United States by +the treaty of Greenville was described and defined; by the second treaty +of Fort Wayne, concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the +Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land, mostly +S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort Wayne was besieged by +Indians, who withdrew on the arrival, on the 12th of September, of +General Harrison with about 2700 men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort +was abandoned on the 19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The +first permanent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was an +important fur-trading depot until 1830. The opening of the Wabash & Erie +canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was platted and was made the +county-seat in 1824; and in 1840 Fort Wayne was chartered as a city. + + See W.A. Brice, _History of Fort Wayne_ (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John B. + Dillon, _History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by + Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816_ + (Indianapolis, Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, _History of the + Maumee River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization + into Counties_ (Defiance, Ohio, 1905). + + + + +FORT WILLIAM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district, Ontario, +Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the Kaministiquia river, +about a mile from Lake Superior. It is the lake terminus of the Canadian +Pacific railway, of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several +steamship lines. Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern +railway, lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain +elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export trade +in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also exported from the +mining district, of which it is the centre. Industries, such as saw, +planing and flour mills, have also sprung up. The population was 4800 in +1901, but has since increased with great rapidity. + + + + +FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) +2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe, an arm of the +sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or canal, and was, in +bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands. It is 122-1/2 m. N.E. of +Glasgow by the West Highland railway. The fort, at first called +Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in 1655 to hold the Cameron men in +subjection, and was enlarged in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed +it after William III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour +of his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe met to +share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully besieged it in 1715 +and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860, and demolished in 1890 to +provide room for the railway and the station. Amongst the public +buildings are the Belford hospital, public hall, court house and the +low-level meteorological observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in +connexion with the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter +was closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the +distilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape. +Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory of Ewen +Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born in the parish. +Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place of call for the +steamers passing through the Caledonian canal. The town is the point +from which the ascent of Ben Nevis--4-1/2 m. E.S.E. as the crow flies--is +commonly made. At Corpach, about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins, +the series of locks between here and Banavie--within little more than a +mile--being known as "Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lochy and the Nevis +enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort William. A mile and a +half from the town, on the Lochy, stands the grand old ruin of +Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular pile with a round tower at +each corner, a favourite subject with landscape painters. Close by is +the scene of the battle of the 2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose +completely defeated the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the +Scottish Baronial style, 1-1/2 m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and +farther from the river, is the seat of Lord Abinger. + + + + +FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county, Texas, U.S.A., +about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the West Fork of the Trinity +river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890) 23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were +foreign-born and 4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served +by the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City, the +Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco & Texas of the +"Frisco" system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas +Central, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & +Texas, the St Louis South-Western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity +& Brazos Valley (Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is +beautifully situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of +Fort Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal +institution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College in +1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy, a college +of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a law school, a +medical school, a school of commerce, and a department of oratory and +elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students; the Polytechnic College +(coeducational; Methodist Episcopal, South), which was established in +1890, has preparatory, collegiate, normal, commercial, and fine arts +departments and a summer school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and +(altogether) 696 students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a +kindergarten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant Episcopal), +and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There are several good +business, municipal and county buildings, and a Carnegie library. On the +3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed ten blocks in the centre of the city. +Fort Worth lies in the midst of a stock-raising and fertile +agricultural region; there is an important stockyard and packing +establishment just outside the city; and considerable quantities of +cotton are raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats, +flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars, +clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and overalls; +and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries. In 1905 the +total value of the city's factory product was $5,668,391, an increase of +62.5% since 1900; Fort Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of +the state in the value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth. +Fort Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance as a +commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and +the electric-lighting plant. + +A military post was established here in 1849, being called first Camp +Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in 1853. A settlement grew +up about the fort, and the city was incorporated in 1873. The fort and +the settlement were named in honour of General William Jenkins Worth +(1794-1849), a native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of +1812, commanded the United States forces against the Seminole Indians in +1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and General Scott in the +Mexican War, distinguishing himself at Monterey (where he earned the +brevet of major-general) and in other engagements, and later commanded +the department of Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of +government. + + + + +FORTY, the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word is derived from +the O. Eng. _feowertig_, a combination of _feower_, four, and _tig_, an +old form of "ten," used as a suffix, cf. Icel. _tiu_, Dan. _ti_, ten, +and Ger. _vierzig_, forty. The name "The Forty" has been given to +various bodies composed of that number of members, particularly to a +judicial body in ancient Athens, who tried small cases in the rural +districts, and to a court of criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal +courts in the Venetian republic. The French Academy (see ACADEMIES) has +also been known as "The Forty" or "The Forty Immortals." The period just +before the repeal of the corn laws in the United Kingdom is frequently +alluded to, particularly by the free trade school, as the "hungry +forties"; and the "roaring forties" is a sailor's name for the stormy +region between the 40th and 50th latitudes N. and S., but more +particularly applied to the portion of the north Atlantic lying between +those latitudes. + + + + +FORUM (Lat. from _foris_, "out of doors"), in Roman antiquity, any open +place used, like the Greek [Greek: agora], for the transaction of +mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes merely as a +promenade. It was level, rectangular in form, surrounded by porticoes, +basilicas, courts of law and other public buildings. In the laws of the +Twelve Tables the word is used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, _De +legibus_, ii. 24); in a Roman camp the forum was an open place +immediately beside the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally +applied generally to the space in front of any public building or +gateway. In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early +history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and formerly +marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills (also called +Forum Romanum), which probably even during the regal period afforded the +accommodation necessary for such public meetings as could not be held +within the area Capitolina. In early times the Forum Romanum was used +for athletic games, and over the porticoes were galleries for +spectators; there were also shops of various kinds. But with the growth +of the city and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum +became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number of +_civilia_ (judicial) and _venalia_ (mercantile) fora came into +existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of Caesar and +Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum _boarium_ (cattle), +_holitorium_ (vegetable), _piscarium_ (fish), _pistorium_ (bread), +_vinarium_ (wine), to the latter. The Fora of Nerva (also called +_transitorium_ or _pervium_, because a main road led through it to the +Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian, although partly intended to +facilitate the course of public business, were chiefly erected to +embellish the city. The construction of separate markets was not, +however, necessarily the rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii, +at the north-east end of the forum, there was a _macellum_ (market), and +shops for provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a +building supposed to have been the clothworkers' exchange, and at Timgad +in North Africa (a military colony founded under Trajan) the whole of +the south side of the forum was occupied by shops. The forum was usually +paved, and although on festal occasions chariots were probably driven +through, it was not a thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the +entrances, of which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites +for new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the centre, +and the two main streets crossed one another close to but not through +it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or 6 ft. lower than the forum. +The word _forum_ frequently appears in the names of Roman market towns; +as, for example, in Forum Appii, Forum Julii (_Frejus_), Forum Livii +(_Forli_), Forum Sempronii (_Fossombrone_). These _fora_ were +distinguished from mere _vici_ by the possession of a municipal +organization, which, however, was less complete than that of a +prefecture. In legal phraseology, which distinguishes the _forum +commune_ from the _forum privilegiatum_, and the _forum generale_ from +the _forum speciale_, the word is practically equivalent to "court" or +"jurisdiction." + + For the fora at Rome, see ROME: _Archaeology_, and works quoted. + + + + +FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia, 43 m. S.E. of +Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor of the road. Horace +mentions it as the usual halt at the end of the first day's journey from +Rome, and describes it as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The +presence of the former was due to the fact that it was the +starting-point of a canal which ran parallel to the road through the +Pomptine Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and +Horace (see APPIA, VIA). It is mentioned also as a halting place in the +account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). Under Nerva and +Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription records expressly the +paving with silex (replacing the former gravelling) of the section from +Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was +similarly repaired, and that at Forum Appii, though it bears no +inscription, is of the same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have +been found here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via +Appia was reconstructed. (T. As.) + + + + +FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about 23 m. N.W. of Rome +(not 32 m. as in the _Antonine Itinerary_), situated above the western +bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. Lake of Bracciano), and connected with +the Via Cassia at Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side +of the lake (_Ann. Inst._, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church +of SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the 8th or +9th century A.D. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses have come +to light on the spot; and an inscription of the Augustan period, which +probably stood over the door of a villa, calls the place Pausilypon--a +name justified by the beauty of the site. + + See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, ibid. (1895), 342. + + + + +FORUM TRAIANI (mod. _Fordongianus_), an ancient town of Sardinia, on the +river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the Roman road through the +centre of the island from Carales to Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of +its ruins have been destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the +baths, erected over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the +water and the large central _piscina_ are noteworthy. The bridge over +the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite bank are +the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off is a group of +_nuraghi_, of which that of St Barbara in the commune of Villanova +Truschedda is one of the finest. + + See Taramelli in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1903), 469. + + + + +FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English antiquary, was born in +London on the 27th of May 1770. He was educated at St Paul's school and +Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was +ordained and became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he +remained till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and +remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards +as vicar. His first important work, _British Monachism_ (2 vols., 1802), +was a compilation, from manuscripts in the British Museum and Bodleian +libraries, of facts relating to English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke +had been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for +which he is best remembered, the _Encyclopaedia of Antiquities_, +appeared in 1824. A sequel to this, _Foreign Topography_, was published +in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died at Walford on +the 1st of January 1842. + + + + +FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged to a noble +Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices of the +republic--ambassador, president of the Forty, member of the Council of +Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, _avvogadore di comun_, &c. His +first wife was Maria Priuli and his second Maria Nani; of his many +children all save one son (Jacopo) died young. But although a capable +administrator he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge +Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the various +candidates for the succession, warned the council against electing +Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the republic into +disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari was elected (1423) and +reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming the new doge the customary +formula which recognized the people's share in the appointment and asked +for their approval--the last vestige of popular government--was finally +dropped. + +Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of wars on the +_terra ferma_, and through the doge's influence Venice joined the +Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was carried on with +varying success for eight years. In 1430 an attempt was made on +Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had refused an appointment; and +three years later a conspiracy of young bloods to secure the various +offices for themselves by illicit intrigues was discovered. These +events, as well as the long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory +state of Venetian finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to +abdicate, which was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic +tragedy by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's son +Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and irresponsible +youth, was in that year accused of the serious crime of having accepted +presents from various citizens and foreign princes who either desired +government appointments or wished to influence the policy of the +republic. Jacopo escaped, but was tried in contumacy before the Council +of Ten and condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and to +have his property confiscated. But the execution of the sentence was +delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually the penalty was +commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446). Four years later Ermolao +Donato, a distinguished official who had been a member of the Ten at the +time of the trial, was assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of +complicity in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for +the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed to his +guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the accused, and so +merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his life, with a pension +of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the council received information +from the rector (governor) of Candia to the effect that Jacopo Foscari +had been in treasonable correspondence with the duke of Milan and the +sultan of Turkey. He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a +year's imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile. +His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to Jacopo's +entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him, he replied +advising him to bear his punishment without protest. When the year was +up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died in January 1457. The doge +was overwhelmed with grief at this bereavement and became quite +incapable of attending to business. Consequently the council decided to +ask him to abdicate; at first he refused, but was finally obliged to +conform to their wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats. +Within a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days +later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead. + + The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added many + picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them tending to + show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo's judges and accusers, + whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional leniency. + The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin's _Storia + documentata di Venezia_, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice, 1855); + where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan, _I due + Foscari_ (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the subject + Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger's poem _Italy_ + (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the subject entitled _I + due Foscari_. (L. V.*) + + + + +FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at Zante in the +Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the death of his father, a +physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the family removed to Venice, and in +the University of Padua Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the +Dalmatian grammar school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was +the abbe Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly +popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo's literary +tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies in +ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the appearance +in 1797 of his tragedy _Tieste_--a production which obtained a certain +degree of success. Foscolo, who, from causes not clearly explained, had +changed his Christian name Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an +active part in the stormy political discussions which the fall of the +republic of Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the +national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the liberator, +expecting from the military successes of the French general, not merely +the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy, but the establishment of +a free republican government. + +The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which Napoleon handed +Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude shock to Foscolo, but did not +quite destroy his hopes. The state of mind produced by that shock is +reflected in the _Letters of Jacopo Ortis_ (1798), a species of +political _Werther_,--for the hero of Foscolo embodies the mental +sufferings and suicide of an undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero +of Goethe places before us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering +and at last cutting short the life of a private German scholar. The +story of Foscolo, like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy +fact. Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student of +Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances akin to those +described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo's mind appears to have been +only too familiar with the thought of suicide. Cato and the many +classical examples of self-destruction scattered through the pages of +Plutarch appealed to the imaginations of young Italian patriots as they +had done in France to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde. +In the case of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the +writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have been +beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future rudely +shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and sought relief in +now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national poet. At Milan, +whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he was engaged in other +literary pursuits besides the composition of _Ortis_. The friendship +formed there with the great poet Parini was ever afterwards remembered +with pride and gratitude. The friendship formed with another celebrated +Milanese poet soon gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still +hoping that his country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a +volunteer in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and +the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When released he +returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches to his _Ortis_, +published a translation of and commentary upon _Callimachus_, commenced +a version of the _Iliad_, and began his translation of Sterne's +_Sentimental Journey_. The result of a memorandum prepared for Lyons, +where, along with other Italian delegates, he was to have laid before +Napoleon the state of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him +for his country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of +France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his _Carme sui +sepolcri_, of which the entire spirit and language may be described as a +sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the misery of the present +and the darkness of the future. The mighty dead are summoned from their +tombs, as ages before they had been in the masterpieces of Greek +oratory, to fight again the battles of their country. The inaugural +lecture on the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in +January 1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia, +was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged his +young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to academic +traditions, but in their relation to individual and national life and +growth. The sensation produced by this lecture had no slight share in +provoking the decree of Napoleon by which the chair of national +eloquence was abolished in all the Italian universities. Soon afterwards +Foscolo's tragedy of _Ajax_ was represented but with little success at +Milan, and its supposed allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an +object of suspicion, he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The +chief fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of _Ricciarda_, the +_Ode to the Graces_, left unfinished, and the completion of his version +of the _Sentimental Journey_ (1813). His version of Sterne is an +important feature in his personal history. When serving with the French +he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had traversed much of the ground +gone over by Yorick; and in his memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the +version is ascribed, he throws much curious light on his own character. +He returned to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence +he passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin on +his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the shores +of England at the close of 1816. + +During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until his death +there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the most brilliant +circles of the English capital confer on foreigners of political and +literary renown, and experienced all the misery which follows on a +disregard of the first conditions of domestic economy. His contributions +to the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_, his dissertations in Italian +on the text of Dante and Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on +Petrarch, of which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable +translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his +previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and forethought +in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment, and at last +consigned him to a prison; and when released he felt bitterly the change +in his social position, and the coldness now shown to him by many whom +he had been accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in +society--if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an +observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott--had unhappily not +been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships. He died at Turnham +Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four years after his death, in +1871, his remains were brought to Florence, and with all the pride, pomp +and circumstance of a great national mourning, found their final +resting-place beside the monuments of Machiavelli and Alfieri, of +Michelangelo and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of +Santa Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully entitled. +For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour of his diction his +country honours him as a great classic author. He had assigned to the +literature of his nation higher aims than any which it previously +recognized. With all his defects of character, and through all his +vicissitudes of fortune, he was always a sincere and courageous patriot. + + Ample materials for the study of Foscolo's character and career may be + found in the complete series of his works published in Florence by Le + Monnier. The series consists of _Prose letterarie_, (4 vols., 1850); + _Epistolario_ (3 vols., 1854); _Prose politiche_ (1 vol., 1850); + _Poesie_ (1 vol., 1856); _Lettere di Ortis_ (1 vol., 1858); _Saggi di + critica storico-letteraria_ (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this + series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn in + 1876, _Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di + Stael, a Vincenzo Monti_. The work published at Florence in the summer + of 1878, _Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi_, throws much + doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo's writings as given in + the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some curious and + original illustrations of Foscolo's familiarity with the English + language. (J. M. S.) + + + + +FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer, was born in +London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a solicitor by profession, +and on his retirement from practice in 1840, he devoted himself to the +study of legal antiquities. His _Judges of England_ (9 vols., 1848-1864) +is a standard work, characterized by accuracy and extensive research. +_Biographia Juridica_, _a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges_, +appeared shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the +Incorporated Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He +died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870. + + + + +FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of +Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) +7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has an imposing castle with four +towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia in 1314. The cathedral was +reconstructed at the end of the 18th century. The place began to acquire +some importance in the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, +but in 1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to +Filippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of Savoy. +It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has a branch line to +Mondovi. + + + + +FOSSANUOVA, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the railway +station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It is the finest example of a +Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian Early Gothic style, in Italy, +and dates from the end of the 12th to the end of the 13th century. The +church (1187-1208) is closely similar to that of Casamari. The other +conventual buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in +1274. + + See C. Enlart, _Origines francaises de l'architecture gothique en + Italie_ (Paris, 1894) (_Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes + et de Rome_, fasc. 66). + + + + +FOSSE (or FOSS) WAY, the Early English name of a Roman road or series of +roads in Britain, used later by the English, running from Lincoln by +Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost all the Roman line is still in use +as modern road or lane. It passes from Lincoln through Newark and +Leicester (the Roman _Ratae_) to High Cross (_Venonae_), where it +intersects Watling Street at a point often called "the centre of +England." Hence it runs to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and +Ilchester, crosses the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and +enters Exeter. Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but +without warrant. (See further under ERMINE STREET.) (F. J. H.) + + + + +FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning fussy or +troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of Australia to the +search for gold by solitary individuals, in untried localities or in +abandoned diggings. A "fossicker," or pocket miner, is one who buys up +the right to search old claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked +by previous diggers. + + + + +FOSSOMBRONE (anc. _Forum Sempronii_), a town and episcopal see of the +Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 11 m. E.S.E. of +the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 7531, +commune, 10,847. The town is situated in the valley of the Metauro, in +the centre of fine scenery, at the meeting-point of roads to Fano, to +the Furlo pass and Fossato di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino +and to Sinigaglia, the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The +cathedral, rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor +Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured _ancona_ of 1480. S. +Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal. The library, founded by +a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains some antiquities. Above the +town is a medieval castle. There is a considerable trade in silk. + +The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E. at S. Martino al +Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station on the Via Flaminia +and a _municipium_. The date of its foundation is not known. Excavations +in 1879-1880 led to the discovery of a house and of other buildings on +the ancient road (A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 458). +It already had a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta +obtained possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold, +with Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the latter +it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631. + + + + +FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1754-1844), Tuscan statesman and +mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was educated at the university of +Pisa, where he devoted himself particularly to mathematics. He obtained +an official appointment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was +entrusted by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the +drainage of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a +treatise in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but +on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily. On the +erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom of Etruria, under +the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed president of the +commission of finance. In 1809 he went to Paris as one of the senators +for Tuscany to pay homage to Napoleon. He was made president of the +legislative commission on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand +III. in 1814, and subsequently prime minister, which position he +retained under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which was +only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote the +well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany, and the +bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the law, honesty +in the administration of justice and toleration of opinion, but he +totally neglected the moral improvement of the people. At the age of +seventy-eight he married, and twelve years afterwards died, in 1844. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Gino Capponi, _Il Conte V. Fossombroni_, A. von + Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg_ + (Gotha, 1877); Zobi, _Storia civile delta Toscana_ (Florence, + 1850-1853); Galeotti, _Delle Leggi e dell' amministrazione della + Toscana_ (Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II_. (Florence, + 1871); see also under CAPPONI, GINO; FERDINAND III., of Tuscany, and + LEOPOLD II., of Tuscany. (L. V.*) + + + + +FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904), English geologist and +mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve Foster (for many years +secretary of the Society of Arts), was born at Camberwell on the 23rd of +March 1841. After receiving his early education at Boulogne and Amiens, +he studied successively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at +the mining college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the +Geological Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards +in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894) he +communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865 the now classic +paper "On the superficial deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with +remarks on the Denudation of the Weald." In this paper the sculpturing +of the Wealden area by rain and rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from +the Geological Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to +mineralogy and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was +appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for the S.W. of +England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N. Wales district. In +1890 he was appointed professor of mining at the Royal College of +Science and he held this post until the close of his life. His later +work is embodied largely in the reports of mines and quarries issued +annually by the home office. He was distinguished for his extensive +scientific and practical knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone +quarrying. He was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While +investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man in 1897 +his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide gas, and he +never fully recovered from the effects. He died in London on the 19th of +April 1904. He published _Ore and Stone Mining_, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and +_The Elements of Mining and Quarrying_, 1903. + + + + +FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician and financier, was +born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist +descent. After a brilliant university career at the university of +Brunswick, at Edinburgh and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught +in various local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and +history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative member +for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament, and in 1885 entered +the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries; +in 1888 he became minister of finance, which position he held till the +defeat of his party in 1896. A careful and even brilliant financier, and +a keen debater, he became known as a strong believer in protection for +Canadian industries and in preferential trade within the British empire. + + + + +FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and dissenting minister, +generally known as the "Essayist," was born in a small farmhouse near +Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September 1770. Partly from +constitutional causes, but partly also from the want of proper +companions, as well as from the grave and severe habits of his parents, +his earlier years were enshrouded in a somewhat gloomy and sombre +atmosphere, which was never afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful +energy, finding no proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to +morbid intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own +testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of a "painful +sense of an awkward but entire individuality." + +The small income accruing to Foster's parents from their farm they +supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he began to assist them by +spinning wool by the hand wheel, and from his fourteenth year by weaving +double stuffs. Even "when a child," however, he had the "feelings of a +foreigner in the place"; and though he performed his monotonous task +with conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing +his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without difficulty +passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a great taste for +reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut himself up alone in a barn, +afterwards working at his loom "like a horse," to make up for lost time. +He had also at this period "a passion for making pictures with a pen." +Shortly after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of the +Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents were connected; +and with the view of preparing himself for the ministerial office he +began about the same time to attend a seminary at Brearley Hall +conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett. + +After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted to the +Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of study at this +institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he +preached to an audience of less than a hundred persons, in a small and +dingy room situated near the river at the top of a flight of steps +called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he remained only three months. In +the beginning of 1793 he proceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a +preacher, he attempted to revive a classical and mathematical school, +but with so little success that he did not prosecute the experiment for +more than eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a +Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself with more +earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the discharge of his +ministerial duties, his efforts produced little apparent impression, and +the gradual diminution of his hearers necessitated his resignation. +After employing himself for a few months at Battersea in the instruction +of twenty African youths brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with +the view of having them trained to aid as missionaries to their +fellow-countrymen, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small +congregation at Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years. +In 1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he became +pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the thyroid gland +compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the same year he +published the volume of _Essays_ on which his literary fame most largely +if not mainly rests. They were written in the form of letters addressed +to the lady whom he afterwards married, and consist of four papers,--"On +a Man writing Memoirs of himself"; "On Decision of Character"; "On the +Application of the Epithet Romantic"; and "On some Causes by which +Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable to Men of Cultivated +Taste." The success of this work was immediate, and was so considerable +that on resigning his charge he determined to adopt literature as his +profession. The _Eclectic Review_ was the only periodical with which he +established a connexion; but his contributions to that journal, which +were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles. On his marriage +in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water, a small village in +Gloucestershire, where he remained till 1817, when he returned to +Downend and resumed his duties to his old congregation. Here he +published in 1820 his _Essay on Popular Ignorance_, which was the +enlargement of a sermon originally preached on behalf of the British and +Foreign School Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol, +and in 1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead +chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the settlement of +Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued, as in such +circumstances it appeared to Foster to be "altogether superfluous and +even bordering on impertinent." The health of Foster during the later +years of his life was somewhat infirm, the result chiefly of the toil +and effort of literary composition; and the death of his only son, his +wife and the greater number of his most intimate friends combined with +his bodily ailments to lend additional sombreness to his manner of +regarding the events and arrangements of the present world--the "visage +of death" being almost his "one remaining luminary." He died at +Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843. + +The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather than +logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately Calvinistic +views, his language even in preaching very seldom took the mould of +theological forms. Though always retaining his connexion with the +Baptist denomination, the evils resulting from organized religious +communities seemed to him so great that he came to be "strongly of +opinion that churches are useless and mischievous institutions, and the +sooner they are dissolved the better." The only Christian observances +which he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the +Lord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered the +ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured by a +constant reference to the "endless future." He was a firm believer in +supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing hope that a ray of +light from the other world might sometimes in this way be vouchsafed to +mortals. As a writer he was most painstaking and laborious in his choice +of diction, and his style has its natural consequent defects, though the +result is eloquent in its way. + + Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a + _Discourse on Missions_ (1818); "Introductory Essay" to Doddridge's + _Rise and Progress of Religion_ (1825); "Observations on Mr Hall's + Character as a Preacher," prefixed to the collected edition of Hall's + _Works_ (1832); an "Introduction" to a pamphlet by Mr Marshman on the + Serampore Missionaries; several political letters to the _Morning + Chronicle_, and contributions to the _Eclectic Review_, published + posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. _His Life and Correspondence_, edited + by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846. + + + + +FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1907), English physiologist, was born at +Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After graduating in medicine at +London University in 1859, he began to practise in his native town, but +in 1867 he returned to London as teacher of practical physiology at +University College, where two years afterwards he became professor. In +1870 he was appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its +praelectorship in physiology, and thirteen years later he became the +first occupant of the newly-created chair of physiology in the +university, holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and +administrator, and had a very large share in the organization and +development of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was +one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity +exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great Britain. In +1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president of the British +Association at its meeting at Dover. In the following year he was +elected to represent the university of London in parliament. Though +returned as a Unionist, his political action was not to be dictated by +party considerations, and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he +played no prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was +defeated. His chief writings were a _Textbook of Physiology_ (1876), +which became a standard work, and _Lectures on the History of Physiology +in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries_ (1901), which consisted of +lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, in +1900. He died suddenly in London on the 29th of January 1907. + + + + +FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter, was born at North +Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the workshop of Ebenezer +Landells, a wood engraver, with whom he worked for six years as an +illustrative draughtsman, devoting himself mainly to landscape. During +the succeeding fifteen years he became famous as a prolific and +accomplished illustrator, but about 1861 abandoned illustration for +painting, and gained wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water +colours, of landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of +children. He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of +the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable +for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and +pleasantness of sentiment. + + See _Birket Foster, his Life and Work_ (extra number of the _Art + Journal_) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and + _Birket Foster, R.W.S._, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very + complete and fully illustrated biography. + + + + +FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song and ballad writer, +was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of July 1826. He was +the youngest child of a merchant of Irish descent who became a member of +the state legislature and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. +Stephen early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet, +the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge of French +and German. He was sent to school in Towanda, Pennsylvania, and later to +Athens, Pennsylvania, and when thirteen years old he wrote the song +"Sadly to Mine Heart Appealing." At sixteen he wrote "Open thy Lattice, +Love"; at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati, +Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile such +popular pieces as "Old Uncle Ned," "O Susannah!" and others. He then +adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief successes were songs +written for the negro melodists or Christy minstrels. Besides those +mentioned the following attained great popularity: "Nelly was a Lady," +"Old Kentucky Home," "Old Folks at Home," "Massa's in de Cold, Cold +Ground," &c. For these and other songs the composer received +considerable sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000 +dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music. In +1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned to Pittsburg. +His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies, many of which have +been popular on both sides of the Atlantic and sung in many tongues. +"Old Black Joe," the last of these negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His +later songs were sentimental ballads. Among these are "Old Dog Tray," +"Gentle Annie," "Willie, we have missed you," &c. His "Come where my +Love lies Dreaming" is a well known vocal quartet. Although as a +musician and composer Foster has little claim to high rank, his +song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern developments of +popular music. He died at New York on the 13th of January 1864. + + + + +FOSTORIA, a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and partly in +Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7070; +(1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597. It is served by the +Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, the Ohio Central, +the Lake Erie & Western, and the Hocking Valley railways, and by two +interurban electric lines. The city is situated in an agricultural +region, and oil abounds in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures +are glass, flour, planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages, +barrels, incandescent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile +engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear. The +waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. In 1832, upon the +coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome and Risdon, were laid out +on the site of what is now Fostoria. A bitter rivalry arose between +them, but they were finally united under one government, and the city +thus formed was named in honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles +Foster (1828-1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and +secretary of the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to +promote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854. + + + + +FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was born of a Quaker +family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End in Yorkshire. He took the +degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736, and after visiting the continent of +Europe he in 1740 settled in London, where he gained an extensive +practice. In the epidemics of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to +have had sixty patients daily. In his leisure he made a study of +conchology and botany; and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive +botanical garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various +parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the South Sea +voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by Anthony Purver, a +Quaker, was made and printed at his expense. His pamphlet entitled +"Account of the Sore Throat attended with Ulcers" (1748) contains one of +the first descriptions of diphtheria in English, and was translated into +several languages. He died in London on the 26th of December 1780. + + + + +FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, picturesquely +situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1-1/2 m. from Elton station +on the Peterborough branch of the London & North-Western railway. The +castle, of which nothing but the earthworks and foundations remain, is +famous as the scene of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from +September 1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587. +The earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of very +early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times. It became an +important stronghold of the Plantagenets from the time of Edward III., +and was the birthplace of Richard III. in 1452. The church of St Mary +and All Saints, originally collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the +nave with aisles, and the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but +the building is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of +York, who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the +third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the earl of +Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of Wakefield in +1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments were erected by Queen +Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs in ruins. + + + + +FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON (1819-1868), French physicist, was the son +of a publisher at Paris, where he was born on the 18th of September +1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine, +which, however, he speedily abandoned for physical science, the +improvement of L.J.M. Daguerre's photographic processes being the object +to which he first directed his attention. During three years he was +experimental assistant to Alfred Donne (1801-1878) in his course of +lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he carried on a +series of investigations on the intensity of the light of the sun, as +compared with that of carbon in the electric arc, and of lime in the +flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the interference of heat rays, and +of light rays differing greatly in lengths of path; and on the chromatic +polarization of light. In 1849 he contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_ a +description of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp, +and, in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision. By +the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir Charles +Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric currents, he was +enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater velocity of light in air than +in water, and to establish that the velocity of light in different media +is inversely as the refractive indices of the media. For his +demonstration in 1851 of the diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation +of the plane of oscillation of a freely suspended, long and heavy +pendulum exhibited by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the +following year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the +Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year he was +made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at Paris. In +September of that year he discovered that the force required for the +rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when it is made to rotate +with its rim between the poles of a magnet, the disk at the same time +becoming heated by the eddy or "Foucault currents" induced in its metal. +Foucault invented in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the +succeeding year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting +telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution. With +Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the absolute +velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000 m.) a second, +or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous experimenters. He +was created in that year a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and an +officer of the Legion of Honour, in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal +Society of London, and next year a member of the mechanical section of +the Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of Watt's +governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting with a view +to making its period of revolution constant, and on a new apparatus for +regulating the electric light; and in the following year (_Compt. Rend._ +lxiii.) he showed how, by the deposition of a transparently thin film of +silver on the outer side of the object glass of a telescope, the sun +could be viewed without injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault +died of paralysis on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year +1845 he edited the scientific portion of the _Journal des Debats_. His +chief scientific papers are to be found in the _Comptes Rendus_, +1847-1869. + + See _Revue cours scient._ vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; _Proc. Roy. Soc._ + xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, _Notice historique sur + la vie et les travaux de Leon Foucault_ (Paris, 1875). + + + + +FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763-1820), French statesman, was born +in a small village near Nantes on the 21st of May 1763. His father, a +seafaring man, destined him for the sea; but the weakness of his frame +and the precocity of his talents soon caused this idea to be given up. +He was educated at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed +marked aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to +enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept by +brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made rapid progress, +and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the colleges of Niort, Saumur, +Vendome, Juilly and Arras. At Arras he had some dealings with +Robespierre at the time of the beginning of the French Revolution +(1789). + +In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at +Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal for revolutionary +principles; but at Nantes he showed even more democratic fervour. His +abilities and the zeal with which he espoused the most subversive +notions brought him into favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a +leading member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the +college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouche gave up all +connexion with the church, whose major vows he had not taken. After the +downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of August 1792, he was elected as +deputy for the department of the Lower Loire to the National Convention +which met at the autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The +literary and pedagogic sympathies of Fouche at first brought him into +touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists; but +their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of Louis XVI. +(December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to espouse the cause of the +Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more thoroughgoing champions of +revolutionary doctrine. On the question of the execution of the king, +Fouche, after some preliminary hesitations, expressed himself with the +utmost vigour in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who +"wavered before the shadow of a king." + +The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the Convention +against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and a little later against +Spain, brought Fouche into notoriety as one of the fiercest of the +Jacobinical fanatics who then held power at Paris. While the armies of +the first coalition threatened the north-east of France, a revolt of the +royalist peasants of Brittany and la Vendee menaced the Convention on +the west. That body deputed Fouche with a colleague, Villers, to proceed +to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial powers +for the crushing of the revolt of "the whites." The vigour with which he +carried out these duties earned him other work, and he soon held the +post of commissioner of the republic in the department of the Nievre. +Together with Chaumette, he helped to initiate the atheistical movement, +the founders of which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the +extinction of Christianity in France. In the department of the Nievre he +ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and +established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the cemeteries, he +ordered these words to be inscribed: "Death is an eternal sleep." He +also waged war against luxury and wealth, and desired to abolish the use +of money. The new cult was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the +strange orgy known as "The Festival of Reason" (November 10, 1793). + +Fouche then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance of the +Convention on that city, which had revolted against the new Jacobin +tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable for its obscene +parody of religious rites, he then, along with his colleague, Collot +d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to work with a rigour which +made his name odious. Modern research, however, proves that at the close +of those horrors Fouche exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his +conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris +early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: "The blood of +criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes power on sure +foundations." By that time Robespierre had struck down the other leaders +of the atheistical party; but early in June 1794, at the time of the +"Festival of the Supreme Being," Fouche ventured to mock at the theistic +revival which Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took +place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of Fouche from +the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouche, however, was working with his +customary skill and energy, and along with Tallien and others, managed +to effect the overthrow of the theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July +28), 1794. The ensuing reaction in favour of more merciful methods of +government threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been +mainly instrumental in carrying through the _coup d'etat_ of Thermidor; +but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche in intrigue, they managed for +a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords, however, crept in which +left him for a time almost isolated, and it needed all his ability to +withstand the attacks of the moderates. A vigorous attack on him by +Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of August 1795, caused him to be arrested, +but the troubles which ensued in Vendemiaire averted the doom that +seemed to be pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was +passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year 1795. + +In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799), +Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations which he had +with the communists, once headed by Chaumette and now by Francois N. +("Gracchus") Babeuf (q.v.), helped him to rise once more. He is said to +have betrayed to the director Barras the secret of the strange plot +which Babeuf and a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent +research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from +poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the supply of +military _materiel_, which offered opportunities direct and indirect. +After offering his services to the royalists, whose movement was then +gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and the +director Barras (q.v.). In the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor 1797 he made +himself serviceable to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him to be French +ambassador to the Cisalpine republic. At Milan he carried matters with +so high a hand against the Gallophobes of that government that his +actions were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused +state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold his own +and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early in 1799 he +returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office as ambassador at +The Hague, he became minister of police at Paris (July 20, 1799). The +newly elected director, Sieyes (q.v.), was then in the ascendant and +desired to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened +their club. Fouche, casting consistency to the winds, closed the +Jacobins club in a manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted +down the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, who +were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of the return of +Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin was one of the most +powerful men in France. + +Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouche lent himself to +the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyes for their overthrow. His activity in +furthering the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire 18-19 (November 9-10), 1799, +procured him the favour of Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v. +Napoleon I.). In the ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouche +behaved with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and +extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche was +careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of the new +master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted himself with so +much skill as to earn at times the gratitude even of the royalists. +Thus, while countermining a foolish intrigue of theirs in which the +duchesse de Guiche was the chief agent, Fouche took care that she should +escape. Equally skilful was his action in the affair of the so-called +Arena-Ceracchi plot, in which the _agents provocateurs_ of the police +were believed to have played a sinister part. The chief "conspirators" +were easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivose +(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This far more +serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded a bomb near the +First Consul's carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was +soon seen by Fouche to be the work of royalists; and when the First +Consul, eager to entrap the still formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten +the blame on them, Fouche firmly declared that he would not only assert +but would prove that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his +efforts, however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was +resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters +(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the spring of +1802) Fouche was thought to have secured the Jacobins concerned from the +vengeance of the First Consul. In any case the latter resolved to rid +himself of a man who had too much power and too much skill in intrigue +to be desirable as a subordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as +First Consul for life (August 1, 1802) Fouche was deprived of his +office; but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of +police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended +ministry of justice. Fouche also became a senator and received half of +the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure +of office. He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, whose +information was so superior to that of the new minister of police as to +render great services to Napoleon at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru +conspiracy (February-March 1804). + +As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouche to the +re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also later on +entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no less important +than at the time of the Consulate. His police agents were ubiquitous, +and the terror which Napoleon and Fouche inspired, owing to their proven +ability to benefit by plots, partly accounts for the absence of +conspiracies after 1804. After Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouche uttered +the _mot_ of the occasion: "Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old +aristocracy; the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires." + +That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of fear, of +Fouche was proved by his conduct in the early days of 1808. While +engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouche +and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, were having interviews at Paris in +which Murat, king of Naples, was concerned. At once the sensitive +autocrat hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In +that year Fouche received the title of duke of Otranto. During the +absence of Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British +Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of Antwerp. +Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of the northern +departments of the empire for the mobilization of 60,000 National +Guards. He added to the order a statement in which occurred the words: +"Let us prove to Europe that although the genius of Napoleon can throw +lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse +the enemy." The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked +than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months brought +further causes of friction between emperor and minister. The latter, +knowing the desire of his master for peace at the close of the year +1809, undertook on his own account to make secret overtures to the +British ministry. A little later Napoleon opened negotiations and found +that Fouche had forestalled him. His rage against his minister was +extreme, and on the 3rd of June 1810 he dismissed him from his office. +However, as it was not the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man +who might again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of Rome. He +went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving the +emperor's order to give up certain important documents of his former +ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that the rest were +destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst forth again, and Fouche on +learning, after his arrival at Florence, that the storm was still raging +at Paris, prepared to sail to the United States. Compelled, however, by +stress of weather and sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in +Elisa Bonaparte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed +to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point Carre. In +1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of +Russia; and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smorgoni to Paris +at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of +complicity in the conspiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely +near to success. From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the +emperor useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic +situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the +arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian +provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system in Germany in +October 1813 Fouche was ordered to repair to Rome and thence to Naples, +in order to watch the movements of Murat. Before Fouche arrived at +Naples Murat threw off the mask and invaded the Roman territory, +whereupon Fouche received orders to return to France. He arrived at +Paris on the 10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being +constrained by his marshals to abdicate. + +The conduct of Fouche at this crisis was characteristic. As senator he +advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte d'Artois, brother +of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy +and the nation. A little later he addressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a +letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw +to the United States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an +appeal in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures +which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but Fouche +remained unmolested. + +This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that there were no +hopes of advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who +sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. Lafayette and Davout were +concerned in the affair, but their refusal to take the course desired by +Fouche and other bold spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon +escaped from Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before +his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to Fouche an +offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, saying, "It is too +late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat." He then foiled an attempt +of the royalists to arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he +received for the third time the portfolio of police. That, however, did +not prevent him from entering into secret relations with Metternich at +Vienna, his aim being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities. +Meanwhile he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his +rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words "The +sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of power" in the +declaration of the council of state. But the autocratic tendencies of +Napoleon could scarcely be held in check, and Fouche seeing the fall of +the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his +own interests. On the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second +time, and Fouche was next day elected president of the commission which +provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with Louis +XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the overtures of his +agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for the recognition of Napoleon +II., he facilitated the success of the Bourbon cause, and thus procured +for himself a place in the ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill, +however, was unequal to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists +who remembered his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He +resigned office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at +Dresden, he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he +died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great wealth. + +Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least +conscientious, Fouche's character deteriorated in and after the year +1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition represented all +that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution +and Empire. In Fouche the enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a +cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the +period 1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest +instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking to the +level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain +aloofness. He multiplied the means of resistance even to that +irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never +wholly disgraced. Despised by all for his tergiversations, he +nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness. He repaid +the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a +mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected +no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared +to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors, +present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party. In this +versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. +Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of +serving France. Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; +Fouche may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and reports, the + chief of which are _Reflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet_ (1793); + _Reflexions sur l'education publique_ (1793); _Rapport et projet de + loi relatif aux colleges_ (1793); _Rapport sur la situation de + Commune-Affranchie_ [_Lyons_] (1794); _Lettre aux prefets concernant + les pretres_, &c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a + _Lettre au duc de Wellington_ (1817). The best life of Fouche is that + by L. Madelin, _Fouche_ (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called _Fouche + Memoirs_ are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least + in part, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable, though + their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is not + seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle, _Napoleon + et l'Angleterre_ (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904). For the + plots with which Fouche had to deal see E. Daudet, _La Police et les + Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1895); P.M.C. Desmarest, + _Temoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police_ (Paris, 1833, + 2nd ed., 1900); E. Picard, _Bonaparte et Moreau_ (Paris, 1905); G.A. + Thierry, _Conspirateurs et gens de police_; _le complot de libelles_ + (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H. Welschinger, _Le Duc + d'Enghien_ (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, _Les Complots militaires sous le + Consulat et l'Empire_ (Paris, 1894). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was born at Dijon on the +1st of March 1644. He was the son of a merchant, and appears to have +taken orders at a very early age. For some years he held the position of +honorary canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up his +residence in Paris. He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the +remainder of his life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the +27th of April 1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a +keen opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was one of +scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived the old +arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with much ingenuity against +Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise his scepticism is subordinate to +orthodox belief, the fundamental dogmas of the church seeming to him +intuitively evident. His object was to reconcile his religious with his +philosophical creed, and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an +academician. His writings against Malebranche were collected under the +title _Dissertations sur la recherche de la verite_, 1693. + + See F. Rabbe, _L'Abbe Simon Foucher_ (1867); C. Jourdain in + _Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_ (1875), pp. 557-559. + + + + +FOUCQUET, JEAN, or JEHAN (c. 1415-1485), French painter, born at Tours, +is the most representative and national French painter of the 15th +century. Of his life little is known, but it is certain that he was in +Italy about 1437, where he executed the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., +and that upon his return to France, whilst retaining his purely French +sentiment, he grafted the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had +acquired during his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks, +which was the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became +the founder of an important new school. He was court painter to Louis +XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator and miniaturist, of +exquisite precision in the rendering of the finest detail, and his power +of clear characterization in work on this minute scale, have long since +procured him an eminent position in the art of his country, his +importance as a painter was only realized when his portraits and +altarpieces were for the first time brought together from various parts +of Europe in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at +the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet's most important +paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame de Melun, of which one +wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum +and the other in the Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of +Charles VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a +portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from his brush +is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous are his +illuminated books and miniatures that have come down to us. The +Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains forty miniatures from +a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed +by Foucquet on the Berlin wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's +hand again are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a +translation of Josephus at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The second volume +of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen +miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry Yates Thompson +at a London sale, and restored by him to France. + + See _Oeuvres de Jehan Foucquet_ (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867); A. de + Champeaux and P. Gauchery, _Oeuvres d'art executees pour le duc de + Berry_; "Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet" from vols. i. + and ii. of the _Anciennetes des Juifs_ (London, 1902); Charles Blanc, + _Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles_ (introduction); and + Georges Lafenestre, _Jehan Fouquet_ (Paris, 1902). + + + + +FOUGERES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m. N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. +(1906) 21,847. Fougeres is built on the summit and slopes of a hill on +the left bank of the Nancon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was +formerly one of the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy, +and it still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications, +notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St Sulpice. The +castle, which is situated in the lower part of the town, directly +overlooking the Nancon, is now a picturesque ruin, but gives abundant +evidence in its towers and outworks of its former strength and +magnificence. The finest of the towers was erected in 1242 by Hugues of +Lusignan, and named after Melusine, the mythical foundress of the +family. The churches of St Leonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in +part, from the 15th century. An hotel de ville and a belfry, both of the +15th century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses many +curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de Lari Coisiere (d. +1812), born in the town. Fougeres is the seat of a subprefect, and has a +tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce and a communal +college. It is the chief industrial town of its department, being a +centre for the manufacture of boots and shoes; tanning and +leather-dressing and the manufacture of sail-cloth and other fabrics +are also important industries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the +granite of the neighbouring quarries. Fougeres frequently figures in +Breton history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the +English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne, the captor +on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the towers of the +castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of Charles VIII. under la +Tremoille. In the middle ages Fougeres was a lordship of some +importance, which in the 13th century passed into the possession of the +family of Lusignan, and in 1307 was confiscated by the crown and +afterwards changed hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the +Vendee, it was occupied by the insurgents. + + + + +FOUILLEE, ALFRED JULES EMILE (1838- ), French philosopher, was born at +La Poueze on the 18th of October 1838. He held several minor +philosophical lectureships, and from 1864 was professor of philosophy at +the lycees of Douai, Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and +1868 he was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work on +Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences at the +Ecole Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his +two treatises, _Platonis Hippias Minor sive Socratica contra liberum +arbitrium argumenta_ and _La Liberte et le determinisme_. The strain of +the next three years' continuous work undermined his health and his +eyesight, and he was compelled to retire from his professorship. During +these years he had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history +of philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed his +philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through which he +endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with the naturalistic and +mechanical standpoint of science. In _L'Evolutionnisme des idees-forces_ +(1890), _La Psychologie des idees-forces_ (1893), and _La Morale des +idees-forces_ (1907), is elaborated his doctrine of _idees-forces_, or +of mind as efficient cause through the tendency of ideas to realize +themselves in appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological +developments of this theory succeed its physical and psychological +treatment, the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially +important. Fouillee's wife, who by a previous marriage was the mother of +the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888), is well known, +under the pseudonym of "G. Bruno," as the author of educational books +for children. + + His other chief works are: _L'Idee moderne du droit en Allemagne, en + Angleterre et en France_ (Paris, 1878); _La Science sociale + contemporaine_ (1880); _La Propriete sociale et la democratie_ (1884); + _Critique des systemes de morale contemporains_ (1883); _La Morale, + l'art et la religion d'apres Guyau_ (1889); _L'Avenir de la + metaphysique fondee sur l'experience_ (1889); _L'Enseignement au point + de vue national_ (1891); _Descartes_ (1893); _Temperament et + caractere_ (2nd ed., 1895); _Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception + sociologique du monde_ (1896); _Le Mouvement idealiste et la reaction + contre la science positive_ (1896); _La Psychologie du peuple + francais_ (2nd ed., 1898); _La France au point de vue moral_ (1900); + _L'Esquisse psychologique des peuples europeens_ (1903); _Nietzsche et + l' "immoralisme"_ (1903); _Le Moralisme de Kant_ (1905). + + + + +FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician, was born at +Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of a rich Jewish banker, he +was associated with and afterwards succeeded his father in the +management of the business. As early as 1842 he entered political life, +having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the +Hautes Pyrenees. From that time to his death he actively busied himself +with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution +of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence in +financial matters on the provisional government then formed. He shortly +afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of paper money, +entitled, _Pas d'Assignats!_ and _Observations sur la question +financiere_. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times +minister of finance, and took a leading part in the economical reforms +then made in France. His strong conservative tendencies led him to +oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the _coup +d'etat_ and the new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence +of the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, he +resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the same day +appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government as minister of +state and of the imperial household. In this capacity he directed the +Paris exhibition of 1855. The events of November 1860 led once more to +his resignation, but he was recalled to the ministry of finance in +November of the following year, and retained office until the +publication of the imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when +Emile Ollivier became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last +tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican war +had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 millions +of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a +taste for the fine arts, which he developed and refined during his youth +by visiting Italy and the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 +he was made a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes +on the 5th of October 1867. + + + + +FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776), Scottish printers and +publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow maltman. Robert was apprenticed +to a barber; but his ability attracted the attention of Dr Francis +Hutcheson, who strongly recommended him to establish a printing press. +After spending 1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his +brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had received a +better education, he started business in 1741 in Glasgow, and in 1743 +was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought +out _Demetrius Phalereus de elocutione_, in Greek and Latin, the first +Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the +famous 12mo edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to +be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in the +university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six +errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon +afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for +about thirty years to issue carefully corrected and beautifully printed +editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French and +Italian. They printed more than five hundred separate publications, +among them the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, +Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful +edition of the Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol., +1756-1758); Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon, +Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems; Pope's Works; +Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman's designs were executed, is +perhaps the most famous production of the Foulis press. The brothers +spared no pains, and Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the +classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer. +Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for +the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief +patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to "print for posterity +and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of +sculpture and models, in paying for the education and travelling of +youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their +countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the "Academy" not only +proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died on the +18th of September 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to +realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much +less than he anticipated, and Robert returned broken-hearted to +Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was +the author of a _Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks_. The +business was afterwards carried on under the same name by Robert's son +Andrew. + + See W.J. Duncan, _Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary + History of Glasgow_, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which + _inter alia_ contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis + press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of + Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow. + + + + +FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1717-1789), French administrator, was born at +Saumur. During the Seven Years' War he was intendant-general of the +armies, and intendant of the army and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle. +In 1771 he was appointed intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker +was dismissed, Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household, +and was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But he was +unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested him on account of +his severity, the Parisians on account of his wealth accumulated in +utter indifference to the sufferings of the poor; he was reported, +probably quite without foundation, to have said, "If the people cannot +get bread, let them eat hay." After the taking of the Bastille on the +14th of July, he withdrew to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread +the news of his death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried +off with a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hotel de ville, and, in +spite of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace +and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789. + + See Eugene Bonnemere, _Histoire des paysans_ (4th ed., 1887), tome + iii.; C.L. Chassin, _Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_. + (Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv. + + + + +FOUNDATION (Lat. _fundatio_, from _fundare_, to found), the act of +building, constituting or instituting on a permanent basis; especially +the establishing of any institution by endowing or providing it with +funds for its continual maintenance. The word is thus applied also to +the institutions so established, such as a college, monastery or +hospital; and the terms "on the foundation," or "foundationer," are used +of members of such a college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars, +&c., the benefits of the endowment. Formerly "foundation" also meant the +charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and it is +still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such institutions. + +The terms "old foundation" and "new foundation" used in connexion with +the organizing of English cathedral chapters have no reference to the +age of the cathedrals. At the time of the Reformation under Henry VIII. +the old college chapters were left unchanged, and are referred to as the +"old foundations," but the monastic chapters were all suppressed, +consequently new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and +these constitute the "new foundations." + +"Foundation" also means the base (natural or artificial) on which any +erection is built up; generally made below the level of the ground (see +FOUNDATIONS below). A foundation-stone is one of the stones at the base +of a building, generally a corner-stone, frequently laid with a public +ceremony to celebrate the commencement of the building. The term is also +applied to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making, +the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material used for +stiffening purposes, as "foundation muslin or net." In knitting or +crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest are worked are called +the "foundation chain." In gem-cutting the "foundation-square" is the +first of eight squares round the edges of a brilliant made in bevel +planes and from which the angles are all removed to form three-corner +facets. + + + + +FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations is to distribute the +weight of a structure equally over the ground. In the construction of a +building the weights are concentrated at given points on piers, columns, +&c., and these foundations require to be spread so as to reduce the +weight to an average. In the preparation of a foundation care must be +taken to prevent the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed +upon sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any +damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with in ordinary +practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand, vary as to their +capabilities of bearing weight. There is no provision in any English +building acts as to the load that may be placed on any of these soils, +but under the New York Building Code it is provided that, where no test +of the sustaining power of the soil is made, different soils, excluding +mud, at the bottom of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the +following loads to the superficial foot: + + per sq. ft. + Soft clay 1 ton. + Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers, + wet and springy 2 tons. + Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry 3 tons. + Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay 4 tons. + + + Load on foundation. + +A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation by the +walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided for by the London +Building Act of 1894, and a comparison of a few of the principal +authorities, will be found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision +as to what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a wall of the +warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base for a height of +27 ft. is 2-1/2 bricks thick (or 22-1/2 in.), and for the same distance +in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the remainder to the top +being 1-1/2 bricks thick (or 14 in.). The weight of brickwork per foot +run of such a wall is 4.05 tons on any area of 3.75 ft. super. of +brickwork. According to the act the concrete is to project 4 in. on each +side; we have then an additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus +making the total foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft. +super. to take a weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super. +(viz. .9 ton.) + +Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration, viz. the +weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the roof. In this case +there would be at least six floors, and the entire weight could hardly +be taken at less than 6 tons, which would give a total weight of 10.05 +tons on an area of 4.41 ft. super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot +super. This is on the assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on +the foundations by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case, +in addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations should +be increased in area. Piers always involve a great increase of weight on +the foundations, and in very many instances this increased weight, +instead of being provided for by increasing the area of the foundations +and so reducing the weight per foot super., is only partly met by the +improper method of merely increasing the depth of the concrete, while +keeping the same projection of concrete round the footings as for the +walls. As an example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80 +tons, standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by a +brick pier 22-1/2 in. square. In this case we should have, after allowing +for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of 4 ft. 5 in. +square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure of 4.1 tons +per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much as in the previous +example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead of increasing the depth of +the concrete, it would be necessary to increase its width; if it were +made 6 ft. square, we should have an area of 36 ft. super. to take the +80 tons, and thus the pressure would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the +cost of the foundation be much the same. + +If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class, as +prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a wall 50 +ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22-1/2 in. as for the +warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall weighing 3.75 +tons per foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super., or .85 ton per foot +without weight of floors and roof as against the .9 ton in the warehouse +example. To this must be added the weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at +a total of 3 tons per foot run of wall, and we then have an aggregate of +6.75 tons per foot run and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28 +tons in the warehouse class. + +If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel Seddon in the +_Aide Memoir_ gives the load which ordinary foundations will bear as a +safe load per foot super. as follows: + + tons. + Rock, moderately hard 9 + Rock of strength of good concrete 3 + Rock, very soft 1.8 + Firm earth 1 to 1-1/2 + Hard clay 1 to 1-1/2 + Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from + spreading sideways 1 to 1-1/2 + +Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the latter heads, +and according to this table we have, when we erect walls in accordance +with the building act, to overload our foundations. + +As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an example the +chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham, 312 ft. high, so arranged +that its pressure on the foundations is only 1-1/2 tons per foot super.; +also the great St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, which has a pressure of +1-3/4 tons; the weight of the Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over +4 bases, each 130 ft. square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or +2-1/3 cwt., per foot super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per +foot on the granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by +spreading to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The +piers under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2-1/4 tons only, those of +the Imperial Institute 2-1/4 tons, and those of the destructor cells and +chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6-3/4 cwt. per foot super. From +these various examples it would appear that on sound clay or gravel +foundation a load of from 2-1/4 to 4 tons may be employed with safety. + + + Trial borings. + +One of the first and most important requirements in preparing drawings +for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil and +strata at different levels over the proposed site, so as to be able to +arrange the footings accordingly at the various depths and to decide as +to the various forms and methods to be employed. For this purpose trial +holes or borings are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon +which the concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom +is found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations must +be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile foundations, +&c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples of the +varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will be noticed +the great depths dug before getting through the made ground: At the Bank +of England there were 22 ft. of made ground resting on 4 ft. of gravel. +Some of the made ground was of ancient date, and preserved relics of +Roman occupation. In some parts the subsoils have been excavated for +ballast or gravel, as at Kensington, or for brick earth, as at Highbury, +and the pits filled in with rubbish. Rock, which forms an excellent and +unchanging foundation in one situation, may prove a dangerous foundation +in another. Thus chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain +positions, but when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop +of the gault or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for +any building, as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the +Dorsetshire coast bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the +Thames embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in. +greensand, wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5) +5-1/2 ft. peaty bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean +ballast, resting at a depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue +clay. A boring at Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18 +ft. loam, (3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand. +These examples show that while trial holes should always be made before +designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care +must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block 2 of +the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial holes +upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay to be +about 29-1/2 ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual +excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution +of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west +corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground. +The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are placed in +a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid +concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland Avenue +(London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38-1/2 ft. made +ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3) 6 ft. +rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue clay. +At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north end 37 ft. +The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft. wide. The site +was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about 6 ft. wide, forming a +species of boxes, and the whole was covered with a depth of 6 ft. of +concrete upon which the walls were raised. The foundation for 53 +Parliament Street, where running sand was encountered, was constructed +with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and 6 in. diam., pointed and placed as +close together as possible over the whole foundation, the tops were then +sawn off level, and a concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over +the whole area. At the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George +Street, Westminster, the foundations to the two party walls upon each +side of the building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement +level, that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side +24 ft. + + + Construction. + + The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the erection of + buildings on sites that have been used as "shoots" for faecal matter + or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the objectionable material must + be removed prior to the commencement of building operations, and the + holes from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other + rubbish well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or + navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level + pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow, + rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and + excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have + to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides of + the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts; this work + is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms of planking + and strutting for the different soils. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is used + for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket with a + cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the excavation, + and on being withdrawn cuts off a portion of soil which is hoisted and + deposited in carts for removal to any desired position within the + radius commanded by the crane. The work of trimming the excavation to + a regular shape must always be done by manual labour. + + Concrete for filling into the foundations is usually mixed by navvies; + for large works it is sometimes mixed by machinery. + + In order that the work of excavating and constructing the foundations + may proceed in a water-logged site, pumps have to be employed, and + where the inrush of water is great it is usual to sink a sump hole + lower than the depth required for the foundations, and to use a steam + pump kept going day and night. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance + with the London Building and Amendment Acts: "The projection of the + bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall shall be + at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base, + unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may + be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the footings + of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the height from + the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least + equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its base." (See + BRICKWORK.) The base of a wall is the thickness above the footing; the + footing is the brickwork built directly on the top of the concrete and + diminishing in width in every course. Thus: "The projection of the + bottom footing to be equal to one-half the thickness of wall on both + sides" means that a 13-1/2-in. wall would require to have three courses + of footings, the bottom one being 27 in. wide. "The height from the + bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall be at least equal + to two-thirds the thickness of wall at its base" means that in the + case of a 13-1/2-in. wall the height of footings would have to be 9 in., + or three courses of brickwork, each measuring 3 in. + + The New York Building Code enters more fully into the requirements for + the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use in London. + Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except buildings + erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the water front, + shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete laid not less + then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid ground or + level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers when solid + earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a wall, pier or + post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than 20 in. on + centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable, and + their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure + proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than 5 in. at the + small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles 20 ft. or + less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding 40,000 + lb. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining power + shall be determined by the following formula: twice the weight of the + hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall in feet divided by + the least penetration of pile under the last blow in inches plus one. + There are also further requirements as to piles, &c., and the + commissioner of buildings must be notified when the piles are to be + driven. + + The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that foundation + walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers built below + the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to serve as + supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or beams. + Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland cement + concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland cement + concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall above + them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every + additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4 + in. in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in. + thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the + curb level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, + they shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course + shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up + brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight + to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete, + the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the + stones shall not be less than 2 X 3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness + for walls, and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers, + columns or posts. The footing or base course, whether formed of + concrete or stone, shall be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom + width of walls, and at least 12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom + width of said piers, columns or posts. If the superimposed load is + such as to cause undue transverse strain on a footing projecting 12 + in., the thickness of such footing is to be increased so as to carry + the load with safety. For small structures and for small piers + sustaining light loads the commissioner of buildings having + jurisdiction may, in his discretion, allow a reduction in the + thickness and projection specified for footing or base courses. All + base stones shall be bedded and laid crosswise, edge to edge. If + stepped-up footing of brick is used in place of stone above the + concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall each not exceed + 1-1/2 in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall not exceed 3 + in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half the + thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the load + to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that the + American acts are far more extensive than in London. The London + Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest upon the + solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure. The + building act amendment says: "The foundations of the walls of every + house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete not less + than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side of the + lowest course of footings." + + _Various Types of Foundations._--The most natural foundations for + walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly upon + the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard or + consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply + levelled and the building commenced. + + The next and most universally recognized method, which might safely be + said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the system of + placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches where the + walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and in these laying + the concrete. The London Building Act requires this concrete bed to be + at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of footings on each side + of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider on each side and in + general circumstances the depth of the concrete is varied according to + the weight placed upon it. + + Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course, + &c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies low, + naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is soft. It + is here that special foundations are required. + + + Concrete piers, legs, or stilts. + + In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These + are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building, + and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may require + according to the nature of the ground; and on the tops of these stilts + concrete arches or lintels are turned over (fig. 3). As an example of + the stilt principle, mention may be made of some premises at Stratford + and a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers were + sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4-1/2 ft. square, in pot holes dug + out of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the + intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of 18 in. or + the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in which + steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment, + London, the foundations were formed with cement concrete stilts or + piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London clay; from the tops + of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning the spaces between + the piers, and upon these arches the walls were built. + + + Pile foundations. + + Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works, + consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6 + in. to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom + ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to be + easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have an + iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in the + band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of driving + these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary + structure, upon one side of which is a guide path faced with + sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up and down this guide path a + heavy iron weight, called a monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted + to the top of the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or + steam, and when released descends with a good force, and so drives the + piles into the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10 + cwt. and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or + under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In + the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles, + each with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of + 52-1/2 ft. and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a + period of two weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile + was adopted as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads + used in practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles + 50 ft. in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y., + piles 20 ft. in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2 + tons; Schiller building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case + the building settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of + all piles should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped + with concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks + of granite. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + + Concrete piles. + + Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement concrete + blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land, &c. In + some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and the centres are + filled with blocks of concrete and grouted in. The Yarmouth destructor + cells and chimney shaft were built in this way; the cylinders were + constructed of 9 in. brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4 + ft. being encased in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the + gravel and sand at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of + a grab, the bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a + diver. Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement + concrete having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron + shoes and head for driving (fig. 6). + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist + of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the + lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary from 9 + in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of the + projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the shaft. + For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 ft. will + be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. The + lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being bevelled + and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting into and + penetrating the soil. + + Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists in + driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, also + driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., which + form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In this way + the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing the building + to settle unevenly. + + + Plank foundations. + + Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9), + consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the trench + and spiked together; on the top of these are laid similar planks but + at right angles to the last, and upon the platform thus formed the + wall is built. This method is used in soft ground. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + + Caissons. + + Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction of the + foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in foundations + for buildings are to be found in the American Surety and the Manhattan + Life Insurance buildings, New York City. The latter building is 242 + ft. high to the parapet, and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher. + The building is carried on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft. + below the street level to solid rock, and these piers support the 34 + cast iron columns upon which the building is erected. The piers to + each building were constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see + CAISSON). + + + Well foundations. + + A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy is to + build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully + practised in Madras. The wells are made circular, about 3 ft. in + diameter and one brick thick. The first course is laid and cemented + together on the surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is + excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another + is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. The + brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according to + building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with + rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon + foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under the + city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + + Coffer dams. + + Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water whilst + putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed with two + rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced about 6 ft. apart, and + filled in between with a double row of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the + space between the rows being packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The + general rule for the thickness of a coffer dam is to make it equal to + the depth of water. An interesting example of a coffer dam is that at + the Keyham dock extension, where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to + 85 ft. They were driven in a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 + were used. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + + Dock foundations. + + Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large concrete + tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty arises as to + the ingress of water. They are considered the best method of + constructing a building on soft ground and of keeping a building dry + (fig. 11). This type of foundation was used at the new colonial + office, Whitehall, London, and the new admiralty buildings at St + James's Park, London. A few buildings treated after the style of a + dock, but in some instances without the enclosing walls, are the + following: At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete + retaining wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and + is joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered + with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside + clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new "Old + Bailey" buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed on a + concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy Auxiliary + Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet's Wharf, near Southwark Bridge, a + concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the site, with an + extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed similarly to dock + foundations, but in addition having steel joists and rods inserted in + the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole together, are + known as _gridiron_ foundations. + + In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed with + small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed for + floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended + foundation on soft ground. + + + Cantilever foundations. + + Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is not + sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of building + pier foundations at some distance from the proposed new wall. On the + top of these piers rest steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon + cast iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one end to a + column, while the other ends go through the full thickness of the new + wall. Upon these last ends is placed a steel girder upon which the + wall is built. This construction (fig. 12) has been used in America, + and in the Ritz Hotel, Piccadilly, London. + + Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in the case of + some premises at Carr's Lane, Birmingham, partly built over the Great + Western railway tunnel (fig. 13). In this instance large piers were + built below the ground at the side of the tunnel. From the tops of + these piers large steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the + crown of the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the + building constructed upon them. + + + Foundations in Tunis. + + In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy ground, + the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited by the sewage water + from the ancient or Arab quarter of the city, which is situated on an + adjacent hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about 33 ft. To + prepare the soil for supporting an ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to + 10 ft. square are excavated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level + of the ground water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and + powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt stone from the + lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust when exposed to the air. + The mixture is thrown into pits in layers about 12 in. thick and + rammed down for a very long time by specially trained labourers. A + gang of 15 or 20 men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the + foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard bed is thus + obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface of the ground, and + on this artificial bed the foundations of the building are laid. + Although this method of construction is crude, it is stated that the + practical results are superior to those obtained by using piles, + concrete or other recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is + much less, for labour is cheap. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + Building on sand. + + A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a signal station + at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on top of the highest + sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so that the observer may have an + unobstructed view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the sea + and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is absolutely + required that it shall stand firmly planted in such a way that even a + hurricane shall not shake it or make it tremble, since that would + affect the sight of the telescope in the observatory. The usual mode + of securing such a building is by means of a foundation of screw piles + or of heavy timbers sunk into the sand; this method, however, has the + disadvantage that if the wind shifts the sand away from around the + foundation, it becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To + avoid such an accident, recourse was had to the following design, + which was considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an + effective anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a + cellar, above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole + is surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a + square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and + pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made + likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined + together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are + mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet + above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first + room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper room. + Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts. The + structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside with + rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and grooved + yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal in shape, is + securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a corrugated iron + roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with 3 in. wood, and + boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit was first dug in + the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on the bottom. The + cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure built upon it; + thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top of the hill or + the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up with sand and + packed solid all round, consequently the building is anchored in its + place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in weight. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.] + + The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance, + is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much + importance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact + and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site + answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best + form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if + that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, on + a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of + solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of + the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before + his work can even be started on its way to completion. + + AUTHORITIES.--The principal books for reference on this subject are: + _A Practical Treatise on Foundations_, by W.M. Patron, C. E.; + _Building Construction and Superintendence_, part i., by F.E. Kidder; + _Notes on Building Construction_, vols. i. ii. and iii.; _Aide + Memoir_, vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; _Advanced Building + Construction_, by C.F. Mitchell; _Modern House Construction_, by G.L. + Sutcliffe; _Building Construction_, by Professor Henry Adams; + _Practical Building Construction_, by J.P. Allen. (J. Bt.) + + + + + +FOUNDING (from Lat. _fundere_, to pour), the process of casting in +metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running molten +metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from that object. To +enable the founder to prepare a mould for the casting, he must receive a +pattern similar to the casting required. Some few exceptions occur, to +be noted presently, but the above statement is true of perhaps 98% of +all castings produced. The construction of such patterns gives +employment to a large number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire +the necessary knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to +seven years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the work +of pattern construction--that of the craft itself and that of the +moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed strongly. They are +generally of wood, and they thus require skill in the use of woodworking +tools and the making of timber joints, together with a knowledge of the +behaviour of timber, &c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or +white metal alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the +founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without +inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since cast +work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including +projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the +withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and fracture of +the sand must involve many difficult problems that have to be as fully +understood by the pattern-maker as by the moulder. It is from this point +of view that the work of the pattern-maker should be approached in the +first place. No closed mould can possibly be made without one or more +joints, for if a pattern is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it +cannot be withdrawn except by making a parting in the sand, and it is +not difficult to conceive that the parting in the pattern might +advantageously be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately, +with that of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal +of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the lower +than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle smaller or +"tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions into the lower sand, +unless these can be made to withdraw separately from the main portion of +the pattern. Finally, there are many internal spaces which cannot be +formed by a pattern directly in the sand, but provision for which must +be made by some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + A single example must illustrate the main principles which have just + been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves questions + of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding. The + casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1 + illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation + of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious + difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it were + made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with the + open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the pieces + A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will "deliver" + freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as shown in fig. 3, + or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as in fig. 4, or along + the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The timber shadings in + figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable arrangement of + material. The prints are "boxed up." Fig. 4 shows a certain stage of + the moulding, in which one half of the pattern has been "rammed" in + sand, and turned over in the "bottom box," and the upper half is ready + to be rammed in the "top box," with "runner pin" or "git stick" A, set + in place. The lower loose piece has had its skewer removed during the + ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates the mould completed and ready for pouring. + The boxes have been parted, the pattern has been withdrawn, cores + inserted in the impressions left by the prints, vents taken from the + central body of cinders, the pouring basin made and the boxes cottered + together. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + Every single detail now briefly noted in connexion with this bracket + is applied and modified in an almost infinite number of ways to suit + the ever varying character of foundry work. Yet this process does not + touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting. There is + a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete patterns and + core boxes are never made, because of the great expense that would be + involved in the pattern construction. There are also some cases in + which the methods adopted would not permit of the use of patterns, as + in that group of work in which the sand or loam is "swept" to the form + required for the moulds and cores by means of striking boards, loam + boards, core boards or strickles. In these classes of moulding the + loose green sands and core sands are not much used; instead, loam--a + wet and plastic sand mixture--is employed, supported against bricks + (loam moulds) or against core bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam + cores). All heavy marine engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping, + and all massive cores for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides + much large circular and cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders, + soap pans, lead pans, mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In + these cases the edge of the striking board is a counterpart of the + profile of the work swept up. Joints also have to be made in such + moulds, not of course in order to provide for the removal of a + pattern, but for the exposure of the separate parts in course of + construction, and for closing them up, or putting them together in + their due relations. These joints also are swept by the boards, + generally cut to produce suitable "checks," or "registers" to ensure + that they accurately fit together. Fig. 6, showing a portion of a + swept-up mould, illustrates the general arrangement. A plate, A, + carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are embedded in loam, and break + joint. To a striking bar, C, supported in a step, a striking board or + sweeping board, D, is bolted, and is swept round against plastic loam, + which is afterwards dried. The check on the board at A corresponds + with a similar check on the board which strikes the interior of the + pan, and by which top and bottom portions of the mould are registered + together. This is indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept + on bricks, and turned over into place, and the metal is poured into + the space b, b, between the two moulds. There is also a large group of + swept-up work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation. + Then the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges + of "core plates," or of "core irons" (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the + volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of this + kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and B the + "strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves pasted + together completing the core. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often involving + as much detail as the construction and moulding of patterns. Two + perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in both of which + provision exists for removing the box parts from the core after the + latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and tapered, and often + have loose pieces within them, and also prints, into the impressions + of which other cores are inserted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Machine-moulding._--There is a development of modern methods of +founding which is effecting radical changes in some departments of +foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines. The advantages of this +method are manifold, and its limitations are being lessened +continually. There are two broad departments between which +machine-moulding is divided. One, of less importance, is that of toothed +wheels; the other is that of general work, except of a very massive +character. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special adaptation of the +mechanism of the dividing engine, by means of which, instead of using a +complete pattern of a toothed wheel, two or three pattern teeth are +used, and the machine takes charge of the correct pitching or division +of the teeth moulded therefrom, leaving to the moulder the work only of +turning the handle of the division plate, and ramming the sand around +the pattern teeth. The result is accurate pitching, and the use of two +or three teeth instead of a full pattern, together with any core boxes +and striking boards that are necessary for the arms. + +The other department of machine moulding includes nearly every +conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions. There are some +dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for no one type is suitable +for all classes of moulds, while some are designed specially for one or +two kinds only. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The pattern + parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate or table A + (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they must + partake of certain movements which are imparted to it. Often patterns + mounted, as in fig. 10, are moulded by hand, without any aid from a + machine, by methods of "plate-moulding." The delivery of the pattern + from the sand is invariably accomplished by a perpendicular movement + of a portion of the machine (fig. 11), withdrawing either the pattern + from the mould or the mould from the pattern. The important point is + that the perpendicular movement, being under the coercion of the + vertical guides provided in the hand machines, or the hydraulic ram in + fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental to + withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine performed + nothing more than this it would justify its existence. Little or no + taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds are more nearly + uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds. But there are other + advantages. In machine-moulding the joint faces for parting moulds + are produced by the faces of the plates on which the pattern is + mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by the hands and trowel of the + moulder. When the joint face is of irregular outline, as it often is, + this item alone saves a good deal of time, which again is multiplied + by the number of moulds repeated, often amounting to thousands. + Further, provision is generally made on machine plates for the ingates + and runners (fig. 10) through which the metal enters the mould, the + preparation of which in hand work occupies a considerable amount of + time. Another great advantage applies especially to the case of deep + moulds. These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the + liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of the + pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled by a + plate, termed a "stripping plate," which is pierced to allow the + patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly on the + sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from becoming torn + up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but is a necessity in + numerous instances. The most familiar example is that of the teeth of + gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount of taper interferes + with accurate engagement, and this is representative of many other + portions of mechanism. These stripping plates are of metal, but in + order to save the cost of filing them in iron or steel, many are + cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy round the actual pattern + itself in the first place, the white metal being enclosed and retained + in a plain iron frame which forms the body of the plate. Lastly, many + machines, but not the majority, include provision for mechanically + ramming the sand around the pattern by power instead of by hand. This + is really the least valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it + is not applicable to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly + used for these, but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand + round a pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by + careful hand ramming. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when (1) + several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a single + plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould are produced + on different machines, carrying each its moiety of the pattern; (3) + when the machine and pattern details are simplified so much that the + labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of unskilled + attendants who are taught in a month or two the few simple operations + required. That is the direction in which repetitive casting is now + rapidly tending. + + In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with + the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so + as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for + ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the final + squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of the + hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D. The + plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent of the + ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the stage seen + in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on the carriage + F, provided with wheels to run on rails. + + Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is + carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing + principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green, i.e. + moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being used), + and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and machine + moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted. The + differences in working are those due to the various characteristics of + the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the sand + mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of the + temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the fluxing + and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical + character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department + must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably + fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings + would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither + brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned + suitably for iron. + + A special kind of casting is that into "chill moulds," adopted in a + considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels in + the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and + steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill + ranges in depth from 1/4 in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a + special mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron + surface, the parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled + being surrounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of + chill-casting is to produce a surface hardness in the metal. + + The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account of by + the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are made larger + than the size of the casting required by the exact amount that the + metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold state. This + amount varies from 1/8 in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings, to 1/8 + in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from 3/16 in. to 5/16 in. per + foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be + borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with or + without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a + fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings, + particularly of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this + respect than iron, and iron much less than steel. (J. G. H.) + + + + +FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the reception of +"foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned or exposed, and left +for the public to find and save. The early history of such institutions +is connected with the practice of infanticide, and in western Europe +where social disorder was rife and famine of frequent occurrence, +exposure and extensive sales of children were the necessary +consequences. Against these evils, which were noticed by several +councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being +deposited (_jactati_) in marble shells at the church doors, and tended +first by the _matricularii_ or male nurses, and then by the _nutricarii_ +or foster-parents.[1] But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that +definite institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as +Treves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop +of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his +fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de Paul, who in the +reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the countess of Joigny, Mme le +Gras and other religious ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from +the horrors of a primitive institution named La Couche (rue St Landry), +and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicetre for their +accommodation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital in +1670. The Hotel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. No provision, +however, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the cities were +overcrowded and administered with laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied +that the state would yet be seriously embarrassed by this increasing +evil.[2] From 1452 to 1789 the law had imposed on the _seigneurs de +haute justice_ the duty of succouring children found deserted on their +territories. The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a +state debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were +given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the "enfants de la +patrie." By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. "Toute recherche de la +paternite est interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoleon, "la +recherche de la maternite est admise." + + _France._--The laws of France relating to this part of what is called + L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction + of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of the + 5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law of the + 27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles of the + law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the system of + national poor relief established by the Revolution. The _enfants + assistes_ include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings proper, (3) + children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated, neglected or + morally abandoned children whose parents have been deprived of their + parental rights by the decision of a court of justice, (5) children, + under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for certain crimes, + whose parental rights have been delegated by a tribunal to the state. + Children classified under 1-5 are termed _pupilles de l'assistance_, + "wards of public charity," and are distinguished by the law of 1904 + from children under the protection of the state, classified as: (1) + _enfants secourus_, i.e. children whose parents or relatives are + unable, through poverty, to support them; (2) _enfants en depot_, i.e. + children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence and children + temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital, and (3) + _enfants en garde_, i.e. children who have either committed or been + the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state care by + judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these children is a + departmental (_etablissement depositaire_), and not a communal + institution. The etablissement depositaire is usually the ward of an + hospice, in which--with the exception of children _en depot_--the stay + is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing the principle + laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of age under the + guardianship of the state, except the mentally or physically infirm, + must be boarded out in country districts. They are generally + apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural industry, and + until majority they remain under the guardianship of the + administrative commissioners of the department. The state pays the + whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The expenses of + administration, the "home" expenses, for the nurse (_nourrice + sedentaire_) or the wet nurse (_nourrice au sein_), the _prime de + survie_ (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the "outdoor" + expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers + in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the foster-parents + (_nourriciers_) in the country for board, school-money, &c.; (3) + clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children; (5) printing, + &c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials and apprentice + fees--are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by the state + two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by the communes. + The following figures show the number of children (exclusive of + _enfants secourus_) relieved at various periods: + + Year. Number relieved. + 1890 95,701 + 1895 121,201 + 1900 138,308 + 1905 149,803 + + The _droit de recherche_ is conceded to the parent on payment of a + small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all + expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed a + _tour_ or revolving box (_Drehcylinder_ in Germany) to be kept at each + hospital. These have been discontinued. The "Assistance Publique" of + Paris is managed by a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the + interior, and associated with a representative _conseil de + surveillance_. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistes contains about + 700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities for the + adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible here to give + even a sketch of the long and able controversies which have occurred + in France on the principles of management of foundling hospitals, the + advantages of _tours_ and the system of admission _a bureau ouvert_, + the transfer of orphans from one department to another, the hygiene + and service of hospitals and the inspection of nurses, the education + and reclamation of the children and the rights of the state in their + future. Reference may be made to the works noticed at the end of this + article. + + _Belgium._--In this country the arrangements for the relief of + foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very + much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described + apart from the general questions of local government and poor law + administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are + purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance + from both the departments and the state. A decree of 1811 directed + that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in + every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in + 1860. (See _Des Institutions de bienfaisance et de prevoyance en + Belgique_, 1850 a 1860, par M.P. Lentz.) + + _Italy_ is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans + and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See + _Della carita preventiva in Italia_, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one + branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola + Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time of + Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual number + of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See _The Charitable + Institutions of Rome_, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa + degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving + 450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The + splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the + support of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carita" acting + through 30 parish boards (_deputazione fraternate_). + + _Austria._--In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent + place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of + April 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment + commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were + declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported by + the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October 1860 + handed them over to the provincial committees. They are now local + institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate + from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is gratuitous + when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a + criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four + months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate + from the parish priest and "poor-father" (the parish inspector of the + poor-law administration) that she has no money. In other cases + payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child + is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighbourhood of + respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or + the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a + special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly + diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14 + days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child + in their service or employment till the age of twenty-two, but the + true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the + asylum and compensating the foster-parents. + + _Russia._--Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were + received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state. + But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been + in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity (prykaz + obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions + (Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch at + Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought the + baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child + may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child. + After the usual period of six years in the country very great care is + taken with the education, especially of the more promising children. + The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the public service. + Malthus (_The Principles of Population_, vol. i. p. 434) has made a + violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they + discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best + management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An + occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price + if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most + useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It + does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is + comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of + parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the + government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in + 1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gourov. + See his _Recherches sur les enfants trouves_, and _Essai sur + l'histoire des enfants trouves_ (Paris, 1829). + + In _America_, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private + charities, exist in most of the large cities. + + _Great Britain._--The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated by + royal charter in 1739 "for the maintenance and education of exposed + and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram, + who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,[3] states as + its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable + children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of + exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no + questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing mark + was put on each child by the parent. These were often marked coins, + trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of + paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully recorded. One entry is, + "Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too + numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white and black balls + was adopted. In 1756 the House of Commons came to a resolution that + all children offered should be received, that local receiving places + should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be + publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the + hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two to twelve + months, and a flood of children poured in from the country workhouses. + In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile + trade grew up among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the + country to the hospital,--an undertaking which, like the French + _meneurs_, they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. + Of these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total + expense was about L500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. After + throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by + fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the + conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued. + The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a + pernicious system of receiving children with considerable sums (e.g. + L100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the + parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it is now a fundamental + rule that no money is received. The committee of inquiry must now be + satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the + mother, and that the father of the child has deserted it and the + mother, and that the reception of the child will probably replace the + mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood. + All the children at the Foundling hospital are those of unmarried + women, and they are all first children of their mothers. The principle + is in fact that laid down by Fielding in _Tom Jones_--"Too true I am + afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to + the last degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip." + At present the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of + fifteen. The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of + admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named after the + patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a list. Children + are seldom taken after they are twelve months old. On reception they + are sent down to the country, where they stay until they are about + four or five years old. At sixteen the girls are generally apprenticed + as servants for four years, and the boys at the age of fourteen as + mechanics for seven years. There is a small benevolent fund for + adults. The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind + children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel, who + frequently had the "Messiah" performed there, and who bequeathed to + the hospital a MS. copy (full score) of his greatest oratorio. The + altar-piece is West's picture of Christ presenting a little Child. In + 1774 Dr Burney and Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to + form in connexion with the hospital a public music school, in + imitation of the Conservatorium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a + successful "Juvenile Band" was started. The educational effects of + music have been found excellent, and the hospital supplies many + musicians to the best army and navy bands. The early connexion between + the hospital and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is + one of extreme interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, + which were organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the + formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of + Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to + Finchley, and Roubillac's bust of Handel. (See _History and Objects of + the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder_, by J. Brownlow.) + + In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No inquiry was + made about the parents, and no money received. From 1500 to 2000 + children were received annually. A large income was derived from a + duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In 1822 an admission fee + of L5 was charged on the parish from which the child came. This + reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. In 1829 the select committee + on the Irish miscellaneous estimates recommended that no further + assistance should be given. The hospital had not preserved life or + educated the foundlings. The mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the + total cost L10,000 a year. Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then + Irish Secretary) closed the institution. + + Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In 1759 + John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious and + charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the establishment + of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and taking care of their + children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament in 1822, which + sets forth "doubts as to the propriety" of the original purpose, the + money was given to trustees to erect a hospital for the maintenance + and education of destitute children. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouves_ by + MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent + medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the + foundling hospital); Remacle, _Des hospices d'enfants trouves en + Europe_ (Paris, 1838); Hugel _Die Findelhauser und das Findelwesen + Europas_ (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, "Das Armenwesen und die + Armengesetzgebung," in _Europaischen Staaten_ (Berlin, 1870); + Sennichon, _Histoire des enfants abandonnes_ (Paris, 1880); the annual + _Rapport sur le service des enfants assistes du departement de la + Seine_; Epstein, _Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten_ (Prague, + 1882); Florence D. Hill, _Children of the State_ (2nd ed., 1889). For + United States, see H. Folks, _Care of Neglected and Dependent + Children_ (1901); A.G. Warner, _American Charities_ (enlarged, 1908) + and _Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Charities_. Information + may also be got in the _Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries_, + communicated to the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary; + _Accounts and Papers_ (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; _Report of Committee + on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1890); _Report of Lords Committee + on the Infant Life Protection Bill_ (1896). (See also CHARITY AND + CHARITIES.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Capitularia regum Francorum_, ii. 474. + + [2] _De l'administration des finances_, iii. 136; see also the + article "Enfant expose" in Diderot's _Encyclopedie_, 1755, and + Chamousset's _Memoire politique sur les enfants,_ 1757. + + [3] Addison had suggested such a charity (_Guardian_, No. 3). + + + + +FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. _fontana_, from _fons_, a spring), a term applied in +a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether fed by natural +or artificial means, have contrivances of human art at a point where the +water emerges. A very early existing example is preserved in the carved +Babylonian basin (about 3000 B.C.) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash, +and Layard mentions an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the +river Gomel, which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock +and descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally led +from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which was +ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is applied equally +to the simpler arrangements for letting water gush into an ornamental +basin or to the more elaborate ones by which water is mechanically +forced into high jets; and a "fountain" may be either the ornamental +receptacle or the jet of water itself. In modern times the examples of +ornamental or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to +mention some of the more important facts of historical interest. + +Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities. Springs being +very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill was required to +convey the water from place to place. Receptacles of sufficient size +were made for it at the springs; and to maintain its purity, structures +were raised enclosing and covering the receptacle. In Greece they were +dedicated to gods and goddesses, nymphs and heroes, and were frequently +placed in or near temples. That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by +Herodotus) was formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells +from which the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects +it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when bewailing +her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was changed into a +fountain. The city of Corinth possessed many fountains. In one near the +statues of Diana and Bellerophon the water flowed through the hoofs of +the horse Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was +dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown herself into it +believing that its waters could counteract the poisons of Medea. Another +Corinthian fountain had a bronze statue of Poseidon standing on a +dolphin from which the water flowed. The fountain constructed by +Theagenes at Megara was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for +the number of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and +the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool summer +retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo, and in it a +fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite architectural detail when +he says that a fountain at Patrae was reached from without by descending +steps. Mystical, medicinal, surgical and other qualities, as well as +supernatural origin, were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia +was said to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into +it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the legends of +fountains and other waters with strange powers to heal are numerous in +many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus at Athens was called Callirrhoe +before the time the water was drawn from it by the nine pipes from which +it took its later name. Two temples were above it, according to +Pausanias, one dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to +Triptolemus. The fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was +supplied by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that +in the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea. + +The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were on a scale +to be expected from a people of such great practical power. The remains +of the aqueducts which stretched from the city across the Campagna are +amongst the most striking monuments of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.) +gives minute particulars concerning the methods to be employed for the +discovery, testing and distribution of water, and describes the +properties of different waters with great care, proving the importance +which was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts +supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last all the +populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate pipe to +their houses, obtained their water. These fountains were therefore of +large size and numerous. They were formed at many of the _castella_ of +the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius, each _castellum_ should have +three pipes,--one for public fountains, one for baths and the third for +private houses. Considerable revenue was drawn from the possessors of +private water-pipes. The Roman fountains were generally decorated with +figures and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman +villas and country houses; in those so situated the water generally +ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a second +fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses in Pompeii had +very remarkable fountains. One, says Gell, "is covered with a sort of +mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae of different colours, but in +which blue predominates. These are sometimes arranged in not inelegant +patterns, and the grand divisions as well as the borders are entirely +formed and ornamented with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat +of the eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries" +(_Pompeiana_, i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated +with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured +figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples. This +fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is placed, +and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure up to the +eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column in the piscina +was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth of which water +issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a fountain which was +decorated with marine shells. + +Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the crossways in +Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes from the reservoirs, and had +little ornament except a human or animal head, from the mouth of which +it was arranged that the water should issue. Not only did simple running +fountains exist, but the remains of _jets d'eau_ have been found; and a +drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water, standing +on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been the impluvium of a +house. There was also a _jet d'eau_ at the eastern end of the peristyle +of the Fullonica at Pompeii. + +As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of superstitious +beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be traced in +monumental and legendary remains. Near the village of Primaleon in +Brittany was a very remarkable monument,--one possibly unique, as giving +distinct proof of the existence of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is +a dolmen composed of a horizontal table supported by two stones only, +one at each end. All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long +square basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of +water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of fountains. +Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon which it is built, +is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an ancient chapel, which +with its ivy-covered walls has a most romantic appearance. A Gothic +vault protects this fountain. Miraculous virtues are still attributed to +its water, and on certain days the country people still come with +offerings to draw it (see La Poix de Freminville, _Antiquites de la +Bretagne_, i. p. 101). In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous +from its connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was +said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water from it, and +sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous storm of thunder +and hail, accompanied with thick darkness. + +Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious feeling +concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints were erected +upon the rude structures that collected the water and preserved its +purity. There is some uniformity in the architectural characteristics of +these structures during the middle ages. A very common form in rural +districts was that in which the fountain was reached by descending steps +(_fontaine grotte_). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a +spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered by a +sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and sculptured +figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain at Poitiers is a +fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert, which though restored in +1597 was originally a structure of the 14th century. This kind of +fountain is frequently decorated with figures of the Virgin or of +saints, or with the family arms of its founder; often, too, the water is +the only ornament of the structure, which bears a simple inscription. A +large number of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed +throughout France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved by +the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst the +peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was that of a large +open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in form, with a columnar +structure at the centre, from the lower part of which it was arranged +that spouts should issue, playing into an open basin, and supplying +vessels brought for the purpose in the cleanest and quickest manner. The +columns take very various forms, from that of a simple regular +geometrical solid, with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of +an elaborate and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins, +saints and warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At +Provins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which is in +form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre, the capital of +which is pierced by three mouths, which are furnished with heads of +bronze projecting far enough to cast the water into the basin. In the +public market-place at Brunswick is a fountain of the 15th century, of +which the central structure is made of bronze. Many fountains are still +existing in France and Germany which, though their actual present +structure may date no earlier than the 15th or 16th century, have been +found on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as +restorations of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains +are of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are at the +abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another, of granite, is at +Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains are simple, open reservoirs +enclosed in structures which, however plain, still carry the charm that +belongs to the stone-work of those times. There is one of this kind at +Cully, Calvados, walled on three sides, and fed from the spring by two +circular openings. Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with +mouldings. At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front +of the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular plan, +which bears a statue of Neptune. + +The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown by the +fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing Mount Parnassus, +upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the horse Pegasus, Philosophy +and the Nine Muses. At the top Apollo, in the 16th-century costume, +plays a harp. Rocks, grass and sheep fill up the scene. + +Purely ornamental fountains and _jets d'eau_ are found in or near many +large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The celebrated Fontana di +Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the 18th century under Pope Clement +XII., and has all the characteristics of decadence. La Fontana Paolina +and those in the piazza of St Peter's are perhaps next in celebrity to +that of Trevi, and are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine +des Innocens (the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs +Elysees and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The +fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace are, +with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The largest _jets +d'eau_ are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham Crystal Palace and at +San Ildefonso. + +About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England occurs in +Moxon's _Tutor to Astronomie and Geographie_ (1659); it is "surmounted +by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak, and set upon a composite +column at Leadenhall corner, in the majoralty of Sir John Dethick, +Knight." The water springs from the top and base of the column, which +stands upon a square pedestal and bears four female figures, one at +least of which represents the costume of the period. + +In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important +institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These "sebeels" are +not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful in the fields and +villages. + +The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has done much to +provide facilities in London for both man and beast to get water to +drink in the streets. And in the United States liberal provision has +also been made by private and public enterprise. + + + + +FOUNTAINS ABBEY, one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical ruins in +England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river Skell, 3 m. S.W. +of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation is most beautiful. The +little Skell descends from the uplands of Pateley Moor to the west a +clear swift stream, traversing a valley clothed with woods, conspicuous +among which are some ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the +monks who first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale. +Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise the +picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately tower, and +the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which enable the great abbey +to be almost completely reconstructed in the mind. The arrangements are +typical of a Cistercian house (see ABBEY). Building began in earnest +about 1135, and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th +century, after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby's tower +(c. 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of Ripon) contains the +ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal Dutch style, the work of +John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the early part of the 18th century. +Near the abbey is the picturesque Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall. + +In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary's abbey, York, being +dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the monastery and +with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of York, founded a house in +the valley of the Skell, where they adopted the Cistercian rule. While +building their monastery the monks are said to have lived at first under +an elm and then under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two +years later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter's, York, who +brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection of +books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St Mary's abbey, +York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others. Henry I. and succeeding +sovereigns granted them many privileges. During the reign of Edward I. +the monks appear to have again suffered from poverty, partly no doubt +owing to the invasion of the Scots, but partly also through their own +"misconduct and extravagance." On account of this Edward I. in 1291 +appointed John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay +their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough for +their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them exemption from +taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold the manor and site of the +monastery to Sir Richard Gresham, and from him after passing through +several families it came to the marquess of Ripon. + + See _Victoria County History, Yorkshire_; Dugdale, _Monasticon_; + Surtees Society, _Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains_, + collected and edited by J.R. Walbran (1863-78). + + + + +FOUQUE, FERDINAND ANDRE (1828-1904), French geologist and petrologist, +was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on the 21st of June 1828. At +the age of twenty-one he entered the _Ecole Normale_ in Paris, and from +1853 to 1858 he held the appointment of keeper of the scientific +collections. In 1877 he became professor of natural history at the +_College de France_, in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of +the Academy of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much +assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course of time +he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic phenomena and +earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was the first to introduce +modern petrographical methods into France. His studies of the eruptive +rocks of Corsica, Santorin and elsewhere; his researches on the +artificial reproduction of eruptive rocks, and his treatise on the +optical characters of felspars deserve special mention; but he was +perhaps best known for the joint work which he carried on with his +friend Michel Levy. He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief +publications were: _Santorin et ses eruptions_, 1879; (with A. Michel +Levy) _Mineralogie micrographique, Roches eruptives francaises_ (2 +vols., 1879); and _Synthese des mineraux et des roches_ (1882). + + + + +FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE, BARON (1777-1843), German +writer of the romantic movement, was born on the 12th of February 1777 +at Brandenburg. His grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great's +generals and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally +intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouque ultimately +gave up his university studies at Halle to join the army, and he took +part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest of his life was devoted +mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many of the younger romanticists, +Fouque owed his introduction to literature to A.W. Schlegel, who +published his first book, _Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin_ in 1804. +His next work, _Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval_ (1805), showed more plainly +his allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the _Historie vom edlen +Ritter Galmy_ (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of medieval +chivalry. _Sigurd der Schlangentoter, ein Heldenspiel_ (1808), the first +modern German dramatization of the _Nibelungen_ saga, attracted +attention to him, and influenced considerably subsequent versions of the +story, such as Hebbel's _Nibelungen_ and Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_. +These early writings indicate the lines which Fouque's subsequent +literary activity followed; his interests were divided between medieval +chivalry on the one hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, +the year of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the +Prussian army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people left +its mark upon his writings. + +Between 1810 and 1815 Fouque's popularity was at its height; the many +romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned out with +extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood of the hour. The +earliest of these are the best--_Undine_, which appeared in 1811, being, +indeed, one of the most charming of all German _Marchen_ and the only +work by which Fouque's memory still lives to-day. A more comprehensive +idea of his powers may, however, be obtained from the two romances _Der +Zauberring_ (1813) and _Die Fahrten Thiodulfs des Islanders_ (1815). +From 1820 onwards the quality of Fouque's work rapidly degenerated, +partly owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his +inability to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained the +belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to new interests, +clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia of romanticism; but in +the cold, sober light of the post-romantic age, these appeared merely +flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing imaginative power of his early +years deserted him, and the sobriquet of a "Don Quixote of Romanticism" +which his enemies applied to him was not unjustified. + +Fouque's first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended in divorce. His +second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831) enjoyed some reputation as +a novelist in her day. After her death Fouque married a third time. Some +consolation for the ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by +the munificence of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a +pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort. He died +in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843. + + Fouque's _Ausgewahlte Werke_, edited by himself, appeared in 12 vols. + (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found in + Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. 146, part ii. + (Stuttgart, 1893); _Undine_, _Sintram_, &c., in innumerable reprints. + Bibliography in Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen + Dichtung_ (2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouque's + works have been translated, and the English versions of _Aslauga's + Knight_ (by Carlyle), _Sintram and his Companions_ and _Undine_, have + been frequently republished. For Fouque's life cp. _Lebensgeschichte + des Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouque. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn + selbst_ (Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the + introduction to Koch's selections in the _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_. + (J. G. R.) + + + + +FOUQUET (or FOUCQUET), NICOLAS (1615-1680), viscount of Melun and of +Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of finance in France under +Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615. He belonged to an influential +family of the _noblesse de la robe_, and after some preliminary +schooling with the Jesuits, at the age of thirteen was admitted as +_avocat_ at the parlement of Paris. While still in his teens he held +several responsible posts, and in 1636, when just twenty, he was able to +buy the post of _maitre des requetes_. From 1642 to 1650 he held various +intendancies at first in the provinces and then with the army of +Mazarin, and, coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650 +to buy the important position of _procureur general_ to the parlement of +Paris. During Mazarin's exile Fouquet shrewdly remained loyal to him, +protecting his property and keeping him informed of the situation at +court. + +Upon the cardinal's return, Fouquet demanded and received as reward the +office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a position which, in +the unsettled condition of the government, threw into his hands not +merely the decision as to which funds should be applied to meet the +demands of the state's creditors, but also the negotiations with the +great financiers who lent money to the king. The appointment was a +popular one with the moneyed class, for Fouquet's great wealth had been +largely augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille, who +also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His own credit, +and above all his unfailing confidence in himself, strengthened the +credit of the government, while his high position at the parlement (he +still remained _procureur general_) secured financial transactions from +investigation. As minister of finance, he soon had Mazarin almost in the +position of a suppliant. The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers, +who followed the example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for +Fouquet to meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit, +but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own to +good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless; fraudulent +operations were entered into with impunity, and the financiers were kept +in the position of clients by official favours and by generous aid +whenever they needed it. Fouquet's fortune now surpassed even Mazarin's, +but the latter was too deeply implicated in similar operations to +interfere, and was obliged to leave the day of reckoning to his agent +and successor Colbert. Upon Mazarin's death Fouquet expected to be made +head of the government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his poorly +dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he made the +well-known statement, upon assuming the government, that he would be his +own chief minister. Colbert fed the king's displeasure with adverse +reports upon the deficit, and made the worst of the case against +Fouquet. The extravagant expenditure and personal display of the +superintendent served to intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had +bought the port of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with +a view to taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous +sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent, +magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of Versailles. +Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest paintings, jewels +and antiques in profusion, and above all surrounded himself with artists +and authors. The table was open to all people of quality, and the +kitchen was presided over by Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were +among the multitude of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already +set upon his destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a _fete_ rivalled +in magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which Moliere's +_Les Facheux_ was produced for the first time. The splendour of the +entertainment sealed Fouquet's fate. The king, however, was afraid to +act openly against so powerful a minister. By crafty devices Fouquet was +induced to sell his office of _procureur general_, thus losing the +protection of its privileges, and he paid the price of it into the +treasury. + +Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to Nantes, taking +Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he was leaving the presence +chamber, flattered with the assurance of his esteem. The trial lasted +almost three years, and its violation of the forms of justice is still +the subject of frequent monographs by members of the French bar. Public +sympathy was strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sevigne +and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was sentenced to +banishment, the king, disappointed, "commuted" the sentence to +imprisonment for life. He was sent at the beginning of 1665 to the +fortress of Pignerol, where he undoubtedly died on the 23rd of March +1680.[1] Louis acted throughout "as though he were conducting a +campaign," evidently fearing that Fouquet would play the part of a +Richelieu. Fouquet bore himself with manly fortitude, and composed +several mediocre translations in prison. The devotional works bearing +his name are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland, +in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances which Colbert +addressed to the States-General. A second edition under the title of +_Oeuvres de M. Fouquet_ appeared in 1696. + + See Cheruel, _Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fouquet... + d'apres ses lettres et des pieces inedites_ (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J. + Lair, _Nicolas Foucquet, procureur general, surintendant des finances, + ministre d'Etat de Louis XIV_ (2 vols., Paris, 1890); U.V. Chatelain, + _Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et + des sciences_ (Paris, 1905); R. Pfnor et A. France, _Le Chateau de + Vaux-le-Vicomte dessine et grave_ (Paris, 1888). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Fouquet has been identified with the "Man with the Iron Mask" + (see IRON MASK), but this theory is quite impossible. + + + + +FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN (1746-1795), French revolutionist, +was born at Herouel, a village in the department of the Aisne. +Originally a _procureur_ attached to the Chatelet at Paris, he sold his +office in 1783, and became a clerk under the lieutenant-general of +police. He seems to have early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little +is known of the part he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When +the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March +1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which he +filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this time earned +him the reputation of one of the most terrible and sinister figures of +the Revolution. His function as public prosecutor was not so much to +convict the guilty as to see that the proscriptions ordered by the +faction for the time being in power were carried out with a due regard +to a show of legality. He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as +Robespierre himself; he could be moved from his purpose neither by pity +nor by bribes; nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which +made the ordinary Jacobin _enrage_ by turns ferocious and sentimental. +It was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him so +effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic eloquence; but +the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his charges was more convincing +than any rhetoric, and he seldom failed to secure a conviction. + +His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the +terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the 1st of August 1794 he was +imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial. His defence +was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Committee of Public +Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one days, he was condemned +to death, and guillotined on the 7th of May 1795. + + See _Memoire pour A.Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public pres le tribunal + revolutionnaire_, &c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, _Fouquier-Tinville et + le tribunal revolutionnaire_ (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon, _Histoire du + tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris_ (1880-1882) (a work of general + interest, but not always exact); George Lecocq, _Notes et documents + sur Fouquier-Tinville_ (Paris, 1885). See also the documents relating + to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in _Bibliographie de l'histoire + de Paris pendant la Revolution Francaise_, vol. i. Nos. 4445-4454 + (1890). + + + + +FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of Nievre, on +the right bank of the Loire, 4-1/2 m. N.W. of Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon +railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes its importance to its extensive +iron-works, established in 1821, which give employment to 2000 workmen +and produce engineering material for railway, military and other +purposes. Among the more remarkable _chefs-d'oeuvre_ which have been +produced at Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du +Carrousel, the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and +the vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small canal +unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire. + + + + +FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, COMTE DE (1755-1809), French chemist, the +son of an apothecary in the household of the duke of Orleans, was born +at Paris on the 15th of June 1755. He took up medical studies by the +advice of the anatomist Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794), and after many +difficulties caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his +doctor's diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by +J.B.M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the Medical +School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed P.J. Macquer +(1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college of the Jardin du +Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity. He was one of the +earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier, which he helped to +promulgate by his voluminous writings, but though his name appears on a +large number of chemical and also physiological and pathological +memoirs, either alone or with others, he was rather a teacher and an +organizer than an original investigator. A member of the committees for +public instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon, +director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the +establishment of schools for both primary and secondary education, +scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy died at Paris +on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on which he had been created +a count of the French empire. By his conduct as a member of the +Convention he has been accused of contributing to the death of +Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his _Eloge historique_ of Fourcroy repels the +charge, but he can scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference, +if indeed active, though secret, participation be not proved against +him. + + The Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 59 + memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and others, + mostly L.N. Vauquelin. + + + + +FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837), French socialist writer, +was born at Besancon in Franche-Comte on the 7th of April 1772. His +father was a draper in good circumstances, and Fourier received an +excellent education at the college in his native town. After completing +his studies there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and +Holland. On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount +of property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged by the +troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his means of livelihood +Fourier entered the army, but after two years' service as a chasseur was +discharged on account of ill-health. In 1803 he published a remarkable +article on European politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon, +some of whose ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after +the author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving the +army Fourier entered a merchant's office in Lyons, and some years later +undertook on his own account a small business as broker. He obtained in +this way just sufficient to supply his wants, and devoted all his +leisure time to the elaboration of his first work on the organization of +society. + +During the early part of his life, and while engaged in commerce, he had +become deeply impressed with the conviction that social arrangements +resulting from the principles of individualism and competition were +essentially imperfect and immoral. He proposed to substitute for these +principles co-operation or united effort, by means of which full and +harmonious development might be given to human nature. The scheme, +worked out in detail in his first work, _Theorie des quatre mouvements_ +(2 vols., Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a +particular psychological proposition and a special economical doctrine. +Psychologically Fourier held what may with some laxity of language be +called natural optimism,--the view that the full, free development of +human nature or the unrestrained indulgence of human passion is the only +possible way to happiness and virtue, and that misery and vice spring +from the unnatural restraints imposed by society on the gratification of +desire. This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his +grandest discovery--a discovery which did more than set him on a level +with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction or harmony +among material bodies. Throughout his works, in uncouth, obscure and +often unintelligible language, he endeavours to show that the same +fundamental fact of harmony is to be found in the four great +departments,--society, animal life, organic life and the material +universe. In order to give effect to this principle and obtain the +resulting social harmony, it was needful that society should be +reconstructed; for, as the social organism is at present constituted, +innumerable restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human +desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier +advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects what he says +of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous waste of economic +force which the actual arrangements of society entail, still deserves +attention, and some of the most recent efforts towards extension of the +co-operative method, e.g. to house-keeping, were in essentials +anticipated by him. But the full realization of his scheme demanded much +more than the mere admission that co-operation is economically more +efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be organized on +the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation and to the +harmonious evolution of human nature. The details of this reorganization +of the social structure cannot be given briefly, but the broad outlines +may be thus sketched. Society, on his scheme, is to be divided into +departments or _phalanges_, each _phalange_ numbering about 1600 +persons. Each _phalange_ inhabits a _phalanstere_ or common building, +and has a certain portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The +_phalansteres_ are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic +arrangements are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the +_phalanges_ is, of course, agriculture, but the various _series_ and +_groupes_ into which the members are divided may devote themselves to +such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need any occupation +become irksome from constant devotion to it. Any member of a group may +vary his employment at pleasure, may pass from one task to another. The +tasks regarded as menial or degrading in ordinary society can be +rendered attractive if advantage is taken of the proper principles of +human nature: thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a +fondness for "cleaning up," may easily be induced to accept with +eagerness the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier's +scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished, nor is the +privacy of family life impossible within the _phalanstere_. Each family +may have separate apartments, and there may be richer and poorer +members. But the rich and poor are to be locally intermingled, in order +that the broad distinction between them, which is so painful a feature +in actual society, may become almost imperceptible. Out of the common +gain of the _phalange_ a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each +member the minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in +shares to labour, capital and talent,--five-twelfths going to the first, +four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third. Upon the +changes requisite in the private life of the members Fourier was in his +first work more explicit than in his later writings. The institution of +marriage, which imposes unnatural bonds on human passion, is of +necessity abolished; a new and ingeniously constructed system of licence +is substituted for it. Considerable offence seems to have been given by +Fourier's utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later +advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in silence or +to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical language. + +The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the _Theorie_ first +appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in his obscure position at +Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother put him in possession of a small +sum of money, with which he retired to Bellay in order to perfect his +second work. The _Traite de l'association agricole domestique_ was +published in 2 vols. at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the +following year. After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in +the hope that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the +realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this expectation he +returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited Paris, and as a considerable +portion of his means had been expended in the publication of his book, +he accepted a clerkship in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared +what is probably the most finished exposition of his views, _Le Nouveau +Monde industriel_. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doctrines of +Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work _Pieges et charlatanisme de deux +sectes, St Simon et Owen_. His writings now began to attract some +attention. A small body of adherents gathered round him, and the most +ardent of them was Victor Considerant (q.v.). In 1832 a newspaper, _Le +Phalanstere ou la reforme industrielle_ was started to propagate the +views of the school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined +from a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was +revived in 1836 as _Le Phalange_, and in 1843 became a daily paper, _La +Democratie pacifique_. In 1850 it was suppressed. + +Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and the only +practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a _phalanstere_ was a +complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary, deputy for Seine-et-Oise, +who had become a convert, purchased an estate at Conde-sur-Vesgre, near +the forest of Rambouillet, and proceeded to establish a socialist +community. The capital supplied was, however, inadequate, and the +community broke up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this +failure, and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, he lived in +daily expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his +scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization. It +may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the _phalanstere_ +have been uniformly unsuccessful.[1] + +Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensitive +disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed, as if he +were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true nature of social +arrangements, and of the manner in which they naturally grow and become +organized, he must be pronounced extremely ignorant. The faults of +existing institutions presented themselves to him in an altogether +distorted manner, and he never appears to have recognized that the evils +of actual society are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of +his arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed +harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically +disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even more +irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard to the +economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course to be +granted that co-operation is more effective than individual effort, but +he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable consequences of +organizing society on the abolition of those great institutions which +have grown with its growth. His temperament was too ardent, his +imagination too strong, and his acquaintance with the realities of life +too slight to enable him justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic +views. That this description of him is not expressed in over-strong +language must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in +his works,--and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar discovery +of Fourier's,--but who takes into account the whole body of his +speculations, the cosmological and historical as well as the economical +and social. No words can adequately describe the fantastic nonsense +which he pours forth, partly in the form of general speculation on the +universe, partly in the form of prophetic utterances with regard to the +future changes in humanity and its material environment. From these +extraordinary writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much +of insanity in Fourier's mental constitution. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ch. Pellarin, _Fourier, sa vie et sa theorie_ (5th ed., + 1872); Sargant, _Social Innovators_ (1859); Reybaud, _Reformateurs + modernes_ (7th ed., 1864); Stein, _Socialismus und Communismus des + heutigen Frankreichs_ (2nd ed., 1848); A.J. Booth, _Fortnightly + Review_, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynski, _Notice bibliographique sur C. + Fourier_ (1841); Ferraz, _Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le + positivisme_ (1877); Considerant, _Exposition abregee du systeme de + Fourier_ (1845); Transon, _Theorie societaire de Charles Fourier_ + (1832); Stein, _Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_ + (1850); Marlo, _Untersuchungen uber die Organisation der Arbeit_ + (1853); J.H. Noyes, _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Bebel, + _Charles Fourier_ (1888); Varschauer, _Geschichte des Sozialismus und + Kommunismus im 19. Jahrhundert_ (1903); Sambuc, _Le Socialisme de + Fourier_ (1900); M. Hillquit, _History of Socialism in the United + States_ (1903); H. Bourgin, _Fourier, contribution a l'etude de + socialisme francais_ (1905). (R. Ad.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Several experiments were made to this end in the United States + (see COMMUNISM) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines + were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in the + years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement waxed and + waned, no fewer than forty-one _phalanges_ were founded, of which + some definite record can be found. The most interesting of all the + experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from the fact + that it attracted the support of many of the most intellectual and + cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (q.v.). + + + + +FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830), French mathematician, was +born at Auxerre on the 21st of March 1768. He was the son of a tailor, +and was left an orphan in his eighth year; but, through the kindness of +a friend, admission was gained for him into the military school of his +native town, which was then under the direction of the Benedictines of +Saint-Maur. He soon distinguished himself as a student and made rapid +progress, especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army on +account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed professor +of mathematics in the school in which he had been a pupil. In 1787 he +became a novice at the abbey of St Benoit-sur-Loire; but he left the +abbey in 1789 and returned to his college, where, in addition to his +mathematical duties, he was frequently called to lecture on other +subjects,--rhetoric, philosophy and history. On the institution of the +Ecole Normale at Paris in 1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was +afterwards attached to the Ecole Polytechnique, where he occupied the +chair of analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied +Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he was called to +discharge important political duties in addition to his scientific ones. +He was for a time virtually governor of half Egypt, and for three years +was secretary of the Institut du Caire; he also delivered the funeral +orations for Kleber and Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in +the following year he was nominated prefect of Isere, and was created +baron and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important part +in the preparation of the famous _Description de l'Egypte_ and wrote the +historical introduction. He held his prefecture for fourteen years; and +it was during this period that he carried on his elaborate and fruitful +investigations on the conduction of heat. On the return of Napoleon from +Elba, in 1815, Fourier published a royalist proclamation, and left +Grenoble as Napoleon entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture, +and, although immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after +again deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Academie des +Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of Louis XVIII. +was not admitted till the following year, when he succeeded the Abbe +Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made perpetual secretary in conjunction +with Cuvier, in succession to Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member +of the French Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the +council of the Ecole Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a member of the +government commission established for the encouragement of literature. +He died at Paris on the 16th of May 1830. + +As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his fame chiefly +rests on his strikingly original contributions to science and +mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his attention quite early, and +in 1812 he obtained a prize offered by the Academie des Sciences with a +memoir in two parts, _Theorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les +corps solides_. The first part was republished in 1822 as _La Theorie +analytique de la chaleur_, which by its new methods and great results +made an epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science (see +below: FOURIER'S SERIES). An English translation has been published by +A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884). +His mathematical researches were also concerned with the theory of +equations, but the question as to his priority on several points has +been keenly discussed. After his death Navier completed and published +Fourier's unfinished work, _Analyse des equations indeterminees_ (1831), +which contains much original matter. In addition to the works above +mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on scientific subjects, and +_eloges_ of distinguished men of science. His works have been collected +and edited by Gaston Darboux with the title _Oeuvres de Fourier_ (Paris, +1889-1890). + + For a list of Fourier's publications see the _Catalogue of Scientific + Papers of the Royal Society of London_. Reference may also be made to + Arago, "Joseph Fourier," in the _Smithsonian Report_ (1871). + + + + +FOURIER'S SERIES, in mathematics, those series which proceed according +to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable, the various multiples +being in the ratio of the natural numbers; they are used for the +representation of a function of the variable for values of the variable +which lie between prescribed finite limits. Although the importance of +such series, especially in the theory of vibrations, had been recognized +by D. Bernoulli, Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some +discussion of their properties, J.B.J. Fourier (see above) was the first +clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions which the +series can represent, and to make any serious attempt to prove the +validity of such representation; the series are consequently usually +associated with the name of Fourier. More general cases of +trigonometrical series, in which the multiples are given as the roots of +certain transcendental equations, were also considered by Fourier. + + Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of series + to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision what is + to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary function by an + infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x to be arbitrarily + given for values of x between two fixed values a and b; this means + that, corresponding to every value of x such that a <= x <= b, a + definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned by means of + some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined may be denoted by + [f](x); the rules by which the values of the function are determined + may be embodied in a single explicit analytical formula, or in several + such formulae applicable to different portions of the interval, but it + would be an undue restriction of the nature of an arbitrarily given + function to assume _a priori_ that it is necessarily given in this + manner, the possibility of the representation of such a function by + means of a single analytical expression being the very point which we + have to discuss. The variable x may be represented by a point at the + extremity of an interval measured along a straight line from a fixed + origin; thus we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value + x = c of the variable, and of [f](c) as the value of the function + assigned to the point c. For any number of points between a and b the + function may be discontinuous, i.e. it may at such points undergo + abrupt changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of + such points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will + be those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity + exists at the point c if [f](c + [epsilon]), [f](c - [epsilon]) have + distinct but definite limiting values as [epsilon] is indefinitely + diminished; these limiting values are known as the limits on the right + and on the left respectively of the function at c, and may be denoted + by [f](c + 0), [f](c - 0). The discontinuity consists therefore of a + sudden change of value of the function from [f](c - 0) to [f](c + 0), + as x increases through the value c. If there is such a discontinuity + at the point x = 0, we may denote the limits on the right and on the + left respectively by [f](+0), [f](-0). + + Suppose we have an infinite series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... + u_n(x) + ... + in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form; let + any value x = c(a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the series, + and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so obtained + approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased; this limit + is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of c such that a + <= c <= b the sum exists and agrees with the value of [f](c), the + series [Sigma] [1 to [oo]] u_n(x) is said to represent the function + ([f]x) between the values a, b of the variable. If this is the case + for all points within the given interval with the exception of a + finite number, at any one of which either the series has no sum, or + has a sum which does not agree with the value of the function, the + series is said to represent "in general" the function for the given + interval. If the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by S_n(c), + the condition that S_n(c) converges to the value [f](c) is that, + corresponding to any finite positive number [delta] as small as we + please, a value n1 of n can be found such that if n >= n_1, |[f](c) - + Sn(c)| < [delta]. + + Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number of + points within the given interval have no definite value, and series + have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in the + interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees with + the value of the function; the narrower conception above will however + be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article, reference + to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion with the + history of the theory of Fourier's Series. + + _Uniform Convergence of Series._--If the series u1(x) + u2(x) + ... + + u2(x) + ... converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b, + and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite + positive number [delta], as small as we please, a finite number n1 can + be found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) - S_n(x), where n => + n1 is less than [delta] for every value of x in the given interval, + the series is said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may + however happen that as x approaches a particular value the number of + terms of the series which must be taken so that |S(x) - S_n(x)| may be + < [delta], increases indefinitely; the convergence of the series is + then infinitely slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the + series is not uniformly convergent throughout the given interval, + although it converges at each point of the interval. If the number of + such points in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to + converge uniformly be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals + of finite magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and + considering the convergence of the series in the given interval with + such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now + uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is said + to be _in general_ uniformly convergent within the given interval a to + b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion of a finite + number of portions of the interval, each such portion being + arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite series of + continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in the + neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not uniform, + but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not necessarily + imply discontinuity in the sum. + + _Form of Fourier's Series._--If it be assumed that a function [f](x) + arbitrarily given for values of x such that o[<=]x[<=]l is capable of + being represented in general by an infinite series of the form + + [pi]x 2[pi]x n[pi]x + A1 sin ----- + A2 sin ------ + ... + A_n sin ------ + ..., + l l l + + and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly + convergent throughout the interval 0 to l, the form of the + coefficients A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series by + sin n[pi]x/l, and integrate the product between the limits 0 and l, + then in virtue of the property [int][l to 0] sin n[pi]x/l sin + n'[pi]x/l dx=0, or 1/2 l, according as n' is not, or is, equal to n, + we have -1/2 lA_n= [int][0 to l] [f](x) sin n[pi]x/l dx, and thus the + series is of the form + + _ + 2 [oo] n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | [f](x) ------ dx. (1) + l 1 l _/ 0 l + + This method of determining the coefficients in the series would not be + valid without the assumption that the series is in general uniformly + convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem the sum of the + integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise not + necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption being + made, it is further assumed that [f](x) is such that [integral][0 to + l] [f](x)sin n[pi]x/l dx has a definite meaning for every value of n. + + Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions + made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce + other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form + + [pi]x 2[pi]x n[pi]x + B0 + B1 cos ----- + B2 cos ------ + ... + B_n cos ------ + ... + l l l + + for the representation of [f](x) in the interval 0 to l, let us apply + the series (1) to represent the function [f](x) sin [pi]x/l; we thus + find + _ + 2 [oo] n[pi]x / l [pi]x n[pi]x + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | [f](x)sin ----- sin ------ dx, + l 1 l _/ 0 l l + + or + _ _ _ + 1 [oo] n[pi]x / l | (n - 1)[pi]x (n + 1)[pi]x | + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | [f](x) | cos ------------ - cos ------------ | dx. + l 1 l _/ 0 |_ l l _| + + On rearrangement of the terms this becomes + _ _ + 1 [pi]x / l 2 [pi]x n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- sin ----- | [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] sin ----- cos ------ | [f](x) cos ------ dx. + l l _/ 0 l l l _/ 0 l + + hence [f](x) is represented for the interval 0 to l by the series of cosines + _ _ + 1 / l 2 [oo] n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- | [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ | [f](x) cos ------ dx ... (2) + l _/ 0 l 1 l _/ 0 l + + We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary + function [f](x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by + a series of sines, as in (1), or by a series of cosines, as in (2). + Some important differences between the two series must, however, be + noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum + when x=o or x=l; it therefore does not represent the function at the + point x=o, unless [f](0) = 0, or at the point x=l, unless [f](l) = 0, + whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both + these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (1) and + (2) for values of x which do not lie between 0 and l. As [f](x) is + given only for values of x between 0 and l, the series at points + beyond these limits have no necessary connexion with [f](x) unless we + suppose that [f](x) is also given for such general values of x in such + a way that the series continue to represent that function. If in (1) + we change x into -x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series + changes sign, and if x be changed into x + 2l, the series is + unaltered; we infer that the series (1) represents an odd function of + x and is periodic of period 2l; thus (1) will represent [f](x) in + general for values of x between [+-][oo], only if [f](x) is odd and + has a period 2l. If in (2) we change x into -x, the series is + unaltered, and it is also unaltered by changing x into x + 2l; from + this we see that the series (2) represents [f](x) for values of x + between [+-][oo], only if [f](x) is an even function, and is periodic + of period 2l. In general a function [f](x) arbitrarily given for all + values of x between [+-][oo] is neither periodic nor odd, nor even, + and is therefore not represented by either (1) or (2) except for the + interval 0 to l. + + From (1) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines and + cosines, which will represent a function [f](x) arbitrarily given in + the interval -l to l, for that interval. We can express by (1) the + function -1/2{[f](x) - [f](-x)} which is an odd function, and thus this + function is represented for the interval -l to +l by + _ + 2 n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | 1/2 {[f](x) - [f](-x)} sin ------ dx; + l l _/ 0 l + + we can also express 1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)}, which is an even function, + by means of (2), thus for the interval -l to +l this function is + represented by + _ _ + 1 / l 2 [oo] n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- | 1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)} dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ | 1/2 {[f](x) + [f](-x)} cos ------ dx. + l _/ 0 l 1 l _/ 0 l + + It must be observed that [f](-x) is absolutely independent of [f](x), + the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting + -x for x in a formula; both [f](x) and [f](-x) are functions given + arbitrarily and independently for the interval 0 to l. On adding the + expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which + represents [f](x) for the interval -l to l. The integrals + _ _ + / l n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + | [f](-x) cos ------ dx, | [f](-x) sin ------ dx + _/ 0 l _/ 0 l + + are equivalent to + _ _ + /-l n[pi]x /-l n[pi]x + - | [f](x) cos ------ dx, + | [f](x) sin ------ dx, + _/0 l _/ 0 l + + thus the series is + _ _ _ + 1 / l 1 [oo] n[pi]x / l n[pi]x 1 [oo] n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + -- | [f](x)dx + -- [Sigma] cos ------ | f(x) cos ------ dx + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | [f](x) sin ------ dx, + 2l_/-l l 1 l _/-l l l 1 l _/-l l + + which may be written + _ _ + 1 / l 1 [oo] / l n[pi](x - x') + -- | [f](x') dx' + -- [Sigma] | [f](x') cos ------------- dx'. (3) + 2l_/-l l 1 _/-l l + + The series (3), which represents a function [f](x) arbitrarily given + for the interval -l to l, is what is known as Fourier's Series; the + expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which + (3) takes in the two cases, in which [f](-x) = -[f](x), or [f](-x) = + f(x) respectively. The expression (3) does not represent f(x) at + points beyond the interval -l to l, unless [f](x) has a period 2l. For + a value of x within the interval, at which [f](x) is discontinuous, + the sum of the series may cease to represent [f](x), but, as will be + seen hereafter, has the value 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the mean + of the limits at the points on the right and the left. The series + represents the function at x=o, unless the function is there + discontinuous, in which case the series is 1/2 {[f](+0) + [f](-0)}; + the series does not necessarily represent the function at the points l + and -l, unless [f](l) = [f](-l). Its sum at either of these points is + 1/2 {[f](l) + [f](-l)}. + + _Examples of Fourier's Series._--(a) Let [f](x) be given from 0 to l, + by [f](x)=c, when 0 <= x < 1/2 l, and by f(x)= -c from 1/2 l to l; it + is required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which + shall represent the function in the interval. + + We have + _ _ _ + / l n[pi]x /1/2 l n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + | [f](x) sin ------ dx = c | sin ------ dx - c | sin ------ dx + _/ 0 l _/ 0 l _/1/2 l l + + cl + = ----- (cos n[pi] - 2 cos 1/2 n[pi] + 1). + n[pi] + + This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4m, but if n = 4m + 2 it is + equal to 4cl/n[pi]; the series is therefore + + 4c /l 2[pi]x 1 6[pi]x 1 10[pi]x \ + ---- ( -- sin ------ + -- sin ------ + -- sin ------- + ... ). + [pi] \2 l 3 l 5 l / + + For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates of + the series of straight lines in fig. 1, except that it vanishes at the + points 0, (1/2)l, l, (3/2)l ... + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + We find similarly that the same function is represented by the series + + 4c / [pi]x 1 3[pi]x 1 5[pi]x \ + ---- ( cos ----- - -- cos ------ + -- cos ------ - + ... ) + [pi] \ l 3 l 5 l / + + during the interval 0 to l; for general values of x the series + represents the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it + vanishes at the points (1/2)l, (3/2)l.... + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + (b) Let [f](x) = x from 0 to 1/2 l, and f(x) = l - x, from 1/2 l to l; + then + _ _ _ + / l n[pi]x / 1/2 l n[pi]x / l n[pi]x + | [f](x)sin ------ dx= | x sin ------ dx + | (l - x)sin ------ dx + _/ 0 l _/ 0 l _/1/2 l l + + l^2 n[pi] l^2 n[pi] l^2n / n[pi] \ + = - ------ cos ----- + --------- sin ----- + ----- (cos ----- - cos n[pi] ) + 2n[pi] 2 n^2[pi]^2 2 n[pi] \ 2 / + + l^2 l^2 n[pi] l^2 n[pi] 2l^2 n[pi] + + ----- cos n[pi] - ------ cos ----- + --------- sin ----- = --------- sin ----- + n[pi] 2n[pi] 2 n^2[pi]^2 2 n^2[pi]^2 2 + + hence the sine series is + + 4l / nx 1 3[pi]x 1 5[pi]x \ + ------ (sin -- - --- sin ------ + --- sin ------ - ... ) + [pi]^2 \ l 3^2 l 5^2 l / + + For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the + row of broken lines in fig. 3. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + The cosine series, which represents the same function for the interval + 0 to l, may be found to be + + 1 2l / 2[pi]x 1 6[pi]x 1 10[pi]x \ + -- l - ------ (cos ------ + --- cos ------ + --- cos ------- + ... ) + 4 [pi]^2 \ l 3^2 l 5^2 l / + + This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the set + of broken lines in fig. 4. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + _Dirichlet's Integral._--The method indicated by Fourier, but first + carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain + restrictions as to the nature of the function [f](x), that function is + in general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum + of n+1 terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value + of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that the + series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum + converges is 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, which is in general equal + to [f](x). It will be convenient throughout to take -[pi] to [pi] as + the given interval; any interval -l to l may be reduced to this by + changing x into lx/[pi], and thus there is no loss of generality. + + We find by an elementary process that + + 1/2 + cos (x - x') + cos 2(x - x') + ... + cos n(x - x') + + 2n + 1 + sin ------ (x' - x) + 2 + = -------------------. + 2 sin 1/2(x' - x) + + Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n+1 terms of (3) is + _ + 1 / [pi] sin (2n + 1)/2 (x' - x) + ---- | [f](x') ----------------------- dx'. + [pi]_/-[pi] 2 sin 1/2 (x' - x) + + If we suppose [f](x) to be continued beyond the interval -[pi] to + [pi], in such a way that [f](x) = [f](x + 2[pi]), we may replace the + limits in this integral by x + [pi], x-[pi] respectively; if we then + put x' - x = 2z, and let [f](x') = [F](z), the expression becomes + 1/[pi] [int][-[pi]/2 to [pi]/2] F(z) (sin mz/sin z) dz, where m = 2n + + 1; this expression may be written in the form + _ _ + 1 /[pi]/2 sin mz 1 /[pi]/2 sin mz + ---- | F(z) ------ dz + ---- | F(-z) ------ dz. (4) + [pi]_/ 0 sin z [pi]_/ 0 sin z + + We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is + indefinitely increased, of [int][0 to [pi]/2] F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz; + the form of the second integral being essentially the same. This + integral, or rather the slightly more general one [int][0 to h] + F(z)(sin mz/sin z) dz, when 0 < h <= 1/2[pi], is known as Dirichlet's + integral. If we write X(z)= F(z)(z/sin z), the integral becomes + [int][0 to h] X(z)(sin mz/z) dz, which is the form in which the + integral is frequently considered. + + _The Second Mean-Value Theorem._--The limiting value of Dirichlet's + integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a theorem in the + integral calculus known as the second mean-value theorem. Let a, b be + two fixed finite numbers such that a<b, and suppose [f](x), [phi](x) + are two functions which have finite and determinate values everywhere + in the interval except for a finite number of points; suppose further + that the functions [f](x), [phi](x) are integrable throughout the + interval, and that as x increases from a to b the function [f](x) is + monotone, i.e. either never diminishes or never increases; the theorem + is that + _ _ _ + / b /[xi] / b + | [f](x) [phi](x) dx = [f](a + 0) | [phi](x) dx + [f](b - 0) | [phi](x) dx + _/ a _/ a _/[xi] + + when [xi] is some point between a and b, and [f](a), [f](b) may be + written for [f](a + 0), [f](b - 0) unless a or b is a point of + discontinuity of the function [f](x). + + To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two + integrable functions is an integrable function, [int][a to b] [f](x) + [phi](x) dx exists, and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a + series [f](x0) [phi](x0) (x1 - x0) + [f](x1) [phi](x1) (x2 - x1) + ... + + [f]x(n-1) [phi]x_(n-1) (x_n - x_(n-1)) where x0 = a, x_n = b and x1, + x2 ... x_(n-1) are n - 1 intermediate points. We can express + [phi](x_r) (x_(r+1) - x_r) in the form Y_(r+1) - Y_r, by putting + + K=r + Y_r = [Sigma] [phi](x_(K-1)) (x_K - x_(K-1)), Y0 = 0. + K=1 + + Writing X_r for [f](x_r), the series becomes + + X0(Y1 - Y0) + X1(Y2 - Y1) + ... + X_(n-1)(Y_n - Y_(n-1)) + + or Y1(X0 - X1) + Y2(X1 - X2) + ... + Y_n(X_(n-1) - X_n) + Y_n X_n. + + Now, by supposition, all the numbers Y1, Y2 ... Y_n are finite, and + all the numbers X_(r-1) - X_r are of the same sign, hence by a known + algebraical theorem the series is equal to M(X0 - X_n) + Y_n X_n, + where M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of + the numbers Y1, Y2, ... Y_n. This remains true however many partial + intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is increased + indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely according + to any law, we have + _ _ + / b _ / b + | [f](x)[phi](x)dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)} M + [f](b) | [phi](x) dx + _/ a _/ a + + when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values which + [int][a to x] [phi](x) dx can have, when x is in the given integral. + Now this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and + therefore there is a value of x in the interval, for which it takes + any particular value between the greatest and least values that it + has. There is therefore a value [xi] between a and b, such that + + _ + _ /[xi] + M = | [phi](x)dx, + _/ a + + hence + _ _ _ + / b /[xi] / b + | [f](x) [phi](x) dx = {[f](a) - [f](b)} | [phi](x) dx + [f](b) | [phi](x) dx + _/ a _/ a _/ a + _ _ + /[xi] / b + = [f](a) | [phi](x) dx + [f](b) | [phi](x) dx. + _/ a _/[xi] + + If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity + of [f](x) or [phi](x), the method of proof still holds good, provided + these points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if + either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of [f](x), we write + [f](a + 0) or [f](b - 0), for [f](a) or [f](b), it being assumed that + these limits exist. + + _Functions, with Limited Variation._--The condition that [f](x), in + the mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as + x increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of + the theorem. We can, however, show that a function [f](x) which is + finite and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of + ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to + diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases + from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions + [f]1(x), [f]2(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a + to b, and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that + one or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given + function is discontinuous. Let [alpha], [beta] be two consecutive + points at which [f](x) is discontinuous, consider any point x1, such + that [alpha] <= x1 <= [beta], and suppose that at the points M1, M2 + ... M_r between [alpha] and x1, [f](x) is a maximum, and at m1, m2 ... + m_r, it is a minimum; we will suppose, for example, that the ascending + order of values is [alpha], M1, m1, M2, m2 ... M_r, m_r, x1; it will + make no essential difference in the argument if m1 comes before M1, or + if M_r immediately precedes x1, M_(r-1) being then the last minimum. + + Let [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)]+ ... + +[[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1))] + [[f](x1) - [f](m_r)]; + + now let (x1) increase until it reaches the value (M_(r+1)) at which + [f](x) is again a maximum, then let + + [psi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f]([alpha] + 0)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... + + [[f](M_r) - [f](m_(r-1)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](m_r)]; + + and suppose as x increases beyond the value M_(r+1), [psi](x1) remains + constant until the next minimum m_(r+1) is reached, when it again + becomes variable; we see that [psi](x1) is essentially positive and + never diminishes as x increases. + + Let + + [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - f(m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... + [[f](M_r) + - [f](m_r)], + + then let x1 increase until it is beyond the next maximum M_(r+1), and + then let + + [chi](x1) = [[f](M1) - [f](m1)] + [[f](M2) - [f](m1)] + ... + + [[f](M_r) - [f](m_r)] + [[f](M_(r+1)) - [f](x1)] + + thus [chi](x1) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and + variable. We see that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) is continuous as x1 + increases from [alpha] to [beta], and that [psi](x1) - [chi](x1) = + [f](x1) - [f]([alpha] + 0), and when x1 reaches [beta], we have + [psi]([beta]) - [chi](x1) = [f]([beta] - 0) - [f]([alpha] + 0). Hence + it is seen that between [alpha] and [beta], [f](x) = [[psi](x) + + [f]([alpha] + 0)] - [chi](x), where [psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0), + [chi](x) are continuous and never diminish as x increases; the same + reasoning applies to every continuous portion of [f](x), for which + the functions [psi](x), [chi](x) are formed in the same manner; we now + take [f]1(x)=[psi](x) + [f]([alpha] + 0) + C, [f]2(x) = [chi](x) + C, + where C is constant between consecutive discontinuities, but may have + different values in the next interval between discontinuities; the C + can be so chosen that neither [f]1(x) nor [f]2(x) diminishes as x + increases through a value for which [f](x) is discontinuous. We thus + see that [f](x) = [f]1(x) - [f]2(x), where [f]1(x), [f]2(x) never + diminish as x increases from a to b, and are discontinuous only where + [f](x) is so. The function [f](x) is a particular case of a class of + functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name "functions + with limited variation" (_fonctions a variation bornee_); in general + such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of maxima and + minima. + + _Proof of the Convergence of Fourier's Series._--It will now be + assumed that a function [f](x) arbitrarily given between the values + -[pi] and +[pi], has the following properties:-- + + (a) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed + positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values + of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous. + + (b) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or vice + versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is usually + expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima is finite. + + These limitations on the nature of the function are known as + Dirichlet's conditions; it follows from them that the function is + integrable throughout the interval. + + On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of + Dirichlet's integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case + of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from 0 to + 1/2[pi], since it has been shown that in the general case the + difference of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas + will be required: + + 1. Since + _ _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz /[pi]/2 [pi] + | ------ dz = | {1 + 2cos 2z + 2cos 4z + ... + 2cos 2nz} dz = ----; + _/ 0 sin z _/ 0 2 + + this result holds however large the odd integer m may be. + + [pi] + 2. If 0 < [alpha] < [beta] <= ----, + 2 + _ _ _ + /[beta] sin mz 1 /[gamma] 1 /[beta] + | ------ dz = ----------- | sin mz dz + ---------- | sin mz dz + _/[alpha] sin z sin [alpha]_/[alpha] sin [beta]_/[gamma] + + where [alpha] < [gamma] < [beta], hence + _ + | /[beta] sin mz | 2 / 1 1 \ 4 + | | ------ dz | < -- ( ---------- + --------- ) < -------------; + | _/[alpha] sin z | m \sin[alpha] sin[beta]/ m sin [alpha] + _ + | / [beta] sin mz | 4 + a precisely similar proof shows that | | ------ dz | < --------, + | _/ [alpha] z | m[alpha] + _ _ + /[beta] sin mz /[beta] sin mz + hence the integrals | ------ dz, | ------ dz, converge to + _/[alpha] sin z _/[alpha] z + + the limit zero, as m is indefinitely increased. + _ + | / [oo] sin [theta] | + 3. If [alpha] > 0, | | ----------- d[theta] | cannot exceed + | _/[alpha] [theta] | + + 1/2[pi]. For by the mean-value theorem + _ + | / h sin[theta] | 2 2 + | | ---------- d[theta] | < ------- + --, + | _/[alpha] [theta] | [alpha] h + _ + | / h sin[theta] | 2 + hence | Lh = [oo] | ---------- d[theta] | <= -------; + | _/[alpha] [theta] | [alpha] + _ + | /[oo] sin[theta] | 2 [pi] + in particular if [alpha] >= [pi] | | ---------- d[theta] | <= ---- < ----. + | _/[alpha] [theta] | [pi] 2 + _ + d /[oo] sin[theta] sin[alpha] + Again -------- | ---------- d[theta] = - ----------, [alpha] > 0, + d[alpha]_/[alpha] [theta] [alpha] + _ + /[oo] sin[theta] + therefore | ---------- d[theta] increases as [alpha] diminishes, + _/[alpha] [theta] + + when [theta] < [alpha] < [pi]; but lim + _ _ + /[oo] sin[theta] [pi] | /[oo] sin[theta] | [pi] + | ---------- d[theta] = ----, hence | | ---------- d[theta] | < ----, + [alpha]=0_/[alpha] [theta] 2 | _/[alpha] [theta] | 2 + + where [alpha] < [pi], and < [pi]/2 where [alpha] >= [pi]. It follows that + _ + | /[beta] sin[theta] | + | | ---------- d[theta] | <= [pi], provided 0 <= [alpha] < [beta]. + | _/[alpha] [theta] | + _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz + To find the limit of | F(z) ------ dz, we observe that it may be + _/ 0 sin z + + written in the form + _ _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz / [mu] sin mz + F(0) | ------ dz + | {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz + _/ sin z _/ 0 sin z + _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz + + | {F(z) - F(0)} ------ dz + _/[mu] sin z + + where [mu] is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use + lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem, + _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz [pi] + | F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0) + _/ 0 sin z 2 + _ + /[mu] z sin mz + = | {F(z) - F(0)} ----- ------ dz + _/ [0] sin z z + _ _ + /[xi]^1 sin mz /[pi]/2 sin mz + + {F([mu] + 0) - F(0)} | ------ dz + {F (1/2[pi] - 0) - F(0)} | ------ dz + _/ [mu] sin z _/[xi]^1 sin z + + when [xi]^1 lies between [mu] and 1/2[pi]. When m is indefinitely + increased, the two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of + lemma (2). To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let + G/z = {F(z) - F(0)} (sin z/z), and observe that G(z) increases as z + increases from 0 to [mu], hence if we apply the mean value theorem + _ _ + | /[mu] sin mz | | /[mu] sin mz | + | | G([mu]) ------ dz| = |G([mu]) | ------ dz| + | _/ 0 z | | _/[xi] z | + _ + | /m[mu] sin[theta] | + = |G([mu]) | ---------- d[theta]| < [pi] G([mu]), + | _/m[xi] [theta] | + + where 0 < [xi] < [mu], since G(z) has the limit zero when z = 0. If + [epsilon] be an arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of + [mu] may be so chosen that [pi]G([mu)] < 1/2[epsilon], and thus that + _ + | /[mu] sin mz | + | | G(z) ------ dz| < 1/2[epsilon]. + | _/0 z | + + When [mu] has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that + _ + | /1/2[pi] sin mz [pi] | + | | F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [epsilon]. + | _/0 sin z 2 | + + It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased + _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz [pi] + | F(z) ------ dz - ---- F(0) has the limit zero. + _/ 0 sin z 2 + + Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of + _ _ + 1 /[pi]/2 sin mz 1 /[pi]/2 sin mz + ---- | F(z) ------ dz + ---- | F(-z) ------ dz + [pi]_/ 0 sin z [pi]_/ 0 sin z + + 1/2{F(+0) + F(-0)}; hence the sum of n + 1 terms of the series + _ _ + 1 / l 1 / l n[pi](x - x^1) + -- | [f](x) dx + -- [Sigma] | [f](x^1) cos ------------- dx + 2l _/-l l _/-l l + + converges to the value 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, or to [f](x) at + a point where [f](x) is continuous, provided [f](x) satisfies + Dirichlet's conditions for the interval from -l to l. + + _Proof that Fourier's Series is in General Uniformly Convergent._--To + prove that Fourier's Series converges uniformly to its sum for all + values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods of the points + of discontinuity of [f](x) are excluded, we have + _ + | /[pi]/2 sin mz [pi] | 4 + | | F(z)------ dz - ---- F(0)| < [pi]G ([mu]) + ---------- {F([mu] + 0) - F(0)} + | _/ sin z 2 | m sin [mu] + + 4 + + ------------ {F(1/2[pi] - 0) - F(0)} + m sin [xi]^1 + + [pi][mu] 4 + < -------- {[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)} + ---------- {[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)} + sin [mu] m sin [mu] + + 4 + + ------------ {[f](x + [pi]) - [f](x)} + m sin [xi]^1 + + Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(-z), we have + + |S_(2n+1)(x) - [f](x)| < [mu] cosec [mu] [|[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)| + + |[f](x - 2[mu]) - [f](x)|] + A|m cosec [mu], + + where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any interval (a, b) + in which [f](x) is continuous, a value [mu]1 of [mu] can be chosen + such that, for every value of x in (a, b), |[f](x + 2[mu]) - [f](x)|, + |[f](x - 2[mu]) - [f](x)| are less than an arbitrarily prescribed + positive number [epsilon], provided [mu] = [mu]1. Also a value [mu]2 + of [mu] can be so chosen that [epsilon][mu]2 cosec [mu]2 < 1/2[eta], + where [eta] is an arbitrarily assigned positive number. Take for [mu] + the lesser of the numbers [mu]1, [mu]2, then |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| < + [eta] + A|m cosec [mu] for every value of x in (a, b). It follows + that, since [eta] and m are independent of x, |S_(2n+1) - [f](x)| < + 2[epsilon], provided n is greater than some fixed value n1 dependent + only on [epsilon]. Therefore S_(2n+1) converges to [f](x) uniformly in + the interval (a, b). + + _Case of a Function with Infinities._--The limitation that [f](x) must + be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the + interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z) is + indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is + + such that the limits of the two integrals [int][c to c[+-][epsilon]] + F(z) dz are both zero, as [epsilon] is indefinitely diminished, then + + _ + /[pi]/2 sin mz + | F(z) ------ dz + _/ 0 sin z + + denotes the limit when [epsilon] = 0, [epsilon]^1 = 0 of + _ _ + /c-[epsilon] sin mz /[pi]/2 sin mz + | F(z) ------ dx + | F(z) ------ dz, + _/ 0 sin z _/c+[epsilon]^1 sin z + + both these limits existing; the first of these integrals has + 1/2[pi]F(+0) for its limiting value when m is indefinitely increased, + and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem therefore holds if + F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely integrable; this + will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point C is of the form + x(z)(z - c)^-[mu] + [psi](z), where [chi](c), [psi](c) are finite, and + 0 < [mu] < 1. It is thus seen that [f](x) may have a finite number of + infinities within the given interval, provided the function is + integrable through any one of these points; the function is in that + case still representable by Fourier's Series. + + _The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier's Series._--If + [f](x) is everywhere finite within the given interval -[pi] to +[pi], + it can be shown that a_n, b_n, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in + the series which represent the function, are such that na_n, nb_n, + however great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For + writing [f](x) = [f]1(x) - [f]2(x), we have + _ _ _ + /[pi] /[xi] /[pi] + | [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) | cos nxdx + [f]1([pi] - 0) | cos nxdx + _/-[pi] _/-[pi] _/[xi] + + hence + _ + /[pi] sin n[xi] sin n[xi] + | [f]1(x) cos nxdx = [f]1(-[pi] + 0) --------- + [f]1([pi] - 0) --------- + _/-[pi] n n + + with a similar expression, with [f]2(x) for [f]1(x), [xi] being + between [pi] and -[pi]; the result then follows at once, and is + obtained similarly for the other coefficient. + + If [f](x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form [phi](x)/(x - c)^K + near the point c, where 0 < K < 1, the integral + _ + /[pi] + | [f](x)cos nxdx contains portions of the form + _/-[pi] + _ _ + /[epsilon]+[epsilon] [phi](x) / c [phi](x) + | --------- cos nxdx | --------- cos nxdx; + _/ [c] (x - c)^K _/c-[epsilon] (x - c)^K + + consider the first of these, and put x = c + u, it thus becomes + _ + /[epsilon] [phi](c + u) + | ------------ cos n(c + u) du, which is of the form + _/ 0 u^K + _ + /[epsilon] cos n(c + u) + [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) | ------------ du; + _/ 0 u^K + + now let nu = v, the integral becomes + _ _ _ _ + | cos nc /n[epsilon] cos v sin nc /n[epsilon] sin v | + [phi](c + [theta][epsilon]) | ------- | ----- dv - ------- | ----- dv |; + |_ n^(1-K) _/ 0 v^K n^(1-K) _/ 0 v^K _| + + hence n^(1-K) [int]([pi] to -[pi]) [f](x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is + definitely increased, of the form + _ _ _ _ + | /[oo] cos v /[oo] sin v | + [phi](c) | cos nc | ----- dv - sin nc | ----- dv | + |_ _/ 0 v^K _/ 0 v^K _| + + which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known + value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer that + n^(1-K) a_n, n^(1-K) b_n are less than fixed finite numbers. + + _The Differentiation of Fourier's Series._--If we assume that the + differential coefficient of a function [f](x) represented by a + Fourier's Series exists, that function [f]'(x) is not necessarily + representable by the series obtained by differentiating the terms of + the Fourier's Series, such derived series being in fact not + necessarily convergent. Stokes has obtained general formulae for + finding the series which represent f'(x), [f]"(x)--the successive + differential coefficients of a limited function [f](x). As an example + of such formulae, consider the sine series (1); [f](x) is represented + by + _ + 2 n[pi]x /l n[pi]x + -- [Sigma] sin ------ | [f](x) sin ------ dx; + l l _/0 l + _ + /l n[pi]x + on integration by parts we have | [f](x)sin ------ dx + _/0 l + _ _ + l | n[pi]a | + = ---- | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} | + n[pi] |_ l _| + _ + l /l n[pi]x + + ----- | [f]'(x) cos ------ dx + n[pi] _/0 l + + where [alpha] represent the points where [f](x) is discontinuous. + Hence if f(x) is represented by the series [Sigma]a_n sin (n[pi]x/l), + and [f]'(x) by the series [Sigma]b_n cos (n[pi]x/l), we have the + relation + _ _ + n[pi] 2 | n[pi][alpha] | + b_n = ----- [alpha]_n - -- | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma]cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f](alpha - 0)} | + l l |_ l _| + + hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and [f](+0) + [f](l - 0) are both zero, is the series which represents [f]'(x) + obtained at once by differentiating that which represents [f](x). The + form of the coefficient [alpha]_n discloses the discontinuities of the + function and of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the + integration by parts we find + _ _ + 2 | n[pi][alpha] | + [alpha]_n = ----- | [f](+0) [+-] [f](l - 0) + [Sigma] cos ------------ {[f]([alpha] + 0) - [f]([alpha] - 0)} | + n[pi] |_ l _| + _ _ + 2l | n[pi][beta] | + + --------- | [f]'(+0) [+-] [f]'(l - 0) + [Sigma] sin ----------- {[f]'([beta] + 0) - [f]'([beta] - 0)} | + &c. + n^2[pi]^2 |_ l _| + + where [beta] are the points at which [f]'(x) is discontinuous. + + + HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE THEORY + + The history of the theory of the representation of functions by series + of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with the + progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function of a + real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function may + possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infinitesimal + calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in this + connexion (see FUNCTION). The representation of functions by these + series was first considered in the 18th century, in connexion with the + problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to the + possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747 + (_Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin_, vol. iii.) D'Alembert showed that + the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a + differential equation of the form [delta]^y/[delta]t^2 = a^2 + [delta]^y/[delta]x^2, where x is measured along the undisturbed length + of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of length l fixed, the + appropriate solution is y = [f](at + x) - [f](at - x), where [f] is a + function such that [f](x) = [f](x + 2l); in another memoir in the same + volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition. In the + year 1748 (_Berlin Memoirs_, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing the + problem, gave [f](x) = [alpha] sin [pi]x/l + [beta] sin 2[pi]x/l + ... + as a particular solution, and maintained that every curve, whether + regular or irregular, must be representable in this form. This was + objected to by D'Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground + that irregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (_Berlin + Memoirs_, vol. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on + physical intuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753). The + question was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in + a memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (_Miscellanea + Taurensia_, 1759; [_OE]uvres_, vol. i.), who, while criticizing + Euler's method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and + then makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite + fully carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli's + Series. These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of + a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a + discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of several + different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion of a broken + function was not generally admitted. The first cases in which rational + functions are expressed in sines and cosines were given by Euler + (_Subsidium calculi sinuum_, Novi Comm. Petrop., vol. v., 1754-1755), + who obtained the formulae + + 1/2 [phi] = sin [phi] - 1/2 sin 2[phi] + 1/3 sin 3[phi] ... + + [pi]^2 [phi]^2 + ------ - ------- = cos [phi] - 1/4 cos 2[phi] + 1/9 cos 3[phi] ... + 12 4 + + In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777, but not + published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards used by + Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions; he + remarked that if [Phi] is expansible in the form + _ _ + 1 /[pi] 2 /[pi] + A + B cos[phi] + C cos 2[phi] + ..., then A = ---- | [Phi]d[phi], B = ---- | cos [phi]d[phi], &c. + [pi] _/ 0 [pi] _/ 0 + + The second period in the development of the theory commenced in 1807, + when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory of Heat to + the French Academy. His exposition of the present theory is contained + in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of which his great treatise + the _Theorie analytique de la chaleur_, published in 1822, is, in the + main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself to consider the + representation of a function given graphically, and was the first + fully to grasp the idea that a single function may consist of detached + portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He had an accurate conception + of the convergence of a series, and although he did not give a + formally complete proof that a function with discontinuities is + representable by the series, he indicated in particular cases the + method of procedure afterwards carried out by Dirichlet. As an + exposition of principles, Fourier's work is still worthy of careful + perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson's treatment of the + subject, which has been adopted in English works (see the _Journal de + l'ecole polytechnique_, vol. xi., 1820, and vol. xii., 1823, and also + his treatise, _Theorie de la chaleur_, 1835), depends upon the equality + _ + /[pi] 1 - h^2 + | [f]([alpha]) ------------------------------ d[alpha] + _/-[pi] 1 - 2h cos (x - [alpha]) + h^2 + + _ _ + 1 /[pi] 1 /[pi] + = ----- | [f]([alpha]) d[alpha] + ---- [Sigma]h^n | [f]([alpha]) cos n(x - [alpha]) d[alpha] + 2[pi] _/-[pi] [pi] _/-[pi] + + where 0 < h < 1; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is + evaluated when h=1, and found to be 1/2 {[f](x + 0) + [f](x - 0)}, the + series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier's Series. The equality + of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed to be + convergent when h = 1, by a theorem of Abel's its sum is continuous + with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a proof of the + convergency for h = 1 is requisite for the validity of Poisson's + proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency, his proof of the + general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency cannot be removed + except by a process of the same nature as that afterwards applied by + Dirichlet. The definite integral has been carefully studied by Schwarz + (see two memoirs in his collected works on the integration of the + equation [delta]^2u/[delta]x^2 + [delta]^2u/[delta]y^2 = 0), who showed + that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner in + which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier's Series were + also given by Cauchy (see his "Memoire sur les developpements des + fonctions en series periodiques," _Mem. de l'Inst_., vol. vi., also + _Oeuvres completes_, vol. vii.); his method, which depends upon a use + of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification, as valid + by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer regarded as + satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory investigation is due + to Dirichlet; his first memoir appeared in _Crelle's Journal_ for + 1829, and the second, which is a model of clearness, in Dove's + _Repertorium der Physik_. Dirichlet laid down certain definite + sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which is + expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value of the + sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet's determination of the sum of + the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized by Schlafli + (see _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond (_Mathem. + Annalen_, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really + indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a + misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if x1 be + the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach x1, + and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series takes + any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought to make x = + x1 first and afterwards n = [oo], and no other way of going to the + double limit is really admissible. Other papers by Dircksen (_Crelle_, + vol. iv.) and Bessel (_Astronomische Nachrichten_, vol. xvi.), on + similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance. Many + of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet's have the object of + freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed + upon it in Dirichlet's proof, but no complete set of necessary and + sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been + obtained. Lipschitz ("De explicatione per series trigonometricas," + _Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain + condition, a function which has an infinite number of maxima and + minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his + condition is that at the point of discontinuity [beta], |[f]([beta] + + [delta]) -f([beta])| < B[delta]^[alpha] as [delta] converges to zero, + B being a constant, and a a positive exponent. A somewhat wider + condition is + + {[f]([beta] + [delta]) - [f]([beta])} log [delta]) = 0, + [delta] = 0 + + for which Lipschitz's results would hold. This last condition is + adopted by Dini in his treatise (_Sopra la serie di Fourier_, &c., + Pisa, 1880). + + The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publication by + Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written in 1854, _Uber + die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische Reihe_. + The first part of his memoir contains a historical account of the work + of previous investigators; in the second part there is a discussion of + the foundations of the Integral Calculus, and the third part is mainly + devoted to a discussion of what can be inferred as to the nature of a + function respecting the changes in its value for a continuous change + in the variable, if the function is capable of representation by a + trigonometrical series. Dirichlet and probably Riemann thought that + all continuous functions were everywhere representable by the series; + this view was refuted by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akad._ vol. + xii. 2). It was shown by Riemann that the convergence or + non-convergence of the series at a particular point x depends only + upon the nature of the function in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood + of the point x. The first to call attention to the importance of the + theory of uniform convergence of series in connexion with Fourier's + Series was Stokes, in his memoir "On the Critical Values of the Sums + of Periodic Series" (_Camb. Phil. Trans._, 1847; _Collected Papers_, + vol. i.). As the method of determining the coefficients in a + trigonometrical series is invalid unless the series converges in + general uniformly, the question arose whether series with coefficients + other than those of Fourier exist which represent arbitrary functions. + Heine showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vol. lxxi., 1870, and in his + treatise _Kugelfunctionen_, vol. i.) that Fourier's Series is in + general uniformly convergent, and that if there is a uniformly + convergent series which represents a function, it is the only one of + the kind. G. Cantor then showed (_Crelle's Journal_, vols. lxxii. + lxxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be not demanded, there can + be but one convergent expansion for a function, and that it is that of + Fourier. In the _Math. Ann._ vol. v., Cantor extended his + investigation to functions having an infinite number of + discontinuities. Important contributions to the theory of the series + have been published by Du Bois-Reymond (_Abh. der Bayer. Akademie_, + vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in Crelle's Journal, vols. lxxiv. + lxxvi. lxxix.), by Kronecker (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by O. Holder + (_Berliner Berichte_, 1885), by Jordan (_Comptes rendus_, 1881, vol. + xcii.), by Ascoli (_Math. Annal._, 1873, and _Annali di matematica_, + vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (_Atti della R. Acc. di Torino_, vol. x., + 1875). Hamilton's memoir on "Fluctuating Functions" (_Trans. R.I.A._, + vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied with profit in this connexion. A + memoir by Broden (_Math. Annalen_, vol. lii.) contains a good + investigation of some of the most recent results on the subject. The + scope of Fourier's Series has been extended by Lebesgue, who + introduced a conception of integration wider than that due to Riemann. + Lebesgue's work on Fourier's Series will be found in his treatise, + _Lecons sur les series trigonometriques_ (1906); also in a memoir, + "Sur les series trigonometriques," _Annales sc. de l'ecole normale + superieure_, series ii. vol. xx. (1903), and in a paper "Sur la + convergence des series de Fourier," _Math. Annalen_, vol. lxiv. + (1905). + + AUTHORITIES.--The foregoing historical account has been mainly drawn + from A. Sachse's work, "Versuch einer Geschichte der Darstellung + willkurlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigonometrische + Reihen," published in _Schlomilch's Zeitschrift fur Mathematik_, + Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G.A. Gibson "On the History + of the Fourier Series" (_Proc. Ed. Math. Soc._ vol. xi.). Reiff's + _Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen_ may also be consulted, and also + the first part of Riemann's memoir referred to above. Besides Dini's + treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment of the + subject from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann's treatise, + _Uber die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen fortschreitenden + Entwickelungen_. Jordan's discussion of the subject in his _Cours + d'analyse_ is worthy of attention: an account of functions with + limited variation is given in vol. i.; see also a paper by Study in + the _Math. Annalen_, vol. xlvii. On the second mean-value theorem + papers by Bonnet (Brux. Memoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, _Lionville's + Journal_, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (_Crelle's Journal_, + vol. lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (_Zeitschrift fur Math. und Physik_, + vol. xiv., 1869), by Meyer (_Math. Ann._, vol. vi., 1872) and by + Holder (_Gottinger Anzeigen_, 1894) may be consulted; the most general + form of the theorem has been given by Hobson (_Proc. London Math. + Soc._, Series II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform + convergence of series, a memoir by W.F. Osgood (_Amer. Journal of + Math._ xix.) may be with advantage consulted. On the theory of series + in general, in relation to the functions which they can represent, a + memoir by Baire (_Annali di matematica_, Series III. vol. iii.) is of + great importance. Bromwich's _Theory of Infinite Series_ (1908) + contains much information on the general theory of series. Bocher's + "Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series," _Annals of Math._, + Series II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw's + _Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series and Integrals, and the + Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat_ (1906). A full account + of the theory will be found in Hobson's treatise _On the Theory of + Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier's Series_ + (1907). (E. W. H.) + + + + +FOURMIES, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on an +affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) +13,308. It is one of the chief centres in France for wool combing and +spinning, and produces a great variety of cloths. The glass-works of +Fourmies date from 1599, and were the first established in the north of +France. Iron is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges +and foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour troubles +brought about military intervention and consequent bloodshed. A board of +trade arbitration and a school of commerce and industry are among the +public institutions. + + + + +FOURMONT, ETIENNE (1683-1745), French orientalist, was born at Herbelai, +near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683. He studied at the College +Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the College Montaigu, where his +attention was attracted to Oriental languages. Shortly after leaving the +college he published a _Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben +Esra sur l'ecclesiast_e. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to assist +a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar. Hoan-ji died +in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont published _Meditationes +Sinicae_ and in 1742 _Grammatica Sinica_. He also wrote _Reflexions +critiques sur les histoires des anciens peuples_ (1735), and several +dissertations printed in the _Memoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions. +He became professor of Arabic in the College de France in 1715. In 1713 +he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member +of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that of Berlin. +He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745. + +His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1746), was also a member of the +Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac language in the +Royal College, and was sent by the government to copy inscriptions in +Greece. + + An account of Etienne Fourmont's life and a catalogue of his works + will be found in the second edition (1747) of his _Reflexions + critiques_. + + + + +FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER (1801-1869), French geologist and +metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on the 15th of May 1801. He was +educated at the Ecole des Mines at Paris, and after considerable +experience as a mining engineer he was in 1834 appointed professor of +geology at Lyons. He was a man of wide knowledge and extensive research, +and wrote memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive +rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the Western +Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolinization and on +metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects also he was an +acknowledged authority; and he published observations on the order of +sulphurability of metals (_loi de Fournet_). He died at Lyons on the 8th +of January 1869. His chief publications were: E_tudes sur les depots +metalliferes_ (Paris, 1834); _Histoire de la dolomie_ (Lyons, 1847); _De +l'extension des terrains houillers_ (1855); _Geologie lyonnaise_ (Lyons, +1861). + + + + +FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768), French engraver and typefounder, was +born at Paris on the 15th of September 1712. He was the son of a +printer, and was brought up to his father's business. After studying +drawing under the painter Colson, he practised for some time the art of +wood-engraving, and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and +casting of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry +became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries. Not +content with his practical achievements, he sought to stimulate public +interest in his art by the production of various works on the subject. +In 1737 he published his _Table des proportions qu'il faut observer +entre les caracteres_, which was followed by several other technical +treatises. In 1758 he assailed the title of Gutenberg to the honour +awarded him as inventor of printing, claiming it for Schoffer, in his +_Dissertation sur l'origine et les progres de l'art de graver en bois_. +This gave rise to a controversy in which Schopflin and Baer were his +opponents. Fournier's contributions to this debate were collected and +reprinted under the title of _Traites historiques et critiques sur +l'origine de l'imprimerie_. His principal work, however, was the _Manuel +typographique_, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764, the first volume +treating of engraving and type-founding, the second of printing, with +examples of different alphabets. It was the author's design to complete +the work in four volumes, but he did not live to execute it. He died at +Paris on the 8th of October 1768. + + + + +FOURNIER L'HERITIER, CLAUDE (1745-1825), French revolutionist, called +"l'Americain," was born at Auzon (Haute-Loire) on the 21st of December +1745, the son of a poor weaver. He went to America to seek his fortune, +and started at San Domingo an establishment for making _tafia_ (an +inferior quality of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to +France he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and +specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the +organization of the popular armed force by means of which the most +famous of the revolutionary _coups_ were effected. His influence was +principally manifested in the insurrections of the 5th and 6th of +October 1789, the 17th of July 1791, and the 20th of June and the 10th +of August 1792. He was on bad terms with the majority of the +politicians, and particularly with Marat, and spent a great part of his +time in prison, all the governments regarding him as an agitator and +accusing him of inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time +for trying to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from +which he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from the +12th of December 1793 to the 21st of September 1794, and again from the +9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795. After the attempt on the +First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise he was deported to Guiana, but +was allowed to return to France in 1809. In 1811, while under +surveillance at Auxerre, he was accused of having provoked an _emeute_ +against taxes known as the _droits reunis_ (afterwards called +c_ontributions indirectes_), and was imprisoned in the Chateau d'If, +where he remained till 1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons +Fournier was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force. +After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed his last +years in importuning the Restoration government for compensation for his +lost property in San Domingo. He died in obscurity. + + For further details see preface to F.A. Aulard's edition of Fournier's + _Memoires secrets_ (Paris, 1890), published by the Societe de + l'histoire de la Revolution. + + + + +FOURTOU, MARIE FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDY DE (1836-1897), French politician, +was born at Riberac (Dordogne) on the 3rd of January 1836, and +represented his native department in the National Assembly after the +Franco-German War. There he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made +him minister of public works in December 1872. He was minister of +religion in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the +Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As minister of +education, religion and the fine arts in the reconstructed cabinet of +the duc de Broglie he had used his administrative powers to further +clerical ends, and as minister of the interior in Broglie's cabinet in +1877 he resumed the administrative methods of the Second Empire. With a +well-known Bonapartist, Baron R.C.F. Reille, as his secretary, he +replaced republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving a +few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of that year he +used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a majority for the Right, +to support a clerical and reactionary programme. He accompanied Marshal +MacMahon in his tour through southern France, and the presidential +manifesto of September, stating that the president would rely solely on +the Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally +attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell, and a +commission was appointed to inquire into their unconstitutional abuse of +power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence of the revelations made in +the report of the commission. In the Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave +the lie direct to Fourtou's allegation that the republican party opposed +every republican principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in +consequence, but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to the +chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year. Failing to secure +re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered the popular chamber +as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he took no further active part in +politics. He died in Paris in 1897. + + His works include _Histoire de Louis XVI_ (1840); _Histoire de Saint + Pie V_ (1845); _Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols., 1859); + _La Question italienne_ (1860); _De la contre-revolution_ (1876); and + _Memoires d'un royaliste_ (2 vols., 1888). + + + + +FOUSSA, or FOSSA, the native name of _Cryptoprocta ferox_, a somewhat +cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar, where it is the +largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice the size of a cat (5 ft. +from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform pale +brown. Little is known of its habits, except that it is nocturnal, +frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially kids, and shows +great ferocity when wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the +natives. An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly +fourteen years. See CARNIVORA. + + + + +FOWEY (usually pronounced _Foy_), a seaport and market-town in the +Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western +railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth. Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the +west shore of the picturesque estuary of the river Fowey, close to the +water's edge, and sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St +Nicholas is said to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of +a still older edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine +tower and late Norman doorway. Within are a priest's chamber over the +porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some curious +monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the church, is a highly +ornate Tudor building. A few ancient houses remain in the town. Deep-sea +fishing is carried on; but the staple trade consists in the export of +china clay and minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is +easy of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state +of the tide. St Catherine's Fort, dating from the days of Henry VIII. +and now ruined, stands at the harbour's mouth, and once formed the main +defence of the town. Opposite the town, and connected with it by +Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan. Its main features are St +Saviour's Chapel, with an ancient rood-stone, and the remains of Hall +House, which was garrisoned during the civil wars of the 17th century. + +Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst Cornish ports +from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the Tudors. The numerous +references to the privateering exploits of its ships in the Patent and +Close Rolls and the extraordinary number of them at the siege of Calais +in 1346 alike testify to its importance. During this period the king's +mandates were addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs, +and no charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the +reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common council +consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these with a recorder +elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey and Looe was summoned to +a council at Westminster in 1340, but from that date until 1571, when it +was entrusted with the privilege of returning two members, it had no +parliamentary representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its +members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a few years +previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as lord of the manor, +obtained the right to hold a Monday market and two fairs on the feasts +of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the charter of 1690 provision was made +for a Saturday market and three fairs, on the 1st of May, 10th of +September and Shrove Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held. + + + + +FOWL (Dan. _Fugl_, Ger. _Vogel_), a term originally used in the sense +that bird[1] now is, but, except in composition,--as sea-fowl, wild-fowl +and the like,--practically almost confined[2] at present to designate +the otherwise nameless species which struts on our dunghills, gathers +round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry yards--the type of the genus +_Gallus_ of ornithologists, of which four well-marked species are known. +The _first_ of these is the red jungle-fowl of the greater part of +India, _G. ferrugineus_,--called by many writers _G. bankiva_,--which is +undoubtedly the parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin, +_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits +northern India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay +Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the +Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of 4000 ft., +and its southern limits in the west of India proper are, according to +Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south of the Nerbudda, and +in the east near the left bank of the Godavery, or perhaps even farther, +as he had heard of its being killed at Cummum. This species resembles in +plumage what is commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the +"Black-breasted game" breed, and this is said to be especially the case +with examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples from +India some differences are observable--the latter having the plumage +less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white, and slate-coloured +legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are crimson, like the comb and +wattles, and the legs yellowish. If the Malayan birds be considered +distinct, it is to them that the name _G. bankiva_ properly applies. +This species is said to be found in lofty forests and in dense thickets, +as well as in ordinary bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near +its haunts, it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in +straggling parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives +utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam, never +prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds from January to +July, according to the locality; and lays from 8 to 12 creamy-white +eggs, occasionally scraping together a few leaves or a little dry grass +by way of a nest. The so-called _G. giganteus_, formerly taken by some +ornithologists for a distinct species, is now regarded as a tame breed +of _G. ferrugineus_ or _bankiva_. The _second_ good species is the grey +jungle-fowl, _G. sonnerati_, whose range begins a little to the +northward of the limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern +part of the Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock +has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a horny +plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very peculiar, +being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike that of _G. +ferrugineus_ and more like a cackle. The two species where their +respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed in a wild state, and +the present readily crosses in confinement with domestic poultry, but +the hybrids are nearly always sterile. The _third_ species is the +Sinhalese jungle-fowl, _G. stanleyi_ (the _G. lafayettii_ of some +authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also greatly resembles in plumage +some domestic birds, but the cock is red beneath, and has a yellow comb +with a red edge and purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a +singularly different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird +crosses readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be +infertile. The _fourth_ species, _G. varius_ (the _G. furcatus_ of some +authors), inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This +differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and in +having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a single chin +wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage is another easy mark of +distinction. Hybrids between this species and domestic birds are often +produced, but they are most commonly sterile. Some of them have been +mistaken for distinct species, as those which have received the names of +_G. aeneus_ and _G. temmincki_. + +Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls were first +domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent thereto, and it is the +tradition of the Chinese that they received their poultry from the West +about the year 1400 B.C. By the Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is +forbidden, though the wild is allowed to be eaten--showing that its +domestication was accomplished when they were written. The bird is not +mentioned in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has [Greek: +'Alektor] (cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient +Egyptian monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the +Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece +through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between the +6th and 7th centuries B.C. It is sculptured on the Lycian marbles in the +British Museum (c. 600 B.C.), and E. Blyth remarks (Ibis, 1867, p. 157) +that it is there represented with the appearance of a true jungle-fowl, +for none of the wild _Galli_ have the upright bearing of the tame breed, +but carry their tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of +these breeds see POULTRY. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Bird_ (cognate with _breed_ and _brood_) was originally the + young of any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament + speaks of "Wolf-birdis," i.e. Wolf-cubs. + + [2] Like _Deer_ (Dan. _Dyr_, Ger. _Tier_). _Beast_, too, with some + men has almost attained as much specialization. + + + + +FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867), English architect, was born at Cullompton, +Devon, on the 17th of May 1792. After serving an apprenticeship of five +years at Exeter, he went to London in 1814, and entered the office of +David Laing, where he remained till he commenced practice for himself. +His first work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall +Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the first +premium for a design for the new London bridge, which, however, was +ultimately built according to the design of another architect. Fowler's +other designs for bridges include one constructed across the Dart at +Totnes. He was also the architect for the markets of Covent Garden and +Hungerford, the new market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and +besides several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845), the +London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax Chandlers' +Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years he was honorary secretary +of the institute of British architects, and he was afterwards created +vice-president. He retired from his profession in 1853, and died at +Great Marlow, Bucks, on the 26th of September 1867. + + + + +FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714), English divine, was born in 1632 at +Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at Corpus Christi +College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity College, Cambridge. He +was successively rector of Norhill, Bedfordshire (1656) and of All +Hallows, Bread Street, London (1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of +Gloucester, his friend Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in +his favour. In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after +four years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration of +Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced the London +clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated bishop of +Gloucester and held the see until his death on the 26th of August 1714. +Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies, and his earliest book was a +_Free Discourse_ in defence of _The Practices of Certain Moderate +Divines called Latitudinarians_ (1670). _The Design of Christianity_, +published by him in the following year, in which he laid stress on the +moral design of revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his _How far +Holiness is the Design of Christianity_ (1671) and by Bunyan in his +_Defence of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith_ (1672), the latter +describing the _Design_ as "a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and +Quakerism," a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous +pamphlet entitled _Dirt Wip'd Off_. He also published, in 1693, +_Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity is +endeavoured to be explained_, challenging with some success the Socinian +position. + + + + +FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864), English inventor, was born at Melksham, Wilts, +on the 11th of July 1826. He learned practical engineering at +Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about 1850 invented a mechanical system for +the drainage of land. In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation, +and in 1858 the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of L500 +which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an economic +substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he founded at Hunslet, +Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manufacturers of agricultural +machinery, traction engines, &c. He died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the +4th of December 1864. + + + + +FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898), English civil engineer, was born on the +15th of July 1817 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield, where his father was +a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen he became a pupil of John +Towlerton Leather, the engineer of the Sheffield water-works. The +latter's uncle, George Leather, was engineer of the Great Aire and +Calder Navigation Company, of the Goole Docks, and other similar works, +and Fowler passed occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired +a thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of railway +construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers into its service, +and one of his first employments was to oppose the route of the Midland +railway, chosen by the Stephensons, which left Sheffield on a branch +line, and was therefore strongly resented by the inhabitants. The +prestige of the Stephensons carried all before it, but in later life Sir +John Fowler had the satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients +justified, and Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into +the office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway engineers +of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges for the line from +London to Brighton, and also in surveying for railways in Lancashire. In +1839 he went as representative of Mr Leather to take charge of the +construction of the Stockton & Hartlepool railway and remained as +manager of the line after it was finished. In 1844 he began his +independent career as an engineer, and from the first was largely +employed, more particularly in laying out the small railway systems +which eventually were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester, +Sheffield & Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a +bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the Board of +Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir) Lintorn Simmons. +The engineering profession espoused Fowler's side in the controversy +which followed, and as a result the verdict of the Board of Trade was +modified. The episode was the beginning of a warm friendship between +these distinguished representatives of civil and military engineering. +Fowler was engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of +underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly made not by +tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and then covering in the +permanent way; and he lived to be one of the engineers officially +connected with the deep tunnelling "tube" system extensively adopted for +electric railways in London. He was also engaged in the making of +railways in Ireland, and in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on +a commission to advise the government in respect of a proposal for a +state-purchase of the Irish railway system. He also carried out +considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and the +reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary. + +In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers, +the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair. He was strongly +opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to France, and in 1872 he +endeavoured to obtain the consent of parliament to a Channel ferry +scheme, whereby trains were to be transported across the strait in large +ferry steamers. The proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at +Dover and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing +the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman of a +committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled to render, in +his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian government, which +was much embarrassed by impracticable proposals pressed on it by +Garibaldi for a rectification of the course of the Tiber and other +engineering works. He had several interviews with the Italian patriot, +and persuaded him of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby +obtaining for the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme. +For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser in +Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the Sudan, and +also the reparation of the barrage. These and many other plans came to +an end owing to financial reasons. But the maps and surveys for the +railway were given to the war office, and proved most useful to Lord +Wolseley in his Nile expedition. For his service Fowler was made +K.C.M.G. (1885). He was created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of +the Forth bridge, of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was +joint engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November 1898. + + + + +FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born about the year +1560. He attended St Leonard's college, St Andrews, between 1574 and +1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris studying civil law. In 1581 he issued +a pamphlet against John Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said, +driven him from his country. He subsequently (about ?1590) became +private secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of +James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen went to +England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant of 2000 acres in +Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married Sir John Drummond, and was +mother of the poet William Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of +_The Triumphs of Petrarke_, Fowler styles himself "P. of Hawick," which +has been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is +doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled _The +Tarantula of Love_, and a translation (1587) from the Italian of the +_Triumphs of Petrarke_ are preserved in the library of the university of +Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his nephew, William Drummond. +Two other volumes of his manuscript notes, scrolls of poems, &c., are +preserved among the Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of +Antiquaries of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler's verses were published in +1803 by John Leyden in his _Scottish Descriptive Poems_. Fowler +contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.'s _Furies_; and James, in +return, commended, in verse, Fowler's _Triumphs_. + + + + +FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806), British statesman and orator, was the +third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and his wife. Lady Caroline +Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was +born at 9 Conduit Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The +father, who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him to +choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wandsworth by a +French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short time he asked to be +sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At Eton he did no more work than +was acceptable to him, but he had an inborn love of literature, and he +laid the foundation of that knowledge of the classic languages which in +after years was the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was +controlled by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he checked +his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his father trusted +him to cure his defects. + +That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and magnanimous +man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no one ever owed less to +education or to family example. The relations of Lord Holland to his +sons would be difficult to parallel. He not only treated them, and in +particular Charles, as friends and companions in pleasure from the +first, but he did his best to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he +took Charles for a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most +immoral society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble. The +boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good fortune that he +did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome course of ridicule by +the other boys, and was flogged by Dr Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764 +Charles proceeded to Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he +read literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to +mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathematics +entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense of Sir G. +Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was known to maintain that it +was useless. His own account of his school and college training, given +in a letter to the same correspondent (6th August 1767), is: "I employed +almost my whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical +knowledge, but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand +Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every part of +useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how little advantage +there is in being what at school and the university is called a good +scholar: one receives a good deal of amusement from it, but that is all. +At present I read nothing but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of, +particularly of the poetry.... As for French, I am far from being so +thorough a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I +could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble, +especially if I pass three or four months in France." The passage is +characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature and his +thoroughness. Fox's youth was disorderly, but it was never indolent. He +was incapable of half doing anything which he did at all. He did perfect +himself in French, and he showed no less determination to master mere +sports. At a later period when he had grown fat he accounted for his +skill in taking "cut balls" at tennis by saying that he was a very +"painstaking man." He was all his life a great and steady walker. + +The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a common +subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford and joined his +father on the continent during a tour in France and Italy. In 1768 Lord +Holland bought the pocket borough of Midhurst for him, and he entered on +his parliamentary career, and on London society, in 1769. Within the +next few years Lord Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that +was good, and whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son. +The affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the +passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy proved the +ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses, and bet on them largely. +On the racecourse he was successful, and it is another proof of his +native thoroughness that he gained a reputation as a handicapper. It is +said that he won more than he lost on the course. At the gambling table +he was unfortunate, and there can be little question that he was fleeced +both in London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social +rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worthlessness he +knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his losses and their +consequences with an attractive gaiety. He called the room in which he +did business with the Jew moneylenders his "Jerusalem chamber." When his +elder brother had a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that +the boy was a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of +the Jews. "He had his jest, and they had his estate." In 1774 Lord +Holland had to find L140,000 to pay the gambling debts of his sons. For +years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment, and during his later +years, when he had given up gambling, he was supported by the +contributions of wealthy friends, who in 1793 formed a fund of L70,000 +for his benefit. + +His public career did not supply him with a check on habits of +dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He began, as +was to be expected in his father's son, by supporting the court; and in +1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed a junior lord of the +admiralty with Lord North. During the violent conflict over the +Middlesex election (see WILKES, JOHN) he took the unpopular side, and +vehemently asserted the right of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes. +In 1772 during the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver--a part of the +"Wilkes and liberty" agitation--he and Lord North were attacked by a mob +and rolled in the mud. But Fox's character was incompatible with +ministerial service under King George III. The king, himself a man of +orderly life, detested him as a gambler and a rake. And Fox was too +independent to please a master who expected obedience. In February 1772 +he threw up his place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on +which the king's heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord of +the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his sympathy with +the American colonies, which were now beginning to resist the claims of +the mother country to tax them, made him intolerable to the king and he +was dismissed in February 1774. The death of his father on the 1st of +July of that year removed an influence which tended to keep him +subordinate to the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into +close alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability had +won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had prepared to +distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate cultivation of his +voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill. His argumentative force was +recognized at once, but the full scope of his powers was first shown on +the 2nd of February 1775, when he spoke on the disputes with the +colonies. The speech is unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it, +told his friend Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, "taking +the vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for +regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies dreaded." + +His great political career dates from that day. It is unique among the +careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was passed almost +wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in 1782 and 1783, and +again for a few months before his death in 1806, he was out of office. +If he was absolutely sincere in the statement he made to his friend +Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the 3rd of February 1778, his life was all +he could have wished. "I am," he wrote, "certainly ambitious by nature, +but I really have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have +still as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because +great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation I never +can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making sacrifices that I +never will make." His words show that he judged himself and read the +future accurately. Yet it was certainly a cause of bitter disappointment +to him that he had to stand by while the country was in his opinion not +only misgoverned, but led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a +political critic, which was great from the first and grew as he lived, +most assuredly did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of +the causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the purpose +of obtaining practical success the most important, perhaps the only one +of real importance, was his personal character. Lord John Russell +(afterwards Earl Russell), his friendly biographer, has to confess that +Fox might have joined in the confession of Mirabeau: "The public cause +suffers for the immoralities of my youth." His reputation as a rake and +gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his career that +when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was a general belief +among the vulgar that he had been detected in actual theft. His perfect +openness, the notoriety of his bankruptcies and of the seizure of his +books and furniture in execution, kept him before the world as a model +of dissipation. In 1776, when he was leading the resistance to Lord +North's colonial policy, he "neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish +life. He was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it +before two at noon." At the most important crisis of his life in 1783, +he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not only +to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has drawn a picture +of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox's beloved and admiring +nephew, speaking from his early recollections of his uncle, confesses +has "some justification." Coming from such an authority the certificate +may be held to confirm the substantial accuracy of Walpole. "Fox lodged +in St James's Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a +levee of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks's--all his +disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite open and +rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul linen nightgown +and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic weeds and with Epicurean +good humour did he dictate his politics, and in this school did the heir +of the empire attend his lessons and imbibe them." That this cynic +manner, and Epicurean speech, were only the outside of a manly and +generous nature was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is +now universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries, who +could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously displayed, Fox +was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral and untrustworthy. +Therefore when he came into collision with the will of the king he +failed to secure the confidence of the nation which was his only +support. Nor ought any critical admirer of Fox to deny that George III. +was not wholly wrong when he said that the great orator "was totally +destitute of discretion and sound judgment." Fox made many mistakes, due +in some cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be +ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes is a very +insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical statesman. He +could have profited by the reaction which followed popular excitement +but for his bad reputation and his want of discretion. + +During the eight years between his expulsion from office in 1774 and the +fall of Lord North's ministry in March 1782 he may indeed be said to +have done one very great thing in politics. He planted the seed of the +modern Liberal party as opposed to the pure Whigs. In political +allegiance he became a member of the Rockingham party and worked in +alliance with the marquis and with Burke, whose influence on him was +great. In opposing the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in +assailing the waste and corruption of Lord North's administration, as +well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the +Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption, and in favour +of honest management of the public money, which was very strong between +1779 and 1782, he and they worked heartily together. It had a +considerable effect, and prepared the way for the reforms begun by Burke +and continued by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with +originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement as final, +or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House of Commons +could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction that, if the House +was to be made an efficient instrument for restraining the interference +of the king and for securing good government, it must cease to be filled +to a very large extent by the nominees of boroughmongers and the +treasury. He became a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all +ways he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been known +as "Liberal causes," the removal of all religious disabilities and +tests, the suppression of private interests which hampered the public +good, the abolition of the slave trade, and the emancipation of all +classes and races of men from the strict control of authority. + +A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would entail the +mention of every crisis of the American War of Independence and of every +serious debate in parliament. Throughout the struggle Fox was uniformly +opposed to the coercion of the colonies and was the untiring critic of +Lord North. While the result must be held to prove that he was right, he +prepared future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He +was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim that an +enemy should always be treated as if he may one day be a friend, and a +friend as if he might become an enemy. On the 29th of November 1779 Fox +was wounded in a duel with Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North's +whom he had savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured +invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal +character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an amiable +though pliable man, who remained in office against his own wish, in +deference to the king who appealed to his loyalty. When the disasters of +the American war had at last made a change of ministry necessary, and +the king applied to the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord +Shelburne, Fox made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of +Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign. The +result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox's own words, +partly to the king and partly to the country--that is to say, partly of +Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and partly of the king's friends, +represented by Lord Shelburne, whose real function was to baffle the +Whigs. Dissensions began from the first, and were peculiarly acute +between Shelburne and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old +division of duties by which the southern secretary had the +correspondence with the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and +the northern secretary with the others, had been abolished on the +formation of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted +to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the peace at +Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some rather scandalous +pensions, and Fox's acquiescence in this abuse after his recent +agitation against Lord North's waste did him injury. When the marquess +of Rockingham died on the 1st of July 1782, and the king offered the +premiership to Shelburne, Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of +the Rockingham Whigs. + +In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly consistent, but +his next step was ruinous to himself and his party. On the 14th of +February 1783 he formed a coalition with Lord North, based as they +declared on "mutual goodwill and confidence." Plausible excuses were +made for the alliance, but to the country at large this union, formed +with a man whom he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an +unscrupulous conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the House of +Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive Shelburne from office +on the 24th of February. The king made a prolonged resistance to the +pressure put on him to accept Fox and North as his ministers (see PITT, +WILLIAM). On the 2nd of April he was constrained to submit to the +formation of a new ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime +minister and Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new +administration was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox +increased its unpopularity both in the House and in the country by +consenting against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the +grant of a sum of L100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had +the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on bad terms +with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his acquiescence in the +grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry, convinced the country that +his zeal for economy was hypocritical. The introduction of the India +Bill in November 1783 alarmed many vested interests, and offended the +king by the provision which gave the patronage of India to a commission +to be named by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The +coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of most +telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the growing unpopularity +of his ministers, George III. gave it to be understood that he would not +look upon any member of the House of Lords who voted for the India Bill +as his friend. The bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of +December, and next day the king dismissed his ministers. + +Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his life may be +divided into four portions--his opposition to Pitt during the session of +1784; his parliamentary activity till his secession in 1797; his +retirement till 1800; his return to activity and his short tenure of +office before his death in 1806. During the first of these periods he +deepened his unpopularity by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the +crown, by claiming for the House of Commons the right to override not +only the king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by +resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from a +statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He lost ground +daily before the steady good judgment and unblemished character of Pitt. +When parliament was dissolved at the end of the session of 1784, the +country showed its sentiments by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox +and North. Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book +called _The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke_, a compilation of their +abuse of one another in recent years. + +Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes than Admiral +Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial candidate, Sir Cecil +Wray. The election was marked by an amazing outflow of caricatures and +squibs, by weeks of rioting in which Lord Hood's sailors fought pitched +battles in St James's Street with Fox's hackney coachmen, and by the +intrepid canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire +(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for Fox by +kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what constituted a +desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make a return, and the +confirmation of Fox's election was delayed by the somewhat mean action +of the ministry. He had, however, been chosen for Kirkwall, and could +fight his cause in the House. In the end he recovered damages from the +high bailiff. In his place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and +sometimes opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers' bill +for the government of India was sound in principle, though the evils he +foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for his opposition to +Pitt's commercial policy towards Ireland. But as Fox on this occasion +aided the vested interests of some English manufacturers he secured a +certain revival of popularity. His support of Pitt's Reform Bill was +qualified by a just dislike of the ministers' proposal to treat the +possession of the franchise by a constituency as a property and not as a +trust. His unsuccessful opposition to the commercial treaty with France +in 1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed himself +to the proposition that France was the natural enemy of Great Britain, a +saying often quoted against him in coming years. It has been excused on +the ground that when he said France he meant the aggressive house of +Bourbon. A statesman whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric +meaning cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788 he +travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the illness of +the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of Wales to the regency +as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt into declaring that he would +"unwhig the gentleman for the rest of his life." The friendship between +him and the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) was always injurious to +Fox. In 1787 he was misled by the prince's ambiguous assurances into +denying the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had +been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a year, but +their alliance was renewed. During these years he was always in favour +of whatever measures could be described as favourable to emancipation +and to humanity. He actively promoted the impeachment of Warren +Hastings, which had the support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the +abolition of the slave trade (which he actually effected during his +short tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of +concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and in +Ireland. + +The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together with almost all +his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the states-general in 1789 as +the downfall of a despotism hostile to Great Britain. But when the +development of the Revolution caused a general reaction, he adhered +stoutly to his opinion that the Revolution was essentially just and +ought not to be condemned for its errors or even for its crimes. As a +natural consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt's foreign policy, +which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in the +interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his unpopularity reached +its height. He was left almost alone in parliament, and was denounced as +the enemy of his country. On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful +scene in the House of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship. +In 1792 there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt, +which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with Burke took +place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill, in which Fox +displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the division of Upper from +Lower Canada, and other provisions of the bill, which in the end proved +so injurious as to be unworkable. In this year he carried the Libel +Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke of Portland, and most of his party left +him. In 1797 he withdrew from parliament, and only came forward in 1798 +to reaffirm the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great +Whig dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy council. + +The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life. In 1783 +he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane, commonly known as Mrs +Armstead or Armistead, an amiable and well-mannered woman to whom he +was passionately attached. In company with her he established himself at +St Anne's Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her +privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters he +spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends--Mr Coke +of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he stayed every year, +being one of them--would not invite her to their houses. It is hard to +explain this solitary instance of shabby conduct in a thoroughly +generous man towards a person to whom he was unalterably attached and +who fully deserved his affection. Fox's time at St Anne's was largely +spent in gardening, in the enjoyment of the country, and in +correspondence on literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord +Holland, and with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His +letters show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened +appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first +favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in French, +and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite authors were +Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends against the stock +criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with equal zeal and insight. + +Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of censure on +ministers for declining Napoleon's overtures for a peace. The fall of +Pitt's first ministry and the formation of the Addington cabinet, the +peace of Amiens, and the establishment of Napoleon as first consul with +all the powers of a military despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of +resuming power in public life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over, +and he could have no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful +general who ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual +aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his wife. An +account of his journey was published in 1811 by his secretary, Mr +Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence. It gives an +attractive picture of Fox's good-humour, and of his enjoyment of the +"species of minor comedy which is constantly exhibited in common life." +His main purpose in visiting Paris was to superintend the transcription +of the correspondence of Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life +of James II. The book was never finished, but the fragment he completed +was published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand Carrel +in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon. He saw a good +deal of French society, and was himself much admired for his hearty +defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish charge of encouraging plots +for Napoleon's assassination. On his return he resumed his regular +attendance in the House of Commons. The history of the renewal of the +war, of the fall of Addington's ministry, and of the formation of Pitt's +second administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt +(q.v.) that it need not be repeated here. + +The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in public life +that the king could no longer hope to exclude him from office. The +formation of a ministry was entrusted by the king to Lord Grenville, but +when he named Fox as his proposed secretary of state for foreign affairs +George III. accepted him without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a +large extent to have died out. A long period of office might now have +appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had he lived +it may be considered as certain that the war with Napoleon would have +been conducted with a vigour which was much wanting during the next few +years. In domestic politics Fox had no time to do more than insist on +the abolition of the slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to +the king's invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the +Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself Guillet de la +Gevrilliere, whom Fox at first "did the honour to take for a spy," came +to him with a scheme for the murder of Napoleon, he sent a warning on +the 20th of February to Talleyrand. The incident gave him an opportunity +for reopening negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and +British envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the +French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved not to treat +apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain, nor to consent to +the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted upon, unless full +compensation could be obtained for King Ferdinand. The later stages of +the negotiation were not directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took +over his work at the foreign office when his health began to fail in the +summer of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only +procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for the +abolition of the slave trade on the 10th of June, he was forced to give +up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of the duke of +Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September 1806. His wife +survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No children were born of the +marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster Abbey by the side of Pitt. + +The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered very familiar +by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The latter were no doubt +deliberately exaggerated, and yet a comparison between the head of Fox +in Sayer's plate "Carlo Khan's triumphal entry into Leadenhall," and in +Abbot's portrait, shows that the caricaturist did not depart from the +original. Fox was twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young +in a group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways, and once +at full length. A half-length portrait by the German painter, Karl Anton +Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery, where there is also a +terra-cotta bust by Nollekens. + + AUTHORITIES.--The materials for a life of Fox were first collected by + his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged by Mr + Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as _Memoirs and + Correspondence of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1853-1857). On them Lord John + Russell based his _Life and Times of C.J. Fox_ (London, 1859-1866); + Sir G.O. Trevelyan's _Early History of C.J. Fox_ (London. 1880) brings + new evidence; _Charles James Fox, a Political Study_, by J.L. Le B. + Hammond (London, 1903), is a series of studies written by an extreme + admirer. His _Speeches_ were collected and published in 1815. The + newspaper articles (e.g. in _The Times_) published on the occasion of + the centenary of his death contain interesting appreciations. See also + Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_ (1908). (D. H.) + + + + +FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born about 1496 at +Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very doubtful authority to +have been related to Richard Fox (q.v.). From Eton he proceeded to +King's College, Cambridge, and after graduating was made secretary to +Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement +VII. a decretal commission for the trial and decision of the case +between Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was +elected provost of King's College, and in August 1529 was the means of +conveying to the king Cranmer's historic advice that he should apply to +the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This introduction +led eventually to Cranmer's promotion over Fox's head to the +archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission to Paris in October +1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended Latimer at Cambridge and took an +active part in persuading that university and Oxford to decide in the +king's favour. He was sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at +the French universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in +negotiating a closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he +was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity of +Henry's marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his treatise _De +vera differentia regiae potestatis et ecclesiae_ (second ed. 1538, +English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical preferments were now +granted him, including the archdeaconry of Leicester (1531) and the +bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-1536 he was sent to Germany to +discuss the basis of a political and theological understanding with the +Lutheran princes and divines, and had several interviews with Luther, +who could not be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII.'s divorce. The +principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of 1536, +which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles of the same +year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his _Commentaries on the Gospels_, +and Fox's Protestantism was also illustrated by his patronage of +Alexander Aless, whom he defended before Convocation. Fox is credited +with the authorship of several proverbial sayings, such as "the surest +way to peace is a constant preparedness for war" and "time and I will +challenge any two in the world." The former at any rate is only a +variation of the Latin _si vis pacem, para bellum_, and probably the +latter is not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is +usually ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the +church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is perhaps +that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.'s bishops, and was largely +responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536. + + See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper's + _Athenae Cantabrigienses_; _Dict. Nat. Biogr._; R.W. Dixon's _Church + History_; G. Mentz, _Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536_ (1905). + (A. F. 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