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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5 + "Fleury, Claude" to "Foraker" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 1, 2011 [EBook #35747] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME X SLICE V<br /><br /> +Fleury, Claude to Foraker</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FLEURY, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FLIEDNER, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FLYING BUTTRESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FLIGHT and FLYING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FLYING COLUMN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FLINCK, GOVERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">"FLYING DUTCHMAN,"</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FLINDERS, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FLYING-FISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FLINSBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FLYING-FOX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FLINT, AUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FLYING-SQUIRREL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FLINT, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FLYSCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FLINT, TIMOTHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FOČA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FLINT</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FOCHABERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FLINT</a> (county of North Wales)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FOCSHANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FLINT</a> (town of North Wales)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FOCUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FLINT</a> (crystalline substance)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FOG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FLOAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FLOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FOGGIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FLODDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FÖHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FLODOARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FÖHR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FLOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FOIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FLOOD, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FOIL-FENCING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FLOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FOIX, PAUL DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FLOOD PLAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FOIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FLOOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FLOORCLOTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FOLENGO, TEOFILO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FLOR, ROGER DI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FOLEY, JOHN HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FLORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FOLEY, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FOLI, ALLAN JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FOLIGNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FLORENCE OF WORCESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FOLIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FLORENCE</a> (Alabama, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FOLIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FLORENCE</a> (capital of Tuscany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FOLKES, MARTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FLORES</a> (island in the Atlantic Ocean)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FOLKESTONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FLORES</a> (island of the Dutch East Indies)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FOLKLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FLOREZ, ENRIQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FOLKLORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FLORIAN, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FOLLEN, KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FLORIANOPOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FLORIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MOÑINO Y REDONDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FOND DU LAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FLORIDOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FONDI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FLORIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FONNI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FLORIO, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FONSAGRADA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FLORIS, FRANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FLORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FONSECA, BAY OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FLORUS, JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FONT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FONTAINEBLEAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FLOUNDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FONTANA, DOMENICO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FONTANA, LAVINIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FLOURENS, GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FONTANA, PROSPERO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FONTANE, THEODOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FONTANES, LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FLOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FONTENAY-LE-COMTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FLOYD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FONTENOY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FONTEVRAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FLOYER, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FLUDD, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FOOD PRESERVATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FOOL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FOOLS, FEAST OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FLUKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FOOLSCAP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FLUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FOOL'S PARSLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FLUMINI MAGGIORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FOOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FLUORANTHENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FLUORENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FOOTBALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FLUORESCEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FOOTE, ANDREW HULL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FLUORESCENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FLUORINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FOOTE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FLUOR-SPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FOOTMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FLUSHING</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FOOTSCRAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FLUSHING</a> (Zeeland, Holland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FOOT-STALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FLUTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FOPPA, VINCENZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FLUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FORAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FORAIN, J. L.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FLYCATCHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FLEURY, CLAUDE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian, +was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for +the bar, he was educated at the aristocratic college of Clermont +(now that of Louis-le-Grand). In 1658 he was nominated an +advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for nine years followed +the legal profession. But he had long been of a religious disposition, +and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had been +some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as +tutor of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king +next entrusted to him the education of the count of Vermandois, +one of his natural sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received +for his services the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese +of Rhodez. In 1689 he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes +of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of Berry, and thus became intimately +associated with Fénelon, their chief tutor. In 1696 he was +elected to fill the place of La Bruyère in the French Academy; +and on the completion of the education of the young princes +the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the +diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned, +with rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu. +About this time he began his great work, the first of the kind in +France, and one for which he had been collecting materials +for thirty years—the <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>. Fleury’s evident +intention was to write a history of the church for all classes of +society; but at the time in which his great work appeared it +was less religion than theology that absorbed the attention of +the clergy and the educated public; and his work accordingly +appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader, +dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine, +of discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood +and the imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success. +The first edition, printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was +followed by many others, among which may be mentioned that +of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692, and that of Nismes, in 25 vols. +8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury only comes down to the +year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre and Goujet +down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of Fleury +and its supplement, the general table of contents, published +by Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful. +Translations have been made of the entire work into Latin, +German and Italian. The Latin translation, published at +Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo, carries the work down to +1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor to the young +king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans said, +he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but +Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was +equalled by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness +of his conduct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fleury left many works besides his <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>. The +following deserve special mention:—<i>Histoire du droit françois</i> (1674, +12mo); <i>Mœurs des Israélites</i> (1681, 12mo); <i>Mœurs des Chrétiens</i> +(1682, 12mo); <i>Traité du choix et de la méthode des études</i> (1686, +2 vols. 12mo); <i>Les Devoirs des maîtres et des domestiques</i> (1688, +12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one volume +at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned +his <i>Catéchisme historique</i> (1679) and the <i>Institution du droit ecclésiastique</i> +(1687).</p> + +<p>See C. Ernst Simonetti, <i>Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers +in dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury</i> (Göttingen, +1746, 4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, <i>Notice sur C. Fleury, considéré comme +historien de l’église</i> (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg, +<i>Geschichte des Christentums, i.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLIEDNER, THEODOR<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1800-1864), German Protestant +divine, was born on the 21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near +Wiesbaden), the small village in which his father was pastor. +He studied theology at the universities of Giessen and Göttingen, +and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and at the age of +twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent +in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the +Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine, +a few miles below Düsseldorf. To help his people and to provide +an endowment for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822 +through part of Germany, and then in 1823 to Holland and +England. He met with considerable success, and had opportunities +of observing what was being done towards prison reform; +in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist +Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad +state. The prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms, +badly fed, and left in complete idleness. No one dreamed of +instructing them, or of collecting statistics to form the basis +of useful legislation on the subject. Fliedner, at first singly, +undertook the work. He applied for permission to be imprisoned +for some time, in order that he might look at prison life from the +inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to hold +fortnightly services in the Düsseldorf prison, and to visit the +inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded +themselves together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first +Prison Society of Germany (<i>Rheinisch-Westfälischer Gefängnisverein</i>) +was founded. In 1833 Fliedner opened in his own +parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for discharged +female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly +increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited +his interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be +best served by an organized body of specially trained women. +Accordingly in 1836 he began the first deaconess house, and +the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their ordination vows the +deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the poor, the sick +and the young; but their engagements were not final—they +might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose. +In addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an +infant school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses +(1836), an orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842), +and an asylum for female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted +at the foundation and in the management of similar institutions, +not only in Germany, but in various parts of Europe.</p> + +<p>In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851 +he travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East—the +object of his journeys being to found “mother houses,” +which were to be not merely training schools for deaconesses, but +also centres whence other training establishments might arise. +He established a deaconess house in Jerusalem, and after his +return assisted by counsel and money in the erection of establishments +at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and Bucharest. +Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house of +refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other +institutions soon arose) and the “house of evening rest” for +retired deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received +the degree of doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in +recognition rather of his practical activity than of his theological +attainments. He died on the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind +him over 100 stations attended by 430 deaconesses; and these +by 1876 had increased to 150 with an attendance of 600.</p> + +<p>Fliedner’s son <span class="sc">Fritz Fliedner</span> (1845-1901), after studying +in Halle and Tübingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +Madrid. He followed in his father’s footsteps by founding +several philanthropic institutions in Spain. He was also the +author of a number of books, amongst which was an autobiography, +<i>Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen</i> +(1901).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Theodor Fliedner’s writings are almost entirely of a practical +character. He edited a periodical, <i>Der Armen und Kranken Freund,</i> +which contained information regarding the various institutions, and +also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides purely +educational and devotional works, he wrote <i>Buch der Märtyrer</i> (1852); +<i>Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang. Liebesanstalten zu +Kaiserswerth</i> (1856); <i>Nachricht über das Diakonissen-Werk in der +Christ. Kirche</i> (5th ed., 1867); <i>Die evangel. Märtyrer Ungarns und +Siebenbürgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach Jerusalem und +Constantinopel</i>. All were published at Kaiserswerth. There is a +translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London, 1867). +See also G. Fliedner, <i>Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines Lebens +und Wirkens</i> (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work +<i>Kaiserswerth Deaconesses</i> (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson’s +<i>Deaconesses</i> (London, 1862); <i>The Service of the Poor</i>, by E.C. +Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson’s <i>Praying and Working</i> +(London, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLIGHT<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> and <b>FLYING.</b> Of the many scientific problems of +modern times, there are few possessing a wider or more enduring +interest than that of aerial navigation (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>). +To fly has always been an object of ambition with man; nor +will this occasion surprise when we remember the marvellous +freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with non-volant animals. +The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme difficulty. +To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, at +first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are +thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this +feat. These creatures, however varied in form and structure, +all fly according to one and the same principle; and this is a +significant fact, as it tends to show that the air must be attacked +in a particular way to ensure flight. It behoves us then at the +outset to scrutinize very carefully the general configuration of +flying animals, and in particular the size, shape and movements +of their flying organs.</p> + +<p>Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from +balloons, with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously +compared; and a flying machine constructed upon proper +principles can have nothing in common with either of those +creations. The ship floats upon water and the balloon upon air; +but the ship differs from the balloon, and the ship and the balloon +differ from the flying creature and flying machine. The water +and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The +analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the +balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature +and flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported +by the water and requires merely to be propelled; a +flying creature and a flying machine constructed on the living +type require to be both supported and propelled. This arises +from the fact that water is much denser than air, and because +water supports on its surface substances which fall through air. +While water and air are both fluid media, they are to be distinguished +from each other in the following particulars. Water +is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible; +air, on the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and +compressible. If water be struck with violence, the recoil +obtained is great when compared with the recoil obtained from +air similarly treated. In water we get a maximum recoil with a +minimum of displacement; in air, on the contrary, we obtain a +minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. Water and +air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form +<i>movable fulcra</i> to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet +these peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying +animals (whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made +not of rigid but of elastic materials. The travelling organs, +moreover, increase in size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid +to be acted upon. The difference in size of the travelling organs +of animals becomes very marked when the land animals are +contrasted with the aquatic, and the aquatic with the aerial, +as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.</p> + +<p>The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well +illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds. +A bird when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately +in a backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil. +The water supports the bird, and the feet simply propel. In +this case the bird is lighter than the water, and the long axis of +the body is horizontal (<i>a</i> of fig. 4). When the bird dives, or flies +under water, the long axis of the body is inclined obliquely downwards +and forwards, and the bird forces itself into and beneath the +water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both. In diving or sub-aquatic +flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, the wings +downwards and <i>backwards</i> (<i>b</i> of fig. 4). In aerial flying everything +is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely +upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards +and backwards, but downwards and <i>forwards</i> (<i>c</i> of fig. 4). These +changes in the direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming, +diving and flying, and in the direction of the stroke of the wings +in sub-aquatic and aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird +is heavier than the air and lighter than the water.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:266px" src="images/img502a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Chillingham Bull (<i>Bos Scoticus</i>). Small travelling extremities +adapted for land. <i>r, s, t, u</i>, figure-of-8 described by the +feet in walking.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:224px" src="images/img502b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—The Turtle (<i>Chelonia imbricata</i>). Enlarged travelling +extremities (flippers) adapted for water.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:128px" src="images/img502c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—The Bat (<i>Phyllocina gracilis</i>). Greatly expanded +travelling extremities adapted for air.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:734px; height:429px" src="images/img503a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a bird in (<i>a</i>) swimming, +(<i>b</i>) diving, and (<i>c</i>) flying.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The physical properties of water and air explain in a great +measure how the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how +the latter differs from the flying creature and flying machine +constructed on the natural type. The sailing ship is, as it were, +immersed in two oceans, viz. an ocean of water and an ocean +of air—the former being greatly heavier and denser than the +latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and the +ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel +the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes +the hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water, +which, as explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +ship is in motion it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by +the rudder alone, or by both combined. A balloon differs from +a sailing ship in being immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean +of air. It resembles the ship in floating upon the air, as the ship +floats upon the water; in other words, the balloon is lighter than +the air, as the ship is lighter than the water. But here all analogy +ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being immersed in two fluids +having different densities, can be steered and made to tack about +in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in the case of +the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The balloon +in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its horizontal +movements, which ought to be the more important, are accidental +movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the +balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt +to steer a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence +of oars, sails and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by +currents of air. The balloon has no hold upon the air, and this +consequently cannot be employed as a <i>fulcrum</i> for regulating +its course. The balloon, because of its vast size and from its +being lighter than the air, is completely at the mercy of the wind. +It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the wind for the time +being, and the direction of the wind in every instance determines +the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to +propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its +destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree +of certainty from one point of the earth’s surface to another, +and hence the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as +likely as not, carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a +mere lifting machine and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying +machine. It resembles the flying creature only in this, that it is +immersed in the ocean of air in which it sustains itself. The mode +of suspension is wholly different. The balloon floats because it +is lighter than the air; the flying creature floats because it extracts +from the air, by the vigorous downward action of its wings, +a certain amount of upward recoil. The balloon is passive; the +flying creature is active. The balloon is controlled by the wind; +the flying creature controls the wind. The balloon in the absence +of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical line; the flying creature +can fly in a horizontal plane in any given direction. The balloon +is inefficient because of its levity; the flying creature is efficient +because of its weight.</p> + +<p>Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to +flight. Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air. +The inertia of the mass of the flying creature enables it to control +and direct its movements in the air. Many are of opinion that +flight is a mere matter of levity and power. This is quite a mistake. +No machine, however light and powerful, will ever fly +whose travelling surfaces are not properly fashioned and properly +applied to the air.</p> + +<p>It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed +in some mysterious way to flight, but +this is now known to be erroneous. +The bats and some of the best-flying +birds have no air sacs. Similar remarks +are to be made of the heated +air imprisoned within the bones of +certain birds.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Feathers even are not +necessary to flight. Insects and bats +have no feathers, and yet fly well. +The only facts in natural history +which appear even indirectly to +countenance the flotation theory are +the presence of a swimming bladder +in some fishes, and the existence of +membranous expansions or pseudo-wings +in certain animals, such as +the flying fish, flying dragon and +flying squirrel. As, however, the +animals referred to do not actually +fly, but merely dart into the air and +there sustain themselves for brief +intervals, they afford no real support +to the theory. The so-called floating +animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6 and 7.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:484px; height:324px" src="images/img503b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—The Red-throated Dragon<br /> +(<i>Draco haematopogon</i>).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—The Flying Colugo<br /> +(<i>Galeopithecus volans</i>); also called<br /> +flying lemur and flying squirrel.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:225px" src="images/img503c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.—The Flying Fish (<i>Exocoetus exiliens</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>It has been asserted, and with some +degree of plausibility, that a fish +lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter +than the air might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind +that, in point of fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold +its own if the water were in the least perturbed, and that a bird +lighter than the air would be swept into space by even a moderate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span> +breeze without hope of return. Weight and power are always +associated in living animals, and the fact that living animals are +made heavier than the medium they are to navigate may be +regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight being +necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the +bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for +the most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that +flight in every instance is the product, not of superior levity, +but of <i>weight</i> and <i>power</i> directed upon properly constructed +flying organs.</p> + +<p>This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying +machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily +be a light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of +surface. On the contrary, it favours the belief that it should +be a compact and moderately heavy and powerful structure, +which trusts for elevation and propulsion entirely to its flying +appliances—whether actively moving wings, or screws, or aeroplanes +wedged forward by screws. It should attack and subdue +the air, and never give the air an opportunity of attacking or +subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a master, +and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance +elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be +<i>multum in parvo</i>. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and +must extract from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces—however +fashioned and however applied—the recoil or resistance +necessary to elevate and carry it forward. Extensive inert +surfaces indeed are contra-indicated in a flying machine, as they +approximate it to the balloon, which, as has been shown, cannot +maintain its position in the air if there are air currents. A flying +machine which could not face air currents would necessarily be +a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to fall back +upon <i>weight</i>, or rather the structures and appliances which weight +represents. These appliances as indicated should not be unnecessarily +expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever +practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces, +in preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.</p> + +<p>The question of surface is a very important one in aviation: +it naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface. +As there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal, +so there are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying +machine. Art should follow nature in this matter. The active +surfaces in flying creatures are always greatly in excess of the +passive ones, from the fact that the former virtually increase in +proportion to the spaces through which they are made to travel. +Nature not only distinguishes between active and passive surfaces +in flying animals, but she strikes a just balance between them, +and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces to the strength and +weight of the flying creature and the air currents to which the +surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to operate. +In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects are +to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she +reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she +likewise reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying +surfaces. While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying +animal as a whole, she increases as occasion demands the active +or wing surfaces by wing movements, and the passive or dead +surfaces by the forward motion of the body in progressive +flight. She knows that if the wings are driven with sufficient +rapidity they practically convert the spaces through which they +move into solid bases of support; she also knows that the body +in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it passes. +The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the +wing movements will be readily understood from the accompanying +illustrations of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in +motion (figs. 8 and 9). In fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body +of the insect and the wings are, as compared with those of fig. 9, +trifling. The wing would have much less purchase on fig. 8 than +on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by the latter were passive +or dead surfaces. But they are not dead surfaces: they represent +the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating wings, which are +actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings travel at +a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are superior +to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart through +the wind in whatever direction it pleases.</p> + +<p>The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to +realize that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in a flying +machine would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically, +as will be shown by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier +than fig. 8, and if both were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9 +would be more blown about than fig. 8.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:495px; height:202px" src="images/img504.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.—Blow-fly (<i>Musca vomitoria</i>)<br /> +with its wings at rest.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.—Blow-fly with its wings<br /> +in motion as in flight.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the +elytra or wing cases—thin, light, horny structures inclined +slightly upwards—which in the act of flight are spread out +and act as sustainers or gliders. The elytra, however, are comparatively +long narrow structures which occupy a position in +front of the wings, of which they may be regarded as forming +the anterior parts. The elytra are to the delicate wings of some +insects what the thick anterior margins are to stronger wings. +The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures. They +can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with +the horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight, +as flight in the great majority of instances is performed without +them. The elytra serve as protectors to the wings when the +wings are folded upon the back of the insect, and as they are +extended on either side of the body more or less horizontally when +the insect is flying they contribute to flight indirectly, in virtue +of their being carried forward by the body in motion.</p> + +<p><i>Natural Flight</i>.—The manner in which the wings of the insect +traverse the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support, +raises the whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, therefore, +at this stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat +fully to the subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and +bat, a knowledge of natural flight preceding, and being in some +sense indispensable to, a knowledge of artificial flight. The +bodies of flying creatures are, as a rule, very strong, comparatively +light and of an elongated form,—the bodies of birds being +specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying creatures, however, +are less remarkable for their strength, shape and comparative +levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and complicated +movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first satisfactorily +analysed those movements, and reproduced them by +the aid of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> showed +that all natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are +screws structurally, and that they act as screws when they are +made to vibrate, from the fact that they twist in opposite +directions during the down and up strokes. He also explained +that all wings act upon a common principle, and that they +present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air, through which they +pass much in the same way that an oar passes through water +in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying +creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already +indicated) strike downwards and <i>forwards</i> during the down +strokes, and upwards and <i>forwards</i> during the up strokes. Lastly +he demonstrated that the wings of flying creatures, when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +bodies of said creatures are fixed, describe <i>figure-of-8 tracks</i> in +space—the figure-of-8 tracks, when the bodies are released and +advancing as in rapid flight, being opened out and converted +into <i>waved tracks</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his +admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo +da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and +practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, <i>Spirals in Nature and +Art</i>, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo’s chief +work on flight, bearing the title <i>Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie +Altre Materie</i>, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of +twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations +interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references +to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In +none of Leonardo’s manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures, +is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral +movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the +wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the +stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by +modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo +gives a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of +the wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes +downwards and <i>backwards</i>, whereas in reality it strikes downwards +and <i>forwards</i>. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: “The +wings have to row downwards and <i>backwards</i> to support the machine +on high, so that it moves forward.” In speaking of natural flight he +remarks: “If in its descent the bird rows <i>backwards</i> with its wings +the bird will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike +the air which successively runs behind the bird to fill the void +whence it comes.” There is nothing in Leonardo’s writings to show +that he knew either the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the +modern sense.</p> +</div> + +<p>Pettigrew’s discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements +made by the wing in stationary and progressive flight was confirmed +some two years after it was made by Prof. E.J. Marey +of Paris<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> by the aid of the “sphygmograph.”<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The movements +in question are now regarded as fundamental, from the fact +that they are alike essential to natural and artificial flight.</p> + +<p>The following is Pettigrew’s description of wings and wing +movements published in 1867:—</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:344px; height:131px" src="images/img505a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Right Wing of the Beetle (<i>Goliathus +micans</i>) when at rest; seen from above.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:354px; height:54px" src="images/img505b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Right Wing of the Beetle (<i>Goliathus +micans</i>) when in motion; seen from +behind. This figure shows how the wing twists +and untwists when in action, and how it forms +a true screw.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less triangular +in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards the +body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical on +section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape +converting the pinions into delicately graduated instruments balanced +with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular +system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air +on the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumerable +varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated +or scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some lanceolate +and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of one +or two pairs—the anterior or upper pair, when two are present, +being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous +condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="elytron">ἔλυτρον</span>, +a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the integument, +or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various directions +by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists as +the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity +of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin, +where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae +are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or +spiral stair—the anterior one occupying a higher position than that +farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also +to the margins, <i>the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves</i> +and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper +surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under +surface,—their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with +such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance +and the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the +form of wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited—the +pinions in those insects acting as <i>helices</i>, or <i>twisted levers</i>, and +elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would seem +to warrant” (figs. 10 and 11).... “To confer on the wings the +multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied +with double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move +not only in an upward, downward, forward and backward direction, +but also at various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with +wings thus hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be +not inaptly compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the universality +of motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness +in another.”... “All wings obtain their leverage by presenting +oblique surfaces to +the air, the degree +of obliquity gradually +increasing in a +direction from behind, +forwards and +downwards, during +extension when the +sudden or effective +stroke is being given, +and gradually decreasing +in an opposite +direction during +flexion, or when the +wing is being more +slowly recovered preparatory +to making +a second stroke. The +effective stroke in +insects, and this +holds true also of +birds, is therefore delivered <i>downwards and forwards</i>, and not, as the +majority of writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards.... +The wing in the insect is more flattened than in the bird; and advantage +is taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in +heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, <i>to reverse the pinion +more or less completely during the down and up strokes</i>.”... “This +is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of +the wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction +from above downwards and from behind forwards—the anterior +margin travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating. +The wing may thus be said to attack the air by a <i>screwing +movement</i> from above. During the up or return stroke, on the other +hand, the posterior margin rotates in a direction from below upwards +and from before backwards, so that by a similar but <i>reverse screwing +motion</i> the pinion attacks the air from beneath.”... “<i>A figure-of-8</i>, +compressed laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running +from left to right of the spectator, represents the movements in +question. <i>The down and up strokes</i>, as will be seen from this account, +<i>cross each other</i>, the wing smiting the air during its descent from +above, as in the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as +in the flying fish and boy’s kite” (fig. 12).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:131px" src="images/img505c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 12</span> shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of the wing in +extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As the tip of +the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the continuous +and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The +arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how +the down and up strokes <i>cross each other</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">... “The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect +or bird may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward reciprocating +action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion. +In these instances the backward and forward strokes are made to +counterbalance each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with +considerable fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during +extension and flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an +object, or still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when +the down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and progressing +rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being carried +forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or spiral +course, as shown in fig. 13.”</p> + +<p>... “The down and up strokes are compound movements—the +termination of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the +up stroke, and the termination of the up stroke including the beginning +of the down stroke. This is necessary in order that the down +and up strokes may glide into each other in such a manner as to +prevent jerking and unnecessary retardation.”<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a>...</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:88px" src="images/img506a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Wave track made by the wing in progressive flight. <i>a, b</i>, +Crests of the wave; <i>c, d, e</i>, up strokes; <i>x, x</i>, down strokes; <i>f</i>, point +corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre +for the downward rotation of the wing (<i>a, g</i>); <i>g</i>, point corresponding +to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre for the +upward rotation of the wing (<i>d, f</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:134px" src="images/img506b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—<i>a, b</i>, line along which the wing travels during extension +and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in which the wing is +spread out in extension and closed or folded in flexion.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:119px" src="images/img506c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Right Wing of the Red-legged +Partridge (<i>Perdix rubra</i>). Dorsal +aspect as seen from above.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:91px" src="images/img506d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Right Wing of the Red-legged +Partridge (<i>Perdix rubra</i>). Dorsal +and ventral aspects as seen from behind; +showing auger-like conformation +of wing. Compare with figs. 11 and 18.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:143px" src="images/img506e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Right Wing of the Bat (<i>Phyllocina +gracilis</i>). Dorsal aspect as seen from +above.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:87px" src="images/img506f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Right Wing of the Bat (<i>Phyllocina +gracilis</i>). Dorsal and ventral aspects, +as seen from behind. These show the +screw-like configuration of the wing, and +also how the wing twists and untwists +during its action.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">“The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex, +and <i>more or less twisted upon itself</i> when extended, so that the anterior +or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature +to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great +measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are +twisted upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular +surfaces—the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other +at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter +of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion. +As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing may +be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the same +plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during +either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of +the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance +in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and +forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers +which they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact +ensures that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which +the primary and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and +down upon the wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn +from the wind during flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore +be compared to a huge gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet representing +the bones of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet +the primary and secondary +feathers” (figs. 15 and 16).... +“From this description +it will be evident that +by the mere rotation of the +bones of the forearm and +hand the maximum and +minimum of resistance is +secured much in the same +way that this object is +attained by the alternate +dipping and feathering of +an oar.”... “The wing, both when at rest and when in motion, +may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw +propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of +the wing corresponds closely +with the outline of the +propeller (figs. 11, 16 and +18), and the track described +by the wing in space <i>is +twisted upon itself</i> propeller +fashion<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (figs. 12, 20, 21, +22, 23). The great velocity +with which the wing is +driven converts the impression +or blur made by it +into what is equivalent to a +solid for the time being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel +in violent motion, as is well understood, more or less completely +occupy the space contained within the rim or circumference of the +wheel” (figs. 9, 20 and 21).</p> + +<p>... “The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to +that of the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-transparent, +continuous +membrane, supported in +divers directions, particularly +towards its +anterior margin, by a +system of osseous stays +or stretchers which confer +upon it the degree +of rigidity requisite for +flight. It is, as a rule, +deeply concave on its +under or ventral surface, +and in this respect resembles +the wing of the +heavy-bodied birds. The movement of the bat’s wing in extension +is a <i>spiral</i> one, the spiral running alternately from below upwards +and forwards and from above downwards and backwards. The +action of the wing of the bat, and the movements of its component +bones, are essentially +the same as in the bird” +(figs. 17 and 18).</p> + +<p>... “The wing strikes +the air precisely as a +boy’s kite would if it +were jerked by its string, +the only difference being +that the kite is <i>pulled +forwards</i> upon the wind +by the string and the +hand, whereas in the +insect, bird and bat +the wing is <i>pushed forwards</i> on the wind by the weight of the body +and the power residing in the pinion itself” (fig. 19).<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:95px" src="images/img506g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—The Cape Barn-owl (<i>Strix capensis</i>), showing the kite-like +surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and body +in flight.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to +lead us to explain how it happens that the wing, which in many +instances is a comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet +attack the air with such vigour as to extract from it the recoil +necessary to elevate and propel the flying creature. The accompanying +figures from one of Pettigrew’s later memoirs<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> will +serve to explain the <i>rationale</i> (figs. 20, 21, 22 and 23).</p> + +<p>As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration +sweeps through a comparatively very large space. This space, +as already explained, is practically a solid basis of support for +the wing and for the flying animal. The wing attacks the air +in such a manner as virtually to have no slip—this for two +reasons. The wing reverses instantly and acts as a kite during +nearly the entire down and up strokes. The angles, moreover, +made by the wing with the horizon during the down and up +strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this is a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed +at which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase +and decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to +and fro are due partly to the resistance offered by the air, and +partly to the mechanism and mode of application of the wing +to the air. The wing, during its vibrations, rotates upon two +separate centres, the tip rotating round the root of the wing as +an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior margin rotating around +the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing is really +eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the rowing +feathers of the bird’s wing. The compound rotation goes on +throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately +associated with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately +seizing and evading the air.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:281px" src="images/img507a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the left wing +of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to vibrate. +These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing with the +horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing reverses and +reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite directions, and +describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22 represent the +forward or down stroke (<i>a b c d e f g</i>), figs. 21 and 23 the backward +or up stroke (<i>g h i j k l a</i>). The terms forward and back strokes are +here employed with reference to the head of the insect, <i>x, x</i>′, line +to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or forward +stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward +stroke, it will be seen that <i>the wing crosses its own track</i> more or less +completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by +the wing being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the +wing to twist and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is +made to vibrate. The twisting referred to is partly a vital and +partly a mechanical act;—that is, it is occasioned in part by +the action of the muscles and in part by the greater resistance +experienced from the air by the tip and posterior margin of the +wing as compared with the root and anterior margin,—the resistance +experienced by the tip and posterior margin causing +them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior +margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior +margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs. +9, 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.</p> + +<p>The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is +represented in fig. 24.</p> + +<p>Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the +remarkable power which the wing possesses of making and +utilizing its own currents. Thus, when the wing descends it +draws after it a strong current, which, being met by the wing +during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy of the up stroke. +Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it creates an +upward current, which, being met by the wing when it descends, +powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke. +This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with +natural and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes +are complete in themselves.</p> + +<p>The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed, +and in such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide +into each other. It is only in this way that the air can be made +to pulsate, and that the rhythm of the wing and the air waves +can be made to correspond. The air must be seized and let go +in a certain order and at a certain speed to extract a maximum +recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is regulated by the +size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very much higher +speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing, moreover, +travel at different degrees of velocity—the tip and posterior +margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater +space, in a given time, than the root and anterior margin.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:485px; height:215px" src="images/img507b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Wing of the Bird with its root (<i>a, b</i>) cranked forwards.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a, b,</i> Short axis of the wing (axis +for tip of wing, <i>h</i>).</p> + +<p><i>c, d,</i> Long axis (axis for posterior +margin of wing, <i>h, i, j, k, l</i>).</p> + +<p><i>m, n,</i> Short axis of rowing +feathers of wing.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>r, s,</i> Long axis of rowing feathers +of wing. The rotation of +the rowing feathers on +their long axis (they are +eccentrics) enables them +to open or separate during +the up, and close or come +together during the down +strokes.</p> + +<p><i>e f, g p,</i> concave shape presented +by the under surface of the +wing.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:247px" src="images/img507c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25 shows how different +portions of the wing travel at +different degrees of speed. In this +figure the rod <i>a, b,</i> hinged at <i>x,</i> +represents the wing. When the +wing is made to vibrate, its several +portions travel through the spaces +<i>d b f, j k l, g h i,</i> and <i>e a c</i> in +exactly the same interval of time. +The part of the wing marked b, +which corresponds with the tip, +consequently travels very much +more rapidly than the part marked +<i>a</i>, which corresponds with the root. +<i>m n, o p,</i> curves made by the wing +at the end of the up and down +strokes; <i>r</i>, position of the wing at +the middle of the stroke.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:220px" src="images/img508a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—In this figure <i>f, f’</i> represent +the movable fulcra furnished by the +air, <i>p p’</i> the power residing in the wing, +and b the body to be moved. In order +to make the problem of flight more intelligible, +the lever formed by the wing +is prolonged beyond the body (<i>b</i>), and +to the root of the wing so extended the +weight (<i>w, w′</i>) is attached; x represents +the universal joint by which the wing +is attached to the body. When the +wing ascends as shown at <i>p</i>, the air +(fulcrum <i>f</i>) resists its upward passage, +and forces the body (<i>b</i>) or its representative +(<i>w</i>) slightly downwards. +When the wing descends as shown at +<i>p’</i>, the air (fulcrum <i>f′</i>) resists its downward +passage, and forces the body (<i>b</i>) +or its representative (<i>w′</i>) slightly upwards. +From this it follows that when +the wing rises the body falls, and vice +versa—the wing describing the arc of +a large circle (<i>f f′</i>), the body (<i>b</i>), or the +weights (<i>w, w′</i>) representing it, describing +the arc of a small circle.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases +enormous. The wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at +the rate of 110, and the common house-fly at the rate of 330 +beats per second. Quick as are the vibrations of natural wings, +the speed of certain parts of the wing is amazingly increased. +Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a consequence, a +comparatively slow and very +limited movement at the root +confers great range and immense +speed at the tip, the +speed of each portion of the +wing increasing as the root of +the wing is receded from. This +is explained on a principle well +understood in mechanics, viz. +that when a wing or rod +hinged at one end is made to +move in a circle, the tip or +free end of the wing or rod +describes a much wider circle +in a given time than a portion +of the wing or rod nearer the +hinge (fig. 25).</p> + +<p>One naturally inquires why +the high speed of wings, and +why the progressive increase +of speed at their tips and +posterior margins? The +answer is not far to seek. If +the wings were not driven at +a high speed, and if they were +not eccentrics made to revolve +upon two separate axes, they +would of necessity be large +cumbrous structures; but +large heavy wings would be difficult to work, and what is +worse, they would (if too large), instead of controlling the +air, be controlled by it, and so cease to be flying organs.</p> + +<p>There is, however, another reason why wings should be made +to vibrate at high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light, +thin, elastic medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and +unless the wings attacked it with great violence the necessary +recoil or resistance could not be obtained. The atmosphere, +because of its great tenuity, mobility and comparative imponderability, +presents little resistance to bodies passing through it at +low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly accelerated, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to elicit a recoil. +This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the resistance +experienced varying according to the density of the atmosphere +and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon it. +While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the progress +of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly +difficult to compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy +to convert it into a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary +support and forward impetus. This arises from the fact that +bodies moving in air experience a <i>minimum of resistance</i> and +occasion a <i>maximum of displacement</i>. Another and very obvious +difficulty is traceable to the great disparity in the weight of air +as compared with any known solid, and the consequent want of +buoying or sustaining power which that disparity involves. If +we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times lighter. +To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are furnished +with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which they +apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of +the third order. In this form of lever the power is applied +between the fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power +is represented by the wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the +weight by the body of the flying animal. Although the third +order of lever is particularly inefficient when the fulcrum is rigid +and immobile, it possesses singular advantages when these +conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as happens +with the air, is <i>elastic</i> and <i>yielding</i>. In this instance a very slight +movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever +directed towards the body, +is followed by an immense +sweep of the extremity of +the wing, where its elevating +and propelling power +is greatest—this arrangement +ensuring that the +large quantity of air +necessary for support and +propulsion shall be compressed +under the most +favourable conditions.</p> + +<p>In this process the +weight of the body performs +an important part, +by acting upon the inclined +planes formed by +the wings in the plane of +progression. The power +and the weight may thus +be said to reciprocate, the +two sitting as it were side +by side and blending their +peculiar influences to produce +a common result, as +indicated at fig. 26.</p> + +<p>When the wings descend +they elevate the body, the +wings being active and +the body passive; when +the body descends it contributes +to the elevation of +the wings,<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> the body being +active and the wings more or less passive. It is in this way that +weight forms a factor in flight, the wings and the weight of the body +reciprocating and mutually assisting and relieving each other. +This is an argument for employing four wings in artificial flight,—the +wings being so arranged that the two which are up shall +always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are +down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve +the driving power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:277px" src="images/img508b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—<i>a, b</i>, quill feathers; <i>c</i>, +cork; <i>d, e, f, g</i>, downward and <i>forward</i> +curved trajectory made by the +feathers and cork before reaching the +ground (<i>h, i</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>That the weight of the body plays an important part in the +production of flight may be proved by a very simple experiment. +If two quill feathers are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged +that they expand and arch +above it (fig. 27), it is found +that if the apparatus be +dropped from a vertical +height of 3 yds. it does +not fall vertically downwards, +but downwards and +<i>forwards</i> in a curve, the +forward travel amounting +in some instances to a yard +and a half. Here the cork, +in falling, acts upon the +feathers (which are to all +intents and purposes wings), +and these in turn act upon +the air, in such a manner as +to produce a horizontal +transference.</p> + +<p>In order to utilize the air +as a means of transit, the body in motion, whether it moves +in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a force super-added, +must be heavier than air. It must tread with its +wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water, +or as a kite upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple +reason that the body must be active, the air passive. The +flying body must act against gravitation, and elevate and +carry itself forward at the expense of the air and of the force +which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it were otherwise—if +it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the +one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other, +it would float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an +ordinary balloon.</p> + +<p>In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must +attack the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must +attack the wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a +calm, the wings must be made to smite the air after the manner +of a boy’s kite with great vigour and at a high speed. In this +case the wings fly the bird. If, however, the bird is fairly +launched in space and a stiff breeze is blowing, all that is required +in many instances is to extend the wings at a slight upward +angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the wings present +kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly moving +air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the necessary +illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights +upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his +wings with tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched. +This done he extends his enormous pinions<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and sails majestically +along, seldom deigning to flap his wings, the breeze doing the +work for him. A familiar illustration of the same principle may +be witnessed any day when children are engaged in the pastime +of kite-flying. If two boys attempt to fly a kite in a calm, the +one must hold up the kite and let go when the other runs. In +this case the under surface of the kite is made to strike the still +air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it suffices if +the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands still. +In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface +of the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the +kite what the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined +planes formed by its wings.</p> + +<p>The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully +expanded, is greater than that of any other class of animal, +their weight being proportionally less. As already stated, +however, it ought never to be forgotten that even the lightest +insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier than the air, and that no +fixed relation exists between the weight of body and expanse +of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +large-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and +others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and +partridge. Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those +apparent inconsistencies in the dimensions of the body and wings +are readily explained by the greater muscular development +of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects, birds and bats, and +the increased power and rapidity with which the wings in them +are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in the +science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a +heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well +as by a lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore, +there is apparently no correspondence between the area of the +wing and the animal to be raised, there is, except in the case of +sailing insects, birds and bats, an unvarying relation as to the +weight and number of oscillations; so that the problem of flight +would seem to resolve itself into one of weight, power, velocity +and small surfaces, <i>versus</i> buoyancy, debility, diminished speed +and extensive surfaces—weight in either case being a <i>sine qua +non</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:416px" src="images/img509.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.—Hawk and Pigeon.</td></tr></table> + +<p>That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and +the size and weight of the body to +be elevated is evident on comparing +the dimensions of the wings and +bodies of the several orders of insects, +bats and birds. If such comparison +be made, it will be found that the +pinions in some instances diminish +while the bodies increase, and the +converse. No practical good can +therefore accrue to aviation from +elaborate measurements of the wings +and body of any flying thing; neither +can any rule be laid down as to the +extent of surface required for sustaining +a given weight in the air. +The statements here advanced are +borne out by the fact that the wings +of insects, bats and birds may be +materially reduced without impairing +their powers of flight. In such +cases the speed with which the +wings are driven is increased in +the direct ratio of the mutilation. +The inference to be deduced from the foregoing is plainly this, +that even in large-bodied, small-winged insects and birds the +wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus wing area supplying +that degree of elevating and sustaining power which is necessary +to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal. In +this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects, +and the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,—the +bats carrying their young without inconvenience, the birds elevating +surprising quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28).</p> + +<p>While as explained, no definite relation exists between the +weight of a flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there +being, as stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds +and bats, and the converse, and while, as has been shown, flight +is possible within a wide range, the wings being, as a rule, in +excess of what are required for the purposes of flight,—still it +appears from the researches of L. de Lucy that there is a general +law, to the effect that the larger the volant animal, the smaller, +by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The existence of such +a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight is concerned, +for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy, powerful +flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently +comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very +considerable importance, as the object desiderated in a flying +machine is elevating capacity.</p> + +<p>De Lucy tabulated his results as under:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb2 tb bb sc" colspan="4">Insects</td> <td class="tccm rb tb bb sc" colspan="4">Birds.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Names.</td> + <td class="tccm rb2 bb" colspan="3">Flying Surface<br />referred to the<br />  Kilogramme<br />= 2 ℔ 8 oz. 3 dwt.<br />  2 gr. avoird.<br />= 2 ℔ 3 oz. 4.428<br />  dr. troy.</td> + <td class="tccm bb">Names.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Flying Surface<br />referred to the<br />  Kilogramme.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">sq.<br />yds.</td> <td class="tcrm">ft.</td> <td class="tcrm rb2">in.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">sq.<br />yds.</td> <td class="tcrm">ft.</td> <td class="tcrm rb">in.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gnat</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">92</td> <td class="tcl rb">Swallow</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">104½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dragon-fly (small)</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sparrow</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">142½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coccinella (Lady-bird)</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb2">87</td> <td class="tcl rb">Turtle-dove</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">100½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dragon-fly (common)</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pigeon</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stork</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bee</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">74½</td> <td class="tcl rb">Vulture</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meat-fly</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54½</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crane of Australia</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drone (blue)</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cockchafer</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">50</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Lucanus cervus</i> Stag-beetle (female)</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">39½</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Lucanus cervus</i> Stag-beetle (male)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Rhinoceros-beetle</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">122½</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="rb bb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always +decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal increases +in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one +another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the +stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs +150 times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of +surface, &c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs +about 10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface. +The pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice +as much surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the +Australian crane, and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now +we compare the insects and the birds, the gradation will become +even much more striking. The gnat, for example, weighs 97,000 +times less than the pigeon, and has 40 times more surface; it weighs +three millions of times less than the crane of Australia, and possesses +140 times more of surface than this latter, the weight of which is +about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 ℔ 5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 ℔ 15 oz. +2¼ dr. avoirdupois).</p> + +<p>“The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has +the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it +does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139 +sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre. +But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent +birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest +and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted, +the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of which +is the longest maintained.”<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air, +and reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very +obvious bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body +of the flying creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +wing ascends, and is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing +descends. The wing and body are consequently always playing +at cross purposes, the wing rising when the body is falling and +vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of the body and wing of +the bird are well seen when contemplating the flight of the gull +from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is following in the wake +of the vessel. The complementary movements referred to are +indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line represents +the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line that +made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, <i>the wing +advances both when it rises and when it falls</i>. It is a peculiarity +of natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the +principle of living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed, +even in a strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward. +If, for instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical +direction, as at <i>a b</i> of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and +forwards in a double curve (see continuous line of figure) to <i>c</i>, +thus converting the vertical down stroke into a <i>down, oblique, +forward stroke</i>. If, again, the wing be suddenly elevated in a +strictly vertical direction, as at <i>c d</i>, the wing as certainly darts +upwards and forwards in a double curve to <i>e</i>, thus converting +the vertical up strokes into an <i>upward, oblique, forward stroke</i>. +The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from <i>e</i> to <i>f</i> +and elevated from <i>g</i> to <i>h</i>, the wing describing a <i>waved track</i> as at +<i>e g, g i</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:96px" src="images/img510a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the body +describe <i>waved tracks</i>,—the crests of the waves made by the wing +(<i>a, c, e, g, i</i>) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by +the body (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).</td></tr></table> + +<p>There are good reasons why the wings should always be in +advance of the body. A bird when flying is a body in motion; +but a body in motion tends to fall not vertically downwards, +but <i>downwards and forwards</i>. The wings consequently must +be made to strike <i>forwards</i> and kept in advance of the body of the +bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling <i>downwards and +forwards</i>. If the wings were to strike backwards in aerial flight, +the bird would turn a forward somersault.</p> + +<p>That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and +up strokes in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and +experiment. If any one watches a bird rising from the ground +or the water, he cannot fail to perceive that the head and body +are slightly tilted upwards, and that the wings are made to +descend with great vigour in a downward and <i>forward</i> direction. +The dead natural wing and a properly constructed artificial +wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet, +just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator +believes to be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of +the wing, in spite of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.—the +amount of forward movement being regulated by the +rapidity of the down stroke. This is a very striking experiment. +The same thing happens with a properly constructed artificial +wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with the natural +wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and +forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its +wings towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during +the down stroke <i>pushed</i> the body of the bird in an upward and +forward direction; in reality the wings do not push but <i>pull</i>, and +in order to pull they must always be in advance of the body to +be flown. If the wings did not themselves fly <i>forward</i>, they could +not possibly cause the body of the bird to fly forward. It is the +wings which cause the bird to fly.</p> + +<p>It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite, +during both the down and the up strokes, its under concave +or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel communicated +to it by the body of the flying creature, being closely applied +to the air, during both its ascent and its descent. This explains +how the wing furnishes a persistent buoyancy alike when it rises +and when it falls (fig. 30).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:88px" src="images/img510b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the down and +up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon (<i>a, b</i>) +vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades the +superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air +during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double +dotted lines (<i>c g, i b</i>) represent the down strokes, the single dotted line +(<i>h, i</i>) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and angles +made by the wing with the horizon (<i>a, b</i>) during the down strokes +are indicated at <i>c d e f g, j k l m</i>,—those made during the up strokes +being indicated at <i>g h i</i>. As the down and up strokes run into each +other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards +and the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface +of the wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under +surface seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this +figure how the wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent +buoyancy.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial +kite only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in +all its parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the +latter is comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of +the kite formed by the natural wing are rendered necessary by +the fact that the wing, as already stated, is practically hinged +at its root and along its anterior margin, an arrangement which +necessitates its several parts travelling at different degrees of +speed, in proportion as they are removed from the axes of +rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the root, +and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a +<i>twisting diagonal movement</i> of the wing on its long axis, which, but +for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments. +The elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing, +and ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the +same instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would +reverse at precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be +characterized by pauses or dead points at the end of the down +and up strokes which would be fatal to it as a flying organ. +The elastic properties of the wing are absolutely essential, when +the mechanism and movements of the pinion are taken into +account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying instrument.</p> + +<p>The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those +upon which the constructors of flying machines very properly +ground their hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be +conferred on artificial wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar +structures; and these structures, if we may judge from what +we find in nature, <i>should be of moderate size and elastic</i>. The power +of the flying organs will be increased if they are driven at a comparatively +high speed, and particularly if they are made to +reverse and reciprocate, as in this case they will practically +create the currents upon which they are destined to rise and +advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces with the +horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should +be small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated, +is true of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings +and their analogues.</p> + +<p><i>Artificial Flight</i>.—We are now in a position to enter upon a +consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of +artificial flight and flying machines.</p> + +<p>We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenticated +account of an artificial wing was given by G.A. Borelli +in 1670. This author, distinguished alike as a physiologist, +mathematician and mechanician, describes and figures a bird +with artificial wings, each of which consists of <i>a rigid rod in front +and flexible feathers behind</i>. The wings are represented as striking +<i>vertically downwards</i>, as the annexed duplicate of Borelli’s figure +shows (fig. 31).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:247px; height:209px" src="images/img511.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 31.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Borelli’s bird with artificial wings.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>r e</i>, Anterior margin of the right + wing, consisting of a rigid rod.</p> +<p><i>o a</i>, Posterior margin of the right + wing, consisting of flexible + feathers.</p> +<p><i>b c</i>, Anterior; and</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Posterior margins of the left + wing same as the right.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Tail of the bird.</p> +<p><i>r g, d h</i>, Vertical direction of the + down stroke of the wing.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Borelli was of opinion that flight resulted from the application +of an inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +action. He, in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges +itself forward upon the air by the perpendicular vibration of its +wings, the wings during their action forming a wedge, the base of +which (<i>c b e</i>) is directed towards +the head of the bird, +the apex (<i>a f</i>) being directed +towards the tail (<i>d</i>). In the +196th proposition of his work +(<i>De motu animalium</i>, Leiden, +1685) he states that—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“If the expanded wings of a +bird suspended in the air shall +strike the undisturbed air beneath +it with a motion <i>perpendicular +to the horizon</i>, the bird +will fly with <i>a transverse motion</i> +in a plane parallel with the +horizon.” “If,” he adds, “the +wings of the bird be expanded, +and the under surfaces of the +wings be struck by the air +<i>ascending perpendicularly to the +horizon</i> with such a force as +shall prevent the bird gliding +downwards (<i>i.e.</i> with a tendency +to glide downwards) from +falling, it will be urged in a +horizontal direction.”</p> + +<p>The same argument is restated +in different words as under:—“If the air under the wings be +struck by the flexible portions of the wings (<i>flabella</i>, literally fly +flaps or small fans) with a motion perpendicular to the horizon, the +sails (<i>vela</i>) and flexible portions of the wings (<i>flabella</i>) will yield in +an upward direction and form a wedge, the point of which is +directed towards the tail. Whether, therefore, the air strikes the +wings from below, or the wings strike the air from above, the result +is the same,—the posterior or flexible margins of the wings <i>yield +in an upward direction</i>, and in so doing urge the bird in a <i>horizontal +direction</i>.”</p> +</div> + +<p>There are three points in Borelli’s argument to which it is +necessary to draw attention: (1) the direction of the down +stroke: it is stated to be <i>vertically downwards</i>; (2) the construction +of the anterior margin of the wing: it is stated to consist +of <i>a rigid rod</i>; (3) the function delegated to the posterior margin +of the wing: it is said <i>to yield in an upward direction</i> during the +down stroke.</p> + +<p>With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing +strikes vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body +of a flying bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion +tends to fall downwards and forwards, the wing must strike +downwards and forwards in order effectually to prevent its fall. +Moreover, in point of fact, all natural wings, and all artificial +wings constructed on the natural type, invariably strike downwards +and forwards.</p> + +<p>With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity +of the anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine +the anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they +are in every case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to +properly constructed artificial wings. If the anterior margins of +natural and artificial wings were rigid, it would be impossible +to make them vibrate smoothly and continuously. This is a +matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a wing with a rigid +anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is characterized +by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up +strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady +fanning movement peculiar to natural wings.</p> + +<p>As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior +margin of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to +remark that the statement is true if it means a slight upward +bending, but that it is untrue if it means an extensive upward +bending.</p> + +<p>Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one +of his followers, E.J. Marey, maintains that during the down +stroke the wing yields until its under surface makes a backward +angle with the horizon of 45°. Marey further states that during +the up stroke the wing yields to a corresponding extent in an +opposite direction—the posterior margin of the wing, according +to him, passing through an angle of 90°, plus or minus according +to circumstances, every time the wing rises and falls.</p> + +<p>That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent +during both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted, +alike because of the very delicate and highly elastic properties +of the posterior margins of the wing, and because of the comparatively +great force employed in its propulsion; but that it +does not yield to the extent stated by Marey is a matter of +absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any one +watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will +observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never +rises during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the +under surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards. +On the contrary, he will perceive that the under surface of the +wing (during the down stroke) invariably looks forwards and +forms a true kite with the horizon, the angles made by the kite +varying at every part of the down stroke, as shown more +particularly at <i>c d e f g, i j k l m</i> of fig. 30.</p> + +<p>The authors who have adopted Borelli’s plan of artificial wing, +and who have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing’s action +most fully, are J. Chabrier, H.E.G. Strauss-Dürckheim and +Marey. Borelli’s artificial wing, it will be remembered, consists +of a rigid rod in front and a flexible sail behind. It is also made +to strike vertically downwards. According to Chabrier, the wing +has only one period of activity. He believes that if the wing be +suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles, it is elevated solely +by the reaction of the air. There is one unanswerable objection +to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if not all the insects, +have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate their wings at +pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the reaction +of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Dürckheim agrees with Borelli +both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion +that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined +plane a component force (composant) which it employs to support +and direct itself. In his theology of nature he describes a schematic +wing as consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible +sail behind. A membrane so constructed will, according to him, +be fit for flight. It will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers +itself successively. It will of its own accord dispose itself as an +inclined plane, and receiving obliquely the reaction of the air, +it transfers into tractile force a part of the vertical impulsion it +has received. These two parts of the wing, moreover, are equally +indispensable to each other.</p> + +<p>Marey repeats Borelli and Dürckheim with very trifling +modifications, so late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings, +the one composed of a rigid rod and sail—the rod representing +the stiff anterior margin of the wing; the sail, which is made of +paper bordered with cardboard, the flexible posterior margin. +The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in front and behind of +thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He states that +if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, “the resistance of +the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements. In +effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power +of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the +extended nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and +flexible. During the vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure +has the power of remaining rigid, whereas the flexible portion, +being pushed in an upward direction on account of the resistance +it experiences from the air, assumes an oblique position which +causes the upper surface of the wing to look forwards.” The +reverse of this, in Marey’s opinion, takes place during the elevation +of the wing—the resistance of the air from above causing +the upper surface of the wing to look backwards.... “At first,” +he says, “the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the +animal. It lowers itself—the front part of the wing strongly +resists, the sail which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by +the ribbing (the anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself, +the sail or posterior margin of the wing being raised meanwhile +by the air, which sets it straight again, the sail will take an intermediate +position and incline itself about 45° plus or minus according +to circumstances.... The wing continues its movements +of depression inclined to the horizon; but the impulse of the air, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +which continues its effect, and naturally acts upon the surface +which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself into two forces, +a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices to raise the +animal, the second to move it along.”<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Marey, it will be +observed, reproduces Borelli’s artificial wing, and even his text, +at a distance of nearly two centuries.</p> + +<p>The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact +imitation of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more +or less triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin, +and thin at the tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid. +It is, on the contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout. +It is furnished with springs at its root to contribute to its continued +play, and is applied to the air by a direct piston action +in such a way that it descends in a downward and forward +direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an upward and +forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and propels +both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists +during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in +space, precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most +marked at the tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of +the posterior margin next the tip. The wing when in action may +be divided into two portions by a line running diagonally between +the tip of the wing anteriorly and the root of the wing posteriorly. +The tip and posterior parts of the wing are more active than the +root and anterior parts, from the fact that the tip and posterior +parts (the wing is an eccentric) always travel through greater +spaces, in a given time, than the root and anterior parts.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:476px; height:206px" src="images/img512a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 32.—Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists during +its action, to form <i>a mobile helix or screw</i>. This wing is made to +vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be +propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a b</i>, Anterior margin of wing, to +which the neurae or ribs +are affixed.</p> +<p><i>c d</i>, Posterior margin of wing +crossing anterior one.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Ball-and-socket joint at root +of wing, the wing being +attached to the side of the +cylinder by the socket.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Cylinder.</p> +<p><i>r r</i>, Piston, with cross heads +(<i>w, w</i>) and piston head (<i>s</i>).</p> +<p><i>o o</i>, Stuffing boxes.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e, f</i>, Driving chains.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Superior elastic band, which +assists in elevating the +wing.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Inferior elastic band, which +antagonizes m. The alternate +stretching of the +superior and inferior elastic +bands contributes to the +continuous play of the wing, +by preventing dead points +at the end of the down and +up strokes. The wing is +free to move in a vertical +and horizontal direction +and at any degree of +obliquity.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields +freely in a downward direction during the up stroke, while it +yields comparatively little in an upward direction during the +down stroke; and this is a distinguishing feature, as the wing +is thus made to fold and elude the air more or less completely +during the up stroke, whereas it is made to expand and seize +the air with avidity during the down stroke. The oblique line +referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually divides +the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating +and propelling, the latter sustaining.</p> + +<p>It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise +function discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment +tends to show that the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior +margin propels, and the root sustains.</p> + +<p>The wing—and this is important—is driven by a direct piston +action with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion +having communicated to it a smart click at the beginning of +every down stroke—the up stroke being more uniform. The +following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the artificial wing here +represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural wing as +depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in the one +which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to +the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to +be applied to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the +head of the piston. This wing, like the single wing described, +twists and untwists as it rises and falls, and possesses all the +characteristics of the natural wing (fig. 34).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:478px; height:148px" src="images/img512b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each +wing forms a mobile helix or screw.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a b</i>, Anterior margin of left wing.</p> +<p><i>c d</i>, Posterior margin of ditto.</p> +<p><i>d g</i>, Primary or rowing feathers of left wing.</p> +<p><i>g a</i>, Secondary feathers ditto.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>x</i>, Root of right wing with ball-and-socket joint.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Elbow joint.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Wrist joint,</p> +<p><i>n,o</i>, Hand and finger joints.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:393px; height:287px" src="images/img512c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 34.—Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston action. +During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly convex +on its upper surface (<i>a b c d</i>, A A′); its under surface (<i>e f g h</i>, A A′) +being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards. +It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke. +During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every +direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form +two screws, as seen at <i>a′ b′ c′ d′, e′ f′ g′ h′</i>, B, B′. The active area of +the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during +the up stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke; +the wing seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than +during the up stroke. <i>i, j, k</i>, elastic band to regulate the expansion +of the wing; <i>l</i>, piston; <i>m</i>, piston head; <i>n</i>, cylinder.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two +blades, which taper and become thinner towards the tips and +posterior margins. When the screw is made to rotate, the blades, +because of their elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the +angles being least where the speed of the blades is greatest and +vice versa. The pitch of the blades is thus regulated by the +speed attained (fig. 35).</p> + +<p>The peculiarity of Pettigrew’s wings and screws consists in +their elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative +length and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air +when they are at rest, and when in motion the speed with which +they are driven is such as to ensure that the comparatively +large spaces through which they travel shall practically be +converted into solid bases of support.</p> + +<p>After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw +configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more +especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings, +and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construction +of flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +D.S. Brown,<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> elastic aerial screws by J. Armour,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and elastic +aeroplanes, wings and screws by Alphonse Pénaud.<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:492px; height:163px" src="images/img513a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 35.—Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades resembling +wings (<i>a b c d, e f g h</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>x</i>, End of driving shaft.</p> +<p><i>v,w</i>, Sockets in which the roots +of the blades of the screw +rotate, the degree of rotation +being limited by steel +springs (<i>z, s</i>).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a b, e f</i>, tapering elastic rods forming +anterior or thick +margins of blades of screw.</p> +<p><i>d c, h g</i>, Posterior or thin elastic +margins of blades of screw. +The arrows <i>m, n, o, p, q, r</i> +indicate the direction of +travel.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Pénaud’s experiments are alike interesting and instructive. +He constructed models to fly by three different methods:—(<i>a</i>) +by means of screws acting vertically upwards; (<i>b</i>) by aeroplanes +propelled horizontally by screws; and (<i>c</i>) by wings which +flapped in an upward and downward direction. An account of +his helicoptère or screw model appeared in the <i>Aeronaut</i> for +January 1872, but before giving a description of it, it may be well +to state very briefly what is known regarding the history of the +screw as applied to the air.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:381px; height:511px" src="images/img513b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 36.—Cayley’s Flying Model.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The first suggestion on this subject was given by A.J.P. +Paucton in 1768. This author, in his treatise on the <i>Théorie +de la vis d’Archimède</i>, describes a machine provided with two +screws which he calls a “ptérophores.” In 1796 Sir George +Cayley gave a practical illustration of the efficacy of the screw +as applied to the air by constructing a small machine, consisting +of two screws made of quill feathers, a representation of which +we annex (fig. 36). Sir George writes as under:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a +machine rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my +present communication by describing an instrument of this kind, +which any one can construct at the expense of ten minutes’ labour.</p> + +<p>“<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted +four wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like +the sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A +round shaft is fixed in the cork <i>a</i>, which ends in a sharp point. At +the upper part of the cork <i>b</i> is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small +pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is +then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the +shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by +turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may +unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the +cork with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on +the upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from unwinding, +and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the +ceiling.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Cayley’s screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were superimposed +and rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that +if the area of the screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and +moved by a man, they would elevate him. His interesting +experiment is described at length, and the apparatus figured +in <i>Nicolson’s Journal</i>, 1809, p. 172.</p> + +<p>Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris +Sarti in 1823, followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing +flying models on the vertical screw principle. In 1842 W.H. +Phillips succeeded, it is stated, in elevating a steam model by +the aid of revolving fans, which according to his account flew +across two fields after having attained a great altitude; and in +1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be sustained +by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by vertical +screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave +de Ponton d’Amécourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who +exhibited models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended +with graduated weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These +models were so fragile that they usually broke in coming in contact +with the ground in their descent. Their flight, moreover, was +unsatisfactory, from the fact that it only lasted a few seconds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:518px" src="images/img513c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 37.—De la Landelle’s Flying-machine. <i>m, n, o, p</i>; <i>q, r, s, t</i>, +Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards. The +vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the +machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an extensive +aeroplane.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton +d’Amécourt had a small steam model constructed. This model, +which was shown at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society +of Great Britain at the Crystal Palace in 1868, consisted of two +superposed screws propelled by an engine, the steam for which +was generated (for lightness) in an aluminium boiler. This +steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only lifted a third +of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle’s ideas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span></p> + +<p>All the models referred to (Cayley’s excepted<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a>) were provided +with rigid screws. In 1872 Pénaud discarded the rigid screws +in favour of elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:398px; height:309px" src="images/img514a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 38.—Hélicoptère or Screw-Model, by Pénaud.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Pénaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the +whalebone and clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam +of the larger ones. His hélicoptère or screw-model is remarkable +for its lightness, simplicity and power. The accompanying +sketch will serve to illustrate its construction (fig. 38). It consists +of two superposed elastic screws (<i>a a, b b</i>), the upper of which +(<i>a a</i>) is fixed in a vertical frame (<i>c</i>), which is pivoted in the central +part (<i>d</i>) of the under screw. From the centre of the under +screw an axle provided with a hook (<i>e</i>), which performs the part +of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between the hook +or crank (<i>e</i>) and the centre of the upper screw (<i>a a</i>), the india-rubber +in a state of torsion (<i>f</i>) extends. By fixing the lower +screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times +the requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The +apparatus when liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height +of 50 ft., and gyrates in large circles for a period varying from +15 to 30 seconds.</p> + +<p>Pénaud next directed his attention to the construction of a +model, to be propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic +aeroplane extending horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed +such a machine in 1810, and W.S. Henson constructed and +patented a similar machine in 1842. Several inventors succeeded +in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and screws, as, +<i>e.g.</i> J. Stringfellow in 1847,<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a> and F. du Temple in 1857. These +models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found exceedingly +difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of stability +fore and aft and laterally. Pénaud succeeded in overcoming +the difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated +an automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane +placed aft or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic. +The two elastic aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a +slight upward angle with the horizon, the angle made by the +smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being slightly in excess of that +made by the larger. The motive power was india-rubber in the +condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The reader will +understand the arrangement by a reference to the accompanying +drawing (fig. 39).</p> + +<p>Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two +screws, one fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions; +and in the event of only one screw being employed it may be +placed in front of or behind the aeroplane.</p> + +<p>When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about +2 ft., after which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and +flies in a forward direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from +the ground for a distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this +distance in from 10 to 11 seconds, its mean speed being something +like 12 ft. per second. From experiments made with this model, +Pénaud calculates that one horse-power would elevate and +support 85 ℔</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:234px" src="images/img514b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 39.—Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a a</i>, Elastic aeroplane.</p> +<p><i>b b</i>, Automatic rudder.</p> +<p><i>c c</i>, Aerial screw centred at <i>f</i>.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Frame supporting aeroplane, +rudder and screw.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e</i>, India-rubber, in a state of +torsion, attached to hook +or crank at <i>f</i>. By holding +the aeroplane (<i>a a</i>) and +turning the screw (<i>c c</i>) the +necessary power is obtained +by torsion. (Pénaud.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">D.S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-biplanes. +His experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes +united by a central shaft or shafts, and separated by a wide +interval, always produce increased stability. The production +of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is in some respects +the most difficult, but this also has been attempted and achieved. +Pénaud and A.H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged +models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to +construct an artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli, +Strauss-Dürckheim and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect +never having been able to lift more than a third of its own +weight.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:271px" src="images/img514c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 40.—Pénaud’s Artificial Flying Bird.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a b c d, a′ b′ c′ d′</i>, Elastic wings, +which twist and untwist +when made to vibrate.</p> +<p><i>a b, a′ b′</i>, Anterior margins of +wings.</p> +<p><i>c d, c′ d′</i>, Posterior margins of +wings.</p> +<p><i>c, c′</i>, Inner portions of wings +attached to central shaft of +model by elastic bands at e.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>f</i>, India-rubber in a state of +torsion, which provides the +motive power, by causing +the crank situated between +the vertical wing supports +(<i>g</i>) to rotate; as the crank +revolves the wings are made +to vibrate by means of two +rods which extend between +the crank and the roots of +the wings.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Tail of artificial bird.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">De Villeneuve and Pénaud constructed their winged models +on different types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird. +De Villeneuve made the wings of his artificial bat conical in +shape and comparatively rigid. He controlled the movements +of the wings, and made them strike downwards and forwards +in imitation of natural wings. His model possessed great power +of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with ease, and flew +in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and at a velocity +of 20 m. an hour. Pénaud’s model differed from de Villeneuve’s +in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins +of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber +springs were made to extend between the inner posterior parts +of the wings and the frame, corresponding to the backbone of +the bird.</p> + +<p>A vertical movement having been communicated by means +of india-rubber in a state of torsion to the roots of the wings, +the wings themselves, in virtue of their elasticity, and because +of the resistance experienced from the air, twisted and untwisted +and formed reciprocating screws, precisely analogous to those +originally described and figured by Pettigrew in 1867. Pénaud’s +arrangement is shown in fig. 40.</p> + +<p>If the left wing of Pénaud’s model (<i>a b, c d</i> of fig. 40) be compared +with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew’s +artificial wing (fig. 32), the identity of principle and application +is at once apparent.</p> + +<p>In Pénaud’s artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the +addition of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground, +but on being liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when, +having acquired initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance +of 50 or more feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following +are the measurements of the model in question:—length of wing +from tip to tip, 32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber, +&c., 73 grammes (about 2½ ounces).</p> +<div class="author">(J. B. P.)</div> + +<p><i>Flying Machines</i>.—Henson’s flying machine, designed in +1843, was the earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale. +Henson was one of the first to combine aerial screws with extensive +supporting structures occupying a nearly horizontal position. +The accompanying illustration explains the combination (fig. 41).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:219px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 41.—Henson’s Aerostat.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse +of its sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight +it had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced +with its front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present +its under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of +which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill, +prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining +of the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled +through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged +on the air in its front.... The machine, fully prepared for flight, +was started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it +attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress. +That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the +air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the steam-engine +and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of velocity; +it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight necessary for +that small effect.” The editor of Newton’s <i>Journal of Arts and +Sciences</i> speaks of it thus:—“The apparatus consists of a car containing +the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &c., to which a rectangular +frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with canvas +or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side of the car +in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird; but with this +difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the wings are two +vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which are intended +to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like circular +wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of a steamboat, +and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill. These wheels +receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or other engine +contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car a triangular +frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which is also covered +with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or contracted at +pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of causing the +machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a rudder for directing +the course of the machine to the right or to the left; and to +facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts which rise +from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary for buoying +up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot for each +half pound of weight.”</p> +</div> + +<p>F.H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented +in 1866 what he designated his aeroplanes.<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> These were thin, +light, long, narrow structures, arranged above each other in +tiers like so many shelves. They were tied together at a slight +upward angle, and combined strength and lightness. The idea +was to obtain great sustaining area in comparatively small space +with comparative ease of control. It was hoped that when the +aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical screws, +or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float +upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the +aeroplanes would give the same support as if spread out horizontally. +The accompanying figures illustrate Wenham’s views +(figs. 42 and 43).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:401px; height:80px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 42.—Wenham’s system of Aeroplanes designed to carry a man.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a, a,</i> Thin planks, tapering at each +end, and attached to a +triangle.</p> + +<p><i>b,</i> Similar plank for supporting +the aeronaut.</p> + +<p><i>c, c,</i> Thin bands of iron with truss +planks a, a, and</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>d, d,</i> Vertical rods. Between +these are stretched five +bands of holland 15 in. broad +and 16 ft. long, the total +length of the web being +80 ft. This apparatus +when caught by a gust of +wind, actually lifted the +aeronaut.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:120px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 43.—A similar system, planned by Wenham.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a, a,</i> Main spar 16 ft. long;</p> + +<p><i>b, b,</i> Panels, with base board for +aeronaut attached to main +spar.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e, e,</i> Thin tie-band of steel with +struts starting from main +spar. This forms a strong +light framework for the +aeroplanes, consisting of six +webs of thin holland 15 in. +broad. The aeroplanes are +kept in parallel plane by +vertical divisions of holland +2 ft. wide.</p> + +<p><i>c, c′</i>, Wing propellers driven by +the feet.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:239px" src="images/img515d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 44.—Stringfellow’s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson, +and built a successful flying model in 1847, made a second model +in 1868, in which Wenham’s aeroplanes were combined with +aerial screws. This model was on view at the exhibition of the +Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, held at the Crystal Palace, +London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact, elegant and +light, and obtained the £100 prize of the exhibition for its engine, +which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed. +The illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a +very good idea of the arrangement—<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> representing the +superimposed aeroplanes, <i>d</i> the tail, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> the screw propellers. +The superimposed aeroplanes (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) in this machine contained +a sustaining area of 28 sq. ft., in addition to the tail (<i>d</i>). Its engine +represented a third of a horse power, and the weight of the +whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel, superimposed aeroplanes and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +propellers) was under 12 ℔ Its sustaining area, if that of the +tail (<i>d</i>) be included, was something like 36 sq. ft., <i>i.e.</i> 3 sq. ft. for +every pound. The model was forced by its propellers along a +wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer could determine, +failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme lightness and +the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow, +however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sustained +by its aeroplanes alone.</p> + +<p>The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874, +consisted of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three +wheels; a very effective light engine constructed on a new +principle, which dispensed with the old-fashioned, cumbrous +boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal aeroplanes; and two +comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was to get +up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This +accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine +would gradually be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way +that the weight of certain birds—the eagle, <i>e.g.</i>—is thrown upon +the wings after a few hops and leaps. Once in the air the aeroplanes, +it was believed, would become effective in proportion to +the speed attained. The machine, however, did not realize +the high expectations formed of it, and like all its predecessors +it was doomed to failure.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:293px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 45.—Moy’s Aerial Steamer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the +problem of artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those +of Prof. S.P. Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began +their aerial experiments about the same time (1889-1890). By +1893-1894 both had embodied their views in models and large +flying machines.</p> + +<p>Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the +Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small +flying models and one large one. These he designated “aerodromes.” +They were all constructed on a common principle, +and were provided with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of +rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the horizon, and +more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The +cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at +their anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of powerful +vertical screw propellers driven at high speed—the greater +the horizontal speed provided by the propellers, the greater, by +implication, the lifting capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies, +frames and aeroplanes of the aerodromes were strengthened +by vertical and other supports, to which were attached aluminium +wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that was possible. +Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in this he +succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously +shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface +being directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of +highly trained mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and +great secrecy was observed as to his operations. He flew his +smallest models in the great lecture room of the National Museum, +and his larger ones on the Potomac river about 40 m. below +Washington.</p> + +<p>While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in +1889, he did not construct and test his steam-driven flying +models until 1893. These were made largely of steel and +aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made the longest flight +then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully half a mile +on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to carry +passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to +the order and at the expense of the American government, +which granted a sum of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:283px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 46.—Langley’s Flying Machine. <i>a</i>, Large aeroplane; +<i>b</i>, Small aeroplane; <i>c</i>, Propelling screws.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Langley’s machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not +intended to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion +closely resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very +rigid tube of aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than +2 in. in diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the +framework corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed +60 oz. and developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made +of thin hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 ℔ each; +these occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was +refined gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was +utilized for a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were +twin screw propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in +practice, to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute. +The wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames +of tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front +were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at +different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height, +or a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could +be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast +extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the +craft, and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips +of the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this +trussing arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly +stiff.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:260px" src="images/img516c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.—Langley’s Aerodrome in flight.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-convex, +narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities, +the two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed +amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th +of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked +violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared, +by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was pulled +into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the aerodrome +rose to the surface, it was found that while the front sustaining +surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, yet the rear +ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last attempt, +on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to the +launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track. This +time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained, +was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear +sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had +come before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid +in the recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted +apart, and one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened +a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what +it should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in +two. Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see +<i>Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution</i>, 1904, p. 122).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:198px" src="images/img517.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 48.—Sir H. Maxim’s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly +skilled workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on +which stood a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex +aeroplanes arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward +angle with the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and +propelled by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha, +&c. The boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained +in about 2000 bent copper tubes, only <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in external diameter, +heated by over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha +or gasoline. Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute. +The steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 ℔ in +all, were placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was +provided by a pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about +8 ft. from the ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was independently +governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in +actual effect, an amount which, considering that their total weight +was only 600 ℔, gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 horse-power +for every 2 ℔ weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders +were 5 and 8 in. in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in. +When going at full speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per +minute on the two gigantic propellers that drove the machine along. +These were in appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except +that they were square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad +and thin. They were built from overlapping strips of American pine, +planed smooth and covered with glued canvas. They weighed +135 ℔ each, the length of each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the +width at the ends 5½ ft. The pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully +stayed by steel wires to their shafts, or the first revolution would have +snapped them off short. The material of which the framework was +built was thin steel tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties +were of the best steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the +square inch. The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the +fore-part cut away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the +stern over which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all +over it. High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly +concavo-convex main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an +imperceptible angle, and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft., +increased by side wings to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes +arranged in tiers, and large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted +and served for vertical steering. The machine was strengthened in +every direction by vertical and other supports and securely wired +together at all points. It was furnished with four strong flanged +wheels and ran along a light broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track, +1800 ft. long, in the hope that when the speed reached a certain +point it would leave the rails, but it was prevented from rising more +than an inch or so by four arms, or outriggers, furnished with wheels, +which projected from its sides and ran under an inverted wooden +upper or safety track outside the railway track proper.</p> + +<p>At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main aeroplane, +the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side planes +were in position. After everything had been got in readiness, careful +observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was connected +to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the +pump set so as to deliver over 5000 ℔ of water per hour into the boiler. +The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted +to 310 ℔ per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more +than 2100 ℔ A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had +been adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 ℔ and with a strong +blast at 320 ℔ The signal being given to let go, the machine darted +forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More +gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced +300 ft., the steam had mounted to 320 ℔ per sq. in., and the safety-valve +was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had +travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger +wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was +lifting at least 8000 ℔ The speed rapidly increased until when the +machine had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were +of 2 in. steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine +completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft., +the left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety +track, and shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper +track—3 in. by 9 in. Georgia pine—and a plank became entangled +in the framework of the machine. Steam had already been shut off, +and the machine coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four +of its wheels sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other +marks. Before making this run the wheels which were to engage the +upper track were painted, and the paint left by them on the upper +track indicated the exact point where the machine lifted. The area +of the aeroplanes was very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting +effect was fully 10,000 ℔ The planes therefore lifted 2.5 ℔ per +sq. ft., and 5 ℔ for each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of +the engines was lost in the screw slip. This showed that the diameter +of the screws was not great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft.</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1897 M.C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent +results, two full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus +with funds furnished by the French government. This reproduced +the structure of a bird with almost servile imitation, save +that traction was obtained by two screw-propellers. The steam +engine weighed about 7 ℔ per horse-power, but the equilibrium +of the apparatus was defective.</p> + +<p>Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining +equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal, +Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight +by means of aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They +depended mainly on the utilization of natural air currents, trusting +for stability and balance to movements in their own bodies, +or in portions of their machines which they could control. They +threw themselves from natural or artificial elevations, or, facing +the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards against it until +they got under way and the wind caught hold of their aeroplanes. +To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of demonstrating +the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of +reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000 +glides safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave, +batlike wings, in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49). +It was with a machine of the latter type that he was upset by +a sudden gust of wind and killed in 1896. Pilcher in England +improved somewhat on Lilienthal’s apparatus, but used the same +general method of restoring the balance, when endangered, by +shifting the weight of the operator’s body. He too made several +hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust +of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his +endeavours to the production of automatic stability, and made +the surfaces movable instead of the man. He used several +different forms of apparatus, including one with five superposed +pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50) and another with two continuous +aeroplanes, one above the other (fig. 51). He made over 1000 +glides without accident.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:298px" src="images/img517a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 49.—Lilienthal’s Gliding Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur +and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider +developed into a successful flying machine. These investigators +began their work in 1900, and at an early stage introduced two +characteristic features—a horizontal rudder in front for steering +in the vertical plane, and the flexing or bending of the ends of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +the main supporting aeroplanes as a means of maintaining the +structure in proper balance. Their machines to begin with were +merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a horizontal, +position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight +lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five +flights, in the longest of which they remained in the air for half +an hour and covered a distance of 24½ m. The utmost secrecy, +however, was maintained concerning their experiments, and in +consequence their achievements were regarded at the time with +doubt and suspicion, and it was hardly realized that their success +would reach the point later achieved.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:352px" src="images/img518a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 50.—Chanute’s Multiple Gliding Machine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:480px" src="images/img518b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 51.—Chanute’s Biplane Gliding Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great +improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and, +although the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still +left something to be desired, it provided the designers of flying +machines with what they had long been looking for—a motor +very powerful in proportion to its weight. Largely in consequence +of this progress, and partly no doubt owing to the stimulus +given by the activity of builders of dirigible balloons, the construction +of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a number +of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont, +after a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-shaped +gas balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine. +It consisted of the following parts:—(<i>a</i>) A system of aeroplanes +arranged like the capital letter T at a certain upward angle to +the horizon and bearing a general resemblance to box kites; +(<i>b</i>) a pair of very light propellers driven at a high speed; and +(<i>c</i>) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine. The driver +occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which is +shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels +and vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts +of the aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground +on either side. With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th +of November 1906 a distance of 220 metres in 21 seconds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:189px" src="images/img518c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—Santos Dumont’s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights +on a machine of the biplane type, consisting of two main supporting +surfaces one above the other, with a box-shaped vertical +rudder behind and two small balancing aeroplanes in front. +The engine was an eight-cylinder Antoinette petrol motor, +developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a minute, and +driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th of +October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at Issy-les-Molineaux, +and on the 13th of January 1908 he made a circular +flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon +prize of £2000. In March he remained in the air for 3½ minutes, +covering a distance of 1¼ m.; but in the following month a rival, +Leon Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and constructed +by the same makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this +performance by flying nearly 2½ m. in 6½ minutes. In July +Farman remained in the air for over 20 minutes; on the 6th of +September Delagrange increased the time to nearly 30 minutes, +and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front +with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24½ m.</p> + +<p>But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers—Orville +Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On +the 9th of September 1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia, +made three notable flights; in the first he remained in the air +57½ minutes and in the second 1 hour 3 minutes, while in the third +he took with him a passenger and covered nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes. +Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in 1 hour 14<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> minutes, +but on the 17th he had an accident, explained as being due to one +of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by which his +machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and Lieutenant +Selfridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards +Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records +with a flight lasting 1 hour 31 minutes 25<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> seconds, in which he +covered about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the 11th of October, +he made a flight of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger. +On the 31st of December he succeeded in remaining in the air +for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.</p> + +<p>Wilbur Wright’s machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother +being essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched +supporting surfaces, each 12½ metres long, arranged parallel +one above the other at a distance of 1<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> metres apart. As they +were each about 2 metres wide their total area was about 50 sq. +metres. About 3 metres in front of them was arranged a pair +of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped like a long narrow +ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected changes of elevation, +the driver being able by means of a lever to incline them up +or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. The rudder +for lateral steering was placed about 2½ metres behind the main +surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes. +The lever by which they were turned was connected with the +device by which the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed +simultaneously though in opposite directions; <i>i.e.</i> if the ends of +the aeroplanes on one side were bent downwards, those on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +other were bent upwards. By the aid of this arrangement the +natural cant of the machine when making a turn could be +checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol engine +was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the +central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger +if one was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line. +Making about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24 +horse-power, and was connected by chain gearing to two wooden +propellers, 2½ metres in diameter and 3½ metres apart, the +speed of which was about 450 revolutions a minute. The whole +machine, with aeronaut, weighed about 1100 ℔, the weight of +the motor being reputed to be 200 ℔</p> + +<p class="pt2 f90 noind sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:851px; height:562px" src="images/img518d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:555px" src="images/img518e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—WRIGHT BIPLANE.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 f90 noind sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:861px; height:569px" src="images/img518f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—BLERIOT MONOPLANE.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:851px; height:562px" src="images/img518g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—A.V. ROE’S TRIPLANE.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:477px; height:138px" src="images/img519.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.—Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, B, Main supporting surfaces.</p> +<p>C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder + with fixed semilunar fin E.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>F, Vertical rudder.</p> +<p>G, Motor.</p> +<p>H, Screws.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with +monoplanes having only a single supporting surface, and it was +on a machine of this type that the Frenchman Blériot on July +25th flew across the English Channel from Calais to Dover in +31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but performed the same feat on +an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw considerable increases +in the periods for which aviators were able to remain in the air, +and Roger Sommer’s flight of nearly 2½ hours on August 7th +was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he +covered a distance estimated at 137¼ m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec. +In both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation +meetings were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy, +Doncaster and Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was +made in a wind of 40 m. an hour by Latham. This aviator also +proved the possibility of flying at considerable altitudes by +attaining on December 1st a height of over 1500 ft., but this +record was far surpassed in the following January by L. Paulhan, +who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los Angeles. +In the course of the year three aviators were killed—Lefèvbre +and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and +four men perished in September by the destruction of the French +airship “République,” the gas-bag of which was ripped open by +a broken propeller. In January 1910 Delagrange was killed +by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane on which +he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully +flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within +24 hours, for the <i>Daily Mail’s</i> £10,000 prize.</p> + +<p>The progress made by all these experiments at aviation +had naturally created widespread interest, both as a matter of +sport and also as indicating a new departure in the possibilities of +machines of war. And in 1909 the British government appointed +a scientific committee, with Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a consultative +body for furthering the development of the science in +England.</p> + +<p>The table below gives some details, approximately correct, +of the principal experiments made with flying machines up to +1908.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Experimenter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tip<br />to<br />Tip.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Surface.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Weight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pounds<br />per<br />sq. ft.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Speed<br />per<br />hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Maximum<br />Flight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Motor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Horse-<br />power.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pounds<br />sustained<br />per h.p.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Sq. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Mls.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tclm rb">Tatin</td> <td class="tcrm rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcrm rb">7.5</td> <td class="tcrm rb">3.85</td> <td class="tclm rb">0.51</td> <td class="tclm rb">18</td> <td class="tcrm rb">100?</td> <td class="tccm rb">Compressed<br />air</td> <td class="tcrm rb">0.03</td> <td class="tcrm rb">110?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb cl">1885<br />1889</td> <td class="tclm rb">Hargrave (No. 16)</td> <td class="tcrm rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcrm rb">26.0</td> <td class="tclm rb">5.00</td> <td class="tclm rb">0.19</td> <td class="tclm rb">10</td> <td class="tcrm rb">343</td> <td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tcrm rb">0.06</td> <td class="tcrm rb">79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phillips</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">136.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">402.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">500?</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steam</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6 </td> <td class="tcr rb">72?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maxim*</td> <td class="tcr rb">50.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4000.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8000.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">300?</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">363.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Langley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcl rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tatin and Richet</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">86.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.83</td> <td class="tcl rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ader*</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">270.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1100.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">50?</td> <td class="tcr rb">100?</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lilienthal*</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">151.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">220.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.46</td> <td class="tcl rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">Gravity</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pilcher*</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">170.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">200.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcl rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">900</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chanute*</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">135.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">178.00 </td> <td class="tcl rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcl rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">360</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. Dumont*</td> <td class="tcr rb">39  </td> <td class="tcr rb">560  </td> <td class="tcr rb">550  </td> <td class="tcl rb">0.98</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">Petrol</td> <td class="tcr rb">50  </td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">W. Wright*</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">41  </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">650  </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1100  </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1.7</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">295,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Petrol</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">24  </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f90" colspan="11">* The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—Some of the books mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span> +contain details of flying machines; see H.W.L. Moedebeck, <i>A Pocketbook +of Aeronautics</i>, trans. by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907); +Sir Hiram S. Maxim, <i>Artificial and Natural Flight</i> (London, 1908); +F.W. Lanchester, <i>Aerodynamics</i> and <i>Aerodonetics</i> (London, 1907 and +1908); C.C. Turner, <i>Aerial Navigation of To-day</i> (London, 1909); +also two papers on “Aerial Navigation” read by Colonel G.O. +Fullerton before the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and +1906; papers read by Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell and E.S. Bruce +before the Society of Arts, London, in April 1907 and December 1908 +respectively; Cantor Lectures by F.W. Lanchester (Society of +Arts, 1909); and the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Aeronautical Society +(founded 1865), &c.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds +of passage have no air in their bones.—<i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond</i>. part +xxv., 1857, p. 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure +inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or +rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of support +to any body attached to it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,” +by J. Bell Pettigrew, <i>Proc. Roy. Inst</i>., 1867; “On the Mechanical +Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom,” +by the same author, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc</i>., 1867.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l’Étranger</i>, 1869.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording instrument. +It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of clock-work +at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its surface +by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements to +be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more levers, +and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where they appear +as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the wings the +tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious modification, +employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the different +parts of the wings were made actually to record their own movements. +As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave theory of +stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject of a +rigorous <i>experimentum crucis</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse +is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in the +substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when necessary, +in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some measure what +may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are especially +useful in giving it continuous play.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> “The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form +cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated +with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the +wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their +nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is equivalent—morphologically +and physiologically—to one entire insect wing. In the +wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are short, and in +some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary feathers are +greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that the wing +as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by the +insect’s wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones, muscles +and feathers have attained a maximum development. The conformation +of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance +in every direction—the waves running longitudinally, transversely +and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently +be removed without essentially altering either its form or its functions. +This is proved by making sections in various directions, +and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the +wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of +flight.”—<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. xxvi. pp. 325, 326.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> “On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,” +<i>Proc. Roy. Inst.</i>, 1867; “On the Mechanical Appliances by which +Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, +1867, 26.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> “On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the movements +by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird,” +<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. 26.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are—(<i>a</i>) the +elevator muscles of the wings, (<i>b</i>) the elastic properties of the wings, +and (<i>c</i>) the reaction of the compressed air on the under surfaces of +the wings.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across +the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes +under a foot in width.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>On the Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in reference to the +subject of Aerial Locomotion,</i> by L. de Lucy (Paris).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> E.J. Marey, <i>Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de +l’étranger</i> (1869).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> “The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight,” <i>Ninth Annual +Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</i>, 1874.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> “Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation,” <i>Ninth +Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</i>, 1874.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> The <i>Aeronaut</i> for January 1872 and February 1875.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Cayley’s screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and consequently +elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his writings +to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid screws, it is +to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for convenience +and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was the first to +advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial purposes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and +figured further on (fig. 44).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> “On Aerial Locomotion,” <i>Aeronautical Society’s Report</i> for 1867.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINCK, GOVERT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves +in 1615, was apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but +having secretly acquired a passion for drawing, was sent to +Leuwarden, where he boarded in the house of Lambert Jacobszon, +a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant preacher than as a +painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and the +companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist +only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours +of Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of +Rombert Ulenburg, whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt +in 1634. Other members of the same family lived at Amsterdam, +cultivating the arts either professionally or as amateurs. The +pupils of Lambert probably gained some knowledge of Rembrandt +by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly J. von Sandrart, +who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged as +one of Rembrandt’s best pupils, and living habitually in the house +of the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years +Flinck laboured on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master’s +style in all the works which he executed between 1636 and 1648; +then he fell into peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling +forms and grand action of Rubens’s creations. Finally he sailed +with unfortunate complacency into the Dead Sea of official +and diplomatic painting. Flinck’s relations with Cleves became +in time very important. He was introduced to the court of the +Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who married +in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John +Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649. +In 1652 a citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress, +daughter of Ver Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India +Company. He was already well known even then in the patrician +circles over which the burgomasters De Graef and the Echevin +Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the poet Vondel +and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with +antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still +preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.</p> + +<p>The earliest of Flinck’s authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady, +dated 1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture +is the “Blessing of Jacob,” in the Amsterdam museum (1638). +Both are thoroughly Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in +vigour of touch and warmth of flesh tints. The four “civic +guards” of 1642, and “the twelve musketeers” with their +president in an arm-chair (1648), in the town-hall at Amsterdam, +are fine specimens of composed portrait groups. But the best +of Flinck’s productions in this style is the peace of Münster in +the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures full +of animation in the faces, “radiant with Rembrandtesque +colour,” and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his +own likeness to the left in a doorway. The mannered period of +Flinck is amply illustrated in the “Marcus Curius eating Turnips +before the Samnite Envoys,” and “Solomon receiving Wisdom,” +in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here it is that Flinck +shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy in tint, +flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh that +looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge. +The chronology of Flinck’s works, so far as they are seen in +public galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the +“Grey Beard” of 1639 at Dresden, the “Girl” of 1641 at the +Louvre, a portrait group of a male and female (1646) at Rotterdam, +a lady (1651) at Berlin. In November 1659 the burgomaster +of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12 canvases to +represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus +Curius and Horatius Cocles, and scenes from the wars of the +Batavians and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than +the sketches. In the same year he received a flattering acknowledgment +from the town council of Cleves on the completion of a +picture of Solomon which was a counterpart of the composition +at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and portraits, such as +the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg and John +Maurice of Nassau, and the allegory of “Louisa of Orange attended +by Victory and Fame” and other figures at the cradle of the +first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several +pictures which were painted for the Great Elector, none are +preserved except the “Expulsion of Hagar” in the Berlin +museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of February +1660.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINDERS, MATTHEW<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1774-1814), English navigator, +explorer, and man of science, was born at Donington, near +Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 16th of March 1774. Matthew +was at first designed to follow his father’s profession of surgeon, +but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of adventure impelled him +to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd of October +1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies, +and after serving in the “Bellerophon” during Lord Howe’s +“glorious first of June” (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out +in 1795 as midshipman in the “Reliance” to New South Wales. +For the next few years he devoted himself to the task of accurately +laying down the outline and bearings of the Australian coast, +and he did his work so thoroughly that he left comparatively +little for his successors to do. With his friend George Bass, the +surgeon of the “Reliance,” in the year of his arrival he explored +George’s river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again in +March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the “Tom Thumb,” +only 8 ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a +stretch of coast to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage +to the Cape of Good Hope, when he was promoted to a lieutenancy, +Flinders was engaged during February 1798 in a survey of the +Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of Tasmania. His delight +was great when, in September of the same year, he was commissioned +along with Bass, who had already explored the sea +between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and +inferred that it was a strait, to proceed in the sloop “Norfolk” +(25 tons) to prove conclusively that Van Diemen’s Land was an +island by circumnavigating it. In the same sloop, in the summer +of next year, Flinders made an exploration to the north of Port +Jackson, the object being mainly to survey Glasshouse Bay +(Moreton Bay) and Hervey’s Bay. Returning to England he +was appointed to the command of an expedition for the thorough +exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern +continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been +the first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of +July 1801 the sloop “Investigator” (334 tons), in which the +expedition sailed, left Spithead, Flinders being furnished with +instructions and with a passport from the French government +to all their officials in the Eastern seas. Among the scientific +staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent English +botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders’s relative, +John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-west +coast of Australia, was reached on November 6, and King +George’s sound on the 9th of December. Flinders sailed round +the Great Bight, examining the islands and indentations on the +east side, noting the nature of the country, the people, products, +&c., and paying special attention to the subject of the variation +of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs were discovered +and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after leaving +Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders +fell in with the French exploring ship, “Le Géographe,” under +Captain Nicolas Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter +Bay. In the narrative of the French expedition published in +1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the Mauritius) by M. +Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the land west +of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered +by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for +the English ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when +Flinders published his own narrative, that the real state of the +case was fully exposed. Flinders continued his examination +of the coast along Bass’s Strait, carefully surveying Port Phillip. +Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of May 1802.</p> + +<p>After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months, +Flinders set out again on the 22nd of July to complete his +circumnavigation of Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was +examined with the greatest care in several places. The north-east +entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was reached early in +November; and the next three months were spent in an examination +of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt them. +An inspection of the “Investigator” showed that she was in so +leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could +the voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey +of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of +Timor, the “Investigator” sailed round the west and south of +Australia, and Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of June +1803. Much suffering was endured by nearly all the members +of the expedition: a considerable proportion of the men succumbed +to disease, and their leader was so reduced by scurvy +that his health was greatly impaired.</p> + +<p>Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. “Porpoise” +as a passenger, submit the results of his work to the Admiralty, +and obtain, if possible, another vessel to complete his exploration +of the Australian coast. The “Porpoise” left Port Jackson on +the 10th of August, accompanied by the H.E.I.C.’s ship “Bridgewater” +(750 tons) and the “Cato” (450 tons) of London. On the +night of the 17th the “Porpoise” and “Cato” suddenly struck +on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to wrecks. The officers +and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4 ft. above +high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many +of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks. +The reef was in about 22° 11′ S. and 155° E., and about 800 m. +from Port Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a +six-oared cutter in order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party. +The reef was again reached on the 8th of October, and all the +officers and men having been satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders +on the 11th left for Jones Strait in an unsound schooner of 29 +tons, the “Cumberland,” with ten companions, and a valuable +collection of papers, charts, geological specimens, &c. On the +15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he discovered +that France and England were at war. The passport he possessed +from the French government was for the “Investigator”; +still, though he was now on board another ship, his mission was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +essentially the same, and the work he was on was simply a continuation +of that commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Nevertheless, +on her arrival at Port Louis the “Cumberland” was +seized by order of the governor-general de Caen. Flinders’s +papers were taken possession of, and he found himself virtually +a prisoner. We need not dwell on the sad details of this unjustifiable +captivity, which lasted to June 1810. But there can +be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was compelled +to endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his +health, and brought his life to a premature end. He reached +England in October 1810, after an absence of upwards of nine +years. The official red-tapeism of the day barred all promotion +to the unfortunate explorer, who set himself to prepare an +account of his explorations, though unfortunately an important +part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The results of +his labours were published in two large quarto volumes, entitled +<i>A Voyage to Terra Australis</i>, with a folio volume of maps. The +very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published +Flinders died, at the early age of forty. The great work is a +model of its kind, containing as it does not only a narrative of +his own and of previous voyages, but masterly statements of +the scientific results, especially with regard to magnetism, +meteorology, hydrography and navigation. Flinders paid great +attention to the errors of the compass, especially to those caused +by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to have been +the first to discover the source of such errors (which had scarcely +been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the +variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for +which Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards. +Numerous experiments on ships’ magnetism were conducted at +Portsmouth by Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812. +Besides the <i>Voyage</i>, Flinders wrote <i>Observations on the Coast +of Van Diemen’s Land</i>, <i>Bass’s Strait</i>, &c., and two papers +in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>—one on the “Magnetic Needle” (1805), +and the other, “Observations on the Marine Barometer” +(1806).</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINSBERG,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a village and watering-place of Germany, in +the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the +Iserkamm, 1450 ft. above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the +terminus station of the railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1900) +1957. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, +and has some manufactures of wooden wares. Flinsberg is +celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of feminine +disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also +a climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors +number about 8500 annually.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adam, <i>Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort</i> (Görlitz, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT, AUSTIN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1812-1886), American physician, was born +at Petersham, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812, +and graduated at the medical department of Harvard University +in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was professor of the theory and +practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical College, of which he was +one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he filled the same +chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886 he was +professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical +medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He +wrote many text-books on medical subjects, among these being +<i>Diseases of the Heart</i> (1859-1870); <i>Principles and Practice of +Medicine</i> (1866); <i>Clinical Medicine</i> (1879); and <i>Physical +Exploration of the Lungs by means of Auscultation and Percussion</i> +(1882). He died in New York on the 13th of March 1886.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Austin Flint</span>, junr., who was born at Northampton, +Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at +Harvard and at the university of Louisville, graduated at the +Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became +professor of physiology at the university of Buffalo (1858) and +subsequently at other centres, his last connexion being with the +Cornell University Medical College (1898-1906). He was better +known as a teacher and writer on physiology than as a practitioner, +and his <i>Text-book of Human Physiology</i> (1876) was +for many years a standard book in American medical colleges. +He also published an extensive <i>Physiology of Man</i> (5 vols., 1866-1874), +<i>Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease</i> (1870), +<i>Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise</i> (1871), <i>Source +of Muscular Power</i> (1878), and <i>Handbook of Physiology</i> (1905). +In 1896 he became a consulting physician to the New York State +Hospital for the Insane.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT, ROBERT<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1838-  ), Scottish divine and philosopher, +was born near Dumfries and educated at the university of +Glasgow. After a few years of pastoral service, first in Aberdeen +and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he was appointed professor of +moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews in 1864. +From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at Edinburgh. +He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. His chief works are <i>Christ’s Kingdom +upon Earth</i> (Sermons, 1865); <i>Philosophy of History in Europe</i> +(1874; partly rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland, +1894); <i>Theism</i> and <i>Anti-theistic Theories</i> (2 vols., being the +Baird Lectures for 1876-1877; often reprinted); <i>Socialism</i> +(1894); <i>Sermons and Addresses</i> (1899); <i>Agnosticism</i> (1903).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT, TIMOTHY<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1780-1840), American clergyman and +writer, was born in Reading, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July +1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as +a Congregational minister in Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued +scientific studies with interest; and his labours in his chemical +laboratory seemed so strange to the people of that retired region, +that some persons supposed and asserted that he was engaged in +counterfeiting. This, together with political differences, led to +disagreeable complications, which resulted in his resigning his +charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the valley of +the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and a +farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the +settlers of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a +picturesque work called <i>Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed +in the Valley of the Mississippi</i> (1826; reprinted in England +and translated into French), the first account of the western +states which brought to light the real life and character of the +people. The success which this work met with, together with the +failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish his more active +labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the <i>Western +Review</i> in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and <i>Knickerbocker’s +Magazine</i> (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books, +including <i>Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot</i> (1826), his best +novel; <i>A Condensed Geography and History of the Western States, +or the Mississippi Valley</i> (2 vols., 1828); <i>Arthur Clenning</i> (1828), +a novel; and <i>Indian Wars in the West</i> (1833). His style is vivid, +plain and forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on +the western states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass., +on the 16th of August 1840.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan, +U.S.A., on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop. +(1890) 9803; (1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born; +(1910, census) 38,550. It is served by the Grand Trunk and +the Père Marquette railways, and by an electric line, the +Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The city has a +fine court-house (1904), a federal building (1908), a city hall +(1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf, +established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the +treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has +important manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being +automobiles, wagons, carriages—Flint is called “the vehicle +city,”—flour, woollen goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks +and tiles; and its grain trade is of considerable importance. +In 1904 the total value of the city’s factory product was +$6,177,170, an increase of 31.1% over that of 1900. The settlement +of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the Flint, +began in 1820, but Flint’s growth was very slow until 1831, +when it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in +1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flintshire</span> (<i>sîr Gallestr</i>), a county of North Wales, +the smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the +Dee estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by +Denbighshire. Area, 257 sq. m. Included in Flint is the detached +hundred of Maelor, lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +and shut in by Cheshire on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire +on the S., and by Denbighshire on the W. and N.W. The Clwyd +valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of the Alyn and +Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee, entering +the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the +W., passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N. +The Clwyd enters Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near +Rhuddlan, reaches the Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the +county under Moel Fammau, passes Cilcen and Mold (<i>y Wyddgrug</i>), +runs underground near Hesb-Alyn (Alyn’s drying-up), +bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and joins the +Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief lake.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their +economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most +important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous +limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwen; it forms +the Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold +to beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series +is cherty in the north—the chert is quarried for use in the potteries +of Staffordshire—but traced southward it passes into sandstones and +grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the +equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire, +while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought +to correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may +be a representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the +coal measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays +and marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from +Talacre through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope. +The carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a +fault, in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of +Wenlock age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western +border of the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd +valley and appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead +and zinc ores have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in +the north of the county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer +Gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene +mammals along with palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift +obscures the older rocks on the east and north and in the vale of +Clwyd. Short stretches of blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl +and Talacre.</p> +</div> + +<p>The London & North-Western railway follows the coast-line. +Other railways which cross the county are the Great Western, +and the Wrexham, Mold & Connah’s Quay, acquired by the +Great Central company. For pasture the vale of Clwyd is well +known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief crops. Stock +and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed with +Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and Southdowns, +while in the thick mining population a ready market is +found for meat, cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in +1901) nearly doubled in the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day +is one of the most densely populated counties in North Wales. +The area of the ancient county is 164,744 acres, and that of +the administrative county 163,025 acres. The collieries begin at +Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint, Halkin (Halcyn), +Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlâg). At Halkin, +Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is +sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc, +formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and +copper mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting +works, oil, vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries +around Buckley send their produce chiefly to Connah’s Quay, +whence a railway crosses the Dee to the Birkenhead (Cheshire) +district. Iron seams are now thin, but limestone quarries yield +building stone, lime for burning and small stone for chemical +works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile manufactures +small.</p> + +<p>The county returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary +borough district (returning one member), consists of +Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint, Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph +and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a small part of the Chester +parliamentary borough. There is one municipal borough, +Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley +(5780), Connah’s Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263), +Prestatyn (1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales +and Chester circuit, assizes being held at Mold. The Flint +borough has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate +court of quarter sessions. The ancient county, which is in the +dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph, contains forty-six +entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with parts of eleven +others.</p> + +<p>Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the +fragmentary ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:—Caerwys, +near Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation. +Bodfary (Bodfari) was traditionally occupied by the Romans. +Moel y gaer (bald hill of the fortress), near Northop, is a remarkably +perfect old British post. Maes y Garmon (perhaps +for <i>Meusydd Garmon</i>, as <i>y</i>, the article, has no significance before +a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields of Germanus). +A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of <i>une victoire sans larmes, +gagnée non par les armes, mais par la foi</i> (E.H. Vollet). The +Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and +Saxons, at whose approach the <i>Alleluia</i> of that Easter (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 430) +was sung. Panic duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St +Germanus, confessor and bishop of Auxerre (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 380-448), had +to return to the charge in 446. He has, under the name Garmon, +a great titular share in British topography. At Bangor Iscoed, +“the great high choir in Maelor,” was the monastery, destroyed +with over 2000 monks, by Æthelfred of Northumberland in 607, +as (by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland +was sacked by the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (ii. 2) +that Bangor monastery was in seven sections, with three hundred +(working) monks. The supposed lines of direction of Watt’s and +Offa’s dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope, Alyn valley, +Oswestry (<i>Croes Oswallt</i>, “Oswald’s cross”), for Watt’s, and +Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (<i>Hafren</i>, or Sabrina) +for Offa’s. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North +Wales) defeated Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower) +and at Coleshill (<i>Cynsyllt</i>). Near Pant Asa (<i>pant</i> is a bottom) +is the medieval Maen Achwynfan (<i>achwyn</i>, to complain, <i>maen</i>, +stone), and tumuli, menhirs (<i>meini hirion</i>) and inscribed stones +are frequent throughout the county. There is a 14th-century +cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early +Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county +date from the early Edwards.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Taylor, <i>Flint</i> (London, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a municipal borough and the county town of the +above; a seaport and contributory parliamentary borough, on +the south of the Dee estuary, 192 m. from London by the London +& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4265. The seat of +great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur and other +chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The county +gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle, +was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with +Cheshire.)</p> + +<p>Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by +Edward I. Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward +III. bestowed its constableship upon the earls of Chester, and +here Richard II. surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice +taken, after siege, by the parliamentarians, and finally dismantled +in 1647. There remain a square court (with angle towers), +round tower and drawbridge, all three entrusted to a constable, +appointed by the crown under the Municipal Corporations +Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was chartered +by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of +Chester.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian +languages, possibly cognate with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="plinthos">πλίνθος</span>, a tile), in +petrology, a dark grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance +which has an almost vitreous lustre, and when pure appears +structureless to the unaided eye. In the mass it is dark and +opaque, but thin plates or the edges of splinters are pale yellow +and translucent. Its hardness is greater than that of steel, so +that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when drawn +across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2.6 or only a little +less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when +hammered readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains. +The fracture is perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer +detach flakes which have convex, slightly undulating surfaces. +At the point of impact a bulb of percussion, which is a somewhat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +elevated conical mark, is produced. This serves to distinguish +flints which have been fashioned by human agencies from those +which have been split merely by the action of frost and the +weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably +intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to +archaeologists investigating Palaeolithic implements. With +skill and experience a mass of flint can be worked to any simple +shape by well directed strokes, and further trimming can be +effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a direction slightly +across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have the +most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known +to have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were +specially suitable for his purposes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and +dolomite may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also +detected minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic compounds, +&c., to which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities. +These are dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller +in lustre. Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystalline +and consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorphous +silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part +of the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms, +such as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur +in flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their +original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk +which encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure +to the weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints. +At first they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is +subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish +porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the removal +of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres +and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a +very slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material +of great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist +attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the south-east +of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their surfaces +often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the edges +of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one pebble +on another during storms or floods.</p> + +<p>Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in +the white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>). +It is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses +which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules +often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not +deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands +cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right +angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as +bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some +extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of +radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into +solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again +precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is +consequently the result of “concretionary action.” Where the flints +lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fact a kind +of metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly +replaced a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and +the organisms of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved +in the flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have +their cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the +shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind +are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.</p> + +<p>Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the +same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and +commonly occurs in limestone (<i>e.g.</i> the Carboniferous Limestone) in +the same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of +radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian +oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some +of the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the +English Greensand; these often contain remains of sponges.</p> +</div> + +<p>The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrication +of weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other +materials have been employed where flint was not available, +<i>e.g.</i> obsidian, chert, chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to +prehistoric man (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flint Implements</a></span> below) flint must have +been of great value and served many of the uses to which steel +is put at the present day. Flint gravels are widely employed +for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in architecture. +For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not +regarded with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily; +binds badly, yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy +traffic and in bad weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do +much damage to tires of motors and cycles. Seasoned flints +from the land, having been long exposed to the atmosphere, +are preferred to flints freshly dug from the chalk pits. Formerly +flint and steel were everywhere employed for striking a light; +and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special industry +in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in Suffolk. +In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade +has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in +semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable. +Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass, +and is still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties +of pottery.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS.<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> The excavation of +these remains of the prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift +gravel-beds has marked a revolution in the study of Man’s +history (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>). Until almost the middle of the 19th +century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of British and +European archaeologists that the momentous results of the +excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be +dwarfed by discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous +ideas of Man’s antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes +observed in some sand containing mammalian remains, at +Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint, roughly worked into a cutting +implement. This “find” was rapidly followed by others, and +Boucher de Perthes published his first work on the subject, +<i>Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes: mémoire sur l’industrie +primitive et les arts à leur origin</i> (1847), in which he proclaimed +his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging +to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French +archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission +then visited his collection and testified to the great importance +of his discoveries. The “finds” at Abbeville were followed +by others in many places in England, and in fact in every +country where siliceous stones which are capable of being flaked +and fashioned into implements are to be found. The implements +occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the tumuli and ancient +burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of prehistoric man in +nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and lake-dwellings; +but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of England +and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long +left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These +gravels represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man +shared Europe with the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros. +The worked flints of this age are, however, unevenly distributed; +for while the river-gravels of south-eastern England yield them +abundantly, none has been found in Scotland or the northern +English counties. On the continent the same partial distribution +is observable: while they occur plentifully in the north-western +area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway or +Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by +chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no +longer indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier +period of the Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint +implements, which show signs of polishing and in many cases +remarkably fine workmanship, and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs +and lake-dwellings mixed with the bones of common domestic +animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later Stone Age. The +Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers, implements +worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which resemble +rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round, +and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these +is ground or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand, +exhibit more variety of design, are carefully finished, and the +particular use of each weapon can be easily detected. Man has +reached the stage of culture when he could socket a stone into +a wooden handle, and fix a flaked flint as a handled dagger or +knife. The workmanship is superior to that shown in any of the +stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic times. The +manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all +ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only +kind of stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any +shape, and thus forms the principal material of these earliest +weapons. The blows must be carefully aimed or the flakes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span> +dislodged will be shattered: a gun-flint maker at Brandon, +Suffolk, stated that it took him two years to acquire the art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and +detailed descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans, +<i>Ancient Stone Implements</i> (1897), Lord Avebury’s <i>Prehistoric Times</i> +(1865, 1900); also Thomas Wilson, “Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and +Knives of Prehistoric Times,” in <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for 1897; and +W.K. Moorehead, <i>Prehistoric Implements</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOAT<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>flot</i> and <i>flota</i>, in the verbal form <i>fléotan</i>; the +Teutonic root is <i>flut-</i>, another form of <i>flu-</i>, seen in “flow,” cf. +“fleet”; the root is seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="pleein">πλέειν</span>, to sail, Lat. <i>pluere</i>, to +rain; the Lat. <i>fluere</i> and <i>fluctus</i>, wave, is not connected), the +action of moving on the surface of water, or through the air. +The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river, +backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as +a mass of ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed +boat, or a raft, or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support +a baited line or fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or +inflated organ by means of which certain animals, such as the +“Portuguese man-of-war,” swim, to a hollow metal ball or piece +of whinstone, &c., used to regulate the level of water in a tank or +boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the cistern of a barometer. +“Float” is also the name of one of the boards of a paddle-wheel +or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to denote the +footlights. The word is also applied to something broad, level +and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon +for the purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a +special kind of low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and +to a platform on wheels used for shows in a procession. The term +is applied also to various tools, especially to many kinds of trowels +used in plastering. It is also used of a dock where vessels may +float, as at Bristol, and of the trenches used in “floating” land. +In geology and mining, loose rock or ore brought down by water +is known as “float,” and in tin-mining it is applied to a large +trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word is used of +the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without being +woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United +States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to +bribery is called a “float” or “floater.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOCK.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian, +from which come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in +other Teutonic languages), originally a company of people, now +mainly, except in figurative usages, of certain animals when +gathered together for feeding or moving from place to place. +For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other animals most +generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular application +of the word to sheep that “flock” is used of the Christian +Church in its relation to the “Good Shepherd,” and also of +a congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual +head.</p> + +<p>2. (Probably from the Lat. <i>floccus</i>, but many Teutonic +languages have the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool, +cotton or similar substance. The name “flock” is given to a +material formed of wool or cotton refuse, or of shreds of old +woollen or cotton rags, torn by a machine known as a “devil.” +This material is used for stuffing mattresses or pillows, and also +in upholstery. The name is also applied to a special kind of +wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like cloth, or, in +the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting on a +specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of +cotton or silk. The word “flocculent” is used of many substances +which have a fleecy or “flock”-like appearance, such as a +precipitate of ferric hydrate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLODDEN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flodden Field</span>, near the village of Branxton, +in Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene +of a famous battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between +the English and the Scots. On the 22nd of August a great +Scottish army under King James IV. had crossed the border. +For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King Henry VIII.’s +absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no +organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much +precious time among the border castles, and when Surrey +appeared at Wooler, with an army equal in strength to his own, +which was now greatly weakened by privations and desertion, +he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The English commander +promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle, which +the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors, +accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and +took up a strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey’s +reproaches for the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge +to fight on Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The +English commander, thus foiled, executed a daring and skilful +march round the enemy’s flank, and on the 9th drew up for battle +in rear of the hostile army. It is evident that Surrey was confident +of victory, for he placed his own army, not less than the +enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter ruin. +On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took +post on Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +Surrey’s archers and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the +Scots, unable quietly to endure their losses, rushed to close +quarters. Their left wing drove the English back, but Lord +Dacre’s reserve corps restored the fight on this side. In all other +parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were personally +opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king’s +corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward +Stanley in flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre’s +force closed upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself, +boldly neglecting an almost intact Scottish division in front of +him, charged in upon the rear of King James’s corps. Surrounded +and attacked on all sides, this, the remnant of the +invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen around +the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of his +nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to +the last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all +the leading men in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no +family of importance that had not lost a member in this great +disaster. The “King’s Stone,” said to mark the spot where +James was killed, is at some distance from the actual battlefield. +“Sybil’s Well,” in Scott’s <i>Marmion</i>, is imaginary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLODOARD<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (894-966), French chronicler, was born at +Epernay, and educated at Reims in the cathedral school which +had been established by Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As +canon of Reims, and favourite of the archbishops Herivaeus +(d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while still young an +important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was twice +deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on +account of his steady opposition to the election of the count’s +infant son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of +Archbishop Artold in 947, Flodoard became for a time his chief +adviser, but withdrew to a monastery in 952, and spent the +remaining years of his life in literary and devotional work. His +history of the cathedral church at Reims (<i>Historia Remensis +Ecclesiae</i>) is one of the most remarkable productions of the 10th +century. Flodoard had been given charge of the episcopal +archives, and constructed his history out of the original texts, +which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the +period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The <i>Annales</i> +which Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly +important, by reason of the author’s honesty and the central +position of Reims in European affairs in his time. Flodoard’s +poetical works are of hardly less historical interest. The long +poem celebrating the triumph of Christ and His saints was called +forth by the favour shown him by Pope Leo VII., during whose +pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes fourteen books to +the history of the popes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Flodoard’s works were published in full by J.P. Migne (<i>Patrologia +Latina</i>, vol. 135); a modern edition of the <i>Annales</i> is the one edited +by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier, <i>Sources +de l’histoire de France</i> (No. 932).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse <i>flo</i>, layer, level +plain), a sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of +polar ice. It is of less extent than the field of “pack” ice, +which is a compacted mass of greater depth drifting frequently +under the influence of deep currents, while the floating floe is +driven by the wind.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOOD, HENRY<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden +Flood, chief justice of the king’s bench in Ireland, was born +in 1732, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards +at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became proficient in +the classics. His father was a man of good birth and fortune, +and he himself married a member of the influential Beresford +family, who brought him a large fortune. In his early years +he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant conversationalist. +His judgment was sound, and he had a natural +gift of eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by +study of classical oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood +therefore possessed every personal advantage when, in 1759, +he entered the Irish parliament as member for Kilkenny in his +twenty-seventh year. There was at that time no party in the +Irish House of Commons that could truly be called national, +and until a few years before there had been none that deserved +even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still +constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it +had practically no powers of independent legislation, and none +of controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated +by the ministers in London (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>). Though +the great majority of the people were Roman Catholics, no +person of that faith could either enter parliament or exercise the +franchise; the penal code, which made it almost impossible for +a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a learned profession, +or even to educate his children, and which in numerous particulars +pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and subjected them to +degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in practice +largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were +throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the +economic theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade +of Great Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison +fully realized the necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only +needed the ability and eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of +Commons to raise up an independent party in parliament, and +to create in the country a public opinion with definite intelligible +aims.</p> + +<p>The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening +of the duration of parliament—which had then no legal limit +in Ireland except that of the reigning sovereign’s life,—the +reduction of the scandalously heavy pension list, the establishment +of a national militia, and, above all, the complete legislative +independence of the Irish parliament. For some years little +was accomplished; but in 1768 the English ministry, which +had special reasons at the moment for avoiding unpopularity +in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass, which was the first +step towards making the Irish House of Commons in some +measure representative of public opinion. It had become the +practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by +the owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their undertaking +to manage the House in the government interest. But +during the viceroyalty of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and +more particularly these “undertakers” as they were called, +were made to understand that for the future their privileges in +this respect would be curtailed. When, therefore, an opportunity +was taken by the government in 1768 for reasserting the constitutional +subordination of the Irish parliament, these powerful +classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood. In the +following year, in accordance with the established procedure, +a money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for +acceptance by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it +rejected, but contrary to custom a reason for this course was +assigned, namely, that the bill had not originated in the Irish +House. In consequence parliament was peremptorily prorogued, +and a recess of fourteen months was employed by the government +in securing a majority by the most extensive corruption.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Nevertheless +when parliament met in February 1771 another money +bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year +Lord Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked +this conflict, was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a +publication, famous in its day, called <i>Baratariana</i>, to which +Flood contributed a series of powerful letters after the +manner of Junius, one of his collaborators being Henry +Grattan.</p> + +<p>The success which had thus far attended Flood’s efforts had +placed him in a position such as no Irish politician had previously +attained. He had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes, +“proved himself beyond all comparison the greatest popular +orator that his country had yet produced, and also a consummate +master of parliamentary tactics. Under parliamentary conditions +that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an atmosphere +charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had +created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and +had inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine +spirit of liberty and self-reliance.”<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Lord Harcourt, who +succeeded Townsend as viceroy, saw that Flood must be conciliated +at any price “rather than risk the opposition of so +formidable a leader.” Accordingly, in 1775, Flood was offered +and accepted a seat in the privy council and the office of vice-treasurer +with a salary of £3500 a year. For this step he has +been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly +in the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost +influence from the moment he became a minister of the crown, +Flood may reasonably have held that he had a better prospect +of advancing his policy by the leverage of a ministerial position +than by means of any opposition party he could hope to muster +in an unreformed House of Commons.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The result, however, +was that the leadership of the national party passed from Flood +to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same session +that Flood became a minister.</p> + +<p>Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this +long period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the +independence of the Irish parliament, and had to be content +with advocating minor reforms as occasion offered. He was +thus instrumental in obtaining bounties on the export of Irish +corn to foreign countries and some other trifling commercial +concessions. On the other hand he failed to procure the passing +of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges irremovable, +while his support of Lord North’s American policy +still more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But +an important event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to +some extent his former position in the country; this event was +the alliance of France with the revolted American colonies. +Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a French invasion, while +the English government could provide no troops to defend the +island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on +foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000 +men, disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by +the country gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism +of Lord Charlemont. This volunteer force, in which Flood was +a colonel, while vigilant for the defence of the island, soon +made itself felt in politics. A Volunteer Convention, formed +with all the regular organization of a representative assembly, +but wielding the power of an army, began menacingly to demand +the removal of the commercial restrictions which were destroying +Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government gave way; +the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland for +the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood, +who had taken an active though not a leading part in this movement, +now at last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He +found to his chagrin that his former services had been to a great +extent forgotten, and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When +in a debate on the constitutional question in 1779 Flood complained +of the small consideration shown him in relation to a +subject which he had been the first to agitate, he was reminded +that by the civil law “if a man should separate from his wife, +and abandon her for seven years, another might then take her +and give her his protection.” But though Flood had lost +control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament, +the agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +and by increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in +1782 to the concession of the demand, together with a number +of other important reforms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>).</p> + +<p>No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a +question arose—known as the Simple Repeal controversy—as +to whether England, in addition to the repeal of the Acts on +which the subordination of the Irish parliament had been based, +should not be required expressly to renounce for the future all +claim to control Irish legislation. The chief historical importance +of this dispute is that it led to the memorable rupture of friendship +between Flood and Grattan, each of whom assailed the other with +unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective in the House of +Commons. Flood’s view prevailed—for a Renunciation Act such +as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parliament +in 1783—and for a time he regained popularity at the +expense of his rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783) +introduced a reform bill, after first submitting it to the Volunteer +Convention. The bill, which contained no provision for giving +the franchise to Roman Catholics—a proposal which Flood +always opposed—was rejected, ostensibly on the ground that the +attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of parliament. +The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crown and the connexion +with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by +Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary +reform might be imputed to nothing but “a sober and laudable +desire to uphold the constitution ... and to perpetuate the +cordial union of both kingdoms.” The convention then dissolved, +though Flood had desired, in opposition to Grattan, to continue +it as a means of putting pressure on parliament for the purpose +of obtaining reform.</p> + +<p>In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House +of Commons. In 1783 he tried again, this time with success. +He purchased a seat for Winchester from the duke of Chandos, +and for the next seven years he was a member at the same time +of both the English and Irish parliaments. He reintroduced, +but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in 1784; +supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but +short-sightedly opposed Pitt’s commercial propositions in 1785. +He remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation, +even defending the penal laws on the ground that after the +Revolution they “were not laws of persecution but of political +necessity”; but after 1786 he does not appear to have attended +the parliament in Dublin. In the House at Westminster, where +he refused to enrol himself as a member of either political party, +he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition to Fox’s +India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the expectations +aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition +to the commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however, +most able; and in 1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox +declared to be the best scheme of reform that had yet been +proposed, and which in Burke’s opinion retrieved Flood’s reputation. +But at the dissolution in the same year he lost his seat in +both parliaments, and he then retired to Farmley, his residence +in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of December 1791.</p> + +<p>When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal +friendship with Grattan, declared that Flood was “perhaps the +ablest man Ireland ever produced, indisputably the ablest man +of his own times,” he expressed what was probably the general +opinion of Flood’s contemporaries. Lord Charlemont, who knew +him intimately though not always in agreement with his policy, +pronounced him to be “a man of consummate ability.” He also +declared that avarice made no part of Flood’s character. Lord +Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described +him as a pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested +flattery. Grattan, who even after the famous quarrel never lost +his respect for Flood, said of him that he was the best tempered and +the most sensible man in the world. In his youth he was genial, +frank, sociable and witty; but in later years disappointment +made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he was less polished, +less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner and a +greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition +often governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually +sound; and it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have +succeeded in carrying a reform bill which might have preserved +Irish parliamentary independence, if he had been supported by +Grattan and the rest of his party in keeping alive the Volunteer +Convention in 1783. Though he never wavered in loyalty to the +British crown and empire, Ireland never produced a more sincere +patriot than Henry Flood.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Warden Flood, <i>Memoirs of Henry Flood</i> (London, 1838); +Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H. +Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections +of Curran and some of his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822); <i>The Irish +Parliament 1775</i>, from an official and contemporary manuscript, +edited by William Hunt (London, 1907); W.J. O’Neill Daunt, +<i>Ireland and her Agitators</i>; Lord Mountmorres, <i>History of the Irish +Parliament</i> (2 vols., London, 1792); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of +England in the Eighteenth Century</i> (8 vols., London, 1878-1890); +and <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (enlarged edition, 2 vols., +London, 1903); J.A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland</i>, vols. ii. and iii. +(London, 1881); Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i> +(4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, <i>Rise and Fall +of the Irish Nation</i> (London, 1833); Francis Plowden, <i>Historical +Review of the State of Ireland</i> (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, <i>Compendium +of Irish Biography</i> (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, <i>Memoirs of +Lord Charlemont</i> (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer movement, +on which see also <i>Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of +Ireland 1784</i> (Anon. Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also <i>The Charlemont +Papers</i>, and <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>, (vols. i.-iv.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Walpole’s <i>George III.</i>, iv. 348.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> W.E.H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (enlarged +edition, 2 vols., 1903), i. 48.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Hardy’s <i>Life of Charlemont</i>, i. 356.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOOD<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>flód</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages, +cf. Ger. <i>Flut</i>, Dutch <i>vloed</i>, from the same root as is seen in “flow,” +“float”), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging +land, a deluge, hence “the flood,” specifically, the Noachian deluge +of Genesis, but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded +in the mythology of other nations than the Hebrew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge, +The</a></span>). In the sense of “flowing water,” the word is applied to +the inflow of the tide, as opposed to “ebb.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOOD PLAIN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> the term in physical geography for a plain +formed of sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down +which a river runs has become very slight, it is unable to carry +the sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source, +and consequently the lower portion of the river valley becomes +filled with alluvial deposits; and since in times of flood the rush +of water in the high regions tears off and carries down a greater +quantity of sediment than usual, the river spreads this also over +the lower valley where the plain is flooded, because the rush of +water is checked, and the stream in consequence drops its extra +load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent. That +of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m., +and its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood +plains may be the result of planation, with aggradation, that is, +they may be due to a graded river working in meanders from side +to side, widening its valley by this process and covering the +widened valley with sediment. Or the stream by cutting into +another stream (piracy), by cutting through a barrier near its +head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer rock, and by +glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling up +its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river’s +course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind +it, and indeed anything which checks a river’s course and causes +it to drop its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most +commonly found near the mouth of a large river, such as the +Rhine, the Nile, or the Mississippi, where there are occasional +floods and the river usually carries a large amount of sediment. +“Levees” are formed, inside which the river usually flows, +gradually raising its bed above the surrounding plain. Occasional +breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to spread in +a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt covers +the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain +made by the United States geological survey show a great variety +of material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured +at one place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying +swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel, +sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any +section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar +character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by +meandering, or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span> +marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered +with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is +entirely diverted owing to any cause, the flood plain may become +a level area of great fertility, similar in appearance to the floor of +an old lake. The flood plain differs, however, inasmuch as it is +not altogether flat. It has a gentle slope down-stream, and often +for a distance from the sides towards the centre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOOR<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>flor</i>, a word common to many Teutonic +languages, cf. Dutch <i>vloer</i>, and Ger. <i>Flur</i>, a field, in the feminine, +and a floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of +a room, but specially employed for one covered with boarding +or parquetry. The various levels of rooms in a house are designated +as “ground-floor,” “first-floor,” “mezzanine-floor,” &c. +The principal floor is the storey which contains the chief apartments +whether on the ground- or first-floor; in Italy they are +always on the latter and known as the “piano nobile.” The +storey below the ground-floor is called the “basement-floor,” +even if only a little below the level of the pavement outside; the +storey in a roof is known as the “attic-floor.” The expressions +one pair, two pair, &c., apply to the storeys above the first +flight of stairs from the ground (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpentry</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOORCLOTH,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a rough flannel cloth used for domestic +cleaning; also a generic term applied to a variety of materials +used in place of carpets for covering floors, and known by such +trade names as kamptulicon, oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork-carpet, +&c. Kamptulicon (<span class="grk" title="kamptos">καμπτός</span>, flexible, <span class="grk" title="oulos">οὐλος</span>, thick) was +patented in 1844 by E. Galloway, but did not attract much +attention till about 1862. It was essentially a preparation of +india-rubber masticated up with ground cork, and rolled out +into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers, sometimes +over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has +given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose. +Oil-cloth is a coarse canvas which has received a number of +coats of thick oil paint, each coat being rubbed smooth with +pumice stone before the application of the next. Its surface +is ornamented with patterns printed in oil colours by means of +wooden blocks. Linoleum (<i>linum</i>, flax, <i>oleum</i>, oil), patented by +F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized linseed oil and +ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated with +the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of +pigments such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed +on to a rough canvas backing between steam-heated rollers. +Patterns may be printed on its surface with oil paint, or by an +improved method may be inlaid with coloured composition +so that the colours are continuous through the thickness of the +linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and thus do not disappear +with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material to linoleum, +also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is stamped +out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1828-1896), French statesman, +was born at St Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses-Pyrénées) on +the 2nd of October 1828. He studied law in Paris, and was +called to the bar in 1851. The <i>coup d’état</i> of that year aroused +the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who had, while yet a student, +given proof of his republican sympathies by taking part in the +fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant and fearless +attacks on the government in a series of political trials, and at +the same time contributed to the <i>Temps</i> and other influential +journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de +Justice in 1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with +the cry “Vive la Pologne, monsieur!” He delivered a scathing +indictment of the Empire at the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for +killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took a part in the revolution +of the 4th of September, as well as in the subsequent defence +of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly +by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed +the <i>Ligue d’union républicaine des droits de Paris</i> to attempt a +reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his +efforts failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers, +but soon released. He became editor of the <i>République Française</i>, +was chosen president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was +elected deputy for the eleventh arrondissement. He took a +prominent place among the extreme radicals, and became +president of the group of the “Union républicaine.” In 1882 +he held for a short time the post of prefect of the Seine. In +1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber. +This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality +that he was re-elected the two following years. Having +approached the Russian ambassador in such a way as to remove +the prejudice existing against him in Russia since the incident +of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for office; and on the fall +of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became president of the council +and minister of the interior in a radical ministry, which pledged +itself to the revision of the constitution, but was forced to combat +the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates in the +chamber culminated on the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet +and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following +February the government fell on the question of revision, and +in the new chamber of November Floquet was re-elected to +the presidential chair. The Panama scandals, in which he was +compelled to admit his implication, dealt a fatal blow to his +career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892, and his +seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the senate. +He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1896.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet</i>, edited by Albert +Faivre (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOR, ROGER DI,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a military adventurer of the 13th-14th +century, was the second son of a falconer in the service of the +emperor Frederick II., who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when +eight years old was sent to sea in a galley belonging to the +Knights Templars. He entered the order and became commander +of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in +1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and +an apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa, +where he began to play the pirate. The struggle between the +kings of Aragon and the French kings of Naples for the possession +of Sicily was at this time going on; and Roger entered the +service of Frederick, king of Sicily, who gave him the rank of +vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302, as Frederick was +anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops (called +<i>Almúgavares</i>), whom he had no longer the means of paying, +Roger induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures +in the East, in fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging +the empire. The emperor Andronicus II. accepted his offer of +service; and in September 1303 Roger with his fleet and army +arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted into the imperial +family, was married to a grand-daughter of the emperor, and +was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and +the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and +bloody quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after +some successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter +quarters at Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field, +and rendered the important service of relieving Philadelphia, +then invested and reduced to extremities by the Turks. But +Roger, bent on advancing his own interests rather than those +of the emperor, determined to found in the East a principality +for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but the people +slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed the +siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was +compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his +troops in Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople +to demand pay for the <i>Almúgavares</i>. Dissatisfied with the small +sum granted by the emperor, he plundered the country and +carried on intrigues both with and against the emperor, receiving +reinforcements all the while from all parts of southern Europe. +Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly afterwards the young +emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack the fierce +and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to +Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the +massacre of his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was +avenged by his men in a fierce and prolonged war against the +Greeks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Moncada, <i>Expedicion de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contre +Turcos y Griegos</i> (Paris, 1840).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORA,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and +flowers, later identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival +at Rome, the Floralia, instituted 238 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by order of the +Sibylline books and at first held irregularly, became annual +after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May 3), the first day being +the anniversary of the foundation of her temple. It included +theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and +vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings +were characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness. +According to the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus +Tatius, and her priest, the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art +Flora was represented as a beautiful maiden, bedecked with +flowers (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, v. 183 ff.; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, ii. 49).</p> + +<p>The term “flora” is used in botany collectively for the plant-growth +of a district; similarly “fauna” is used collectively +for the animals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a 13th-century romance. +This tale, generally supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the +passionate devotion of two children, and their success in overcoming +all the obstacles put in the way of their love. The +romance appears in differing versions in French, English, German, +Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and Hungarian. +The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E. +Hausknecht’s version of the 13th-century Middle English poem +of “Floris and Blauncheflur” (<i>Samml. eng. Denkmäler</i>, vol. v. +Berlin, 1885). Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of +the story, but France was in the 12th and 13th centuries the +chief market of romance, and the French version of the tale, +<i>Floire et Blanchefleur</i>, is the most widespread. Floire, the son +of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in constant companionship +with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian slave of +noble birth. Floire’s parents, hoping to destroy this attachment, +send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to foreign +slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is +told that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill +himself, his parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the +tower of the maidens destined for the harem of the emir of +Babylon, into which he penetrates concealed in a basket of +flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their constancy touches +the hearts of their judges. They are married, and Floire returns +to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt Christianity. +Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Édélestand du +Méril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few +additions, the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the +usual battles, single combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes +of the story are printed by Paulin Paris in his <i>Romancero +français</i> (Paris, 1883). The English poem renders the French +version without amplifications, such as are found in other +adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original, +and less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms +of the story must be noted the prose romance (<i>c.</i> 1340) of +Boccaccio, <i>Il Filocolo</i>, and the 14th-century <i>Leggenda della +reina Rosana e di Rosana sua figliuola</i> (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The +similarity between the story of Floire and Blanchefleur and +<i>Chante-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete</i><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> has been repeatedly pointed +out, and they have even been credited with a common +source.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht +(Berlin, 1885); also H. Sundmacher, <i>Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche +Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur</i> (Göttingen, 1872); +H. Herzog, <i>Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur</i> (Vienna, +1884); <i>Zeitschrift für deut. Altertum</i> (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish +version; the Scandinavian <i>Flores Saga ok Blankiflùr</i>, ed. E. Kölbing +(Halle, 1896); the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, <i>Flore und +Blanscheflur</i>, ed. E. Sommer (Leipzig, 1846); the Swedish by G.E. +Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited +by Hartschorne (<i>English Metrical Tales</i>, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford +Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited +G.H. McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (<i>Floire et Blanchefleur</i>, Paris, +1906) suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as +told by Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily +imply a connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with +small alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the +book of Esther.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French +by G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bédier (Tours, 1901); English +by Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and +by Laurence Housman (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1831-1891), American +actor, of Irish descent, whose real name was Bernard Conlin, +was born on the 26th of July 1831 at Albany, N.Y., and first +attracted attention as an actor at Brougham’s Lyceum in 1851. +Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (<i>d</i>. 1906), in +association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won all +his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf’s <i>The Mighty Dollar</i>, +said to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856 +they had a successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of +the first American actresses to appear on the English stage. +In 1889 Florence entered into partnership with Joseph Jefferson, +playing Sir Lucius O’Trigger to his Bob Acres and Mrs John +Drew’s Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. His last +appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891, +as Ezekiel Homespun in <i>The Heir-at-law</i>, and he died on the 18th +of November in Philadelphia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE OF WORCESTER<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (d. 1118), English chronicler, +was a monk of Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator, +on the 7th of July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is +known of his life. He compiled a chronicle called <i>Chronicon +ex chronicis</i> which begins with the creation and ends in 1117. +The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by Marianus +Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards at +Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up +to 1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version +of the English Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth +comparing with the extant English Chronicles; and from 1106 +he is an independent annalist, dry but accurate. Either Florence +or a later editor of his work made considerable borrowings from +the first four books of Eadmer’s <i>Historia novorum</i>. Florence’s +work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of Worcester, +who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years +of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to +Stephen, but not an indiscriminate partisan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William +Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc., +2 vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe’s text of John’s continuation needs +revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an +ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology +of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John +Taxter (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St +Edmunds. Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J. +Stevenson in his <i>Church Historians of England</i>, vol. ii. pt. i. (London, +1853); T. Forester’s translation in Bohn’s <i>Antiquarian Library</i> +(London, 1854) gives the work of Taxter also.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama, +U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of +Muscle Shoals Canal, and about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) 6478 (1952 negroes); (1910) +6689. It is served by the Southern, the Northern Alabama +(controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville & Nashville +railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia, +and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated +in the fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on +the edge of the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has +various manufactures, including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons, +stoves, fertilizers, staves and mercantile supplies. At Florence +are the state Normal College, the Florence University for +Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for negroes; founded +in 1903 by the American Missionary Association). Florence +was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president +of the United States, and ex-president James Madison being +among the early property holders. For several years Florence +and Nashville, Tennessee, were commercial rivals, being situated +respectively at the head of navigation on the Tennessee and +Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of Alabama by Federal +troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the Tennessee +to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April +1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels +were repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +of May following, Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed +cotton mills and public and private property; but they were +driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy (1820-1897). On the +11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but the +Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was +chartered as a city in 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Firenze</i>, Lat. <i>Florentia</i>), formerly the capital +of Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of +Italy, and the sixth largest city in the country. It is situated +43° 46′ N., 11° 14′ E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at +this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between +spurs of the Apennines. The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and +occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of the commune, 16½ sq. m.). +The geological formation of the soil belongs to the Quaternary +and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the Eocene and +Cretaceous in the lower. <i>Pietra forte</i> of the Cretaceous period +is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for +centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. <i>Pietra serena</i> +or <i>macigno</i>, a stone of a firm texture also used for building +purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil +is very fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of +many kinds cover both the plain and the surrounding hills; +the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress, +the ilex and the poplar, while many other varieties are represented. +The gardens and fields produce an abundance of +flowers, which justify the city’s title of <i>la città dei fiori</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Sanitary Conditions.</i>—The climate of Florence +is very variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high +winds from the north in winter to great heat in the summer, +while in spring-time sudden and rapid changes of temperature +are frequent. At the same time the climate is usually very +agreeable from the end of February to the beginning of July, +and from the end of September to the middle of November. +The average temperature throughout the year is about 57° +Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8°, and the minimum +36.5°, sometimes sinking to 21°. The longest day is 15 hours and +33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average +rainfall is about 37½ inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and +children’s diseases mild; cholera has visited Florence several +times, but the city has been free from it for many years. +Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe +epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare intervals +and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis, +measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses. +The drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water +brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good, +and the general sanitary conditions are satisfactory.</p> + +<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>—Of the very numerous Florentine churches +the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most +important, founded in 1298 on the plans of Arnolfo +di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and consecrated +<span class="sidenote">Churches.</span> +in 1436; the façade, however, was not finished until the 19th +century—it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and +unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous +Campanile built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with +exquisite bas-reliefs. Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo +di Cambio in the 13th century on the site of an earlier church, +and adorned with beautiful bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th +century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are +a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence. +The existence of these works of art attracts students from all +countries, and a German art school subsidized by the imperial +government has been instituted.</p> + +<p>The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their +splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the +residences of the noble families of Florence. Among others we +may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government +of the Republic and now the town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, +the residence of the Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of +the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of +Florentine <i>quattrocento</i> architecture), Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti +(the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della Lana or +gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is +the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence, +which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, +was pulled down in 1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care +was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic +and artistic value which might have been spared without impairing +the work of sanitation, while the new structures erected +in their place, especially those in the <span class="correction" title="amended from Piaza">Piazza</span> Vittorio Emanuele, +are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with +Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics +at the time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was +built, a society called the <i>Società per la difesa di Firenze antica</i> +was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient +buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of +intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this connexion. +The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters +have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the +older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic +feeling. The <i>viali</i> or boulevards form pleasant residential streets +with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for +each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming +more and more general.</p> + +<p>Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number +of smaller collections. The <i>Biblioteca Nazionale</i>, originally +founded by Antonio Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the +right, shared by the <i>Vittorio Emanuele</i> library of +<span class="sidenote">Libraries.</span> +Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since +1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with regard +to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed +volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings +(including 284 by Albert Dürer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000 +letters. The number of readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately, +however, the confusion engendered by a defective +organization has long been a byword among the people; there +is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in packing-cases +and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very poor, +hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself +is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new +one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, +so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to +more suitable quarters. The <i>Biblioteca Marucelliana</i>, founded in +1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 incunabula, 17,000 +engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly +remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publications. +The <i>Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana</i>, founded in 1571, +has its origin in the library of Cosimo de’ Medici the Elder, and +was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the +Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it +with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of +which was the collection of <i>editiones principes</i> given by Count d’Elci, +in 1841, and the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by +the Italian Government in 1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS., +including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a +number of valuable Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and +11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with palaeography; it is +in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries. +The <i>Biblioteca Riccardiana</i>, founded in the 16th century by +Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books +and 650 incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The +state archives are among the most complete in Italy, and contain +over 450,000 <i>filze</i> and <i>registri</i> and 126,000 charters, covering the +period from 726 to 1856.</p> + +<p>Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of +artistic and historic interest, although the great majority of +them belong to a comparatively limited period—from +the 13th to the 16th century. The chief art galleries +<span class="sidenote">Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums.</span> +are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two +former are among the finest in the world, and are +filled with masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino, +Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine, +Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous +admirable examples of antique, medieval and Renaissance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +sculpture. The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly +the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine new stairway +and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence. +In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological +order. In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan +masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special +mention. Other pictures are scattered about in the churches, +monasteries and private palaces. Of the monasteries, that of +St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of +Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the private +collections the only one of importance is that of Prince Corsini. +There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance +antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podestà, +itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many +treasures are works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other +sculptors, and large collections of ivory, enamel and bronze +ware. The Opera del Duomo contains models and pieces of +sculpture connected with the cathedral; the Etruscan and +Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the Michelangelo +museum, the museum of natural history and other collections +are all important in different ways.</p> + +<p>The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners +and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363; +it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in +Florence (1865-1872), but decreased or increased very +<span class="sidenote">Population.</span> +slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and +increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the +rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration, +as the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903, +since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a +decrease of the latter.</p> + +<p>Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the +central government is represented by a prefect (<i>prefetto</i>), while +<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span> +local government is carried on by a mayor (<i>sindaco</i>) +and an elective town council (<i>consiglio comunale</i>). +The city is the seat of a court of cassation (for civil +cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor tribunals. It is +the headquarters of an army corps, and an archiepiscopal see.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls +(education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 +pupils, and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary +education is provided by one higher and four lower +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +technical schools with 1375 pupils, three <i>ginnasii</i> or lower classical +schools, and three <i>licei</i> or higher classical schools, with 1000 +pupils, and three training colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher +education is imparted at the university (<i>Istituto di studii superiori +e di perfezionamento</i>), with 600 to 650 students; although only +comprising the faculties of literature, medicine and natural science, +it is, as regards the first-named faculty, one of the most +important institutions in Italy. The original <i>Studio Fiorentino</i> +was founded in the 14th century, and acquired considerable fame +as a centre of learning under the Medici, enhanced by the presence in +Florence of many learned Greeks who had fled from Constantinople +after its capture by the Turks (1453). Although in 1472 some of the +faculties and several of the professors were transferred to Pisa, it +still retained importance, and in the 17th and 18th centuries it +originated a number of learned academies. In 1859 after the annexation +of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was revived and reorganized; +since then it has become to some extent a national centre of learning +and culture, attracting students from other parts of Italy, partly on +account of the fact that it is in Florence that the purest Italian is +spoken. The revival of classical studies on scientific principles in +modern Italy may be said to have begun in Florence, and great +activity has also been displayed in reviving the study of Dante; +Dante lectures being given regularly by scholars and men of letters +from all parts of the country, above the church of Or San Michele +as in the middle ages, under the auspices of the <i>Società Dantesca</i>. +Palaeography, history and Romance languages are among the other +subjects to which especial importance is given. Besides the <i>Istituto di +studii superiori</i> there is the <i>Istituto di scienze sociali</i> “<i>Cesare Alfieri</i>,” +founded by the marchese Alfieri di Sostegno for the education of +aspirants to the diplomatic and consular services, and for students +of economics and social sciences (about 50 students); an academy +of fine arts, a conservatoire of music, a higher female training-college +with 150 students, a number of professional and trade schools, and +an academy of recitation. There are also many academies and learned +societies of different kinds, of which one of the most important is the +<i>Accademia della Crusca</i> for the study of the Italian language, which +undertook the publication of a monumental dictionary.</p> + +<p>Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most +important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco +Portinari, the father of Dante’s Beatrice, has been +thoroughly renovated according to modern scientific +<span class="sidenote">Charities, etc.</span> +principles. There are numerous other hospitals both +general and special, a foundling hospital dating from the 13th century +(Santa Maria degli Innocenti), an institute for the blind, one for the +deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the hospitals and other charitable +institutions are endowed, but the endowments are supplemented by +private contributions.</p> + +<p>Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district, +and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies +the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There +are no important industries, except a few flour-mills, some +<span class="sidenote">Commerce and Industry.</span> +glass works, iron foundries, a motor car factory, straw +hat factories, and power-houses supplying electricity for +lighting and for the numerous tramcars. There are, however, some +artistic industries in and around the city, of which the most important +is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and the Cantagalli majolica +works. There are many other smaller establishments, and the +Florentine artificer seems to possess an exceptional skill in all kinds +of work in which art is combined with technical ability. Another +very important source of revenue is the so-called “tourist industry,” +which in late years has assumed immense proportions; the city +contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses which every +year are filled to overflowing with strangers from all parts of the +world.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae +(Fiesole), which lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name +indicates, it was built only in Roman times and probably in +connexion with the construction by C. Flaminius in 187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later on formed part +of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river +Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to +have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, +and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15 (by which period it seems to have been already +a colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting part of +the waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chiana</a></span>). Tacitus +mentions it, and Florus describes it as one of the <i>municipia +splendidissima</i>. A bishop of Florence is mentioned in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 313. +A group of Italic cremation tombs <i>a pozzo</i> of the Villanova +period were found under the pavement of the medieval Vicolo +del Campidoglio. This took its name from the <i>Capitolium</i> of +Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza +Luna; the three <i>cellae</i> were clearly traceable. The capitals +of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it +became clear that this temple had supplied building materials +for S. Giovanni and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal +altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found. Remains +of baths have been found close by, while the ancient amphitheatre +has been found near S. Croce outside the Roman town, +which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four +gates, the <i>Decumanus</i> being represented by the Via Strozzi and +Via del Corso, and the <i>Cardo</i> by the Via Calcinara, while the +Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the Forum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L.A. Milani, “Reliquie di Firenze antica,” in <i>Monumenti dei +Lincei</i>, vi. (1896), 5 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<p>The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city +by the Goths, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general +Stilicho. Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by +the imperial garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied +by the Goths. We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and +mention is made of one <i>Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum</i>, +which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of +the regular divisions of the Longobard empire). Charlemagne +was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city, +which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation +on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the +agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the +head of the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, +of the monastery of San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro +Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances +and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the +triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk Petrus Igneus, champion +of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the +beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or +margraviate, and the marquises became so powerful as to be +even a danger to the Empire. Under the emperor Otto I. one +Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor Conrad II. (elected +in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of Tuscany, +a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the +Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year +<span class="sidenote">The countess Matilda.<br />Guelphs and Ghibellines.</span> +the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous +countess Matilda, who ruled for forty years and played +a prominent part in the history of Italy in that period. +In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on +the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor +and the faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and +she herself often led armies to battle. It is at this +time that the people of Florence first began to acquire +influence, and while the countess presided at the courts +of justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group +of great feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as +elsewhere in Tuscany, the <i>boni homines</i> or <i>sapientes</i>. As the +countess was frequently absent these <i>boni homines</i> gave judgment +without her, thus paving the way for a free commune. The +citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility of the +hills around the city, Teutonic feudatories of Ghibelline +sympathies, who interfered with their commerce. Florence +frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities +on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and +the citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations +which were the germs of the <i>arti</i> or gilds. After the death of +<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the commune.</span> +Countess Matilda in 1115 the <i>grandi</i> or <i>boni homines</i> +continued to rule and administer justice, but in the +name of the people—a change hardly noticed at first, +but which marks the foundation of the commune. +After 1138 the <i>boni homines</i> began to be called <i>consules</i>, while +the population was divided into the <i>grandi</i> or <i>delle torri</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the +noble families who had towers, and the <i>arti</i> or trade and merchant +gilds. At first the <i>consules</i>, of whom there seem to have been +twelve, two for each <i>sestiere</i> or ward, were chosen by the men +of the towers, and assisted by a council of 100 <i>boni homines</i>, in +which the <i>arti</i> were predominant; the government thus came to +be in the hands of a few powerful families. The republic now +proceeded to extend its power. In 1125 Fiesole was sacked and +destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the <i>contado</i> (surrounding +country), protected by the imperial margraves, were still powerful. +The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage +war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed. +The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit +to his authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their +former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the +powerful counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected +emperor in 1152, made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed +one Welf of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other +cities were forced to supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard +campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial +bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a <i>potestas</i>, who resided at +San Miniato (whence the name of “San Miniato al Tedesco”), +to represent him and exercise authority in the <i>contado</i>; this +double authority of the <i>consoli</i> in the town and the <i>potestas</i> or +<i>podestà</i> outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines +were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of +<span class="sidenote">War with the nobles.</span> +Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within +the city broke out between the <i>consoli</i> and the greater +nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened by +the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their +castles and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, +though not victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted +to the consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief +cities of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the +Alberti whose castle of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later +<span class="sidenote">The potestas.</span> +we find a <i>potestas</i> within the city, elected for a year +and assisted by seven councillors and seven <i>rectores +super capitibus artium</i>. This represented the triumph +of the feudal party, which had gained the support of the <i>arti +minori</i> or minor gilds. The <i>potestates</i> subsequently were +foreigners, and in 1207 the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto +of Milan; a new council was formed, the <i>consiglio del comune</i>, +while the older senate still survived. The Florentines now +undertook to open the highways of commerce towards Rome, +for their city was already an important industrial and banking +centre.</p> + +<p>Discord among the great families broke out again, and the +attempt to put an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte +de’ Buondelmonti and a daughter of the Amidei, only led to +further strife (1215), although the causes of these broils were +deeper and wider, being derived from the general division between +Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of crushing +the nobles of the <i>contado</i> and of asserting the city’s position +among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war +successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next +few years against the Sienese with varying results; although +the emperor supported the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure +for Germany in 1235 they were forced to accept peace on onerous +terms. During the interregnum (1241-1243) following on the +death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline cause revived in Tuscany +and imperial authority was re-established. The tumults against +the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many +Ghibelline nobles favoured by the <i>podestà</i> Pace di Pesamigola, +indicate a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., +having defeated his enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two +Sicilies, appointed his natural son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial +vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil war broke out, entered the +city with 1600 German knights. The Ghibellines now triumphed +completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders were driven into +exile—the first of many instances in Florentine history of exile +<i>en masse</i> of a defeated party. The attempt to seize Montevarchi +and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated +failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six <i>caporali di +popolo</i>, who formed the basis of the <i>primo popolo</i> or body of +citizens independent of the nobles, headed by the <i>capitano +del popolo</i>. The Ghibellines being unable to maintain their +<span class="sidenote">Comune and popolo.</span> +supremacy, the city came to be divided into two +almost autonomous republics, the <i>comune</i> headed by +the <i>podestà</i>, and the <i>popolo</i> headed by the <i>capitano</i> and +militarily organized into twenty companies; the central +power was represented by twelve <i>anziani</i> or elders. The <i>podestà</i>, +who was always a foreigner, usually commanded the army, represented +the city before foreign powers, and signed treaties. He +was assisted by the <i>consiglio speciale</i> of 90 and the <i>consiglio +generale e speciale</i> of 300, composed of nobles, while the <i>capitano +del popolo</i> had also two councils composed of burghers, heads of +the gilds, <i>gonfalonieri</i> of the companies, &c. The <i>anziani</i> had a +council of 36 burghers, and then there was the <i>parlamento</i> or +general assembly of the people, which met only on great +occasions. At this time the <i>podestà’s</i> palace (the Bargello) was +built, and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be +accepted as the standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, +although greatly strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be +called the democrats as opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, +were by no means wholly victorious, and in 1251 they had to +defend themselves against a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena, +Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine Ghibellines; the +Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after their +plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in +its hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession +of Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines +declared war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs +of other towns was cunningly induced to believe that Siena +would surrender at the first summons; but it was met by a +Sienese army reinforced by Florentine exiles, including Farinata +degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by the cavalry of Manfred +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Montaperti (1260).</span> +(<i>q.v.</i>) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the count +of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were +totally routed at Montaperti on the 4th of September +1260. Count Giordano entered Florence, appointed +Count Guido Novello <i>podestà</i>, and began a series of persecutions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> +against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze the +walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the +idea, saying that “he had fought to regain and not to ruin his +fatherland.”</p> + +<p>During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the +old liberties were abolished, and the <i>popolo</i> was deprived of all +share in the administration. But when Charles I. +(<i>q.v.</i>) of Anjou descended into Italy as champion of +<span class="sidenote">New constitution.</span> +the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed +(1266), the <i>popolo</i>, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, +was ready to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and +the Ghibellines were expelled, but it was not the <i>popolo</i> who +triumphed; the pope and Charles were the real masters of the +situation, and the Florentines found they had exchanged a +foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who was foreign and +Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored; +the <i>podestà</i> who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 +<i>buoni uomini</i>, and by the council of the 100 <i>buoni uomini del +popolo</i>, “without the deliberation of whom,” says Villani, “no +great matter nor expenditure could be undertaken.” Other +bodies and magistrates were maintained, and the <i>capitano del +popolo</i>, now called <i>capitano della massa di parte Guelfa</i>, tended +to become a very important person. The property of the +Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six <i>capitani +di parte Guelfa</i> appointed to administer it and in general to +expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole +constitution of the republic, although of very democratic +tendencies, seemed designed to promote civil strife and weaken +the central power.</p> + +<p>While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed +to argue small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, +the people had built up a wonderful commercial +organization. Each of the seven <i>arti maggiori</i> or +<span class="sidenote">Florentine trade and the gilds.</span> +greater gilds was organized like a small state with its +councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and +in times of trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine +cloth especially was known and sold all over Europe, and the +Florentines were regarded as the first merchants of the age. +If the life of the city went on uninterruptedly even during the +many changes of government and the almost endemic civil war, +it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who could carry on the +administration without a government.</p> + +<p>After Charles’s victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines +defeated the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan +territory. As Charles perpetually interfered in their +affairs, always favouring the <i>grandi</i> or Guelph nobles, +<span class="sidenote">Cardinal Latino.</span> +some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a counterpoise, +which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph of +Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come +to terms with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 +to give up his title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had +held during the interregnum following on the death of Frederick +II. In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher +Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal +bishop of Ostia the same year, to reconcile the parties in Florence +once more. Cardinal Latino to some extent succeeded, and was +granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He raised the 12 +<i>buoni uomini</i> to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be changed +every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. +A force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the <i>podestà</i> +and <i>capitano</i> (now both elected by the people) to keep order and +oblige the <i>grandi</i> to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (<i>q.v.</i>) +by weakening Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed +at complete independence of emperors, kings and popes. After +1282 the <i>signoria</i> was composed of the 3 (afterwards 6) <i>priori</i> +of the gilds, who ended by ousting the <i>buoni uomini</i>, while a +<i>defensor artificum et artium</i> takes the place of the <i>capitano</i>; +thus the republic became an essentially trading community, +governed by the <i>popolani grassi</i> or rich merchants.</p> + +<p>The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power +of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini +were completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a +battle made famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. +War against the Pisans, who had been defeated by the Genoese +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Campaldino (1289).</span> +in the naval battle of La Meloria in 1284, was +carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was +made. But the <i>grandi</i>, who had largely contributed +to the victory of Campaldino, especially men like Corso +Donati and Vieri de’ Cerchi, were becoming more powerful, and +Charles had increased their number by creating a great many +knights; but their attempts to interfere with the administration +of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were passed to +reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the abolition +of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in +the number of <i>arti</i>, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 <i>maggiori</i> and 14 +<i>minori</i>) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for +the Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing +power and arrogance of the <i>grandi</i>, who in spite of their exclusion +from many offices were still influential and constituted independent +clans within the state. The law obliged each member +of the clan (<i>consorteria</i>) to <i>sodare</i> for all the other members, <i>i.e.</i> +to give a pecuniary guarantee to ensure payment of fines for +offences committed by any one of their number, a provision +made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted collectively. +But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe ones +<span class="sidenote">Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).</span> +were enacted. These were the famous <i>Ordinamenti +della Giustizia</i> of 1293, by which all who were not of +the <i>arti</i> were definitely excluded from the signory. +The <i>priori</i> were to remain in office two months and +elected the <i>gonfaloniere</i>, also for two months; there were the +<i>capitudini</i> or councils of the gilds, and two <i>savi</i> for each <i>sestiere</i>, +with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the <i>grandi</i> +families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters concerning +the <i>Ordinamenti</i> was delivered in a summary fashion +without appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano +della Bella, a noble who by engaging in trade had become a +<i>popolano</i>; the <i>grandi</i> now tried to make him unpopular with the +<i>popolani grassi</i>, hoping that without him the <i>Ordinamenti</i> would +not be executed, and opened negotiations with Pope Boniface +VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his authority in +Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he +was driven into exile in 1295. The <i>grandi</i> regained some of their +power by corrupting the <i>podestà</i> and by the favour of the <i>popolo +minuto</i> or unorganized populace; but their quarrels among +themselves prevented them from completely succeeding, while +the <i>arti</i> were solid.</p> + +<p>In 1295 a signory favourable to the <i>grandi</i> enacted a law +attenuating the <i>Ordinamenti</i>, but now the <i>grandi</i> split into two +factions, one headed by the Donati, which hoped to +abolish the <i>Ordinamenti</i>, and the other by the Cerchi, +<span class="sidenote">The Bianchi and the Neri.</span> +which had given up all hope of their abolition; afterwards +these parties came to be called <i>Neri</i> (Blacks) +and <i>Bianchi</i> (Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their +influence over Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having +been discovered (May 1300), serious riots broke out between the +Neri and the Bianchi. The pope’s attempt to unite the <i>grandi</i> +having failed, he summoned Charles of Valois to come to his +assistance, promising him the imperial crown; in 1301 Charles +entered Italy, and was created by the pope <i>paciaro</i> or peacemaker +of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and +the <i>popolo</i> and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles +reached Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted +Corso Donati and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new +<i>podestà</i>, Cante dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, +punished many of that faction; among those whom he exiled +was the poet Dante (1302). Corso Donati, who for some time +was the most powerful man in Florence, made himself many +enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the <i>popolo +grasso</i>, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in which +he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg +was elected king of the Romans and with the pope’s favour he +came to Italy in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines +of Italy regarded him as a saviour and regenerator of the +country, while the Guelphs of Florence on the contrary opposed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +both him and the pope as dangerous to their own liberties and +accepted the protection of King Robert of Naples, disregarding +Henry’s summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was crowned +emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal +ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances +into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate +free Italian communes. He besieged Florence without success, +and died of disease in 1313.</p> + +<p>The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that +Henry was dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della +Fagginola, imperial vicar in Genoa. A brave general +and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca and defeated +<span class="sidenote">Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.</span> +the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini +in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa +and Lucca and had to fly from Tuscany. A new danger +now threatened Florence in the person of Castruccio +Castracani degli Antelminelli (<i>q.v.</i>), who made himself +lord of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of +Milan, and other Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and +1323 he harried the Florentines and defeated them several times, +captured Pistoia, devastated their territory up to the walls of +the city in spite of assistance from Naples under Raymundo +de Cardona and the duke of Calabria (King Robert’s son); +never before had Florence been so humiliated, but while +Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he died in 1328. +Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been appointed +protector of the city in 1325, died, and further constitutional +reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by the +<i>consiglio del popolo</i>, consisting of 300 <i>popolani</i> and presided over +by the <i>capitano</i>, and the <i>consiglio del comune</i> of 250 members, +half of them nobles and half <i>popolani</i>, presided over by the +<i>podestà</i>. The <i>priori</i> and other officers were drawn by lot from +among the Guelphs over thirty years old who were declared fit +for public office by a special board of 98 citizens (1329). The +system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in, and many +persons were unjustly excluded from office; trouble being +expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was created. But the +first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, used his +dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of +office no successor was chosen.</p> + +<p>The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they +might have acquired the city immediately after Castruccio’s +death for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so owing to +differences of opinion in the signory; Martino della +<span class="sidenote">Attempt to capture Lucca.</span> +Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in 1335, but +broke his word, and although their finances were not +then very flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make +war on him. They were successful at first, but Venice made a +truce with the Scala independently of the Florentines, and by +the peace of 1339 they only obtained a part of Lucchese territory. +At the same time they purchased from the Tarlati the protectorate +over Arezzo for ten years. But misfortunes fell on the city: +Edward III. of England repudiated the heavy debts contracted +for his wars in France with the Florentine banking houses of +Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to their failure +and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine credit +all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums +from the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions +by accusing them of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought +terrible havoc in Florence, and riots again broke out between the +<i>grandi</i> and the <i>popolo</i>, partly on account of the late unsuccessful +wars and the unsatisfactory state of the finances. To put an +<span class="sidenote">The duke of Athens (1342-43).</span> +end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke of +Athens, was elected “conservator” and captain of +the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute and ambitious +man, half French and half Levantine, he began his +government by a policy of conciliation and impartial justice +which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought +the ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed +by the populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of +September was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. +The <i>podestà</i> and the <i>capitano</i> assenting to this treachery, he +dismissed the <i>gonfaloniere</i>, reduced the <i>priori</i> to a position of +impotence, disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted +the lordship of Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and +Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, +who behaved with the greatest licence and brutality; by his +oppressive taxes, and his ferocious cruelty towards all who +opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he concluded with +Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The +<i>grandi</i> were disappointed because he had not crushed the +<i>popolo</i>, and the latter because he had destroyed their liberties +and interfered with the organization of the <i>arti</i>. Many unsuccessful +plots against him were hatched, and having discovered one +that was conducted by Antonio degli Adimari, the duke summoned +the latter to the palace and detained him a prisoner. He also +summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of wishing to +consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On +the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the +duke’s abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came +to the Florentines from neighbouring cities, the <i>podestà</i> was expelled, +and a <i>balìa</i> or provisional government of 14 was elected. +The duke was forced to set Adimari and his other prisoners free, +and several of his men-at-arms were killed by the populace; +three of his chief henchmen, whom he was obliged to surrender, +were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the 1st of August he +had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence under a +strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all +his enactments.</p> + +<p>The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several +measures to humble the <i>grandi</i> still further, while the <i>popolo +minuto</i> or artisans began to show signs of discontent +at the rule of the merchants, and the populace destroyed +<span class="sidenote">New constitution.</span> +the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was +restored a <i>balìa</i> was appointed to reform the government, in +which task it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian +ambassadors and by Simone da Battifolle. The <i>priori</i> were +reduced to 8 (2 <i>popolani grassi</i>, 3 <i>mediani</i> and 3 <i>artifici minuti</i>), +while the <i>gonfaloniere</i> was to be chosen in turn from each of those +classes; the <i>grandi</i> were excluded from the administration, but +they were still admitted to the <i>consiglio del comune</i>, the <i>cinque +di mercanzia</i>, and other offices pertaining to the commune; the +<i>Ordinamenti</i> were maintained but in a somewhat attenuated +form, and certain <i>grandi</i> as a favour were declared to be of the +<i>popolo</i>. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial +republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by +commercial considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an +ambition to gain secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism +was the outcome of its determination to secure the bank-business +of the papacy; and its desire to extend its territory in Tuscany +to the necessity for keeping open the land trade routes. +Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the walls of the +city, for no one of the <i>contado</i> nor any citizen of the subject +towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the inhabitants +of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.</p> + +<p>Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 +inhabitants, of whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 +churches, 39 religious houses; the shops of the <i>arte +della lana</i> numbered over 200, producing cloth worth +<span class="sidenote">Statistics.</span> +1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were found +all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the +service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, +derived chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 +florins, whereas its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military +matters and public buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already +a centre of art and letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and +libraries. But now that the <i>grandi</i> were suppressed politically, +the lowest classes came into prominence, “adventurers without +sense or virtue and of no authority for the most part, who had +usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest practices” (Matteo +Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.</p> + +<p>In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed +the next year by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, +which carried off three-fifths of the population (according to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span> +Villani). Yet in spite of these disasters the republic was +<span class="sidenote">The Great Plague (1348).</span> +by no means crushed; it soon regained the suzerainty of +many cities which had broken off all connexion +with it after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, +and purchased the overlordship of Prato from Queen +Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it from the +duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and archbishop +of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with +sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to +<span class="sidenote">War with Milan (1351).</span> +dominating Florence, the city made war on him, and in +violation of its Guelph traditions placed itself under the +protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for his lifetime. +This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled +the <i>grandi</i>, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still +dominated the <i>parte Guelfa</i>, to reassert themselves. They had in +1347 succeeded in enacting a very stringent law against all who +were in any way tainted with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves +being above suspicion in that connexion, enabled them to drive +from office many members of the <i>popolo minuto</i>. In 1358 the +<i>parte Guelfa</i> made these enactments still more stringent, punishing +with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines held +office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming +condemnations might be passed for this offence without +hearing the accused; even a non-proved charge or an <i>ammonizione</i> +(warning not to accept office) might entail disfranchisement. +Thus the <i>parte</i>, represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, +came to exercise a veritable reign of terror, and no one knew +when an accusation might fall on him. The leader of the <i>parte</i> +was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief rivals were the Ricci family.</p> + +<p>Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers +of fortune. The first of these bands with whom Florence came +<span class="sidenote">The condottieri.</span> +into contact was the Great Company, commanded by +the count of Lando, which twice entered Tuscany +but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops +(1358-1359).</p> + +<p>In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of +commercial differences, and because the former had acquired +the lordship of Volterra. The Florentines were successful +until Pisa enlisted Sir John Hawkwood’s English company; +the latter won several battles, but were at last defeated at +Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side having gained +much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in +1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban +V., Queen Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots +to humble the Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should +join the league. This they refused to do and armed themselves +for defence, but eventually satisfied the emperor with a money +payment.</p> + +<p>The tyranny of the <i>parte Guelfa</i> still continued unabated, +and the <i>capitani</i> carried an enactment by which no measure +affecting the <i>parte</i> should be even discussed by the +signory unless previously approved of by them. This +<span class="sidenote">The parte Guelfa.</span> +infamous law, however, aroused so much opposition +that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in secret +to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and +the Ricci having weakened the <i>parte</i>, a <i>balìa</i> of 56 was agreed +upon. Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from +office for five years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was +created to defend the laws and protect the weak against the +strong. The <i>parte Guelfa</i> and the Albizzi still remained very +influential and the attempts to abolish admonitions failed.</p> + +<p>In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed +how the old party divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The +papal legate at Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet +(d. 1394), although the church was then allied to +<span class="sidenote">War with the church (1375-78).</span> +Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to +the Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines +for grain from Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate +their territory. Although a large part of the people disliked +the idea of a conflict with the church, an alliance with Florence’s +old enemy Bernabò Visconti was made, war declared, and a +<i>balìa</i> of 8, the <i>Otto della guerra</i> (afterwards called the “Eight +Saints” on account of their good management) was created +to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo +and Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, +including Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory +XI. placed Florence under an interdict, ordered the expulsion +of all Florentines from foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious +company of Bretons to invade the republic’s territory. The +Eight levied heavy toll on church property and ordered the +priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the tables on +the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by +order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope +Clement VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, +their captains were bribed by the republic not to molest its +territory. By 1378 peace was made, partly through the mediation +of St Catherine of Siena, and the interdict was removed +in consideration of the republic’s paying a fine of 200,000 florins +to the pope.</p> + +<p>During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the +city, but now the <i>parte Guelfa</i>, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio +and Piero degli Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself +by illicit interference in the elections and by a liberal +<span class="sidenote">Salvestro de’ Medici.</span> +use of “admonitions” (<i>ammonizioni</i>). Salvestro de’ +Medici, who had always opposed the <i>parte</i>, having been +elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for +the abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed +(June 18, 1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired +to break the power of the <i>parte</i> for good. Rioting occurred +on the 21st of June, and the houses of the Albizzi and other +nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile created a <i>balìa</i> +of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the <i>parte</i>, +and partly enfranchised the <i>ammoniti</i>. The people were still +unsatisfied, the <i>arti minori</i> demanded further privileges, and +the workmen insisted that their grievances against the <i>arti +maggiori</i>, especially the wool trade by whom they were employed, +<span class="sidenote">The riot of the ciompi (1378).</span> +be redressed. A large body of <i>ciompi</i> (wool carders) +gathered outside the city and conspired to subvert +the signory and establish a popular government. +Although the plot, in which Salvestro does +not seem to have played a part, was revealed, a good +deal of mob violence occurred, and on the 21st of July the +populace seized the <i>podestà’s</i> palace, which they made their +headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for +the <i>popolo minuto</i>, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso +Strozzi, as spokesman of the <i>ciompi</i>, obliged the signory to +resign their powers to the Eight. Once the people were in +possession of the palace, a <i>ciompo</i> named Michele di Lando +took the lead and put a stop to disorder and pillage. He remained +master of Florence for one day, during which he reformed +the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de’ Medici. +Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three +from the <i>arti maggiori</i>, three from the <i>minori</i>, and three from +the new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose +the <i>gonfaloniere</i> of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele +di Lando. This did not satisfy the <i>ciompi</i>, and the disorders +provoked by them resulted in a new government which reformed +the two councils so as to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy +the people several of the <i>grandi</i>, including Piero degli Albizzi, +were put to death, on charges of conspiracy, and many others +were exiled. There was perpetual rioting and anarchy, and +interference in the affairs of the government by the working +men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased +owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last +in 1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild +companies. Again a new constitution was decreed by which +the <i>gonfaloniere</i> and half the <i>priori</i> were to be chosen from the +<i>arti maggiori</i> and the other half from the <i>minori</i>; on several +other boards the former were to be in the majority, and the +three new gilds were abolished. The demagogues were executed +or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with great ingratitude +was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the <i>ciompi</i>, largely +of an economic character, were put down, and the Guelph +families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive +the odious system of <i>ammonizioni</i>.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its +position, and in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the +lieutenant of Charles of Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo +Visconti, having made himself master of a large part of northern +Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and Siena. Florence, +alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an army +of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord +of Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic +strengthened by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian +states. In 1393 Maso degli Albizzi was made <i>gonfaloniere</i>, and +for many years remained almost master of Florence owing to his +influential position in the <i>Arte della Lana</i>. A severe persecution +was initiated against the Alberti and other families, who were +disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and conspiracies against the +merchant oligarchy continued, and although they were unsuccessful +party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles caused +the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign +states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian +Galeazzo Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany, +acquired the lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood +being dead, Florence purchased aid from the emperor Rupert. +The Imperialists were beaten; but just as the Milanese were about +to march on Florence, Visconti died. His territories were then +divided between his sons and his <i>condottieri</i>, and Florence, +ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria +Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished +to regain Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and +the allies were successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his +ends he made peace, leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In +<span class="sidenote">Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6).</span> +1404 their attempt to capture Pisa single-handed +failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the +protection of the French king. The Florentines then +made overtures to France, who had supported the +anti-popes all through the great schism, and suggested that they +too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict XIII., in exchange +for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405 the +city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel, +but a few days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured +it from the mercenaries. There was great consternation in +Florence at the news, and every man in the city “determined +that he would go naked rather than not conquer Pisa” (G. +Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by Giovanni +Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the +mouth of the Arno. After a six months’ siege Pisa surrendered +on terms (9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked, +many of the citizens were exiled and others forced to live in +Florence, a depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence +now acquired a great seaport and was at last able to develop a +direct maritime trade.</p> + +<p>Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic +had taken no definite side in the great schism which had divided +the church since 1378, but in 1408 she appealed both +to Pope Gregory XII. and the anti-pope Benedict +<span class="sidenote">The council of Pisa (1408).</span> +XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in +favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within +her own territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee +of theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council +promoted by Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates +met at Pisa. This nearly led to war with King Ladislas of +Naples, because he had seized Rome, which he could only hold +so long as the church was divided. The council deposed both +popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of June). +But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence, +alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with +Siena, Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan +throne, to drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto, +Viterbo and other cities were recovered for Alexander, and in +January 1410 Rome itself was captured by the Florentines under +Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander having died in May before +entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was elected as John +XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with +Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased +Cortona of the pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal +states once more, driving John from Rome, and threatened +Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and +other enemies of the republic, he too died most opportunely +(6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after +leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put +an end to the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V. +The new pope came to Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained +Rome, which was held by Francesco Sforza for Queen +Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there until the following +year.</p> + +<p>No important changes in the constitution took place during +this period except the appointment of two new councils in 1411 +to decide on questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction +headed by Maso degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had +remained predominant, and at Maso’s death in 1417 he was +succeeded in the leadership of the party by Niccolò da Uzzano. +In 1421 Giovanni de’ Medici was elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> of justice, +an event which marks the beginning of that wealthy family’s +power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn from +the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of “Consuls +of the Sea” to superintend maritime trade. Although +11,000,000 florins had been spent on recent wars Florence continued +prosperous and its trade increased.</p> + +<p>In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering +most of Lombardy, seized Forlì; this induced the +Florentines to declare war on him, as they regarded his +approach as a menace to their territory in spite of the +<span class="sidenote">New war with the Visconti (1421-27).</span> +opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de’ +Medici. The campaign was anything but successful, +and the Florentines were defeated several times, with the result +that their credit was shaken and several important firms failed. +The pope too was against them, but when they induced the +Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and Visconti +was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous +terms (1427).</p> + +<p>The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded +to the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various +loans made to the state were consolidated into one +national debt (<i>monte</i>). Subsequently all extraordinary +<span class="sidenote">Fiscal reforms (1427).</span> +expenditure was met by forced loans (<i>prestanze</i>), but the +method of distribution aroused discontent among the +lower classes, and in 1427 a general <i>catasto</i> or assessment of all +the wealth of the citizens was formed, and measures were devised +to distribute the obligations according to each man’s capacity, +so as to avoid pressing too hardly on the poor. The <i>catasto</i> was +largely the work of Giovanni de’ Medici, who greatly increased +his popularity thereby. He died in 1429.</p> + +<p>An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with +Venice, into another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The +mismanagement of the campaign brought about a +quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by Rinaldo +<span class="sidenote">Exile and return of Cosimo de’ Medici (1433-34).</span> +degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni +de’ Medici’s son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both +had agreed to the war before it began. Rinaldo was +determined to break the Medici party, and succeeded in getting +Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen their position by +conferring exceptional powers on the <i>capitano del popolo</i> and +by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had a +great hold on the populace. Rinaldo’s proposal for a <i>coup d’état</i> +met with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent +the election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders +of the party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of +plotting against the state, to which he replied by collecting 800 +armed followers. A revolution was only averted through the +intervention of Pope Eugenius IV., who was then in Florence. +A <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, and the <i>balìa</i> appointed decreed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo degli Albizzi, +Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolò Barbadori, and others, in spite of the +feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of +October 1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next +three centuries the history of the city is identified with that of +the house of Medici.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining +nominally a private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, +and governed by means of the <i>balìe</i>, which, re-elected +every five years, appointed all the magistrates and +<span class="sidenote">Cosimo’s rule.</span> +acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and +Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, +Niccolò Piccinino (<i>q.v.</i>), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine +exiles in his train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the +Florentines under Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the +following year. The system of the <i>catasto</i>, which led to abuses, +was abolished, and a progressive income-tax (<i>decima scalata</i>) +was introduced with the object of lightening the burdens of the +poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the expense of the rich; +but as it was frequently increased the whole community came +to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his own +authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza +to become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the +war against Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick +III. passed through Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome, +and was received as a friend. During the last years of Cosimo’s +life, affairs were less under his control, and the <i>gonfaloniere</i> Luca +Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, introduced many changes, such +as the abasement of the authority of the <i>podestà</i> and of the +<i>capitano</i>, which Cosimo desired but was glad to attribute to +others.</p> + +<p>In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some +opposition, by his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty. +Various plots against him were hatched, the anti-Medicean +faction being called the Del Poggio party +<span class="sidenote">Piero de’ Medici (the Gouty).</span> +because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill, +while the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party +because Piero’s house was in the town below; the other opposition +leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But +Piero’s unexpected energy upset the schemes of his enemies. +The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of Milan, +and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded +Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements, +in 1468, through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died +<span class="sidenote">Lorenzo the Magnificent.</span> +in 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and +Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at once assumed +the reins of government and became ruler of Florence +in a way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted; +he established his domination by means of <i>balìe</i> consisting of the +signory, the <i>accoppiatori</i>, and 240 other members, all Mediceans, +to be renewed every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having +arisen with Volterra on account of a dispute concerning the alum +mines, Lorenzo sent an expedition against the city, which was +sacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. Owing to a +variety of causes an enmity arose between Lorenzo and Pope +Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an accomplice, at all events +had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (1478). +The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano was murdered, +Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or exiled +numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, +who, together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against +him; no great successes were registered on either side at first, but +eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale +(near Poggibonsi) and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo’s +position was critical, but by his boldness in going to Naples he +succeeded in concluding a peace with the king, which led to a +reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was received with +enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute master +of the situation. In April 1480 a <i>balìa</i> was formed, and its most +important act was the creation at Lorenzo’s instance of the +Council of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became +permanent, and all its members were Lorenzo’s friends. +From that time until his death the city was free from party strife +under a <i>de facto</i> despotism, but after the Rinuccini conspiracy +of that year the Council of Seventy passed a law declaring +attempts on Lorenzo’s life to be high treason. Owing to his +political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business interests +of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he +seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, +which was magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced +loans necessary, and he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti, +an insurance institution to provide dowries for girls.</p> + +<p>An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general +Italian war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile +to Venice, and when peace was made in 1484 the republic +gained some advantages. The following year a revolt of the +Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand broke out, actively +supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained neutral at +first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of power +and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended +by giving him assistance in spite of the king’s unpopularity in +Florence. Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms +in 1486, and in 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa +had taken from Florence nine years previously. The general disorders +and ceaseless intrigues all over Italy required Lorenzo’s +constant attention, and he succeeded in making Florence “the +<span class="sidenote">Savonarola.</span> +needle of the balance of power in Italy.” At this +time the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (<i>q.v.</i>) +was in Florence and aroused the whole city by his +denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of that +of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo’s government as the +source of the immorality of the people, and to some extent +influenced public opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on +Lorenzo, and Savonarola, whom he had summoned to his bedside, +refused to give absolution to the destroyer of Florentine liberties. +Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence had become one of the +greatest centres of art and literature in Europe, died in 1492.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father’s +capacity and made a number of political blunders. When +Charles VIII. of France came to Italy to conquer Naples +Piero decided to assist the latter kingdom, although the +<span class="sidenote">Piero de’ Medici.</span> +traditional sympathies of the people were for the French +king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured +Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing +him. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and +other towns, which Piero granted, but on returning to Florence +on the 8th of November 1494 he found the opposition greatly +strengthened and his popularity forfeited, especially when the +news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became known. He +was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to +shout “Popolo e libertà!” in opposition to the Medicean cry of +“Palle, Palle!” (from the Medici arms). With a small escort +he fled from the city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. +<span class="sidenote">Expulsion of the Medici (1494).<br />Charles VIII. in Florence.</span> +That same day Pisa rose in revolt against the Florentines, +and was occupied by Charles. The expulsion of +the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi +(<i>q.v.</i>) and other prominent citizens succeeded in +keeping the peace. Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola, +were sent to treat with the French king, but no agreement was +arrived at until Charles entered Florence on the 17th +of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of +their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at +the seizure of Sarzana, and while they gave the king +a splendid welcome, they did not like his attitude of conqueror. +Charles was impressed with the wealth and refinement of the +citizens, and above all with the solid fortress-like appearance of +their palaces. The signory appointed Piero Capponi, a man of +great ability and patriotism, and experienced in diplomacy, +the <i>gonfaloniere</i> Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio +Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +syndics to conduct the negotiations with the French king. +Charles’s demands by no means pleased the citizens, and the +arrogance and violence of his soldiers led to riots in which they +were assailed with stones in the narrow streets. When the king +began to hint at the recall of Piero de’ Medici, whose envoys had +gained his ear, the signory ordered the citizens to be ready to +fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but Charles demanded +an immense sum of money before he would leave the city; long +discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent +ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in +<span class="sidenote">Piero Capponi.</span> +a threatening tone, “Then we shall sound our +trumpets,” whereupon Capponi tore up the document +in his face and replied, “And we shall ring our bells.” +The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean, +at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000 +florins, agreeing to assume the title of “Protector and Restorer +of the liberty of Florence,” and to give up the fortresses he had +taken within two years, unless his expedition to Naples should +be concluded sooner; the Medici were to remain banished, but +the price on their heads was withdrawn. But Charles would not +depart, a fact which caused perpetual disturbance in the city, +and it was not until the 28th of November, after an exhortation +by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he left Florence.</p> + +<p>It was now intended to re-establish the government on the +basis of the old republican institutions, but it was found that +sixty years of Medici rule had reduced them to mere +shadows, and the condition of the government, largely +<span class="sidenote">The revived republic.<br />Savonarola as a statesman.</span> +controlled by a <i>balìa</i> of 20 <i>accoppiatori</i> and frequently +disturbed by the summoning of the <i>parlamento</i>, was +utterly chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of +changing the constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer +an upper class accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class +was thoroughly demoralized. Many proposals were made, none +of them of practical value, until Savonarola, who had +already made a reputation as a moral reformer, began +his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing +confusion the people turned to him as their only hope, +and gradually a new government was evolved, each law being +enacted as the result of his exhortations. A Greater Council +empowered to appoint magistrates and pass laws was formed, +to which all citizens <i>netti di specchio</i> (who had paid their taxes) +and <i>beneficiati</i> (<i>i.e.</i> who had sat in one of the higher magistracies +or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had done +so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200 +such citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. +The Greater Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens +over forty years old, also to be changed every six months; this +body, which the signory must consult once a week, together +with the colleges and the signory itself, was to appoint +ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other +confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished +and a 10% tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a +law of amnesty for political offenders enacted. Savonarola +also proposed a court of appeal for criminal and political crimes +tried by the <i>Otto di guardia e balìa</i>; this too was agreed to, but +the right of appeal was to be, not to a court as Savonarola +suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to grave +abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. +The <i>parlamenti</i> were abolished and a <i>monte di pietà</i> to advance +money at reasonable interest was created. But in spite of +Savonarola’s popularity there was a party called the <i>Bigi</i> +(greys) who intrigued secretly in favour of the return of the +Medici, while the men of wealth, called the <i>Arrabbiati</i>, although +they hated the Medici, were even more openly opposed to the +actual régime and desired to set up an aristocratic oligarchy. +The adherents of Savonarola were called the <i>Piagnoni</i>, or +snivellers, while the <i>Neutrali</i> changed sides frequently.</p> + +<p>A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain +having been made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced +to return to France. On his way back he passed through +Florence, and; although the republic had refused to join the +<span class="sidenote">League against Charles VIII.</span> +league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero de’ Medici was in the +king’s train. Savonarola was again sent to the French camp, +and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have +had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time +Charles violated his promise by giving aid to the Pisans +in their revolt against Florence, and did not restore the +other fortresses. After the French had abandoned +Italy, Piero de’ Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a +number of mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the +citizens, fired by Savonarola’s enthusiasm, flew to arms and +prepared for an energetic resistance; owing to Piero’s incapacity +and the exhaustion of his funds the expedition came to nothing. +At the same time the conditions of the city were not prosperous; +its resources were strained by the sums paid to Charles and by +the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed, famine and +plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was proceeding +unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of +one of its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. +The league now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. +<span class="sidenote">Alexander VI. against Florence.</span> +hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy +the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici temporarily +and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians +and Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was +great misery in Florence. All this decreased Savonarola’s +popularity to some extent, but the enemy having been beaten +at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the point of +breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar’s party +was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were +held, Savonarola’s sermons against corruption and vice seemed +to have temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival +of 1497 remained famous for the burning of the “vanities” (<i>i.e.</i> +indecent books and pictures and carnival masks and costumes). +The friar’s sermons against ecclesiastical corruption, and especially +against the pope, resulted in his excommunication by the +latter, in consequence of which he lost much of his influence +and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero made +another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots +having been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent +citizens were tried and put to death; but the party hostile +to Savonarola gained ground and had the support of the +Franciscans, who were hostile to the Dominican order. Pulpit +warfare was waged between Savonarola and his opponents, and +the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in a proposed +ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope +again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, +but without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against +the city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of +Arrabbiati having been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola’s +opponents attacked the convent of St Mark where he resided, +and he himself was arrested and imprisoned. The commission +appointed to try him on charges of heresy and treason was composed +<span class="sidenote">Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498).</span> +of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had +previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities +were committed during the three trials, and +the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The outgoing +signory secured the election of another which was of +their way of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola +was condemned to death and executed the following day.</p> + +<p>The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence +was less critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was +renewed, and in 1499 the city might have been taken but for +the dilatory tactics of the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli, +who was consequently arrested on a charge of treason and put +to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent an army into +Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the +Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in +Romagna, suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici +in Florence, and the danger was only warded off by appointing +him captain-general of the Florentine forces at a large salary +(1501). The weakness of the government becoming every +day more apparent, several constitutional changes were made, +and many old institutions, such as that of the <i>podestà</i> and +<i>capitano del popolo</i>, were abolished; finally in 1502, in order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +to give more stability to the government, the office of <i>gonfaloniere</i>, +with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was made a life +appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini (1448-1522), +<span class="sidenote">Piero Soderini.</span> +an honest public-spirited man of no particular party, +but lacking in strength of character. One useful +measure which he took was the institution of a national +militia at the suggestion of Niccolò Machiavelli (1505). In the +meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without much headway +being made. In 1503 both Piero de’ Medici and Alexander VI. +had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who +was at war with France over the partition of Naples, helped the +Pisans as the enemies of Florence, France’s ally (1501-1504), +but when the war was over the Florentines were able to lay +siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509 the city was driven by famine +to surrender and became a dependency of Florence once more.</p> + +<p>Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai +with France and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510, +and raised the cry of “Fuori i Barbari” (out with the +barbarians), with a view to expelling the French from +<span class="sidenote">Schismatic council of Pisa (1510).</span> +Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical +council so as to create a schism in the Church, and +demanded that it be held in Florentine territory. After +some hesitation the republic agreed to the demand, and the council +was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope immediately placed +Florence under an interdict. At the request of the Florentines +the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them from +the pope’s wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona +and accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici and his brother +Giuliano entered the republic’s territory and demanded 100,000 +florins, the dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the +Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Greater Council +supported him and preparations for defence were made. In +August the Spaniards took Prato by storm and committed +hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence was in a panic, +a group of the <i>Ottimati</i>, or nobles, forced Soderini to resign and +leave the city, and Cardona’s new terms were accepted, viz. +the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an +<span class="sidenote">Return of the Medici (1512).</span> +alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512 +Giuliano and Giovanni de’ Medici, and their nephew +Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish troops; +a <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, and a packed <i>balìa</i> +formed which abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution +similar to that of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano +became <i>de facto</i> head of the government, but he did not pursue +the usual vindictive policy of his house, although he resorted +to the Laurentian method of amusing the citizens with splendid +festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., Giovanni de’ +Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly enhanced +the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano +died, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke +of Urbino. At his death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici (son +of the Giuliano murdered in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge +of the government; he met with some opposition and had to +play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he did not rule +badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of freedom. +In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his relatives +Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence +under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was +styled the <i>Magnifico</i> and destined to be ruler of the republic, +but Cardinal Passerini’s regency proved most unpopular, and the +city was soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and +Passerini showed himself quite unequal to coping with the +situation. The Ottimati were mostly anti-Medicean, and by 1527 +the position was untenable. When Filippo Strozzi, and above +<span class="sidenote">Second expulsion of the Medici (1527).</span> +all his wife, threw their influence in the scales against +the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion +from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro +left Florence (17th of May 1527). A <i>Consiglio +degli Scelti</i> was summoned, and a constitution similar +to that of Savonarola’s time was established. The Greater +Council was revived and Niccolò Capponi created <i>gonfaloniere</i> +for a year. But Florence was torn by factions—the Ottimati +who desired an oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally +supported them, the Adirati who opposed Capponi for his +moderation, the Arrabbiati who were strongly anti-Medicean, +and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. “It is almost +impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as Florence +then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by +chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted, +their dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they +would be hunted from their country or die of grief” (Benedette +Varchi). Capponi did his best to reform the city and save the +situation, and while adopting Savonarola’s tone in internal +affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign situation, realizing that +a reconciliation between the pope and the emperor Charles V. +would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement would certainly +seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power. Having +been re-elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> in spite of much opposition in 1528, +Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence +with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high +treason, and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave +the city for six months. Francesco Carducci was elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> +in his place, and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and +the emperor concluded a treaty by which the latter agreed to +re-establish the Medici in Florence. Carducci made preparations +for a siege, but a large part of the people were against him, +either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the Frateschi, +as the believers in Savonarola’s views were called, supported +him strongly. A body called the <i>Nove della Milizia</i>, of whom +Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the +defence of the city, and Michelangelo (<i>q.v.</i>) himself superintended +the strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate +choice for the chief command of the army was the appointment +of Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under +Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on the city. In September +Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities fell before the +Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the pope were +<span class="sidenote">The siege of Florence.</span> +unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. +Although alone against papacy and empire, the citizens +showed the greatest spirit and devotion, and were +successful in many sorties. The finest figure produced +by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (<i>q.v.</i>); by his +defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and +was appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid +marches and counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the +enemy unexpectedly, and harassing them continually. But +Malatesta was a traitor at heart and hindered the defence of +the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had recaptured Volterra, +marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the Imperialists in +the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of August, +but in spite of Ferruccio’s heroism he was defeated and killed; +the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. +Malatesta contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous +attack by the besieged. The sufferings from famine within the +city were now very great, and an increasingly large part of the +people favoured surrender. The signory, at last realizing that +Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed him; but it was too late, +and he now behaved as though he were governor of Florence; +when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he turned +his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that +<span class="sidenote">Surrender of Florence (1530).</span> +all hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don +Ferrante Gonzaga, the new imperial commander. +On the 12th the capitulation was signed: Florence +was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici +were to be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government, +“it being understood that liberty is to be preserved.” +Baccio Valori, a Medicean who had been in the imperialist camp, +now took charge, and the city was occupied by foreign troops. +A <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, the usual packed <i>balìa</i> created, and +all opposition silenced. The city was given over to Pope Clement, +who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, had Carducci +and Girolami (the last <i>gonfaloniere</i>) hanged, and established +Alessandro de’ Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, +as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +the signory was abolished, Alessandro created <i>gonfaloniere</i> for +life, and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial +patent. Thus Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital +of the duchy (afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian +Gastone in 1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, +duke of Lorraine. But it was governed by a regency +until 1753, when it was conferred by the empress +<span class="sidenote">The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany.</span> +Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the +Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of +Habsburg-Lorraine was driven from the throne, and Tuscany +was annexed to the French empire in 1808. In 1809 Florence +was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but after the fall of +Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in 1833, +and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal +revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a +constitution. But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke +returned under an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the +Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, by a +bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was expelled and +Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.</p> + +<p>In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, +but after the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the +Franco-Prussian war, the capital was transferred to the Eternal City +(1871).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The best complete history of Florence is Gino +Capponi’s <i>Storia della Repubblica di Firenze</i> (2 vols., Florence, 1875), +which although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard +work based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, <i>Histoire de +Florence</i> (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see +Pasquale Villari’s <i>I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze</i> (Eng. ed., +London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn’s <i>Geschichte der Stadt Florenz</i> +(Berlin, 1896); P. Villari’s <i>Savonarola</i> (English ed., London, 1896) is +invaluable for the period during which the friar’s personality dominated +Florence, and his <i>Machiavelli</i> (English ed., London, 1892) must +be also consulted, especially for the development of political theories. +Among the English histories of Florence, Napier’s <i>Florentine History</i> +(6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope’s <i>History of the Commonwealth +of Florence</i> (4 vols., London, 1865) are not without value +although out of date. Francis Hyett’s <i>Florence</i> (London, 1903) is +more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat Medicean +in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later history, A. +von Reumont’s <i>Geschichte von Toscana</i> (Gotha, 1876-1877) is one +of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises and +compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See +also the bibliographies in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machiavelli</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Savonarola</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian +and statesman of the same name (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in greater +detail in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>, save for the periods from 1494 to 1512 +and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was restored. For +the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORES,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to +Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. +(1900) 8137; area, 57 sq. m. Flores and the adjacent island +of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.) constitute the westernmost +group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly to belong to the +archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely severed. +They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to those +who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good +shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the +cattle are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the +abundance of the flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its +capital is Santa Cruz das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the +station of the English fleet before the famous sea fight between +Sir R. Grenville’s ship “Revenge” and a Spanish fleet of 53 +vessels. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Azores</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORES,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of +the chain extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest +breadth 37 m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate, +chalk, and sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights +stretching west and east, indicates a similar structure to that of +the other islands of the chain. Several volcanoes are active. +Among the loftier summits are, on the south coast, Gunong +Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the lesser but constantly +active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the +south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior +is little explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive +rounded gulfs, where are situated the principal villages (<i>kampongs</i>). +On the north coast are Bari, Reo, Maumer and Geliting; +on the east, Larantuka; and on the south, Sikka and Endeh. +The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to be unnavigable. +The mean temperature is 77° to 80° F., and the yearly rainfall +43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is divided +into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government +of Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and dependencies), +attached to the residency of Timor. The population +is estimated at 250,000. The people live by trade, fishing, +salt-making, shipbuilding, and the cultivation of rice, maize, +and palms in the plain, but there is little industry or commerce. +Some edible birds’ nests, rice, sandalwood and cinnamon are +exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of the +coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines, +who occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall +and well-built, with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly. +They are pure savages; their only religion is a kind of nature-worship. +They consider the earth holy and inviolable; thus +in severe droughts they only dig the river-beds for water as a +last resource. Portugal claimed certain portions of the island +until 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOREZ, ENRIQUE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was +born at Valladolid on the 14th of February 1701. In his fifteenth +year he entered the order of St Augustine, was afterwards +professor of theology at the university of Alcala, and published +a <i>Cursus theologiae</i> in five volumes (1732-1738). He afterwards +devoted himself to historical studies. Of these the first-fruit +was his <i>Clave Historial</i>, a work of the same class as the French +<i>Art de vérifier les dates</i>, and preceding it by several years. It +appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In 1747 +was published the first volume of <i>España Sagrada, teatro geografico-historico +de la Iglesia de España</i>, a vast compilation of Spanish +ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation, +and of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author’s +lifetime. It was continued after his death by Manuel Risco +and others, and further additions have been made at the expense +of the Spanish government. The whole work in fifty-one volumes +was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its value is considerably +increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles and documents +not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good numismatist, +and published <i>Medallas de las Colonias</i> in 2 vols. (1757-1758), of +which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was the +<i>Memorias de las reynas Catolicas</i>, 2 vols. (1770). Florez led a +retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid +on the 20th of August 1773.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Mendez, <i>Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez</i> +(Madrid, 1780).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIAN, SAINT,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In +the 8th century Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb, +and on the site was built the celebrated monastery of canons +regular, St Florian, which still exists. His <i>Acta</i> are of considerable +antiquity, but devoid of historical value. Their substance +is borrowed from the <i>Acta</i> of St Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult +of St Florian was introduced into Poland, together with the +relics of the saint, which were brought thither in 1183 by Giles, +bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a church +at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially +as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours +out flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His +day in the calendar is the 4th of May.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, <i>Scriptores rerum +Merovingicarum</i>, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, <i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>, +p. 490 (Paris, 1867).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1755-1794), French +poet and romance writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at +the château of Florian, near Sauve, in the department of Gard. +His mother, a Spanish lady named Gilette de Salgues, died when +he was quite a child. His uncle and guardian, the marquis of +Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire, introduced him at +Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the household of +the duke of Penthièvre, who remained his friend throughout his +life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at +Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain’s commission +in a dragoon regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +a boisterous behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle, +meditative character of his works. On the outbreak of the +French Revolution he retired to Sceaux, but he was soon discovered +and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment was short +he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th +of September 1794.</p> + +<p>Florian’s first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle +<i>Voltaire et le serf du Mont Jura</i> and an eclogue <i>Ruth</i> were crowned +by the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In +1782 also he produced a one-act prose comedy, <i>Le Bon Ménage</i>, +and in the next year <i>Galatée</i>, a romantic tale in imitation of the +<i>Galatea</i> of Cervantes. Other short tales and comedies followed, +and in 1786 appeared <i>Numa Pompilius</i>, an undisguised imitation +of Fénelon’s <i>Télémaque</i>. In 1788 he became a member of the +French Academy, and published <i>Estelle</i>, a pastoral of the same +class as <i>Galatée</i>. Another romance, <i>Gonzalve de Cordoue</i>, preceded +by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in 1791, +and his famous collection of <i>Fables</i> in 1792. Among his posthumous +works are <i>La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Mémoires d’un jeune +Espagnol</i> (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of <i>Don Quixote</i>, +which, though far from being a correct representation of the +original, had great and merited success.</p> + +<p>Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his +style has all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the +Gessnerian school. Perhaps the nearest example of the class +in English literature is afforded by John Wilson’s (Christopher +North’s) <i>Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life</i>. Among the best +of his fables are reckoned “The Monkey showing the Magic +Lantern,” “The Blind Man and the Paralytic,” and “The +Monkeys and the Leopard.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of Florian’s <i>Œuvres complètes</i> appeared in Paris +in 16 volumes, 1820; his <i>Œuvres inédites</i> in 4 volumes, 1824.</p> + +<p>See “Vie de Florian,” by L.F. Jauffret, prefixed to his <i>Œuvres +posthumes</i> (1802); A.J.N. de Rosny, <i>Vie de Florian</i> (Paris, An V.); +Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. iii.; A. de Montvaillant, <i>Florian, +sa vie, ses œuvres</i> (1879); and <i>Lettres de Florian à Mme de la Briche</i>, +published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in <i>Mélanges</i> +published (1903) by the Société des bibliophiles français.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIANOPOLIS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (formerly <i>Desterro</i>, <i>Nossa Senhora do +Desterro</i> and <i>Santa Catharina</i>, and still popularly known under +the last designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital +of the state of Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore +of a large island of the same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, +in 27° 30′ S., 48° 30′ W. Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many +Germans; (1902, estimate) 16,000; of the municipality, including +a large rural district and several villages (1890), 30,687. +The harbour is formed by the widening of the strait separating +the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 m. wide at this +point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. and +S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous +and wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly +storms. The surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical +in character, but the town itself is poorly built and unattractive. +Its public buildings include the president’s official residence, +arsenal, lyceum, hospital and some old churches. The climate +is warm for the latitude, but the higher elevations of the vicinity +are noted for their mild climate and healthfulness. There are +some German colonies farther up the coast whose products find +a market here, and a number of small settlements along the +mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The +more distant inland towns are partly supplied from this point, +but difficult mountain roads tend to restrict the trade greatly. +There is a considerable trade in market produce with Rio de +Janeiro, but the exports are inconsiderable. Santa Catharina +was formerly one of the well-known whaling stations of the +South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military and naval +station.</p> + +<p>The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the +Spanish; Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched +hence across country to Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish +failed to establish a permanent colony, however, and the Portuguese +took possession. The island was captured by a Spanish +expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty +of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa +Catharina fell into the possession of revolutionists against the +government of President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse +of the revolution the city was occupied by the government forces, +and its name was then changed to Florianopolis in honour of the +president of the republic.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIDA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the most southern of the United States of America, +situated between 24° 30′ and 31° N. lat. and 79° 48′ and 87° 38′ +W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the +Atlantic Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it +from Cuba, and by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama +and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a chain of islands extending +in a general south-westerly direction from Biscayne Bay, are +included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key West, on +an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe +county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which +3805 sq. m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that +of any other state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m. +on the Gulf Coast.</p> + +<p>The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of “Peninsula +State.” The average elevation of the surface of the state above +the sea-level is less than that of any other state except Louisiana, +but there is not the monotony of unbroken level which descriptions +and maps often suggest. The N.W. portion of the state +is, topographically, similar to south-eastern Alabama, being a +rolling, hilly country; the eastern section is a part of the Atlantic +coastal plain; the western coast line is less regular than the +eastern, being indented by a number of bays and harbours, +the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and +Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along +nearly the whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand +reefs and narrow islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies +of water, such as Indian river and Lake Worth—called rivers, +lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours. In the central part of the +state there is a ridge, extending N. and S. and forming a divide, +separating the streams of the east coast from those of the west. +Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300 ft. The central +region is remarkable for its large number of lakes, approximately +30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake Okeechobee. +They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused +by solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes +are connected by subterranean channels, and a change in the +surface of one lake is often accompanied by a change in the +surface of another. By far the largest of these lakes, nearly +all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee, a body of water about +1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow, its depth +seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing +into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal +outlet. Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George, +Weir, Harris, Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and +Istokpoga. The chief feature of the southern portion of the state +is the Everglades (<i>q.v.</i>), the term “Everglade State” being +popularly applied to Florida. Within the state there are many +swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in the +S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp, +extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number +of subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or +less extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size. +Silver Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and +Orange City Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near +Marianna in Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa +in Hillsboro county, Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee +Springs in Suwanee county, White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton +county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange county, and Wakulla Spring, +Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral Spring in Wakulla +county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs have curative +properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay county, +discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per minute. +Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea itself with +such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as from a sunken +reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake systems are +usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the principal +source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee, +while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one +of the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:820px; height:1132px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img540a.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img540.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span></p> + +<p class="pt2">Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which +flows N. from about the middle of the peninsula, empties into +the Atlantic a short distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable +for about 250 m. from its mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing +in a general north-westerly direction from its source in the N.E. +part of Polk county, and forming near its entrance into the Gulf +of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus counties, and +four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the Apalachicola, +and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and +traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of +its sand reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the +west coast. The most important harbours are at Fernandina, +St Augustine, and Miami on the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key +West and Pensacola on the W. coast.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They +may be divided into three classes: the pine lands, which often have +a surface of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam +resting on a substratum of clay, marl or limestone—areas of such +soil are found throughout the state; the “hammocks,” which have +soil of similar ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands—large +areas of this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando, +Pasco, Gadsden, Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties; +and the alluvial swamp lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest +class, which require drainage to fit them for cultivation.</p> +</div> + +<p>As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more +or less distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through +Cedar Keys and Fernandina the climate is distinctly “southern,” +similar to that of the Gulf states; from this line to another +extending from the mouth of the Caloosahatchee to Indian +river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and is well suited to the +cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is sub-tropical, +well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the semi-tropical +and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the +Gulf Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their temperatures +are more uniform than those of the zones of southern +climate; indeed, the extremes of heat (103° F.) and cold (13° F.) +are felt in the region of southern climate. The mean annual +temperature of the state is 70.8° F., greater in the sub-tropical +than in the other climate zones, and the Atlantic coast is in +general warmer than the Gulf Coast. The rainfall averages +52.09 in. per annum. On account of its warm climate, Florida +has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are especially +popular in the season from January to April; the more +important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach, +Miami, Tampa, White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington +Springs and Orange Springs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal +minerals are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and +river pebble phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the +“west coast” about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to +Lake Okeechobee. The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in +Marion county, and pebble phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk, +De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and Hernando counties. Although the +economic value of the phosphate deposits was first realized about +1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida produced, each year, more +than half of all the phosphate rock produced in the whole United +States, the yield of Florida (1,357,365 long tons) in 1907 being +valued at $6,577,757; that of the whole country at $10,653,558. +Florida is also the principal source in the United States for fuller’s +earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first discovered in 1893; +and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some extent. Other +minerals that have been discovered but have not been industrially +developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack of a +thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery +of other minerals—certainly it is responsible for a late recognition +of the economic value of the known mineral resources.</p> + +<p>The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North +America; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation +of North America and that of South America and the West Indies, +for out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187 +are common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The +forests cover approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern +part of the state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine +being predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress, +found throughout the state, particularly abounds. About half of +the varieties of forest trees in the United States are found, and +among the peculiar species are the red bay or “Florida Mahogany,” +satinwood and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both +almost extinct. The lumber industry is important: in 1905 the +total factory product of lumber and timber was valued at +$10,901,650, and lumber and planing mill products were valued +at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most valuable industry in +the state; in 1905 it was second to the manufacture of tobacco. +The fauna is similar in general to that of the southern United States. +Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea cow), alligator and +crocodile, but the number of these has been greatly diminished by +hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild cats (lynx) are found, +but in decreasing numbers.</p> + +<p>The fisheries are very valuable; the total number of species of +fish in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on +one coast are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are +hunted for sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout, +sheepshead and Spanish mackerel are of great economic value. +The sponge and oyster fisheries are also important. The total +product of the fisheries in 1902 was valued at about $2,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Industry and Commerce.</i>—The principal occupation is agriculture, +in which 44% of the labouring population was engaged +in 1900, but only 12.6% of the total land surface was enclosed +in farms, of which only 34.6% was improved, and the total +agricultural product for 1899 was valued at $18,309,104. As +the number of farms increased faster than the cultivated area +from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined from 444 +acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106.9 in 1900, the largest +class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to +50 acres. Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were +cultivated by their owners, but the cash tenantry system showed +an increase of 100% since 1890, being most extensively used +in the cotton counties. One-third of the farms were operated by +negroes, but one-half of these farms were rented, and the value +of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of the entire +farm property of the state. According to the state census of +1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms, +31,233 were worked by whites.</p> + +<p>Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for +1907-8 of the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons, +limes, grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes, +figs, pecans, &c.) was $6,160,299, according to the report of +the State Department of Agriculture. The discovery of Florida’s +adaptability to the culture of oranges about 1875 may be taken +as the beginning of the state’s modern industrial development. +But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887, 1894 and 1899 +(the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures for +this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of +the orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-raising, +and to various agricultural products. Orange culture +has recovered much of its importance, but it is carried on in +the more southern counties of the state. The cultivation of +pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is proving successful, the +product far surpassing that of California, the only other state +in the Union in which pineapples are grown. Grape-fruit, guavas +and lemons are also successfully produced in this part of the +state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables (cabbage, +cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers, +water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard +fruits, especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved +successful. In 1907-8, according to the State Department of +Agriculture, the total value of vegetable and garden products +was $3,928,657. In 1903, according to the statistics of the +United States Department of Agriculture, Indian corn ranked +next to fruits (as given in the state reports), but its product +as compared with that of various other states is unimportant—in +1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is the only +other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889, +but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the +Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product +of rice in Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas, +Louisiana, South Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally. +Tobacco culture, which declined after 1860 on account of the +competition of Cuba and Sumatra, has revived since 1885 +through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran seed; the +product of 1907 (6,937,500 ℔) was more than six times that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 ℔) being more than +twice that of 1889 (470,443 ℔), which in turn was more +than twenty times that for 1880 (21,182 ℔)—the smallest +production recorded for many decades. In 1907 the average +farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per ℔ higher than that of +any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in +Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also +become very valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900 +showed a decline in acreage and production of cotton. In 1907 +the acreage (265,000 acres) was less than in any cotton-growing +state except Missouri and Virginia; the crop for 1907-1908 +was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high grade is grown +in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the +early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased. +Pecan nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted +after 1905. In 1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of +land in the state unoccupied. The low lands of the South are +being drained partly by the state and partly by private companies. +Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by the orange growers, has been +adopted by other farmers, especially the tobacco-growers of +Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the droughts, so common +from February to June, are avoided. The value of farm property +in the southern counties, which have been developed very +recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county +surpassing the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according +to the state Department of Agriculture, the total value of all +field crops (cotton, cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet +potatoes, &c.) was $11,856,340, and the total value of all farm +products (including live stock, $20,817,804, poultry and products, +$1,688,433, and dairy products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other +states, are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice +the product in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments +under the factory system only) was $50,298,290, <i>i.e.</i> 47.1% +greater than in 1900. The most important industries were those +that depended upon the forests, their product amounting to nearly +45% of the entire manufactured product of the state. The lumber +and timber products were valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost +twice their valuation in 1890, and an increase of 1.2% over the +product of 1900. The manufacture of turpentine and rosin, material +for which is obtained from the pine forests, had increased greatly +in importance between 1890 and 1900, the product in 1890 being +valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at $6,469,605, and from the +latter sum it increased in 1905 to $9,901,905, an increase of more +than one-half. In 1900 the state ranked second and in 1905 first +of all the states of the country in the value of this product; in 1905 +the state’s product amounted to 41.4% of that of the entire country. +The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars, +few cigarettes being manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans +at Key West and Tampa, also increased in importance between +1890 and 1900, the products in the latter year being valued at +$10,735,826, or more than one-quarter more than in 1890, and in +1905 there was a further increase of 56.2%, the gross value being +$16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total factory product of the +state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the manufacture of tobacco +among the states of the Union, being surpassed by New York, +Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New York +and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from +Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has +greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the +raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida’s +aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at +$1,590,371, an increase of 217.9% in five years.</p> +</div> + +<p>Florida’s industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil +War, for before that conflict a large part of the state was practically +undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways. +In 1880 the total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was +2489 m.; in 1900, 3255 m., and in January 1909, 4,004.92 m. The +largest system is the Atlantic Coast Line, the lines of which in +Florida were built or consolidated by H.B. Plant (1819-1899) and +once formed a part of the so-called “Plant System” of railways. +The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product of one man’s +faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830). The +Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Georgia +Southern & Florida are the other important railways. The +Southern railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville, +over the tracks of the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway +commission, whose members are elected by the people, has power +to enforce its schedule of freight rates except when such rates +would not pay the operating expenses of the railway. In 1882 +the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation Co. was +organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne +Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and +Halifax rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth, +Hillsboro river, New river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this +vast undertaking was completed. The development of marine +commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours, but +Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good. +Since 1890 much has been done by the national Government, +aided in many cases by the local authorities and by private +enterprise, to improve the harbours and to extend the limits +of river navigation. With the increase of trade between the +United States and the West Indies following the Spanish-American +War (1898), the business of the principal ports, notably +of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493; +in 1890, 391,422, an increase of 45.2%; and in 1900, 528,542, +or a further increase of 35%; and in 1905, by a state census, +614,845; and in 1910, 752,619. In 1900, 95.5% were native born, +43.7% were coloured (including 479 Chinese, Japanese and +Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were little altered. The +Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely known, live +in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the basis +of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16.6% of the +total in 1900 and 22.7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida, +as for other Southern States, being small as compared with the +percentage for most of the other states of the Union. In 1900 +there were 92, and, in 1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and +villages; but only 14 (in 1905, 22) of these had a population +of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a population of more than +5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville (28,429); Pensacola +(17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The eight +in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola +(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City +(6409), Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine (5121). Tallahassee +is the capital of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest +religious denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while +the Roman Catholic, Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal +churches were of relatively minor importance.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The present constitution was framed in 1885 +and was ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important +feature, when compared with the previous constitution of 1868, +is its provision for the choice of state officials other than the +governor (who was previously chosen by election) by elections +instead of by the governor’s appointment, but the governor, +who serves for four years and is not eligible for the next succeeding +term, still appoints the circuit judges, the state attorneys +for each judicial circuit and the county commissioners; he may +fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with the Senate +remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a +member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being +the attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and +the commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state, +attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of +public instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a +Board of Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a +member of the Board of Education. The office of lieutenant-governor +was abolished by the present constitution. The legislature +meets biennially, the senators being chosen for four, the +representatives for two years. By an amendment of 1896 the +Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House of Representatives +of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of +members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor’s +veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the +circuit court serve for six years, those of the county courts for +four years, and justices of the peace (one for each justice district, +of which the county commissioners must form at least two in +each county) hold office for four years. The constitutional +qualifications for suffrage are: the age of twenty-one years, +citizenship in the United States or presentation of naturalization +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +certificates at registration centres, residence in the state one +year and in the county six months, and registration. To these +requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been added by +legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized +by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardianship +are excluded by the constitution, and “all persons convicted +of bribery, perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall +make or become directly or indirectly interested in any bet or +wager the result of which shall depend upon any election,” or +who shall participate as principal, second or challenger in any +duel, are excluded by legislative enactment.</p> + +<p>Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths +vote of each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote +of the people. A revision of the Constitution may be made +upon a two-thirds vote of all members of both Houses of the +legislature, if ratified by a majority vote of the people; a +Constitutional Convention is then to be provided for by the +legislature, such convention to meet within six months of the +passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number equal to +the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned +among the counties, as are the members of this House.</p> + +<p>A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an incorporated +town or city, owned by the head of a family residing +in the state, with personal property to the value of $1000 and +the improvements on the real estate, is exempt from enforced +sale except for delinquent taxes, purchase money, mortgage +or improvements on the property. The wife holds in her own +name property acquired before or after marriage; the intermarriage +of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the +fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional +provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living +in adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces +may be secured only after two years’ residence in the state and +on the ground of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty, +habitual indulgence in violent temper, habitual drunkenness, +desertion for one year, previous marriage still existing, or such +relationship of the parties as is within the degrees for which +marriage is prohibited by law. Legitimacy of natural children +can be established by subsequent marriage of the parents, and +the age of consent is sixteen years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period +(1865-1875). In 1871 7% 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000 +were issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the +value of $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the +Educational Fund at the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but +$267,700 of the issue of 1871 had been retired and this amount was +then refunded with 3% 50 year bonds which were taken by the +Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800 of the 1873 issue was held +by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by individuals. The first +part of this claim was refunded by a new bond issue, also taken by +the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an Indian war +claim of $692,946, received from the United States government in +1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United States +government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus +reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt, +consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted +to $601,567.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Penal System.</i>—There is no penitentiary; the convicts are +hired to the one highest bidder who contracts for their labour, +and who undertakes, moreover, to lease all other persons +convicted during the term of the lease, and sub-leases the +prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed under the care +of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was amended +so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will +of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one +state prison physician, and there are special laws designed to +prevent abuses in the system. In 1908 the state received +$208,148 from the lease of convicts. Decrepit prisoners were +formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease excluded such as were +thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women convicts +were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convicts +committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro +males and 75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and +27 were recaptured. The leased convicts are employed in the +turpentine and lumber industries and in the phosphate works. +The 1232 convicts “on hand” at the close of 1908 were held in +38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum number, +at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were +maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are +under the supervision of the governor and the supervisors of +convicts. The state supervisors must inspect each state prison +camp and each county prison camp every thirty days.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was +made to form an adequate public school fund; the first real +effort to establish a common school system for the territory was +made after 1835; in 1840 there were altogether 18 academies +and 51 common schools, and in 1849 the state legislature made +an appropriation in the interest of the public instruction of white +pupils, and this was supplemented by the proceeds of land +granted by the United States government for the same purpose. +In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860 +there were, according to a report of the United States census, +2032 pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in +“academies and other schools.” The Civil War, however, interrupted +the early progress, and the present system of common +schools dates from the constitution of 1868 and the school law +of 1869. The school revenue derived from the interest of a +permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and a +poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita +cost for each child of school age was $6.11 (white, $9.08; +negro, $2.24), and the average school term was 108 days (112 +for whites, 99 for negroes). The state constitution prescribes +that “white and colored children shall not be taught in the same +school, but impartial provision shall be made for both.” The +percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66; +negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was +70%,—68% for white and 74% for negro schools. Before +1905 the state provided for higher education by the Florida +State College, at Tallahassee, formerly the West Florida +Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida, at Lake +City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the +Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida +Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the +normal school (for whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South +Florida Military Institute at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature +passed the Buckman bill abolishing all these state institutions +for higher education and establishing in their place the university +of the state of Florida and a state Agricultural Experiment +Station, both now at Gainesville, and the Florida Female College +at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for entrance and for +graduation as the state university for men. Private educational +institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De Land +(Baptist); Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian), +with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a +school of expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and +industrial arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901), +at Sutherland (Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian +College of Florida (1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute +(1890), at Jasper, and the Florida Normal Institute at Madison. +The negroes have facilities for advanced instruction in the +Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman Institute (Methodist +Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the Normal and +Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park. +There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St. +Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a +reform school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state, +and a Confederate soldiers’ and sailors’ home at Tallahassee, +which is partially supported by the state.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The earliest explorations and attempts at colonization +of Florida by Europeans were made by the Spanish. The +Council of the Indies claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships +had gone to Florida, and Florida is shown on the Cantino map +of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon (<i>c.</i> 1460-1521), who had +been with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage and had +later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant +authorizing him to discover and settle “Bimini,”—a fabulous +island believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +whose waters would restore to old men their youth or at least +had wonderful curative powers. Soon after Easter Day he +came in sight of the coast of Florida, probably near the mouth +of the St Johns river. From the name of the day in the calendar, +<i>Pascua Florida</i>, or from the fact that many flowers were found +on the coast, the country was named Florida. De León seems +to have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the +peninsula, and to have turned homeward fully convinced that +he had discovered an immense island. He returned to Spain +in 1514, and obtained from the king a grant to colonize “the +island of Bimini and the island of Florida,” of which he was +appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another expedition, +this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems +to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account +of the large number of turtles found there, and to have landed +at several places, but many of his men succumbed to disease +and he himself was wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon +afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in 1516, another Spaniard, +Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some distance along the +west coast of the peninsula. The next important exploration +of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed +from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400), +landed (early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola, +and for six months remained in the country, he and his men +suffering terribly from exposure, hunger and fierce Indian +attacks. In September, his ships being lost and his force greatly +reduced in number, he hastily constructed a crazy fleet, re-embarked +probably at Apalachee Bay, and lost his life in a storm +probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his men, including +Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of Indian +captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their +way to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially +explored by Ferdinando de Soto (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1539-1540. In the +summer of 1559 another attempt at colonization was made by +Tristan de Luna, who sailed from Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola +Bay, and explored a part of Florida and (possibly) Southern +Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make a +permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his +followers and gave up his attempt in 1561.</p> + +<p>In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band +of French Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then +at the mouth of the St Johns river, which he called the river +of May, and on behalf of France claimed the country, which +he described as “the fairest, fruitfullest and pleasantest of all +the world”; but he made his settlement on an island near what +is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In 1564 René de Laudonnière +(? -<i>c.</i> 1586), with another party of Huguenots, established +Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony did +not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonnière was about to return to +France when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by +Ribaut and about 300 men from France. On the same day that +Ribaut landed, a Spanish expedition arrived in the bay of St +Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés +(1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the Huguenot +settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire +garrison at Fort Caroline “not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans,” +on the 20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon +afterwards wrecked near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his +followers surrendered to Menéndez and were executed. Menéndez +then turned his attention to the founding of a settlement which +he named St Augustine (<i>q.v.</i>); he also explored the Atlantic +coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and established forts at +San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St Helena. In +1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.</p> + +<p>The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution +of Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at +the French court; but Dominique de Gourgues (<i>c.</i> 1530-1593), +a friend of Ribaut but probably a Catholic, organized an expedition +of vengeance, not informing his men of his destination +until his three ships were near the Florida coast. With the +co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba he captured +Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where +the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged +his Spanish prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words, +“I do this not as unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers +and murderers.” Feeling unable to attack St Augustine, de +Gourgues returned to France.</p> + +<p>The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes. +The Indians were hostile and the missionary efforts among them +failed. In 1586 St Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir +Francis Drake and it also suffered severely by an attack of +Captain John Davis in 1665. <span class="correction" title="amended from no">Not</span> until the last decade of the +17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the +settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French +explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their attention +to the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When +the English colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded, +there was constant friction with Florida. The Spanish were +accused of inciting the Indians to make depredations on the +English settlements and of interfering with English commerce +and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of +the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were contending +in Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish +Succession, a force from South Carolina captured St Augustine +and laid siege to the fort, but being unable to reduce it for lack +of necessary artillery, burned the town and withdrew at the +approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706 a Spanish and +French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, failed, +and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in +1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Oglethorpe, +governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made +an unsuccessful attack upon St Augustine; two years later a +Spanish expedition against Savannah by way of St Simon’s +Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe again appeared before +the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle +in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the other +centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied +(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful +history.</p> + +<p>By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England +in return for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and +West Florida were now formed, the boundaries of West Florida +being 31° N. lat. (when civil government was organized in 1767, +the N. line was made 32° 28′), the Chattahoochee, and the +Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Sound, +Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the Mississippi +river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of +military government was instituted; immigration began; +and Andrew Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of +about 1500 Minorcans (1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation +of indigo at New Smyrna. Roads were laid out, some of which +yet remain; and in the last three years of English occupation +the government spent $580,000 on the two provinces. Consequently, +the people of Florida were for the most part loyal to +Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In +1776, the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the +indigo plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine, +where they were protected by the authorities. Several plans +were made to invade South Carolina and Georgia, but none +matured until 1778, when an expedition was organized which +co-operated with British forces from New York in the siege +of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having +declared war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez +(1756-1794), the Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most +of the English forts in West Florida, and in 1781 captured +Pensacola.</p> + +<p>By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and, +no religious liberty being promised, many of the English inhabitants +left East and West Florida. A dispute with the +United States concerning the northern boundary was settled by +the treaty of 1795, the line 31° N. lat. being established.</p> + +<p>The westward expansion of the United States made necessary +American ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisition +of West Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +aims of the negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase +of 1803. After the cession of Louisiana to the United States, +the people of West Florida feared that that province would be +seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore, through a convention +at Buhler’s Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated plans for a +more effective government. When it was found that the Spanish +governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another convention +was held on the 26th of September which declared +West Florida to be an independent state, organized a government +and petitioned for admission to the American Union. On the +27th of October President James Madison, acting on a theory of +Robert R. Livingston that West Florida was ceded by Spain to +France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was therefore included +by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United States in 1803, +declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of the United +States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the +portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi +rivers to Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of +Louisiana), and that between the Pearl and the Perdido to the +Mississippi Territory.</p> + +<p>In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United +States was imminent. The American government asked the +Spanish authorities of East Florida to permit an American +occupation of the country in order that it might not be seized +by Great Britain and made a base of military operations. When +the request was refused, American forces seized Fernandina in +the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the American +government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized +in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to +organize a government at St Mary’s was made by American +sympathizers, and a petty civil war began between the Americans, +who called themselves “Patriots,” and the Indians, who were +encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British troops landed +at Pensacola to begin operations against the United States. +In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but +in a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then +built a fort on the Apalachicola river, and there directed expeditions +of Indians and runaway negroes against the American +settlements, which continued long after peace was concluded +in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing that the Spanish +were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to attack +the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of +1819 Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United +States; the treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States +took formal possession, but civil government was not established +until 1822.</p> + +<p>Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the +new Territory of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have +reached a stage of civilization somewhat similar to that of +the Aztecs, were conquered and exterminated or absorbed by +Creeks about the middle of the 18th century. There was a +strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known +as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne’s Landing in 1832 and +Fort Gibson in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their +Florida lands for equal territory in the western part of the United +States. But a strong sentiment against removal suddenly +developed, and the efforts of the United States to enforce the +treaty brought on the Seminole War (1836-42), which resulted +in the removal of all but a few hundred Seminoles whose +descendants still live in southern Florida.</p> + +<p>In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On +the 10th of January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which +declared Florida to be a “sovereign and independent nation,” +was adopted by a state convention, and Florida became one of +the Confederate States of America. The important coast towns +were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina, Pensacola +and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an +invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being +repulsed in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864). +In 1865 a provisional governor was appointed by President +Andrew Johnson, and a new state government was organized. +The legislature of 1866 rejected the Fourteenth Amendment +to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards Florida was +made a part of the Third Military District, according to the +Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as +voters by the military authorities, and another Constitutional +Convention met in January and February 1868. A factional +strife in the dominant party, the Republican, now began; fifteen +delegates withdrew from the convention; the others framed a +constitution, and then resolved themselves into a political +convention. The seceding members with nine others then +returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by +General George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and +was ratified by the electors, and Florida passed from under a +quasi-military to a full civil government on the 4th of July 1868.</p> + +<p>The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a +number of efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison +Reed (1813-1899). The decisive year of the Reconstruction +Period was 1876. The Canvassing Board, which published the +election returns, cast out some votes, did not wait for the returns +from Dade county, and declared the Republican ticket elected. +George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for +governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court +restraining the board from going behind the face of the election +returns; this was not obeyed and a similar mandamus was +therefore obtained from the supreme court of Florida, which +declared that the board had no right to determine the legality +of a particular vote. According to the new count thus ordered, +the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar process +the board’s decision in favour of the election of Republican +presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors +were declared the successful candidates; but the electoral +commission, appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electoral Commission</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics.</p> + +<p class="sc center pt2">American Governors of Florida.</p> + +<p class="center">Territorial Governors.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Andrew Jackson</td> <td class="tcc">1821-1822</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William P. Duval</td> <td class="tcc">1822-1834</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John H. Eaton</td> <td class="tcc">1834-1835</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Richard K. Call</td> <td class="tcc">1835-1840</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Robert R. Reid</td> <td class="tcc">1840-1841</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Richard K. Call</td> <td class="tcc">1841-1844</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Branch</td> <td class="tcc">1844-1845</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">State Governors.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Moseley</td> <td class="tcl">1845-1849</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Thomas Brown</td> <td class="tcl">1849-1853</td> <td class="tcl">Whig</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James E. Broome</td> <td class="tcl">1853-1857</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Madison S. Perry</td> <td class="tcl">1857-1861</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Milton</td> <td class="tcl">1861-1865</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Marvin</td> <td class="tcl">1865</td> <td class="tcl">Provisional</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David S. Walker</td> <td class="tcl">1865-1868</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Harrison Reed</td> <td class="tcl">1868-1872</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ossian B. Hart</td> <td class="tcl">1873-1874</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Marcellus L. Stearns</td> <td class="tcl">1874-1877</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George F. Drew</td> <td class="tcl">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Bloxham</td> <td class="tcl">1881-1885</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Edward A. Perry</td> <td class="tcl">1885-1889</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Francis P. Fleming</td> <td class="tcl">1889-1893</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry L. Mitchell</td> <td class="tcl">1893-1897</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Bloxham</td> <td class="tcl">1897-1901</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William S. Jennings</td> <td class="tcl">1901-1905</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Napoleon B. Broward</td> <td class="tcl">1905-1909</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Albert W. Gilchrist</td> <td class="tcl">1909-</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bibliography.—Physical and economic conditions are discussed +in a pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of +Agriculture, <i>Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topography, +Climate, Soil, &c.</i> (Tallahassee, 1904); in <i>Climate, Soil and +Resources of Florida</i> (United States Department of Agriculture, +Washington, 1882); <i>A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida</i> +(United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin +13, 1898); C.L. Norton’s <i>Handbook of Florida</i> (2nd edition, New +York, 1892); the volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United +States (for 1900) which treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and +the Special Report on Mines and Quarries for 1902. J.N. MacGonigle’s +“Geography of Florida” (<i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, +vol. 7), T.D.A. Cockerell’s “West Indian Fauna in Florida” +(<i>Nature</i>, vol. 46), L.F. Pourtales’s “Flora and Fauna of the Florida +Keys” (<i>American Naturalist</i>, vol. 11), and C.F. Millspaugh’s <i>Flora +of the Sand Keys of Florida</i> (Chicago, 1907), a Field Columbian +Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C.B. Cory’s +<i>Hunting and Fishing in Florida</i> (Boston, 1896) and A.W. and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +J.A. Dimock’s <i>Florida Enchantments</i> (New York, 1908) are of interest. +For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum’s <i>Civil Government of +Florida</i> (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the <i>Revised Statutes of +Florida</i> (1892). The standard history is that by G.R. Fairbanks, +<i>History of Florida</i> (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supplemented +by D.G. Brinton’s <i>Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its +Literary History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities</i> (Philadelphia, 1859), +which has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early explorations; +Woodbury Lowery, <i>The Spanish Settlements within the +Present Limits of the United States</i> (New York, vol. i., 1901; vol. ii., +sub-title <i>Florida</i>, 1905); R.L. Campbell’s Historical Sketches of +Colonial Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the +history of Pensacola; H.E. Chambers’s <i>West Florida and its +Relation to the Historical Cartography of the United States</i> (Johns +Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science, Series 16, +No. 5); and Herbert B. Fuller’s The <i>Purchase of Florida; its History +and Diplomacy</i> (Cleveland, O., 1906). The only published collections +of documents relating to the state are Buckingham Smith’s <i>Colleccion +de varios documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes</i> +(London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French’s <i>Historical Collections of +Louisiana</i> (New York, 1846-1875).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous +sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried the +whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MOÑINO Y REDONDO,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Count of</span> (1728-1808), Spanish statesman, was born at Murcia +in 1728. He was the son of a retired army officer, and received +a good education, which he completed at the university of +Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of law. +For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired +a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him +by the marquis of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who +sent him ambassador to Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his +mission, he was soon after appointed by Charles III. successor +to his patron, and his administration was one of the most brilliant +Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of Madrid, reformed +many abuses, projected canals, established many societies of +agriculture and economy and many philanthropical institutions, +and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine arts. +Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing +disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were +settled. He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with +Portugal by a double marriage between the members of the +royal houses, designing by this arrangement to place ultimately +a Spanish prince on the throne of Portugal. But in this he failed. +Floridablanca was the right-hand man of King Charles III. in +his policy of domestic reform, and was much under the influence +of French <i>philosophes</i> and economic writers. Like other reformers +of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal +authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism. +The French Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he +advocated the support of the first coalition against France. +He retained his office for three years under Charles IV.; but in +1792, through the influence of the favourite Godoy, he was +dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of Pampeluna. Here +he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of his +brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates, +and remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He +was then called by his countrymen to take the presidency of +the central junta. But his strength failed him, and he died at +Seville on the 20th of November of the same year. He left +several short treatises on jurisprudence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Obras originales del Conde de Floridablanca</i>, edited, with biographical +introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the <i>Biblioteca de +Rivadeneyra</i>, vol. lix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIDOR<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Josias de Soulas</span>, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. <i>c</i>. +1671), French actor, was born in Brie early in the 17th century, +the son of a gentleman of German family who had moved to +France, married there, and become a Roman Catholic. The son +entered the French army, but after being promoted ensign, +quitted the army for the theatre, where he took the name +of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three +years later he was called to the company at the Hôtel de Bourgogne, +where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and +comedy and became the head of his profession. He was a man +of superb physique and excellent carriage, with a flexible and +sonorous voice, and manners of rare distinction and elegance. +He was much liked at court, and Louis XIV. held him in particular +esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIN,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the name applied to several coins of the continent +of Europe and to two coins struck in England at different times. +The word comes through the Fr. <i>florin</i> from the Ital. <i>fiorino</i>, +flower, Lat. <i>flos</i>, <i>florem</i>. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold +coin issued at Florence in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains. +This coin bore on the obverse a lily, from which it took its name +of “the flower,” on the reverse the Latin name of the city +<i>Florentia</i>, from which it was also known as a “florence.” +“Florin” and “florence” seem to have been used in English +indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin +was held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and +similar coins were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy, +France, &c. The English gold florin was introduced by Edward +III. in 1343, half and quarter florins being struck at the same +time. This gold florin weighed 108 grains and was to be current +for six shillings. It was found, however, to be overvalued in +proportion to the silver currency and was demonetized the +following year. The florin did not again appear in the English +coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having +a nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were +struck. When first issued the “Dei gratia” was omitted from +the inscription, and they were frequently referred to as the +“Godless” or “graceless” florins. The D.G. was added in +1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece was issued, +but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of +double florins issued during these years amounted to £533,125. +(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIO, GIOVANNI<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1553?-1625), English writer, was born +in London about 1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents +being Waldenses who had fled from persecution in the Valtelline +and taken refuge in England. His father, Michael Angelo +Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant congregation in +London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir +William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He +dedicated a book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert, +and may have been a tutor in the family of William Herbert, +earl of Pembroke. Anthony à Wood says that the Florios left +England on the accession of Queen Mary, but returned after her +death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was appointed, +about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of Durham, +then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published +a work entitled <i>First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry +Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings</i> (4to). This was +accompanied by <i>A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English +Tongues</i>. The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester. +Three years later Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen +College, and became a teacher of French and Italian in the university. +In 1591 appeared his <i>Second Fruits, to be gathered of +Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues of +Italian and English men</i>; to which was annexed the <i>Garden of +Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs</i> (4to). These +manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of +dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer +extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio +had many patrons; he says that he “lived some years” with +the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also befriended +him. His Italian and English dictionary, entitled +<i>A World of Words</i>, was published in folio in 1598. After the +accession of James I., Florio was named French and Italian +tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of the +privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he +also instructed in languages. His <i>magnum opus</i> is the admirable +translation of the <i>Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie +Discourses of Lo. Michaell de Montaigne</i>, published in folio in +1603 in three books, each dedicated to two noble ladies. A +second edition in 1613 was dedicated to the queen. Special +interest attaches to the first edition from the circumstance that +of the several copies in the British Museum library one bears +the autograph of Shakespeare—long received as genuine but +now supposed to be by an 18th-century hand—and another that +of Ben Jonson. It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is +satirized by Shakespeare under the character of Holofernes, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +pompous pedant of <i>Love’s Labour’s Lost</i>, but it is much more likely, +especially as he was one of the earl of Southampton’s protégés, +that he was among the personal friends of the dramatist, who +may well have gained his knowledge of Italian and French from +him. He had married the sister of the poet Daniel, and had +friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben Jonson +sent him a copy of <i>Volpone</i> with the inscription, “To his loving +father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson +seals this testimony of his friendship and love.” He is characterized +by Wood, in <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, as a very useful man in +his profession, zealous for his religion, and deeply attached to +his adopted country. He died at Fulham, London, in the +autumn of 1625.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORIS, FRANS,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or more correctly <span class="sc">Frans de Vriendt</span>, +called <span class="sc">Floris</span> (1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large +family trained to the study of art in Flanders. Son of a stonecutter, +Cornelis de Vriendt, who died at Antwerp in 1538, he +began life as a student of sculpture, but afterwards gave up +carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to Liége +and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse, +whose travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish +into that of a mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps +of Mabuse, Lambert Lombard had visited Florence, and caught +the manner of Salviati and other pupils of Michelangelo and +Del Sarto. It was about the time when Schoreel, Coxcie and +Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating the masterpieces +of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute Dutch-Italian +works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula +itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua. +Fired by these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across +the Alps, and appropriated without assimilation the various +mannerisms of the schools of Lombardy, Florence and Rome. +Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how easy it would be to earn a +livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for engravers and +painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He came +home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a +school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris +painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish +nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to +have illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and +the liberal arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of +Antwerp, and adorned the duke of Arschot’s palace of Beaumont +with fourteen colossal panels. Comparatively few of his works +have descended to us, partly because they came to be contemned +for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to perish, partly +because they were soon judged by a different standard from +that of the Flemings of the 16th century. The earliest extant +canvas by Floris is the “Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan” in +the Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a “Last Judgment” (1566) +in the Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate +works at Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence, +Léau, Madrid, St Petersburg and Vienna display any charm +of originality in composition or in form. Whatever boldness +and force they may possess, or whatever principles they may +embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian models spoiled +in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution reveals +a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and +Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which +his works were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and +Theodore de Galle. Whilst Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion +of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of equal size, for the grand prior +of Spain, he was seized with illness, and died on the 1st of October +1570 at Antwerp.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORUS,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan +and Hadrian. He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch +of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the +closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus (25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The work, +which is called <i>Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum +DCC Libri duo</i>, is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style, +and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, whose life +is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood +and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological +details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the +middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius +Florus, Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From +certain similarities of style he has been identified with Publius +Annius Florus, poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author +of a dialogue on the question whether Virgil was an orator or +poet, of which the introduction has been preserved.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which +contain the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English +translation in Bohn’s <i>Classical Library</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORUS, JULIUS,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan +age. His name has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated +to him two of his <i>Epistles</i> (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would +appear that he composed lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The +statement of Porphyrion, the old commentator on Horace, that +Florus himself wrote satires, is probably erroneous, but he may +have edited selections from the earlier satirists (Ennius, Lucilius, +Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his personality, except +that he was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on +his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been variously +identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle +of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (<i>Instit</i>. x. +3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus, +<i>Ann</i>. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (<i>Odes</i>, ii. 14) +and even with the historian Florus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> Roman poet and rhetorician, +identified by some authorities with the historian Florus (<i>q.v.</i>). +The introduction to a dialogue called <i>Virgilius orator an poëta</i> +is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as Publius +Annius Florus) states that he was born in Africa, and at an +early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol instituted +by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the +prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust, +and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher +of rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to +return to Rome, for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus +who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian’s +answer by Aelius Spartianus (<i>Hadrian</i> 16). Twenty-six trochaic +tetrameters, <i>De qualitate vitae</i>, and five graceful hexameters, +<i>De rosis</i>, are also attributed to him. Florus is important as +being the first in order of a number of 2nd-century African +writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature, +and also the first of the <i>poëtae neoterici</i> or <i>novelli</i> (new-fashioned +poets) of Hadrian’s reign, whose special characteristic was the +use of lighter and graceful metres (anapaestic and iambic +dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The little poems will be found in E. Bährens, <i>Poëtae Latini minores</i> +(1879-1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author +of the <i>Pervigilium Veneris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">E.H.O. Müller</a></span>, De <i>P. Annio +Floro poëta et de Pervigilio Veneris</i> (1855), and, for the poet’s relations +with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, <i>Hadrian und Florus</i> (1882); +see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i. pt. 2 (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr</span> +(1812-1883), German composer, was born on his father’s estate +at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg, on the 27th of April 1812. +Destined originally for the diplomatic profession, his passion +for music induced his father to send him to Paris to study +under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830 +caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-music +and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There +he produced <i>Pierre et Cathérine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise</i>, +but made his first real success with Le <i>Naufrage de la Méduse</i> +at the Renaissance Théâtre in 1838. Greater, however, was the +success which attended <i>Stradella</i> (1844) and <i>Martha</i> (1847), +which made the tour of the world. In 1848 Flotow was again +driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a few years +he produced <i>Die Grossfürstin</i> (1850), <i>Indra</i> (1853), <i>Rübezahl</i> +(1854), <i>Hilda</i> (1855) and <i>Albin</i> (1856). From 1856 to 1863 +he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the +latter year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced +<i>L’Ombre</i>. From that time to the date of his death he lived in +Paris or on his estate near Vienna. He died on the 24th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +January 1883. Of his concert-music only the <i>Jubelouvertüre</i> +is now ever heard. His strength lay in the facility of his +melodies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOTSAM, JETSAM<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> and <b>LIGAN</b>, in English law, goods lost +at sea, as distinguished from goods which come to land, which +are technically designated <i>wreck</i>. Jetsam (the same word as +<i>jettison</i>, from Lat. <i>jactare</i>, to throw) is when goods are cast into +the sea, and there sink and remain under water; flotsam (<i>floatson</i>, +from <i>float</i>, Lat. <i>flottare</i>) is where they continue floating on the +surface of the waves; ligan (or <i>lagan</i>, from <i>lay</i> or <i>lie</i>) is where +they are sunk in the sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to +be found again. Flotsam, jetsam and ligan belong to the +sovereign in the absence only of the true owner. Wreck, on the +other hand (<i>i.e.</i> goods cast on shore), was by the common law +adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by +the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original +owner. This singular distinction which treated goods washed +ashore as lost, and goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt +to be explained by the primitive practice of plundering wrecked +ships. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOUNDER,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a common term for flat-fish. The name is also +more specially given to certain varieties, according to local +usage. Thus the <i>Pleuronectes flesus</i> is the common flounder +of English terminology, found along the coasts of northern +Europe from the Bristol Channel to Iceland. It is particularly +partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine as far as Cologne. +It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of 1½ ℔ In +American terminology the principal fish of the name are the +“summer flounders” or “deep-sea flounders,” also known +in America as “plaice” (<i>Paralichthys dentatus</i>), as long as 3 ft. +and as heavy as 15 ℔; the “four-spotted flounders” (<i>Paralichthys +oblongus</i>); the “common” or “winter” flounder +(<i>Pseudopleuronectes americanus</i>); the “diamond flounder” +(<i>Hysopsetta guttulata</i>); and the “pole flounder” (<i>Glyptocephalus +cynoglossus</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOUR<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> and <b>FLOUR MANUFACTURE.</b> The term “flour” +(Fr. <i>fleur</i>, flower, <i>i.e.</i> the best part) is usually applied to the +triturated farinaceous constituents of the wheat berry (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>); it is, however, also used of other cereals and even of +leguminoids when ground into a fine powder, and of many other +substances in a pulverulent state, though in these cases it is +usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c. The flour obtained +from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten +flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17th centuries as +meal, and up to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps +later, the term mealing trade was not infrequently used of the +milling trade.</p> + +<p>The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone +about the size of a man’s fist, with which grain or nuts were +pounded and crushed into a rude meal. These stones +are generally of hard sandstone and were evidently +<span class="sidenote">Primitive grinding.</span> +used against another stone, which by dint of continual +hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher +was used on the surface of rocks. St Bridget’s stone, on the +shore of Lough Macnean, is supposed to have been a primitive +Irish mill; there are many depressions in the face of the table-like +rock, and it is probable that round this stone several women +(for in early civilization the preparation of flour was peculiarly +the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather pound, +meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in +Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands, +and it is on record that some of these stones have been used +for flour-making within historic times. Richard Bennett in his +<i>History of Corn Milling</i> remarks that the Seneca Indians to this +day boil maize and crush it into a paste between loose stones. +In the same way the Omahas pound this cereal in holes in the +rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound the capsules +of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by Herodotus +in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the +Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between +a round stone or “muller,” and a cuplike hollow in the surface +of a rock. Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging +from the primitive ball-like implement to an elongated shape +resembling the pestle of a mortar. Mullers of the latter type +are not infrequent among prehistoric remains in America, while +Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of the globular +form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also among the +ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived +in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are +now altogether extinct.</p> + +<p>The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive +pounder, or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct +ancestor of the millstones still used to some extent +in the manufacture of flour. The saddle-stone, the +<span class="sidenote">Saddle-stone.</span> +first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone with +a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and +in and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into +coarse meal. Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand +caves of Italy, among the lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the +dolmens of France, in the pit dwellings of the British Isles, and +among the remains of primitive folk all the world over. The +Romans of the classical period seem to have distinguished the +saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the <i>mola +trusatilis</i>, which may be translated “the thrusting mill”; this +would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The +<i>mola versatilis</i> evidently referred to the revolving millstone or +quern. In primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not +yet extinct, as for instance in Mexico. It is known as the <i>metata</i>, +and is used both for grinding maize and for making the maize +cakes known as tortillas. The same implement is apparently +still in use in some parts of South America, notably in Chile.</p> + +<p>According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete +milling machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability +not older than the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This is, however, +a controverted point. Querns are still used in most +<span class="sidenote">Quern.</span> +primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have altogether +disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland. +Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling. +The rotary motion of millstones became the essential principle +of the trituration of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the +roller mill. The early quern appears to have differed from its +descendants in that it was somewhat globular in shape, the +lower stone being made conical, possibly with the idea that the +ground flour should be provided with a downward flow to enable +it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however, persist. +Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the +two stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone +was a species of funnel, through which the grain passed as through +a hopper, making its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the +space between the running and the bed stone. The ground +meal was discharged at the periphery. The runner, or upper +stone, was provided with a wooden handle by which the stone +was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan age +may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have +been a public <i>pistrinum</i> or mill, were found four pairs of millstones. +The circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and +1 ft. high, and upon it was fastened the <i>meta</i>, a blunt cone about +2 ft. high, on which fitted the upper millstone or <i>catillus</i>, also +conical. These mills were evidently rotated by slave labour, +as there was no room for the perambulation of a horse or donkey, +while the side-lugs in which the handle-bars were inserted are +plainly visible. Slave labour was generally used up to the +introduction of Christianity, but was finally abolished by the +emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills continued +to be driven by criminals.</p> + +<p>The Romans are credited by some authorities with having +first applied power to the driving of millstones, which they +connected with water-wheels by a horizontal spindle +through the intervention of bevel gearing. But long +<span class="sidenote">Use of power.</span> +after millstones had been harnessed to water power +slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The watermill +of the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period +into Britain. Domesday Book shows that England was covered +by mills of a kind at the time of the Norman conquest, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +mentions some 500 mills in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk +alone. No doubt the <i>mola</i> of Domesday Book consisted of one +pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a water-wheel. +Windmills are said to have been introduced by the Crusaders, +who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed +to have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close +of the 18th century, when Boulton & Watt installed a steam +engine in the Albion Flour Mills in London, erected under the +care of John Rennie. Another great engineer, Sir William +Fairbairn, in the early days of the 19th century, left the impress +of his genius on the mill and all its accessories. He was followed +by other clever engineers, and in the days immediately preceding +the roller period many improvements were introduced as regards +the balancing and driving of millstones. The introduction of +the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a great step +in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen or +linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the 19th century, marked +another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before +the introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 4½ ft. in diameter +by some 12 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous +stone, known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry +of La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, in France.</p> + +<p>Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the +flour consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is, +mills in which the wheat is broken and floured by +means of rollers, some grooved in varying degrees +<span class="sidenote">Roller milling.</span> +of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded +and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All +roller mills worthy of the name are completely automatic, that +is to say, from the time the raw material enters the mill warehouse +till it is sacked, either in the shape of finished flour or of offals, +it is touched by no human hand.</p> + +<p>The history of roller milling extends back to the first half +of the 19th century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines +fitted with rolls set either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely, +for the grinding of corn, are said to have been used as far back +as the 17th century, but if this be so it is certain that they were +only used in a tentative manner. Towards the middle of the +19th century the firm of E.R. & F. Turner, of Ipswich, began to +build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary to the +conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls +were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges, +which must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments +of the berry. These mills were built to the design of a German +engineer, of the name of G.A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at +the London exhibition of 1862, but they never came into general +use. It has also been stated that as early as 1823 a French +engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a roller mill, while +five years later a certain Malar took out another French patent, +the specification of which speaks of grooves and differential +speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the present +day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th +century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus +was rather cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it +was fitted consumed a large amount of power relatively to the +work effected. But the Pester Walz-Mühle, founded in 1839 +by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman, which took its +name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by Sulzberger, +was for many years a great success; some of its roller +mills are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty +years, and one at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.</p> + +<p>It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and +well adapted for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction, +as now understood, was more or less practised in +Hungary, even before the introduction of roller +<span class="sidenote">Hungarian practice.</span> +milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used, +yet the wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical +low or flat grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive +operations. In the first break the stones would be placed just +wide enough apart to “end” the wheat, and in each succeeding +operation the stones were brought closer together. But Hungarian +milling was not then automatic in the sense in which +British millers understand the word. For a long time a great +deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of +Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to +another for further treatment. This practice may have been +partly due to the cheap labour available, but it was also the +deliberate policy of Hungarian millers to handle in this way the +middlings and fine “dunst,” because it was maintained that +only thus could certain products be delivered to the machine +by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition. +The results were good so far as the finished products were concerned, +but in the light of modern automatic milling the system +appears uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately +large staff, but it further increased the labour bill by the demand +it made on the number of sub-foremen who were occupied in +classifying, largely by touch, the various products, and directing +the labourers under them. Hungarian milling still differs +widely from milling as practised in Great Britain in being a longer +system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of products, +a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour +and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate +varieties of middlings and “dunst” for which no corresponding +terms are available in an English miller’s vocabulary.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three +terms constantly used by millers, namely, <i>semolina</i>, <i>middlings</i> +and <i>dunst</i>. These three products of roller mills are +practically identical in composition, but represent +<span class="sidenote">Semolina, middlings, dunst.</span> +different stages in the process of reducing the endosperm +of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered +by several layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury +kernel or endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to +tear and break up. The largest of these more or less cubical +particles are known as semolina, whilst the medium-sized are +called middlings and the smallest sized termed dunst. The last +is a German word, with several meanings, but is used in this +particular sense by German and Austrian millers, from whom +it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in +England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour +beside a sample of small dunst the two would be easy to distinguish, +but place a magnifying glass over the flour and it +would look very like the dunst. If we were to repeat this experiment +on dunst and fine middlings, the former would under the +glass present a strong resemblance to the middlings. The same +effect would be produced by the putting side by side of large +middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of +semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are +more apt to vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter +is the product of the later stages of the milling process and +represents small particles of the floury kernel tolerably free +from such impurities as bran or fluff. The flour producing +middlings must not be confounded with the variety of wheat +offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings. +This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with +a certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only +fit for feeding beasts.</p> + +<p>The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was +undoubtedly accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls, +by Friedrich Wegmann, a Swiss miller, which were +brought into general use in the seventh decade of the +<span class="sidenote">Porcelain rolls.</span> +19th century, and are still widely employed. They are +admirably fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and +dunst into flour; and for reducing pure middlings, that is, +middlings containing no bran or wheat husk, there is perhaps +nothing that quite equals them. They were introduced into +Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were used for several +years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from British +mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date +they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep +the rolls perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their inadaptability +to over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and +perhaps still more the American, miller is frequently obliged +to resort. However, since the beginning of the 20th century +some of the most advanced flour mills in England have again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of their reduction +process.</p> + +<p>The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to +date from 1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer, +erected a set of roller mills in the Tradeston Mills, +in Glasgow. This was long before the introduction of +<span class="sidenote">Roller milling in England.</span> +automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the +millstone system were not seriously disturbed till +1877, when a party of leading British and Irish millers visited +Vienna and Budapest with the object of studying roller milling +in its native home. In 1878 J.H. Carter installed in the mill +of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably the first complete +automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom, and in +1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, +London, showed the automatic roller system in complete operation. +From that time the roller system made great progress. +By 1885 many of the leading British millers had installed full +roller plants, and in the succeeding ten years small roller plants +were installed in many country mills. For a time there was a +transition stage in which there was in operation a number of so-called +“combined” plants, that is to say, mills in which the +wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the middlings +were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out +of being.</p> + +<p>Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably +the best fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear +from comparison with their American competitors. It is true +that American millers were rather quicker to copy Hungarian +milling methods so far as gradual reduction was concerned. +But from about 1880 the British miller was quite awake to his +position and was straining every nerve to provide himself with +a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has +often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world. +This is true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always +command the exact kind of wheat he requires at the price +required to meet foreign competition. Therein he is at a disadvantage. +But engineers have done their best to meet this +weak point, and by their assistance he is able to compete under +almost all conditions with the millers of the whole world.</p> + +<p><i>Processes of Milling.</i>—Fully to appreciate the various processes +of modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the +wheat as delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and +even more objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many +light grains and seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient +for the miller to be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most +approved principles; he must also have at command the means +of freeing it from foreign substances, and further of “conditioning” +it, should it be damp or over dry and harsh. Again, his +operations must be conducted with reference to the structure +of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a seed, the +actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body +which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with +the plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in +roller milling easily separated from the rest of the berry, being +flattened instead of crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted +from the stock. The germ contains a good deal of fatty matter, +which, if allowed to remain, would not increase the keeping +qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish five skins on the +berry—epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and embryous +membrane—but for practical purposes the number of integuments +may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the +outer and second skins together, which are largely composed +of woody fibre; it contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but +although these are made up of a certain proportion of proteids, +on account of the discolouring and diastasic action of the cerealin +in flour they are best eliminated. The endosperm, or floury +kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of starch granules +which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a net. This +network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes +are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are +usually finer and more dense near the husk than in the interior +of the kernel. This glutinous portion is of great importance +to the baker because on its quantity and quality depends the +“strength” or rising power of the flour, and the aim of modern +roller milling is to retain it as completely as possible, a matter +of some difficulty owing to its close adherence to the husk, +especially in the richest wheats. Another organ of the wheat +berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the +miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the +berry with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the +food which the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up +the crease of the berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being +protected on the outer side by the first and having the third +or inner skin on its other side. A good deal of the matters +filtered by the placenta are mineral in their nature, and such +portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This is the +matter which millers call “crease dirt.” It is highly discolouring +to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end of the +berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs +are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture. +They have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the old “flat” or “low” milling the object was to grind as +perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the +grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and +outer skins constituting the bran. In “high” milling, on the other +hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim +being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the +wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or +“breaking” part of the process. It is impossible altogether to +avoid the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and +worked break-rolls will make as little as 15% of “break-flour,” +which is of less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and +also because it is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which +adhere more readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, sometimes +called Graham flour, consists of the entire grain ground up +to a uniform mass.</p> + +<p>Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good +milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department +of the mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery +almost equal in range and variety to that in the mill +<span class="sidenote">Dry cleaning.</span> +itself. The wheat, drawn by an elevator from the barge, +or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a machine known as a warehouse +separator. This apparatus accomplishes its work by means +of flat sieves, some of which will be of much coarser mesh than +others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which is a more delicate +task than might appear. The warehouse separator serves to free +dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth, stones, straws and +sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize, oats and barley. +Great care has to be exercised in all operations of the screen house +lest wheat should pass away with the screenings. Besides the +warehouse separator, which is made in different types and sizes, +grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and +barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders +are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch +seeds which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or +oats, which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be +followed by machines known as scourers, the function of which is to +free the wheat from adherent impurities. These machines are of +different types, but all depend on percussive action. A vertical +scourer consists of a number of steel or iron beaters attached to a +vertical spindle which revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated +casing, the whole being fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers +with horizontal spindles are also in great favour. Not every wheat +is suitable for scouring, but some wheats are so mingled with impurities +that a severe action between the beaters and the perforated +case is absolutely necessary. The most efficient scourer is that which +frees the wheat from the greatest amount of impurity with a minimum +of abrasion. The beaters should be adjustable to suit different +kinds of wheat. Scourers are followed by brush machines which +are similar to the last and are of three distinct types: solid, divided +and cone brushes. In the solid variety the brush surface is continuous +around the circumference of a revolving cylinder; in divided +brushes there is often a set of beaters or bars covered with brush +but leaving intermediate spaces; while the cone brush consists of +beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones around a vertical +spindle. The object of all these brushes, the cylinder containing +them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to polish the wheat and +remove adhering impurities which the percussive action of the +scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the beard or +fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the miller +must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and unnecessarily +abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his flour, the triturated +bran breaking under the rolls and producing powder which +will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic fragments +as nails, pieces of wire, &c., magnets are used. These may either +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> +be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at the head +of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates set +at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to +place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they +should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might +otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves, +and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also +be made of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling +value of the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same, +though details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for +a given weight of grain. As soon as the receiving hopper has +poured through a valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at +one end of a beam scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the +weight hung at the other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is automatically +cut off and the skip is discharged, automatically returning +to take another charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded +on a dial. In this way a record can be kept of the gross weight of +the uncleaned wheat entering the warehouse and of the net weight +of the cleaned wheat. The difference between the two weighings +will, of course, represent the loss by cleaning. The percentage of +flour obtained from a given wheat can be ascertained in the mill +itself. In practice the second weigher is placed just before the +first break.</p> + +<p>The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the +close of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of +England some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said +that certain wheats are washed to free them from extraneous +<span class="sidenote">Wet cleaning and conditioning.</span> +matters such as adherent earth and similar impurities +which could not be removed by dry cleaning without +undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and +hard Russians, and these require not only washing but also conditioning, +by which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With +another class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians, +spring Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Californians +and the harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by +heat is also desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the +moisture penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the +kernel. In a third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many +kinds of Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally +admitted that while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from +the application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class +must be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing +machines is to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign +matters are washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off +in the waste water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archimedean +worm conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizontally +or vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving +in a tank partly filled with water. Another function of washing +machines is to separate stones of the same size which are found in +several varieties of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing +a current of water as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not +strong enough to carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity +than wheat. This current may be led up an inclined worm or may +flow horizontally over a revolving tray. The washer is followed +by a whizzer, which is an apparatus intended to free the berry by +purely mechanical means from superfluous moisture. The typical +whizzer is a vertical column fed at the bottom and delivering at the +top. The wet wheat ascends by centrifugal force in a spiral direction +round the column to the top, and by the time it is discharged from +the spout at the top it has thrown off from its outer skin almost +all its moisture, the water escaping through the perforated cover +of the machine. But there still remains a certain amount of water +which has penetrated the integuments more or less deeply, and to +condition the berry it is treated by a combination of hot and cold air. +The wheat is passed between perforated metal plates and subjected +to a draught first of hot and then of cold air. The perforated plates +are usually built in the shape of a column, or leg as it is often called, +and this is provided with two air chambers, an upper one serving +as a reservoir for hot, and the lower for cold air. The air from both +chambers is discharged by pressure through the descending layers +of wheat, which should not be more than an inch thick; the air is +drawn in by a steel-plate fan, which is often provided with a divided +casing, one side being used for cold, and the other for hot air. Coupled +with the hot air side is a heater consisting of a series of circulating +steam-heated pipes. The temperature of the heated air can be +regulated by the supply of steam to the heater. This process of +washing and conditioning, one of the most important in a flour +mill, is characteristically British; millers have to deal with wheats +of the most varied nature, and one object of conditioning is to bring +hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as nearly as possible to a +common standard of condition before being milled. Wheat is sometimes +washed to toughen the bran, an end which can also be attained +by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes along an inclined +worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass wheat through +a heated cylinder, while again another process known as steaming +consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a metal +hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to warm +and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but these +processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and conditioning +plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long immersion +in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and drying +are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard wheats +already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer +and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this +necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the +softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds +is desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately +and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters +the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing. +It is claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are +positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably +true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when +native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant +and cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be +an excellent substitute.</p> + +<p>Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during +harvest do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a +question of the amount of moisture absorbed. But it +must be remembered that it is not so much the water +<span class="sidenote">Effect of damp.</span> +itself which degrades the constituents of the wheat +(starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness +produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for +damp wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by +kiln or steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120° F., until the moisture +has been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from +wheat so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound. +The practice of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before +the roller milling period it was found that only flour which had been +dried (in a kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially +when the vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted +that in the days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to +produce good keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up +and triturated in one operation, the flour necessarily contained a +large proportion of branny particles in which cerealin, an active +diastasic constituent, was present in very sensible proportions. +Again, the elimination of the germ by the roller process is favourable +to the production of a sounder flour, because the germ contains a +large amount of oleaginous matter and has a strong diastasic action +on imperfectly matured starches. The tendency of flours containing +germ to become rancid is well marked. During the South African +War of 1899-1902 the British army supply department had a +practical proof of the diastasic action of branny particles in flour. +Soldiers’ bread is not usually of white colour, and the military +authorities not unnaturally believed that comparatively low-grade +flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for use in the field bakeries. +But in the climate of South Africa flour of this description soon +developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the supply department +gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and it is understood +that the most suitable flour proved to be certain patents milled +in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not only did they +contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but they were +also the driest that could be found.</p> + +<p>After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into +increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or “breaks.” In the earlier +years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks +than is now the case. The first pair of break-rolls used +<span class="sidenote">Break-rolls.</span> +to be called the splitting rolls, because their function was +supposed to be to split the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as +to give the miller an opportunity of removing the dirt between the +two lobes of the berry by means of a brush machine. The dirt was +in many cases no more than the placenta already described, which +shrivelling up took, like all vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat +split along the crease was not, however, achieved in more than 10% +of the berries so treated. Where such rolls are still in use they are +really serving as a sort of adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system. +Four or five breaks are now thought sufficient, but three breaks are +not recommended, except in very short systems for small country +mills. Rolls are now used up to 60 in. in length, though in one of +the most approved systems they never exceed 40 in.; they are made +of chilled iron, and for the breaking of wheat are provided with +grooving cut at a slight twist, the spiral averaging ¼ in. to the foot +length, though for the last set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran, +the spiral is sometimes increased to ½ in. per foot. The grooves +should have sharp edges because they do better work than when +blunt, giving larger semolina and middlings, with bran adherent in +big flakes; small middlings, that is, little pieces of the endosperm +torn away by blunt grooves, and comminuted bran, make the production +of good class flour almost impossible; cut bran, moreover, +brings less money. The break-rolls should never work by pressure, +but nip the material fed between them at a given point; to cut or +shear, not to flatten and crush, is their function. Rolls may be set +either horizontally or vertically; an oblique setting has also come +into favour. The feed is of the utmost importance to the correct +working of a roller mill. The material should be fed in an even +stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of the roll uncovered. +The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal speeds, 2½ to 1 being +the usual ratio on the three first breaks, while the last break is often +speeded at 3 to 1 or 3½ to 1; in one of the oblique mills the difference +is obtained by making the diameter of one roll 13 and of the other 10 +in. and running them at equal speed. For break-rolls up to 36 in. in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the +standard. To do good work rolls must run in perfect parallelism; +otherwise some parts of the material will pass untouched, while +others will be treated too severely.</p> + +<p>The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known +as scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products +for further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving +reels or flat sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of +<span class="sidenote">Scalpers.</span> +scalper on account of its gentle action. Scalping requires a separating +and sifting, not a scouring action. The break products are +usually separated on a sieve covered with wire or perforated zinc +plates. Generally speaking, two sieves are in one frame and are run +at a slight incline. The throughs of the top sieve fall on the sieve +below, while the rejections or overtails of the first sieve are fed to the +next break. The “throughs,” or what has passed this sieve, are +graded by the next sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the +throughs may be freed from what flour adheres to them by a centrifugal +dressing machine and then treated by another purifier. A +form of scalper which has come into general use on the continent +of Europe, and to a lesser extent in Great Britain and America, is +known as the plansifter. This machine, of Hungarian origin, is +simply a collection of superimposed flat sieves in one box, and will +scalp or sort out any kind of break stock very efficiently. A system +of grading the tailings, that is, the rejections of the scalpers, introduced +by James Harrison Carter (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known +as pneumatic sorting. Its object was to supplement the work of +the scalpers by classifying the tailings by means of air-currents. +To this end each scalper was followed by a machine arranged somewhat +like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a current of air drawn +through the casing of the sorter allowed the heaviest and best +material to drop down straight, while the lighter stuff was deposited +in one or other of further compartments formed by obliquely placed +adjustable cant boards. So searching was this grading, that from +the first sorter of a four-break plant four separations would be +obtained, the first going to the second break, the second joining the +first separation from the second sorter and being fed to the third +break, while the third went with the best separation of the third +sorter to the fourth break, and the last separation from all the +sorters went straight into the bran sack. The work of the break-rolls +was greatly simplified and reduced by this sorting process, as +each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that pair of break-rollers +for which it was suitable, instead of all the material being +run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and thereby being +cut up with the necessary result of increasing the production of +small bran.</p> + +<p>The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers +have lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the +semolina and middlings as much impure matter as possible, +that those products may be pure, as millers say, for +<span class="sidenote">Purifiers.</span> +reduction to flour by the smooth rolls. The purifiers used in British +mills take advantage of the fact that the more valuable portions of +the wheat berry are heavier than the less valuable particles, such as +bran and fibrous bodies, and a current of air is employed to weigh +these fragments of the wheat berry as in a balance and to separate +them while they pass over a silk-covered sieve. To this end the +semolina or middlings are fed on a sieve vibrated by an eccentric +and set at a slight downward angle. This sieve is installed in an +air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber with glass windows on either +side, through which the process of purifying can be watched. Upwards +through this sieve a fan constantly draws a current of air, +which, raising the stock upwards, allows the heavier and better +material to remain below while the lighter particles are lifted off +and fall on side platforms or channels, whence they are carried +forward and delivered separately. The good material drops through +the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a worm. It is usual to +clothe the sieve in sections with several different meshes of silk so +that stock of almost identical value, but differing size, may be +treated with uniform accuracy. In good purifiers the strength of +the current can be regulated at will in each section. The tailings of +a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of the feed. The clothing +of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to the clothing of the +preceding machines. Repurification and even tertiary purification +may be necessary under certain conditions. In Hungary and other +parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use. Here the material +is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle, while an air-current +is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve may be arranged +a series of inclined boards, the position of which can be varied +as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist the +current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried +off to further divisions.</p> + +<p>From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may +require other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made +into flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise +great care and discretion. Many of the remarks already +<span class="sidenote">Smooth rolls.</span> +made in regard to break-rolls apply to smooth rolls, +notably in respect of parallelism. But instead of a cutting action, +the smooth rolls press the material fed to them into flour. This +pressure, however, must be applied with great discrimination, large +semolina with impurities attached requiring quite different treatment +from that called for by small pure middlings. The pressure on +the stock must be just sufficient and no more. Reduction rolls are +usually run at a differential speed of about 2 to 3. The feed must be +carefully graded, because to pass stock of varying size through a +pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good work. Scratch rolls very +finely grooved are used for cracking impure semolina or for reducing +the tailings of purifiers. The latter often hold fragments of bran, +which are best detached by rolls grooved about 36 to the inch and +run at a differential of 3 to 1. The reduction requires even more +roll surface than the break system. To do first-class work a mill +should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the breaks and 50 in. on the +reduction for each sack of 280 ℔ of flour per hour. Many engineers +consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch and smooth rolls not +too much.</p> + +<p>The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth +rolls is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist +of a slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal +shaft on which are keyed a number of iron beaters that +<span class="sidenote">Dressing.</span> +run at a speed of about 200 revolutions a minute, and fling the feed +against the silk clothing of the cylinder. What goes through the silk +is collected by a worm conveyor at the bottom of the machine. +Most centrifugals have so-called “cut-off” sheets, with internal +divisions in the tail end; these are intended to separate some +intermediate products, which, having been freed from floury particles, +are treated on some other machine, such as a pair of rolls either +direct or after a purifier. The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient +flour separator, but the plansifters already mentioned are also good +flour-dressers, especially in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have +no centrifugals, except one or two at the tail end where the material +gets more sticky and requires more severe treatment.</p> + +<p>The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to +73% of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very +small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various +grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have +been found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In millstone +milling the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, but +a certain proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of +the flour yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of +the kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class +patents may be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight +grade, <i>i.e.</i> a flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance +as can be won from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale +for rich offals, that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another +there may be no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general +principles of roller milling as given above hold good all over the +country, yet in practice the work of each mill is varied more or less +to suit the peculiarities of the local trade.</p> + +<p>Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J.J.E. Poutet, +discovered that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some +fluid and semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow +tinge and converting a considerable portion of their substance +<span class="sidenote">Bleaching of flour.</span> +into a white solid. The importance of this discovery, +when the physical constitution of wheat is considered, is +obvious, but it was years before any attempt was made to bleach +flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have been made on +the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a process was +patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and about +1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of electrolysed +sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating +grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was proposed +to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric +currents. In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour +by means of fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another inventor +proposed to employ the Röntgen rays for the same purpose. +In 1898 Emile Frichot took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized +air for flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by +J. & S. Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve +greatly if kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the +invention it covered was to bring about this improvement or conditioning +not only immediately after grinding, but also to a greater +extent than can be effected by keeping. The process consisted in +subjecting the flour to the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing +medium; the inventors preferred air carrying a minute quantity +of nitric acid or peroxide of nitrogen, but they did not confine themselves +to those compounds, having found that chlorine, bromine +and other substances capable of liberating oxygen were also more +or less efficacious. They claimed that while exercising no deleterious +action their treatment made the flour whiter, improved its baking +qualities, and rendered it less liable to be attacked by mites or other +organisms. Under the patent, No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J.N. +Alsop of Kentucky the flour was treated with atmospheric air +which had been subjected to the action of an arc or flaming discharge +of electricity, with the purpose of purifying it and improving +its nutritious properties. The Andrews and Alsop patents +became the objects of extended litigation in the English courts, +and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was +substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though +produced electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the +Alsop process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various +other patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken +out.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOURENS, GUSTAVE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1838-1871), French revolutionist +and writer, a son of J.P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist, +was born at Paris on the 4th of August 1838. In 1863 he undertook +for his father a course of lectures at the Collège de France, +the subject of which was the history of mankind. His theories +as to the manifold origin of the human race, however, gave +offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from delivering a +second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published +his lectures under the title of <i>Histoire de l’homme</i> (1863); he +next visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan +insurrection of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article +of his in the <i>Popolo d’Italia</i> caused his arrest and imprisonment, +and finally, having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a +duel with Paul de Cassagnac, editor of the <i>Pays</i>. In Paris he +devoted his pen to the cause of republicanism, and at length, +having failed in an attempt to organize a revolution at Belleville +on the 7th of February 1870, found himself compelled to flee +from France. Returning to Paris on the downfall of Napoleon, he +soon placed himself at the head of a body of 500 tirailleurs. On +account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was taken prisoner +at Créteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional government, and +confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was released +by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of +March he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of +the commune by the 20th arrondissement, and was named colonel. +He was one of the most active leaders of the insurrection, and in +a sortie against the Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd +of April was killed in a hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near +Malmaison. Besides his <i>Science de l’homme</i> (Paris, 1869), Gustave +Flourens was the author of numerous fugitive pamphlets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Prolès, <i>Les Hommes de la révolution de 1871</i> (Paris, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1794-1867), French +physiologist, was born at Maureilhan, near Béziers, in the department +of Hérault, on the 15th of April 1794. At the age of fifteen +he began the study of medicine at Montpellier, where in 1823 +he received the degree of doctor. In the following year he +repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from A.P. de +Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him +kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens +engaged in physiological research, occasionally contributing to +literary publications; and in 1821, at the Athénée there, he +gave a course of lectures on the physiological theory of the +sensations, which attracted much attention amongst men of +science. His paper entitled <i>Recherches expérimentales sur les +propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux dans les animaux +vertébrés</i>, in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to +assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadrigemina +and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory +report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences +in 1822. He was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a +course of lectures on natural history at the Collège de France, +and in the same year became, in succession to L.A.G. Bosc, a +member of the Institute, in the division “Économie rurale.” +In 1830 he became Cuvier’s substitute as lecturer on human +anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the +post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship +of comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the +Jardin the same year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the +dying request of Cuvier, was appointed a perpetual secretary of +the Academy of Sciences; and in 1838 he was returned as a +deputy for the arrondissement of Béziers. In 1840 he was elected, +in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J.F. Michaud at the +French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of +the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France. +In March 1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy +of Sciences to the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals. +On the revolution of 1848 he withdrew completely from political +life; and in 1855 he accepted the professorship of natural history +at the Collège de France. He died at Montgeron, near Paris, +on the 6th of December 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens published—<i>Essai +sur quelques points de la doctrine de la révulsion et de la dérivation</i> +(Montpellier, 1813); <i>Expériences sur le système nerveux</i> (Paris, +1825); <i>Cours sur la génération, l’ovologie, et l’embryologie</i> (1836); +<i>Analyse raisonnée des travaux de G. Cuvier</i> (1841); <i>Recherches sur le +développement des os et des dents</i> (1842); <i>Anatomie générale de la peau +et des membranes muqueuses</i> (1843); <i>Buffon, histoire de ses travaux +et de ses idées</i> (1844); <i>Fontenelle, ou de la philosophie moderne relativement +aux sciences physiques</i> (1847); <i>Théorie expérimentale de la +formation des os</i> (1847); <i>Œuvres complètes de Buffon</i> (1853); <i>De la +longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe</i> (1854), numerous +editions; <i>Histoire de la découverte de la circulation du sang</i> (1854); +<i>Cours de physiologie comparée</i> (1856); <i>Recueil des éloges historiques</i> +(1856); <i>De la vie et de l’intelligence</i> (1858); <i>De la raison, du génie, +et de la folie</i> (1861); <i>Ontologie naturelle</i> (1861); <i>Examen du livre de +M. Darwin sur l’Origine des Espèces</i> (1864). For a list of his papers +see the Royal Society’s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1831-1899), English +biologist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November +1831. Choosing medicine as his profession, he began his studies +at University College, London, where he showed special aptitude +for physiology and comparative anatomy and took his M.B. +degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and +went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal +with four clasps. On his return to England he became a member +of the surgical staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in +1861 succeeded J.T. Quekett as curator of the Hunterian +Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 1870 +he also became Hunterian professor, and in 1884, on the death +of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the directorship of the +Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died in +London on the 1st of July 1899. He made valuable contributions +to structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete +and accurate measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls, +and as a comparative anatomist he ranked high, devoting +himself especially to the study of the mammalia. He was also +a leading authority on the arrangement of museums. The greater +part of his life was spent in their administration, and in consequence +he held very decided views as to the principles upon +which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the +importance of distinguishing between collections intended for +the use of specialists and those designed for the instruction of the +general public, pointing out that it was as futile to present +to the former a number of merely typical forms as to provide +the latter with a long series of specimens differing only in the +most minute details. His ideas, which were largely and successfully +applied to the museums of which he had charge, gained wide +approval, and their influence entitles him to be looked upon as a +reformer who did much to improve the methods of museum +arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original +papers, he was the author of <i>An Introduction to the Osteology of the +Mammalia</i> (1870); <i>Fashion in Deformity</i> (1881); <i>The Horse: +a Study in Natural History</i> (1890); <i>Introduction to the Study of +Mammals, Living and Extinct</i> (1891); <i>Essays on Museums and +other Subjects</i> (1898). He also wrote many articles for the ninth +edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOWER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flos</i>, <i>floris</i>; Fr. <i>fleur</i>), a term popularly used +for the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the +fairest, choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various +technical senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical +interest. It is impossible to give a rigid botanical definition +of the term “flower.” The flower is a characteristic feature of +the highest group of the plant kingdom—the flowering plants +(Phanerogams)—and is the name given to the association of +organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are concerned with +the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical works +the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta). +As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized +by the pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are +two, viz. the pollen-bearer or <i>stamen</i> and the ovule-bearer or +<i>carpel</i>. These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known +in comparative morphology as sporophylls, because they bear +the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are +developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the megaspore, +which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.</p> + +<p>In Gymnosperms (<i>q.v.</i>), which represent the more primitive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +type of seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally +associated, often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which +the term “flower” has been applied. But there is considerable +difference of opinion as to the relation between these cones +and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the +flower in the higher group of seed-plants—the Angiosperms (<i>q.v.</i>)—and +it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer +in using the term “flower.”</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:469px" src="images/img554a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Proliferous Rose.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>s</i>, Sepals transformed into + leaves.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Petals multiplied at the + expense of the stamens, + which are reduced in + number.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Coloured leaves representing + abortive carpels.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Axis prolonged, bearing an + imperfect flower at its + apex.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots +arise from leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance +to each other as regards the arrangement and the development +of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and +other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases, +would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to a flower-bud. A +flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power of +extension by the continuous development +of its apex. In this +respect it differs from a leaf-bud. +In some cases, however, of monstrosity, +especially seen in the rose +(fig. 1), the central part is prolonged, +and bears leaves or flowers. +In such cases the flowers, so far as +their functional capabilities are +concerned, are usually abortive. +This phenomenon is known as proliferation +of the floral axis.</p> + +<p>Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are +produced in the axil of leaves, +which are called <i>bracts</i>.</p> + +<p>The term <i>bract</i> is properly applied +to the leaf from which the primary +floral axis, whether +simple or branched, +arises, while the leaves which arise +on the axis between the bract and +the outer envelope of the flower +<span class="sidenote">Bracts.</span> +are <i>bracteoles</i> or <i>bractlets</i>. Bracts +sometimes do not differ from +the ordinary leaves, as in <i>Veronica +hederifolia</i>, <i>Vinca</i>, <i>Anagallis</i> and +<i>Ajuga</i>. In general as regards their +form and appearance they differ +from ordinary leaves, the difference +being greater in the upper than +in the lower branches of an inflorescence. +They are distinguished +by their position at the base of +the flower or flower-stalk. Their +arrangement is similar to that of +the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are often +applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with +it, as in the order Malvaceae and species of <i>Dianthus</i> and winter +aconite (<i>Eranthis</i>), where they have received the name of <i>epicalyx</i> +or <i>calyculus</i>. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present, +due to the formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In +many cases bracts act as protective organs, within or beneath +which the young flowers are concealed in their earliest stage of +growth.</p> + +<p>When bracts become coloured, as in <i>Amherstia nobilis</i>, +<i>Euphorbia splendens</i>, <i>Erica elegans</i> and <i>Salvia splendens</i>, they +may be mistaken for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes +mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped, +giving rise to the <i>ebracteate</i> inflorescence of Cruciferae and some +Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds +being produced in their axil. A series of empty coloured bracts +terminates the inflorescence of <i>Salvia Horminum</i>. The smaller +bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a +branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus +anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally +persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the +peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling off early +by an articulation. In some instances they form part of the +fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the cones +of firs and the stroboli of the hop are composed of a series of +spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the scales +on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same nature. At the +base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl of +bracts often exists, called a <i>general involucre</i>, and at the base +of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl +called an <i>involucel</i> or <i>partial involucre</i>. In some instances, as in +fool’s-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an +involucel; while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15), +neither involucre nor involucel is developed. In Compositae +the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the head +of flowers (fig. 2, <i>i</i>), as in marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke. +This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets, +which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths, +and often lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The +leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (<i>Dipsacus</i>), +and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or verticillate +bracts generally remain separate (<i>polyphyllous</i>), but may be +united by cohesion (<i>gamophyllous</i>), as in many species of <i>Bupleurum</i> +and in <i>Lavatera</i>. In Compositae besides the involucre +there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each +flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each +flower. These structures are of the nature of an epicalyx. In +the acorn the <i>cupule</i> or cup (fig. 3) is formed by a growing +upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower, +upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of the +nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of +the hazel-nut.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:524px; height:307px" src="images/img554b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Head (capitulum) of +Marigold (<i>Calendula</i>), showing +a congeries of flowers, enclosed +by rows of bracts, <i>i</i>, at the base, +which are collectively called an +involucre.</td> + +<td class="tcl f80" style="width: 50%;">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, +by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><br /><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Cupule of <i>Quercus Aegilops</i>. +<i>cp</i>, Cupule; <i>gl</i>, fruit. (After +Duchartre.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several +rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, +that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated +scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the +membranous white scales or bracts (<i>paleae</i>) forming the choke +attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced. +The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capitula, +and give rise to the hen-and-chickens daisy. In place of developing +flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in +proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf-buds.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:256px; height:363px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Flowers of Narcissus +(<i>Narcissus Tazetta</i>) bursting from +a sheathing bract <i>b</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:340px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Spikelet of Oat (<i>Avena sativa</i>) +laid open, showing the sterile bracts <i>gl, gl</i>, +or empty glumes; <i>g</i>, the fertile or floral +glume, with a dorsal awn <i>a</i>; <i>p</i>, the pale; +<i>fs</i>, an abortive flower.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:253px; height:151px" src="images/img555c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Peduncle of Fig +(<i>Ficus Carica</i>), ending in a +hollow receptacle, enclosing +numerous male and female +flowers.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called +a <i>spathe</i>. It is common among Monocotyledons, as <i>Narcissus</i> +(fig. 4), snow-flake, <i>Arum</i> and palms. In some palms it is 20 +ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers. It is often associated +with that form of inflorescence termed the <i>spadix</i>, and may be +coloured, as in <i>Anthurium</i>, or white, as in arum lily (<i>Richardia +aethiopica</i>). When the spadix is compound or branching, as in +palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts of +the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their young +state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +in a withered form, as in some palms, <i>Typha</i> and <i>Pothos</i>. In +grasses the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile +bracts (fig. 5, <i>gl</i>); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs +of reproduction. Bracts are +frequently changed into complete +leaves. This change is +called <i>phyllody</i> of bracts, and +is seen in species of <i>Plantago</i>, +especially in the variety of +<i>Plantago media</i>, called the +rose-plantain in gardens, +where the bracts become leafy +and form a rosette round the +flowering axis. Similar changes +occur in <i>Plantago major</i>, <i>P. +lanceolata</i>, <i>Ajuga reptans</i>, +dandelion, daisy, dahlia and +in umbelliferous plants. The +conversion of bracts into +stamens (<i>staminody</i> of bracts) +has been observed in the case +of <i>Abies excelsa</i>. A lengthening +of the axis of the female +strobilus of Coniferae is not +of infrequent occurrence in +<i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>, larch (<i>Larix europaea</i>), &c., and this is +usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and +sometimes even with +the development of +leaf-bearing shoots in +place of the scales.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of +the flowers on the axis, +or the ramification of +the floral axis, is called +the <i>inflorescence</i>. The +primary axis of the +inflorescence is sometimes +called the <i>rachis</i>; +its branches, whether +terminal or lateral, +which form the stalks +supporting flowers or +clusters of flowers, are +<i>peduncles</i>, and if small +branches are given off +by it, they are called +<i>pedicels</i>. A flower +having a stalk is called +<i>pedunculate</i> or <i>pedicellate</i>; +one having no stalk is <i>sessile</i>. In describing a branching +inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the <i>primary</i> +floral axis, its branches as the <i>secondary</i> floral axes, their divisions +as the <i>tertiary</i> floral axes, +and so on; thus avoiding any +confusion that might arise from +the use of the terms <i>rachis</i>, <i>peduncle</i> +and <i>pedicel</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>peduncle</i> is simple, bearing +a single flower, as in primrose; +or branched, as in London-pride. +It is sometimes succulent, as in +the cashew, in which it forms the +large coloured expansion supporting +the nut; spiral, as in +<i>Cyclamen</i> and <i>Vallisneria</i>; or +spiny, as in <i>Alyssum spinosum</i>. When the peduncle proceeds +from radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened +as to bring the leaves close together in the form of a cluster, as +in the primrose, auricula or hyacinth, it is termed a <i>scape</i>. +The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, convex +or concave form, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the artichoke, +daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis sometimes appears as +if formed by several peduncles +united together, constituting a +fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb, +in which the flowers form +a peculiar crest at the apex of +the flattened peduncles. Adhesions +occasionally take place +between the peduncle and the +bracts or leaves of the plant, as +in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The +adhesion of the peduncles to the +stem accounts for the extra-axillary +position of flowers, as +in many Solanaceae. When this +union extends for a considerable +length along the stem, several +leaves may be interposed between +the part where the peduncle +becomes free and the leaf +whence it originated, and it may +be difficult to trace the connexion. +The peduncle occasionally +becomes abortive, and in +place of bearing a flower, is transformed +into a tendril; at other +times it is hollowed at the apex, +so as apparently to form the +lower part of the outer whorl of +floral leaves as in <i>Eschscholtzia</i>. +The termination of the peduncle, +or the part on which the whorls +of the flower are arranged, is +called the <i>thalamus</i>, <i>torus</i> or <i>receptacle</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:243px; height:575px" src="images/img555d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:143px; height:510px" src="images/img555e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f80" style="width: 50%;">(From Vines’ +<i>Students’ Text-Book +of Botany</i>, by permission +of Swan +Sonnenschein & Co.)<br /><br /></td> +<td class="f80" style="width: 50%;">(From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch +der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav +Fischer.)<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Inflorescence of the +Lime (<i>Tilia platyphyllos</i>) (nat. +size).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Raceme of <i>Linaria +striata</i>. <i>d</i>, bract.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><p><i>a</i>, Branch.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Petiole with axillary bud. +Attached to the peduncle +is the bract (<i>h</i>).</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Calyx.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Corolla.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Stamens.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Ovary.</p> +<p><i>kn</i>, Flower-bud.</p></td> +<td> </td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:150px" src="images/img555f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Head of flowers (capitulum) +of <i>Scabiosa atropurpurea</i>. The inflorescence +is simple and indeterminate, +and the expansion of the flowers centripetal, +those at the circumference +opening first.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">There are two distinct types of +inflorescence—one in which the +flowers arise as lateral shoots +from a primary axis, which goes +on elongating, and the lateral +shoots never exceed in their development the length of the +<span class="sidenote">Inflorescence.</span> +primary axis beyond their +point of origin. The flowers +are thus always <i>axillary</i>. +Exceptions, such as in cruciferous +plants, are due to the non-appearance +of the bracts. In the other +type the primary axis terminates +in a single flower, but lateral axes are +given off from the axils of the bracts, +which again repeat the primary axis; +the development of each lateral axis +is stronger than that of the primary +axis beyond its point of origin. The +flowers produced in this inflorescence +are thus <i>terminal</i>. The first kind +of inflorescence is <i>indeterminate</i>, +<i>indefinite</i> or <i>axillary</i>. Here the axis is either elongated, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first +(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers +expand first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus +<i>centripetal</i>, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference +to centre.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:234px; height:409px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Plant of <i>Ranunculus +bulbosus</i>, showing determinate +inflorescence.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second kind of inflorescence is <i>determinate</i>, <i>definite</i> or +<i>terminal</i>. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary +flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are +produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; +or the axis is shortened and flattened, +producing a number of +separate floral axes, the central +one expanding first, while the +others are developed in succession +farther from the centre. The expansion +of the flowers is in this +case <i>centrifugal</i>, that is, from apex +to base, or from centre to circumference. +It is illustrated in fig. 10, +<i>Ranunculus bulbosus</i>; <i>a</i>′ is the +primary axis swollen at the base in +a bulb-like manner <i>b</i>, and with +roots proceeding from it. From +the leaves which are radical proceeds +the axis ending in a solitary +terminal flower <i>f</i>′. About the +middle of this axis there is a leaf +or bract, from which a secondary +floral axis <i>a</i>″ is produced, ending +in a single flower <i>f</i>″, less advanced +than the flower <i>f</i>′. This secondary +axis bears a leaf also, from which +a tertiary floral axis <i>a</i>″′ is produced, +bearing an unexpanded solitary flower <i>f</i>″′. From this +tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of formation. Here <i>f</i>′ is the +termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first, +while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate +axes.</p> + +<p>A third series of inflorescences, termed <i>mixed</i>, may be recognized. +In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging +to the opposite type from that of the branches, or vice versa. +According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral +shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences +result.</p> + +<p>Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral +shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant +ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, +as in <i>Veronica hederifolia</i>, <i>Vinca minor</i> and <i>Lysimachia nemorum</i>. +The flower in this case is <i>solitary</i>, and the ordinary leaves become +bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their +number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, +varying with the vigour of the plant. Usually, however, the +floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract, +instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears +numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles are produced, +and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way. +Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very +complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary +peduncle or floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off +pedicels, ending in single flowers, a <i>raceme</i> is produced, as in +currant, hyacinth and barberry. If the secondary floral axes +give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a +<i>panicle</i>, as in <i>Yucca gloriosa</i>. If in a raceme the lower flower-stalks +are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all +the flowers are nearly on a level, a <i>corymb</i> is formed, which may be +simple, as in fig. 11, where the primary axis <i>a</i>′ gives off secondary +axes <i>a</i>″, <i>a</i>″, which end in single flowers; or branching, where +the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are very short +or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a <i>spike</i> is produced, as +in <i>Plantago</i> and vervain (<i>Verbena officinalis</i>) (fig. 12). If the +spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig. 13), it is an +<i>amentum</i> or <i>catkin</i>, hence such trees are called <i>amentiferous</i>; at +other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers, +surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes +a <i>spadix</i>, which may be simple, as in <i>Arum maculatum</i> (fig. 14), +or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers only, +and covered with scales, is a <i>strobilus</i>, as in the hop. In grasses +there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small +spikes, called <i>locustae</i> or <i>spikelets</i>, which are either set closely +along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by +the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term +panicle is applied.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:345px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Corymb of <i>Cerasus Mahaleb</i>, terminating an abortive +branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales, +<i>e</i>. <i>a</i>′, Primary axis; <i>a</i>″, secondary axes bearing flowers; <i>b</i>, bract in +the axils of which the secondary axes arise.<br /><br /></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Spike of Vervain (<i>Verbena officinalis</i>), showing sessile +flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the +spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full +bloom, and those at the top are only in bud.<br /><br /></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Amentum or catkin of Hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>), consisting +of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales, +each of which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen +projecting beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating +from the branch by an articulation.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:88px; height:256px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:308px; height:262px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">(From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch +der Botanik</i>, by permission of +Gustav Fischer.)<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Spadix of +<i>Arum maculatum</i>. (After +Wossidlo.) <i>a</i>, Female +flowers; <i>b</i>, male flowers; +<i>c</i>, hairs representing +sterile flowers.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Compound umbel of Common +Dill (<i>Anethum graveolens</i>), having +a primary umbel <i>a</i>, and secondary +umbels <i>b</i>, without either involucre or +involucel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, +it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the +axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common +point, and spread out as <i>radii</i> of nearly equal length, each ending +in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, +an <i>umbel</i> is produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral +axis a the secondary axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like +manner, and end in small umbels <i>b</i>, which are called <i>partial +umbels</i> or <i>umbellules</i>. This inflorescence is seen in hemlock and +other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous. If +there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly +concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +<i>capitulum</i> (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other +composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious (fig. 9) and teazel. +In the American button-bush the heads are globular, in some +species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite +plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold, +they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly +hollowed, or convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle +be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave +receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose +a number of flowers that are generally unisexual. This gives rise +to the peculiar inflorescence of <i>Dorstenia</i>, or to that of the fig +(fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner surface of the +hollow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles. This inflorescence +has been called a <i>hypanthodium</i>.</p> + +<p>Lastly, we have what are called <i>compound indefinite</i> inflorescences. +In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally +upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which +floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement +similar to that on the mother shoot, or it may be different. Thus +we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner +on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound +raceme, as in <i>Astilbe</i>. In the same way we may have compound +umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound +spike, as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some +palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens +daisy. Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group +of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in <i>Petasites</i>, a +raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflorescence +being indefinite in disposition. In <i>Eryngium</i> the shortening +of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum.</p> + +<p>The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is +seen in <i>Anemone nemorosa</i> and in gentianella (<i>Gentiana acaulis</i>), +where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers +being produced upon the plant. This is a <i>solitary terminal</i> +inflorescence. If other flowers were produced, they would arise +as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first-formed flower. +The general name of <i>cyme</i> is applied to the arrangement of a +group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A <i>cymose</i> inflorescence +is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before +terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral +axes which repeat the process—the development being only +limited by the vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus +centrifugally developed. The cyme, according to its development, +has been characterized as <i>biparous</i> or <i>uniparous</i>. In fig. 16 +the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering branch of +<i>Cerastium</i>. Here the primary axis <i>t</i> ends in a flower, which has +passed into the state of fruit. At its base two leaves are produced, +in each of which arise secondary axes <i>t′</i> <i>t′</i>, ending in single flowers, +and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced, +giving rise to tertiary axes <i>t″</i> <i>t″</i>, ending in single flowers, and +so on. The term <i>dichasium</i> has also been applied to this form +of cyme.</p> + +<p>In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial +form of inflorescence is very general. In some members of the +order, as <i>Dianthus barbatus</i>, <i>D. carthusianorum</i>, &c., in which +the peduncles are short, and the flowers closely approximated, +with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a +contracted dichasium, and receives the name of <i>fascicle</i>. When +the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more +complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence +can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers. +In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle (<i>Lamium</i>), the flowers are +produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant, +and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers. +But on examination it is found that there is a central flower +expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring +bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal. +The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers +being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters are called <i>verticillasters</i> +(fig. 17). Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium, +owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the +plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the other +remaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral, +and further development is arrested. In addition to the dichasial +form there are others where more than two lateral axes are +produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn +produces numerous axes. To this form the terms <i>trichasial</i> and +<i>polychasial cyme</i> have been applied; but these are now usually +designated <i>cymose umbels</i>. They are well seen in some species +of <i>Euphorbia</i>. Another term, <i>anthela</i>, has been used to distinguish +such forms as occur in several species of <i>Luzula</i> and +<i>Juncus</i>, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary +axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:464px" src="images/img557a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">(From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of <i>Cerastium collinum</i>; +<i>t-t″"</i>, successive axes. (After Duchartre.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:455px" src="images/img557b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle (<i>Lamium +album</i>). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, and +produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called +verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a centrifugal +manner.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively +developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive +generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only +one. The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become +much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight line, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +and thus collectively form an apparent or false axis or <i>sympodium</i>, +and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the true +raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succession +a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as +lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the +floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but +in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal +portions of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the +opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently +arises (fig. 18). The bract is not, however, the one from which +the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced +upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion +of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies +the angle between this bract and its parent axis—the bract +from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down +upon the same side of the axis with itself. The uniparous cyme +presents two forms, the <i>scorpioid</i> or <i>cicinal</i> and the <i>helicoid</i> or +<i>bostrychoid</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:638px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 18.—Helicoid cyme of a species of <i>Alstroemeria</i>. <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">4</span>, +&c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the corresponding +bracts <i>b</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>b</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>b</i><span class="su">4</span>, &c., and ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>f</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>f</i><span class="su">4</span>, &c. The +whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the +internodes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 19.—Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (<i>Myosotis +palustris</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 20.—Diagram of definite floral axes <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 21.—Flowering stalk of Ragwort (<i>Senecio</i>). The flowers are +in heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an +indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other +hand, taken collectively, expand centrifugally—the central one a +first.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a +double row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts +when developed forming a second double row on the opposite +side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a +scorpion’s tail, hence its name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic +sketch of this arrangement. The false axis, <i>a b c d</i>, is +formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers +being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row; +had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar +double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole +inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence +in the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid +cymes.</p> + +<p>In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the +basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed +in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix +round the false axis. In <i>Alstroemeria</i>, as represented in fig. 18, +the axis <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span> ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. +From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary +axis <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span> arises a secondary axis <i>a</i><span class="su">2</span>, ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">2</span>, and +producing a leaf about the middle. From the axil of this leaf +a tertiary floral axis <i>a</i><span class="su">3</span>, ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">3</span>, takes origin. +In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one +side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, so as +to form an elongated spiral round it.</p> + +<p>Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, +but in <i>Streptocarpus polyanthus</i> and in several calceolarias +we probably have examples. Here there are <i>scorpioid cymes of +pairs of flowers</i>, each pair consisting of an older and a younger +flower.</p> + +<p>Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite +and indefinite types are represented—<i>mixed</i> inflorescences. +Thus in Composite plants, such as hawk weeds (<i>Hieracia</i>) +and ragworts (<i>Senecio</i>, fig. 21), the <i>heads</i> of flowers, +<span class="sidenote">Mixed inflorescence.</span> +taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the +terminal head first, while the <i>florets</i>, or small flowers +on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference +first. So also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (<i>Lamium</i>), the +different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally, +while the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed +character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where +the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become +bracts, and thus might lead to the supposition of the whole +series of flowers being one inflorescence. In such cases the cymes +are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, according to +circumstances. In <i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i> (London-pride) and in +the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; +in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often +called a glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of +dichasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in <i>Vernonia +scorpioides</i>. The so-called catkins of the birch are, in reality, +spikes of contracted dichasial cymes. In the bell-flower (<i>Campanula</i>) +there is a racemose uniparous cyme. In the privet +(<i>Ligustrum vulgare</i>) there are numerous racemes of dichasia +arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflorescence +thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, +and has been called a <i>thyrsus</i>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Tabular View of Inflorescences</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<p class="noind">A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.</p> +<p> I. Flowers solitary, axillary. <i>Vinca</i>, <i>Veronica hederifolia</i>.</p> +<p>II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>1. Elongated form (Raceme), <i>Hyacinth</i>, <i>Laburnum</i>, <i>Currant</i>. + (Corymb), <i>Ornithogalum</i>.</p> + <p>2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), <i>Cowslip</i>, + <i>Astrantia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>III. Flowers in groups, sessile.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>1. Elongated form (Spike), <i>Plantago</i>.<br /> +    (Spikelet), <i>Grasses</i>.<br /> +    (Amentum, Catkin), <i>Willow</i>, <i>Hazel</i>.<br /> +    (Spadix) <i>Arum</i>, some <i>Palms</i>.<br /> +    (Strobilus), <i>Hop</i>.</p> + <p>2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), <i>Daisy</i>, <i>Dandelion</i>, + <i>Scabious</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p><i>a</i>. Compound Spike, <i>Rye-grass</i>.</p> + <p><i>b</i>. Compound Spadix, <i>Palms</i>.</p> + <p><i>c</i>. Compound Raceme, <i>Astilbe</i>.</p> + <p><i>d</i>. Compound Umbel, <i>Hemlock</i> and most <i>Umbelliferae</i>.</p> + <p><i>e</i>. Raceme of Capitula, <i>Petasites</i>.</p> + <p><i>f</i>. Raceme of Umbels, <i>Ivy</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.</p> +<p> I. Flowers solitary, terminal. <i>Gentianella</i>, <i>Tulip</i>.</p> +<p>II. Flowers in Cymes.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>1. Uniparous Cyme.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> + <p><i>a</i>. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).<br /> + Elongated form, <i>Alstromeria</i>.<br /> + Contracted form, <i>Witsenia corymbosa</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p> + <p><i>b</i>. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows).<br /> + Elongated form, <i>Forget-me-not</i>, <i>Symphytum</i>, + <i>Henbane</i>.<br /> + Contracted form, <i>Erodium</i>, <i>Alchemilla arvensis</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> + <p>2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5 chotomous + Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> + <p><i>a</i>. Elongated form, <i>Cerastium</i>, <i>Stellaria</i>.</p> + <p><i>b</i>. Contracted form (Verticillaster), <i>Dead-nettle</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> + <p>3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. <i>Streptocarpus polyanthus</i>, + many <i>Calceolarias</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">C. Mixed Inflorescence.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>  Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, <i>Horse-chestnut</i>.</p> + <p>  Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, <i>Vernonia scorpioides</i>.</p> + <p>  Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, <i>Laurustinus</i>.</p> + <p>  Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus), + <i>Sea-pink</i>.</p> +</div></div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:247px; height:611px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 22.—Flower of <i>Sedum +rubens</i>. <i>s</i>, Sepals; <i>p</i>, petals; <i>a</i>, +stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 23.—Diagram of a completely +symmetrical flower, consisting +of four whorls, each of +five parts, <i>s</i>, Sepals; <i>p</i>, petals; +<i>a</i>, stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 24.—Monochlamydeous +(apetalous) flower of Goosefoot +(<i>Chenopodium</i>), consisting +of a single perianth (calyx) of five +parts, enclosing five stamens, +which are opposite the divisions +of the perianth, owing to the +absence of the petals.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 25.—Stamen, consisting +of a filament (stalk) <i>f</i> and an +anther <i>a</i>, containing the pollen <i>p</i>, +which is discharged through slits +in the two lobes of the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 26.—The pistil of Tobacco +(<i>Nicotiana Tabacum</i>), consisting +of the ovary <i>o</i>, containing +ovules, the style <i>s</i>, and the +capitate stigma <i>g</i>. The pistil is +placed on the receptacle <i>r</i>, at the +extremity of the peduncle.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:236px" src="images/img559a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—Calyx +and pistil of Fraxinella +(<i>Dictamnus +Fraxinella</i>). The +pistil consists of +several carpels, +which are elevated +on a stalk or <i>gynophore</i> +prolonged +from the receptacle.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls +(stamens and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes. +The axis is usually very much +contracted, no internodes +being developed, +and the portion +bearing the floral leaves, termed +<span class="sidenote">The flower.</span> +the <i>thalamus</i> or <i>torus</i>, frequently +expands into a conical, flattened +or hollowed expansion; at other +times, though rarely, the internodes +are developed and it is +elongated. Upon this torus the +parts of the flower are arranged +in a crowded manner, usually +forming a series of verticils, the +parts of which alternate; but +they are sometimes arranged +spirally especially if the floral +axis be elongated. In a typical +flower, as in fig. 22, we recognize +four distinct whorls of leaves: +an outer whorl, the <i>calyx</i> of +<i>sepals</i>; within it, another whorl, +the parts alternating with those +of the outer whorl, the <i>corolla</i> of +<i>petals</i>; next a whorl of parts +alternating with the parts of +the corolla, the <i>androecium</i> of +<i>stamens</i>; and in the centre the +<i>gynoecium</i> of <i>carpels</i>. Fig. 23 is +a diagrammatic representation +of the arrangement of the parts +of such a flower; it is known as +a <i>floral diagram</i>. The flower is +supposed to be cut transversely, +and the parts of each whorl +are distinguished by a different +symbol. Of these whorls the +two internal, forming the sporophylls, +constitute the <i>essential</i> +organs of reproduction; the two +outer whorls are the protective +coverings or floral <i>envelopes</i>. The +sepals are generally of a greenish +colour; their function is mainly +protective, shielding the more +delicate internal organs before +the flower opens. The petals are +usually showy, and normally +alternate with the sepals. Sometimes, +as usually in monocotyledons, +the calyx and corolla are +similar; in such cases the term +<i>perianth</i>, or <i>perigone</i>, is applied. +Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily, +hyacinth, we speak of the parts of the perianth, in place of +calyx and corolla, although in these plants there is an outer +whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner (corolla), of a +similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of +the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be +<i>petaloid</i>, as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the +appearance of sepals, then they are <i>sepaloid</i>, as in Juncaceae. +In plants, as <i>Nymphaea alba</i>, where a spiral arrangement of the +floral leaves occurs, it is not easy to say where the calyx ends +and the corolla begins, as these two whorls pass insensibly into +each other. When both calyx and corolla are present, the plants +are <i>dichlamydeous</i>; when one only is present, the flower is +termed <i>monochlamydeous</i> or <i>apetalous</i>, having no petals (fig. 24). +Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is <i>achlamydeous</i>, +or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential +organs, collectively termed the <i>androecium</i>, is composed of the +microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or <i>stamens</i>. In +their most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the +<i>filament</i> (fig. 25, <i>f</i>), supporting at its summit the anther +(<i>a</i>), consisting of the pollen-sacs which contain the powdery +<i>pollen</i> (<i>p</i>), the microspores, which is ultimately discharged +therefrom. The <i>gynoecium</i> or <i>pistil</i> is the central portion +of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It consists of one +or more <i>carpels</i> (megasporophylls), either separate (fig. 22, <i>c</i>) +or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the pistil +are the <i>ovary</i> (fig. 26, <i>o</i>), which is the lower portion enclosing +the <i>ovules</i> destined to become seeds, and the <i>stigma</i> (<i>g</i>), a portion +of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the pollen +is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary, +as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion +called the <i>style</i> (<i>s</i>). The androecium and gynoecium are not +present in all flowers. When both are present the flower is +<i>hermaphrodite</i>; and in descriptive botany such a flower is +indicated by the symbol ☿. When only one of those organs +is present the flower is <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i>, and is either male +(<i>staminate</i>), ♁; or female (<i>pistillate</i>), ♀. A flower then normally +consists of the four series of leaves—calyx, corolla, androecium +and gynoecium—and when these are all present the flower is +<i>complete</i>. These are usually densely crowded +upon the thalamus, but in some instances, +after apical growth has ceased in the axis, +an elongation of portions of the receptacle +by intercalary growth occurs, by which +changes in the position of the parts may be +brought about. Thus in <i>Lychnis</i> an elongation +of the axis betwixt the calyx and the +corolla takes place, and in this way they are +separated by an interval. Again, in the +passion-flower (<i>Passiflora</i>) the stamens are +separated from the corolla by an elongated +portion of the axis, which has consequently +been termed the <i>androphore</i>, and in <i>Passiflora</i> +also, fraxinella (fig. 27), Capparidaceae, +and some other plants, the ovary is +raised upon a distinct stalk termed the +<i>gynophore</i>; it is thus separated from the +stamens, and is said to be <i>stipitate</i>. Usually +the successive whorls of the flower, disposed +from below upwards or from without inwards +upon the floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or +are a multiple of the same number of parts, those of one whorl +alternating with those of the whorls next it.</p> + +<p>In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or +less convex, and the series of organs follow in regular succession, +culminating in the carpels, in the formation of which the growth +of the axis is closed (fig. 28). This arrangement is known as +hypogynous, the other series (calyx, corolla and stamens) being +beneath (<i>hypo-</i>) the gynoecium. In other cases, the apex of the +growing point ceases to develop, and the parts below form a cup +around it, from the rim of which the outer members of the flower +are developed around (<i>peri-</i>) the carpels, which are formed from +the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. This +arrangement is known as <i>perigynous</i> (fig. 29). In many cases +this is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span> +by the carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring +from the edge of the receptacle which is immediately above the +ovary (epigynous), hence the term epigyny (fig. 30).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:443px; height:156px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.         +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.         +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 28</span>, 29 and 30.—Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, perigyny +and epigyny of the flower. <i>a</i>, Stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels; <i>p</i>, petals; +<i>s</i>, sepals.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:365px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>       <span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger’s <i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 31</span> and 32.—White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32, +successive stages, <i>a-f</i>, in the transition from petals to stamens. +(After Wossidlo.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:260px; height:468px" src="images/img560c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—Diagrammatic section +of a symmetrical pentamerous +flower of Stone-crop (<i>Sedum</i>), consisting +of five sepals (<i>s</i>), five petals +(<i>p</i>) alternating with the sepals, ten +stamens (<i>a</i>) in two rows, and five +carpels (<i>c</i>) containing ovules. The +dark lines (<i>d</i>) on the outside of the +carpels are glands.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—Diagram of the flower +of Flax (<i>Linum</i>), consisting of five +sepals (<i>s</i>), five petals (<i>p</i>), five +stamens (<i>a</i>), and five carpels (<i>c</i>), +each of which is partially divided +into two. The dots represent a +whorl of stamens which has disappeared. +It is pentamerous, complete, +symmetrical and regular.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—Diagram of the flower +of Heath (<i>Erica</i>), a regular tetramerous +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>—Diagram of the trimerous +symmetrical flower of Iris.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—Diagram of the symmetrical +trimerous flower of Fritillary +(<i>Fritillaria</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>—Diagram of the flower +of Saxifrage (<i>Saxifraga tridactylites</i>). +The calyx and corolla consist of +five parts, the stamens are ten in +two rows, while the pistil has only +two parts developed.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said +to be <i>cyclic</i>, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts +and are alternate it is <i>eucyclic</i> (figs. 22, 23). In +contrast to the cyclic flowers are those, as in Magnoliaceae, +<span class="sidenote">Symmetry of the flower.</span> +where the parts are in spirals (<i>acyclic</i>). Flowers +which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at another, +as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed <i>hemicyclic</i>. In spiral +flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually +there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to +staminal parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs. +31, 32), although in some plants there is no such distinction, the +parts being all petaloid, as in <i>Trollius</i>. Normally, the parts of +successive whorls alternate; but in some cases we find the parts +of one whorl opposite or <i>superposed</i> to those of the next whorl. +In some cases, as in the vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems +to be the ordinary mode of development, but the superposition +of the stamens on the sepals in many plants, as in the pink family, +Caryophyllaceae, is due to the suppression or abortion of the +whorl of petals, and this idea is borne out by the development, +in some plants of the order, of the suppressed whorl. As a rule, +whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on those of +another we may suspect some abnormality.</p> + +<p>A flower is said to be <i>symmetrical</i> when each of its whorls +consists of an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any +one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical +flower may have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and +five carpels, or the number of any of these parts may be ten, +twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a +symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, alternating +with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower +of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten +stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the +staminal whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case +the additional five parts form a second row alternating with +the others. In the staminal whorl especially it is common to +find additional rows. Fig. 34 shows a symmetrical flower, with +five parts in the three outer rows, and ten divisions in the inner. +In this case it is the gynoecium which has an additional number +of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with four divisions +of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four +divisions of the pistil. In fig. +36 there are three parts in +each whorl; and in fig. 37 +there are three divisions of +the calyx, corolla and pistil, +and six stamens in two rows. +In all these cases the flower +is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons +it is usual for the +staminal whorl to be double, +it rarely having more than +two rows, whilst amongst +dicotyledons there are often +very numerous rows of +stamens. The floral envelopes +are rarely multiplied. Flowers +in which the number of parts +in each whorl is the same, are +<i>isomerous</i> (of equal number); +when the number in some of +the whorls is different, the +flower is <i>anisomerous</i> (of unequal +number). The pistillate +whorl is very liable to +changes. It frequently +happens that when it is fully +formed, the number of its +parts is not in conformity +with that of the other whorls. +In such circumstances, however, +a flower has been called +symmetrical, provided the +parts of the other whorls are +normal,—the permanent state +of the pistil not being taken +into account in determining +symmetry. Thus fig. 38 shows +a pentamerous symmetrical +flower, with dimerous pistil. +Symmetry, then, in botanical +language, has reference to a +certain definite numerical +relation of parts. A flower +in which the parts are +arranged in twos is called +<i>dimerous</i>; when the parts of +the whorls are three, four or +five, the flower is <i>trimerous</i>, +<i>tetramerous</i> or <i>pentamerous</i>, +respectively. The symmetry +which is most commonly met with is trimerous and pentamerous—the +former occurring generally among monocotyledons, the +latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous symmetry +occur also among dicotyledons.</p> + +<p>The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation +to the axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one +sepal is next the axis, and is called <i>superior</i> or <i>posterior</i>; another +is next the bract, and is <i>inferior</i> or <i>anterior</i>, and the other two +are <i>lateral</i>; and certain terms are used to indicate that position. +A plane passing through the anterior and posterior sepal and +through the floral axis is termed the <i>median plane</i> of the flower; +a plane cutting it at right angles, and passing through the lateral +sepals, is the <i>lateral plane</i>; whilst the planes which bisect the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +angles formed by the lateral and median planes are the <i>diagonal +planes</i>, and in these flowers the petals which alternate with the +sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:102px; height:113px" src="images/img561a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:177px; height:146px" src="images/img561b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>—Diagram of flower +of Sweet-pea (<i>Lathyrus</i>), showing +five sepals (<i>s</i>), two superior, one +inferior, and two lateral; five +petals (<i>p</i>), one superior, two inferior, +and two lateral; ten +stamens in two rows (<i>a</i>); and +one carpel (<i>c</i>).</td> +<td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—Flower of Pea +(<i>Pisum sativum</i>), showing a papilionaceous +corolla, with one +petal superior (st) called the +standard (vexillum), two inferior +(car) called the keel (carina), +and two lateral (<i>a</i>) called wings +(alae). The calyx is marked c.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the +calyx of Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in +the calyx of Leguminosae (fig. 39)—the reverse, by the law of +alternation, being the case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom +of the pea (figs. 39, 40), the odd petal (vexillum) <i>st</i> is superior, +while the odd sepal is inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae +one of the two carpels is posterior and the other anterior, whilst +in Convolvulaceae the carpels are arranged laterally. Sometimes +the twisting of a part makes a change in the position of other +parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the ovary changes +the position of the labellum.</p> + +<p>When the different members of each whorl are like in size and +shape, the flower is said to be <i>regular</i>; while differences in the +size and shape of the parts of a whorl make the flower <i>irregular</i>, +as in the papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a +flower can be divided by a single plane into two exactly similar +parts; then it is said to be <i>zygomorphic</i>. Such flowers as Papilionaceae, +Labiatae, are examples. In contrast with this are +<i>polysymmetrical</i> or actinomorphic flowers, which have a radial +symmetry and can be divided by several planes into several +exactly similar portions; such are all regular, symmetrical +flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or some +multiple of the others, then the flower is <i>asymmetrical</i>. This +want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways. +Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement as well as in the +completeness and regularity of flowers has been traced to <i>suppression</i> +or the <i>non-development</i> of parts, <i>degeneration</i> or imperfect +formation, <i>cohesion</i> or union of parts of the same whorl, <i>adhesion</i> +or union of the parts of different whorls, <i>multiplication</i> of parts, +and <i>deduplication</i> (sometimes called <i>chorisis</i>) or splitting of parts.</p> + +<p>By <i>suppression</i> or non-appearance of a part at the place where +it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry +or completeness of the flower is disturbed. This suppression +when confined to the parts of certain verticils makes the flower +asymmetrical. Thus, in many Caryophyllaceae, as <i>Polycarpon</i> +and <i>Holosteum</i>, while the calyx and corolla are pentamerous, +there are only three or four stamens and three carpels; in +<i>Impatiens Noli-me-tangere</i> the calyx is composed of three parts, +while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are +five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and +in <i>Tropaeolum pentaphyllum</i> there are five sepals, two petals, +eight stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of +symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the +last-mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said +that there are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position +of the two remaining ones; there are two rows of stamens, +in each of which one is wanting; and there are two carpels +suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards +suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally +some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower. +By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the +carpels, flowers become <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i>, and by the +suppression of one or both of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous +and achlamydeous flowers are produced. The suppression +of parts of the flower may be carried so far that at last a flower +consists of only one part of one whorl. In the Euphorbiaceae we +have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of parts, +where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to +one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms +where two of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which +the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or +three bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), +and only one or two stamens are produced. And finally, +we find flowers consisting of a single stamen with a bract. There +is thus traced a <i>degradation</i>, as it is called, from a flower with +three stamens and three divisions of the calyx, to one with a +single bract and a single stamen.</p> + +<p><i>Degeneration</i>, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise +either to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in +form. In unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges +of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or +scales. In double flowers transformations of the stamens and +pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In <i>Canna</i>, +what are called petals are in reality metamorphosed stamens. +In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find the florets +converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may appear +as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae +and <i>Valeriana</i>. In <i>Scrophularia</i> the fifth stamen appears as a +scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in <i>Pentstemon</i>, +it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place +of an anther.</p> + +<p><i>Cohesion</i>, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and <i>adhesion</i>, +or the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes +of change both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in <i>Cucurbita</i> +the stamens are originally five in number, but subsequently +some cohere, so that three stamens only are seen in the mature +flower. Adhesion is well seen in the <i>gynostemium</i> of orchids, +where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In Capparidaceae +the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the axis +is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens +are united.</p> + +<p><i>Multiplication</i>, or an increase of the number of parts, gives +rise to changes. We have already alluded to the interposition +of new members in a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the +staminal whorl, but usually the additional parts produced form +a symmetrical whorl with the others. In some instances, +however, this is not the case. Thus in the horse-chestnut there +is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven stamens are +formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.</p> + +<p>Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of <i>deduplication</i>, +or <i>chorisis</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the splitting of a part so that two or more +parts are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous +plants the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens +and two short ones (<i>tetradynamous</i>). The symmetry in the flower +is evidently dimerous, and the abnormality in the androecium, +where the four long stamens are opposite the posterior sepals, +takes place by a splitting, at a very early stage of development, +of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases of what was considered +chorisis are in reality due to the development of stipules +from the staminal leaf. Thus in <i>Dicentra</i> and <i>Corydalis</i> there +are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle +alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther, +and are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching +of stamens also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus, +in the so-called polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there +are really only five stamens which give off numerous branches, +but the basal portion remaining short, the branches have the +appearance of separate stamens, and the flower thus seems +asymmetrical.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation</i> has a great effect in causing changes in the various +parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and +adhesion of parts are due to the art of the horticulturist. The +changes in the colour and forms of flowers thus produced are +endless. In the dahlia the florets are rendered quilled, and are +made to assume many glowing colours. In pelargonium the +flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and such is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +also the case with the <i>Ranunculus</i>, the auricula and the carnation. +Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state, +as columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and +others, as <i>Linaria</i>, in which one petal only is usually spurred, +are altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present +what are called <i>pelorian</i> varieties.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:171px" src="images/img562a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the +Nettle (<i>Urtica</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in +which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate +aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned +inwards at the edges.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the +parts of the flower, <i>floral formulae</i> have been devised. Several +modes of expression are employed. The following is a very +simple mode which has been proposed:—The several whorls +are represented by the letters S (sepals), P (petals), St (stamens), +C (carpels), and a figure marked after each indicates the number +of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span>St<span class="su">5</span>C<span class="su">5</span> means that +the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the whorls +being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would +be represented by the formula S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span>St<span class="su">5+5</span>C<span class="su">5</span>, where St<span class="su">5+5</span> indicates +that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each. +A flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be +expressed S<span class="su">4</span>P<span class="su">0</span>St<span class="su">4</span>C<span class="su">0</span>. When no other mark is appended the +whorls are supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark +the position of the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus, +to express the superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is +drawn between them, <i>e.g.</i> the symbol S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span> | St<span class="su">5</span>C<span class="su">5</span> is the formula +of the flower of Primulaceae.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:488px; height:174px" src="images/img562b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>—Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate +aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned outwards +at the edges.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>—Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in +which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, +and are twisted on their axis.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>—Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in +which the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that +1 and 2 are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly +external and partly overlapped by 1.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:287px; height:205px" src="images/img562c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—Diagram to illustrate imbricated +aestivation, in which the +parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, +following the order indicated by the +figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>—Diagram of a papilionaceous +flower, showing vexillary +aestivation.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1 and 2, The alae or wings.</p> + +<p>3, A part of the carina or keel.</p> + +<p>4, The vexillum or standard, which, +in place of being internal, as +marked by the dotted line, becomes +external.</p> + +<p>5, The remaining part of the keel.</p> + +<p>The order of the cycle is indicated +by the figures.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud +with respect to each other before opening is the <i>aestivation</i> or +<i>praefloration</i>. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud +in the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive +names have been given to the different arrangements exhibited, +both by the leaves individually and in their relations to each +other. As regards each leaf of the flower, it is either spread out, +as the sepals in the bud of the lime-tree, or folded upon itself +(conduplicate), as in the petals of some species of <i>Lysimachia</i>, +or slightly folded inwards or outwards at the edges, as in the +calyx of some species of clematis and of some herbaceous plants, +or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or folded transversely, +becoming <i>crumpled</i> or <i>corrugated</i>, as in the poppy. +When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are +applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping +or being folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel, +the aestivation is <i>valvate</i> (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts +may be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case +the aestivation is <i>induplicate</i> (fig. 43), in the latter case <i>reduplicate</i> +(fig. 44). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a circle, +each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one of its +sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in like +manner by that standing next to it, the aestivation is <i>twisted</i> +or <i>contorted</i> (fig. 45). This arrangement is characteristic of the +flower-buds of Malvaceae and Apocynaceae, and it is also seen +in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae. When the flower +expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but sometimes, +as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation +are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under +<i>circular</i> aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different +arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of <i>Camellia japonica</i> +cover each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation +is <i>imbricate</i>. At other times, as in the petals of <i>Camellia</i>, the +parts envelop each other completely, so as to become <i>convolute</i>. +This is also seen in a transverse section of the calyx of <i>Magnolia +grandiflora</i>, where each of the three leaves embraces that within +it. When the parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many +dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that there are two +parts external, two internal, and a fifth which partially covers +one of the internal parts by +its margin, and is in its +turn partially covered by +one of the external parts, +the aestivation is <i>quincuncial</i> +(fig. 46). This quincunx +is common in the +corolla of Rosaceae. In +fig. 47 a section is given +of the bud of <i>Antirrhinum +majus</i>, showing the imbricate +spiral arrangement. +In this case it will be seen +that the part marked 5 has, +by a slight change in position, +become overlapped by +1. This variety of imbricate +aestivation has been +termed <i>cochlear</i>. In flowers +such as those of the pea +(fig. 40), one of the parts, +the vexillum, is often large +and folded over the others, +giving rise to <i>vexillary</i> +aestivation (fig. 48), or the +carina may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is +<i>carinal</i>, as in the Judas-tree (<i>Cercis Siliquastrum</i>). The parts of +the several verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation. +Thus, in Malvaceae the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate, +or reduplicate; in St John’s-wort the calyx is imbricate, and +the corolla contorted. In Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is +twisted, and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbricate, +and exhibits a spiral arrangement. In <i>Guazuma</i> the calyx +is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular aestivation +is generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla, while the +spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as well as with +regular forms.</p> + +<p>The <i>sepals</i> are sometimes <i>free</i> or separate from each other, +at other times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the +former case, the calyx is <i>polysepalous</i>, in the latter +<i>gamosepalous</i> or <i>monosepalous</i>. The divisions of the +<span class="sidenote">Calyx.</span> +calyx present usually the characters of leaves, and in some cases +of monstrosity they are converted into leaf-like organs, as not +infrequently happens in primulas. They are usually entire, +but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in the rose; +they are rarely stalked. Sepals are generally of a more or less +oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their apices either blunt or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> +acute. In their direction they are erect or reflexed (with their +apices downwards), spreading outwards (<i>divergent</i> or <i>patulous</i>), +or arched inwards (<i>connivent</i>). They are usually of a greenish +colour (<i>herbaceous</i>); but sometimes they are coloured or +<i>petaloid</i>, as in the fuchsia, tropāeolum, globe-flower and +pomegranate. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope +of the flower is considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles +sometimes form a prominent rib, which indicates the middle of +the sepal; at other times they form several ribs. The venation +is useful as pointing out the number of leaves which constitute +a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx the number +of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus, +a calyx which has three sepals is <i>trisepalous</i>; one with five sepals +is <i>pentasepalous</i>. The sepals occasionally are of different forms +and sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet +(<i>galeate</i>). In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in +various ways, sometimes very slightly, and their number is +marked by the divisions at the apex. These divisions either +are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse teeth +(fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about half-way, +the calyx being <i>trifid</i> (three-cleft), <i>quinquefid</i> (five-cleft), &c., +according to their number; or they reach to near the base in the +form of partitions, the calyx being <i>tripartite</i>, <i>quadripartite</i>, +<i>quinquepartite</i>, &c. The union of the parts may be complete, +and the calyx may be quite entire or <i>truncate</i>, as in some Correas, +the venation being the chief indication of the different parts. +The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a +greater extent than others; thus a two-lipped or <i>labiate</i> calyx +is formed. The upper lip is often composed of three parts, +which are thus posterior or next the axis, while the lower has +two, which are anterior. The part formed by the union of the +sepals is called the <i>tube</i> of the calyx; the portion where the sepals +are free is the <i>limb</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:386px" src="images/img563a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der +Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav +Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>—Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (<i>Lychnis</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Fig. 50.</i>—Obsolete calyx (<i>c</i>) of Madder (<i>Rubia</i>) adherent to the +pistil, in the form of a rim.</p> + +<p><i>Fig. 51.</i>—Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel +(<i>Senecio vulgaris</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span>—Caducous calyx (<i>c</i>) of Poppy. There are two sepals +which fall off before the petals expand.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span>—Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent +calyx (<i>s</i>), surrounding the berry (<i>fr</i>), derived from the ovary. (After +Duchartre.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked +enlargement. In the violet the calycine segments are prolonged +downwards beyond their insertions, and in the Indian cress +(<i>Tropaeolum</i>) this prolongation is in the form of a spur (<i>calcar</i>), +formed by three sepals; in Delphinium it is formed by one. +In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is adherent to +the flower-stalk. In <i>Potentilla</i> and allied genera an <i>epicalyx</i> is +formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, which +form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with +the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the +bracteoles. Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it +becomes dry, scaly and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), +as in the rushes (Juncaceae); hairy, as in Compositae; or a +mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and Acanthaceae, and in +Madder (<i>Rubia tinctorum</i>, fig. 50), when it is called <i>obsolete</i> or +<i>marginate</i>. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and Valerianaceae +the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is developed in +the form of hairs called <i>pappus</i> (fig. 51). This pappus is either +simple (<i>pilose</i>) or feathery (<i>plumose</i>). In <i>Valeriana</i> the superior +calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it is shown +to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft +the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower +expands, as in poppies, and is <i>caducous</i> (fig. 52); or along with +the corolla, as in <i>Ranunculus</i>, and is <i>deciduous</i>; or it remains +after flowering (<i>persistent</i>) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, +and Boraginaceae; or its base only is persistent, as in <i>Datura +Stramonium</i>. In <i>Eschscholtzia</i> and <i>Eucalyptus</i> the sepals remain +united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base +or middle, so as to come off in the form of a lid or funnel. Such +a calyx is <i>operculate</i> or <i>calyptrate</i>. The existence or non-existence +of an articulation determines the deciduous or persistent nature +of the calyx.</p> + +<p>The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the +pistil, and enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the +apple, pear, &c. In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at +the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after +flowering, and encloses the fruit without being incorporated +with it, becoming <i>accrescent</i>, as in various species of <i>Physalis</i> +(fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered or <i>marcescent</i> +form, as in <i>Erica</i>; sometimes it becomes <i>inflated</i> or <i>vesicular</i>, +as in sea campion (<i>Silene maritima</i>).</p> + +<p>The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral +envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present +in the greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ +more from ordinary leaves than sepals do, and are +<span class="sidenote">Corolla.</span> +much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases, +however, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and +occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil They are +seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as +in some species of <i>Cobaea</i>, <i>Hoya viridiflora</i>, <i>Gonolobus viridiflorus</i> +and <i>Pentatropis spiralis</i>. As a rule they are highly coloured, +the colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue +or red flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow +flowers, or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish +flowers. The attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or +in part to surface markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a +pelargonium, when viewed with a ½ or ¼-in. object-glass, shows +beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are ornamented with +several inflected loops in the sides of the cells.</p> + +<p>Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some +instances, hairs are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs, +though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the same +arrangement as those which occur on the leaves; thus, in +Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen on the +petals of <i>Menyanthes</i>, and on the segments of the perianth of +<i>Iris</i>. They serve various purposes in the economy of the flower, +often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower +to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of +pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate +in their texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy, +as in <i>Stapelia</i> and <i>Rafflesia</i>; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and +stiff, as in <i>Xylopia</i>. A petal often consists of two portions—the +lower narrow, resembling the petiole of a leaf, and called the +<i>unguis</i> or <i>claw</i>; the upper broader, like the blade of a leaf, and +called the <i>lamina</i> or <i>limb</i>. These parts are seen in the petals +of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often wanting, as in the +crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are then <i>sessile</i>. +According to the development of veins and the growth of cellular +tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. Thus +the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These +teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +petal becomes <i>fimbriated</i>, as in the pink; or <i>laciniated</i>, as in +<i>Lychnis Flos-cuculi</i>; or <i>crested</i>, as in <i>Polygala</i>. Sometimes the +petal becomes pinnatifid, as in <i>Schizopetalum</i>. The median vein +is occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in +the form of a long process, as in <i>Strophanthus hispidus</i>, where +it extends for 7 in.; or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards +or inflexed, as in Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches +the base. The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, or +hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the petals become folded +in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in aconite (fig. 58) +some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, supported +on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57), +snapdragon and <i>Centranthus</i>, one or all of them are prolonged +in the form of a spur, and are <i>calcarate</i>. In <i>Valeriana</i>, <i>Antirrhinum</i> +and <i>Corydalis</i>, the spur is very short, and the corolla +or petal is said to be <i>gibbous</i>, or <i>saccate</i>, at the base. These spurs, +tubes and sacs serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing +of nectar.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:370px" src="images/img564a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span>—Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus +Cheiri</i>). <i>c</i>, The claw or unguis; <i>l</i>, the blade or lamina.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span>—Petal of Crowfoot (<i>Ranunculus</i>), without a claw, and +thus resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous +scale is seen.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>—Tubular petal of Hellebore (<i>Helleborus</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>—Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>). Longitudinal section of flower; +<i>v</i>, bracteole on the peduncle; <i>l</i>, sepals; <i>ls</i>, appendage of sepal; <i>c</i>, +petals; <i>cs</i>, spur of the lower petals; <i>fs</i>, glandular appendage of the +lower stamens; <i>a</i>, anthers. (After Sachs.)<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="f90">(From Vines’ Students’ <i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein +& Co.)<br /><br /></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>—Part of the flower of Aconite (<i>Aconitum Napellus</i>), showing +two irregular horn-like petals (<i>p</i>) supported on grooved stalks (<i>o</i>). +These serve as nectaries, <i>s</i>, the whorl of stamens inserted on the +thalamus and surrounding the pistil.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">A corolla is <i>dipetalous</i>, <i>tripetalous</i>, <i>tetrapetalous</i> or <i>pentapetalous</i> +according as it has two, three, four or five separate petals. The +general name of <i>polypetalous</i> is given to corollas having separate +petals, while <i>monopetalous</i>, <i>gamopetalous</i> or <i>sympetalous</i> is applied +to those in which the petals are united. This union generally +takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the +apex; in <i>Phyteuma</i> the petals are united at their apices also. +In some polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are +separate at the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals +are equal as regards their development and size, the corolla is +<i>regular</i>; when unequal, it is <i>irregular</i>. When a corolla is gamopetalous +it usually happens that the lower portion forms a +tube, while the upper parts are either free or partially united, +so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the two +portions being the <i>throat</i>, which often exhibits a distinct constriction +or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla +can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth, +crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the +corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal +among the parts, or some may unite more than others.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:136px" src="images/img564b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>—Rosaceous +corolla (<i>c</i>) of the Strawberry +(<i>Fragaria vesca</i>), +composed of five petals +without claws.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the +<i>rosaceous</i> corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading +petals, having no claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry +and <i>Potentilla</i>; the <i>caryophyllaceous</i> corolla, in which there are +five petals with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the +pink tribe; the <i>cruciform</i>, having four +petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite +in the form of a cross, as seen in wallflower, +and in other plants called <i>cruciferous</i>. +Of irregular polypetalous corollas +the most marked is the <i>papilionaceous</i> +(fig. 40), in which there are five petals:—one +superior (posterior), st, placed +next to the axis, usually larger than the +rest, called the <i>vexillum</i> or <i>standard</i>; +two lateral, a, the <i>alae</i> or wings; two +inferior (anterior), partially or completely +covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their +lower margins, so as to form a single keel-like piece, <i>car</i>, called +<i>carina</i>, or keel, which embraces the essential organs. This form +of corolla is characteristic of British leguminous plants.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:326px; height:229px" src="images/img564c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>—Flower of <i>Campanula medium</i>; +<i>d</i>, bract; <i>v</i>, bracteoles.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes <i>campanulate</i> or +<i>bell-shaped</i>, as in (<i>Campanula</i>) (fig. 60); <i>infundibuliform</i> or +<i>funnel-shaped</i>, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the +limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; <i>hypocrateriform</i> +or <i>salver-shaped</i>, when there is a straight tube surmounted +by a flat spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); <i>tubular</i>, +having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the +limb, as in <i>Spigelia</i> and comfrey; <i>rotate</i> or <i>wheel-shaped</i>, when +the tube is very short, and the limb flat and spreading, as in +forget-me-not, <i>Myosotis</i> (when the divisions of the rotate corolla +are very acute, as in <i>Galium</i>, it is sometimes called <i>stellate</i> or +<i>star-like</i>); <i>urceolate</i> or <i>urn-shaped</i>, when there is scarcely any +limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the +middle, as in bell-heath (<i>Erica cinerea</i>). Some of these forms +may become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more +developed than others. Thus, in <i>Veronica</i>, the rotate corolla +has one division much smaller than the rest, and in foxglove +(<i>Digitalis</i>) there is a +slightly irregular +companulate corolla. +Of irregular +gamopetalous corollas +there may be +mentioned the <i>labiate</i> +or <i>lipped</i> (fig. 62), +having two divisions +of the limb in the +form of lips (the +upper one, <i>u</i>, composed +usually of two +united petals, and +the lower, <i>l</i>, of three), +separated by a gap. +In such cases the tube varies in length, and the parts in their +union follow the reverse order of what occurs in the calyx, where +two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper. +When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the +lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called <i>ringent</i> (fig. 62). The +labiate corolla characterizes the natural order Labiatae. When +the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a +chink between them, the corolla is said to be <i>personate</i>, as in +snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas +the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in +calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what +occurs in the labellum of some orchids, as <i>Cypripedium</i>. When a +tubular corolla is split in such a way as to form a strap-like process +on one side with several tooth-like projections at its apex, it +becomes <i>ligulate</i> or <i>strap-shaped</i> (fig. 63). This corolla occurs +in many composite plants, as in the florets of dandelion, daisy +and chicory. The number of divisions at the apex indicates the +number of united petals, some of which, however, may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become more united +than others, and then the corolla assumes a <i>bilabiate</i> or <i>two-lipped</i> +form, as seen in the division of Compositae called Labiatiflorae.</p> + +<p>Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole +corolla is absent. In <i>Amorpha</i> and <i>Afzelia</i> the corolla is reduced to +a single petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely +wanting. In the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such +as <i>Ranunculus</i>, globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and +corolla, while others, such as clematis, anemone and <i>Caltha</i>, have +only a coloured calyx. Flowers become double by the multiplication +of the parts of the corolline whorl; this arises in general +from a metamorphosis of the stamens.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:292px" src="images/img565a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 61.—Flower of cowslip (<i>Primula +veris</i>) cut vertically. <i>s</i>, Sepals +joined to form a gamosepalous calyx; +<i>c</i>, corolla consisting of tube and spreading +limb; <i>a</i>, stamens springing from +the mouth of the tube; <i>p</i>, pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 62.—Irregular gamopetalous +labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle +(<i>Lamium album</i>). The upper lip <i>u</i> is +composed of two petals united, the +lower lip (<i>l</i>) of three. Between the +two lips there is a gap. The throat is +the part where the tube and the labiate +limb join. From the arching of the +upper lip this corolla is called ringent.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 63.—Irregular gamopetalous +ligulate flower of Ragwort (<i>Senecio</i>). +It is a tubular floret, split down on one +side, with the united petals forming a +straplike projection. The lines on the +flat portion indicate the divisions of the +five petals. From the tubular portion +below, the bifid style projects slightly.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which +received in former days the name of <i>nectaries</i>. The term nectary +was very vaguely applied +by Linnaeus to any part +of the flower which presented +an unusual aspect, +as the crown (<i>corona</i>) of +narcissus, the fringes of +the Passion-flower, &c. If +the name is retained it +ought properly to include +only those parts which +secrete a honey-like substance, +as the glandular +depression at the base of +the perianth of the fritillary, +or on the petal of +<i>Ranunculus</i> (fig. 55), or on +the stamens of Rutaceae. +The honey secreted by +flowers attracts insects, +which, by conveying the +pollen to the stigma, +effect fertilization. The +horn-like nectaries under +the galeate sepal of +aconite (fig. 58) are modified +petals, so also are the +tubular nectaries of hellebore +(fig. 56). Other +modifications of some part +of the flower, especially +of the corolla and stamens, +are produced either by +degeneration or outgrowth, +or by <i>chorisis</i>, +or <i>deduplication</i>. Of this nature are the scales on the petals in +<i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Silene</i> and <i>Cynoglossum</i>, which are formed in the same +way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus, +the scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered +stamens. In <i>Narcissus</i> the appendages are united to form a +crown, consisting of a membrane similar to that which unites +the stamens in <i>Pancratium</i>. It is sometimes difficult to say +whether these structures are to be referred to the corolline or to +the staminal row.</p> + +<p>Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base. +When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals +fall off either immediately after expansion (<i>caducous</i>) or after +fertilization (<i>deciduous</i>). A corolla which is continuous with the +axis and not articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths, +may be persistent, and remain in a withered or marcescent state +while the fruit is ripening. A gamopetalous corolla falls off in +one piece; but sometimes the base of the corolla remains persistent, +as in <i>Rhinanthus</i> and <i>Orobanche</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>stamens</i> and the <i>pistil</i> are sometimes spoken of as the +essential organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required +in order that perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions +the stamen represents a leaf which has been specially +developed to bear the pollen or microspores, it is spoken of in +comparative morphology as a microsporophyll; similarly the +carpels which make up the pistil are the megasporophylls (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>). <i>Hermaphrodite</i> or <i>bisexual</i> flowers are those +in which both these organs are found; <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i> +are those in which only one of these organs appears,—those +bearing stamens only, being <i>staminiferous</i> or “male”; those +having the pistil only, <i>pistilliferous</i> or “female.” But even in +plants with hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided +against by the structure of the parts or by the period of +ripening of the organs. For instance, in <i>Primula</i> and <i>Linum</i> +some flowers have long stamens and a pistil with a short style, +the others having short stamens and a pistil with a long style. +The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed primroses (fig. 61), +the latter in the “pin-eyed.” Such plants are called <i>dimorphic</i>. +Other plants are <i>trimorphic</i>, as species of <i>Lythrum</i>, and proper +fertilization is only effected by combination of parts of equal +length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before the +pistil; these are called <i>proterandrous</i>, as in <i>Ranunculus repens</i>, +<i>Silene maritima</i>, <i>Zea Mays</i>. In other plants, but more rarely, +the pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in <i>Potentilla argentea</i>, +<i>Plantago major</i>, <i>Coix Lachryma</i>, and they are termed <i>proterogynous</i>. +Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs +are called <i>dichogamous</i>. When in the same plant there are +unisexual flowers, both male and female, the plant is said to be +<i>monoecious</i>, as in the hazel and castor-oil plant. When the male +and female flowers of a species are found on separate plants, +the term <i>dioecious</i> is applied, as in <i>Mercurialis</i> and hemp; and +when a species has male, female and hermaphrodite flowers +on the same or different plants, as in <i>Parietaria</i>, it is <i>polygamous</i>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:328px; height:275px" src="images/img565b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 64.</span>—Flower of <i>Paeonia peregrina</i>, in +longitudinal section. <i>k</i>, Sepal; <i>c</i>, petal; <i>a</i>, +stamens; <i>g</i>, pistil. (½ nat. size.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the +petals, with which they generally alternate, forming one or more +whorls, which collectively constitute the <i>androecium</i>. +Their normal position is below the pistil, and when +<span class="sidenote">Stamens.</span> +they are so placed (fig. 64, <i>a</i>) upon the thalamus they are <i>hypogynous</i>. +Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or are +<i>epipetalous</i>, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar, +so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent +of the calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous +or epigynous (fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur, +especially amongst Saxifragaceae, where the parts are <i>half superior</i> +or <i>half inferior</i>. Where the stamens become adherent to the +pistil so as to form a column, the flowers are said to be <i>gynandrous</i>, +as in <i>Aristolochia</i> (fig. +66). These arrangements +of parts are of +great importance in +classification. The +stamens vary in number +from one to many +hundreds. In acyclic +flowers there is often +a gradual transition +from petals to +stamens, as in the +white water-lily (fig. +31). When flowers become +double by cultivation, +the stamens +are converted into +petals, as in the +paeony, camellia, +rose, &c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are +usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are +arranged opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter. +The flower is then <i>isostemonous</i>. When the stamens are not +equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is <i>anisostemonous</i>. +When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the +parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl +preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication +of parts than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of +stamens is <i>haplostemonous</i>. If the stamens are double the sepals +or petals as regards number, the flower is <i>diplostemonous</i>; if +more than double, <i>polystemonous</i>. The additional rows of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +stamens may be developed in the usual centripetal (acropetal) +order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be interposed between +the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, <i>i.e.</i> develop +centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the +flower is said to be <i>obdiplostemonous</i>. When the stamens are +fewer than twenty they are said to be <i>definite</i>; when above +twenty they are <i>indefinite</i>, and are represented by the symbol ∞. +The number of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals +prefixed to the term <i>androus</i>; thus a flower with one stamen +is <i>monandrous</i>, with two, three, four, five, six or many stamens, +di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or polyandrous, respectively.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:154px; height:121px" src="images/img566a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:395px" src="images/img566b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.</span>—Flower of +Aralia in vertical section. +<i>c</i>, Calyx; <i>p</i>, petal; +<i>e</i>, stamen; <i>s</i>, stigmas. +The calyx, petals and +stamens spring from +above the ovary (<i>o</i>) in +which two chambers +are shown each with a +pendulous ovule; <i>d</i>, disc +between the stamens +and stigmas.</td> +<td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.</span>—Flowers of <i>Aristolochia Clematitis</i> +cut through longitudinally. I. Young +flower in which the stigma (<i>N</i>) is receptive +and the stamens (<i>S</i>) have not yet opened; +II. Older flower with the stamens (<i>S</i>) +opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs +on the corolla dried up.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The function of the stamen is the development and distribution +of the pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted +portion, often thread-like, termed the <i>filament</i> (fig. 25 <i>f</i>), +and a broader portion, usually of two lobes, termed the <i>anther</i> (<i>a</i>), +containing the powdery <i>pollen</i> (<i>p</i>), and supported upon the end +of the filament. That +portion of the filament +in contact with the +anther-lobes is termed +the <i>connective</i>. If the +anther is absent the +stamen is abortive, +and cannot perform +its functions. The +anther is developed +before the filament, +and when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in +the mistletoe.</p> + +<p>The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-like, +and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit. +It is often, however, thickened, compressed and flattened in +various ways, becoming <i>petaloid</i> in <i>Canna</i>, <i>Marania</i>, water-lily +(fig. 32); <i>subulate</i> or slightly broadened at the base and drawn +out into a point like an awl, as in <i>Butomus umbellatus</i>; or +clavate, that is, narrow below and broad above, as in <i>Thalictrum</i>. +In some instances, as in <i>Tamarix gallica</i>, <i>Peganum Harmala</i>, +and <i>Campanula</i>, the base of the filament is much dilated, and +ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases +the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in <i>Allium</i> +and <i>Alyssum calycinum</i>. The filament varies much in length +and in firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that +of the pistil, and to the position of the flower, whether erect or +drooping. The filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support +the anther in an erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses, +and other wind-pollinated flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like, +so that the anther is pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is +generally continuous from one end to the other, but in some +cases it is bent or jointed, becoming <i>geniculate</i>; at other times, +as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is colourless, or of different +colours. Thus in fuchsia and <i>Poinciana</i>, it is red; in <i>Adamia</i> +and <i>Tradescantia virginica</i>, blue; in <i>Oenothera</i> and <i>Ranunculus +acris</i>, yellow.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:228px; height:228px" src="images/img566c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.</span>—Spikelet of Reed +(<i>Phragmites communis</i>) opened +out. <i>a, b</i>, Barren glumes; <i>c</i>, +fertile glumes, each enclosing one +flower with its pale, <i>d</i>; the zigzag +axis (<i>rhachilla</i>) bears long +silky hairs.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are sometimes +times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (<i>Tradescantia +virginica</i>) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or +necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation +of the protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the +thalamus or torus, and the stamens fall off after fertilization; +but in <i>Campanula</i> and some other plants they are continuous +with the torus, and the stamens remain persistent, although in a +withered state. Changes are produced in the whorl of stamens +by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less extent, while +the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the androecium +may unite, forming a tube +round the pistil, or a central +bundle when the pistil is abortive, +the stamens becoming +<i>monadelphous</i>, as occurs in +plants of the Mallow tribe; or +they may be arranged in two +bundles, the stamens being +<i>diadelphous</i>, as in <i>Polygala</i>, +<i>Fumaria</i> and Pea; in this case +the bundles may be equal or +unequal. It frequently happens, +especially in Papilionaceous +flowers, that out of ten stamens +nine are united by their filaments, +while one (the posterior +one) is free (fig. 68). When +there are three or more bundles +the stamens are <i>triadelphous</i>, as in <i>Hypericum aegyptiacum</i>, or +<i>polyadelphous</i>, as in <i>Ricinus communis</i> (castor-oil). In some +cases, as in papilionaceous flowers, the stamens cohere, having +been originally separate, but in most cases each bundle is produced +by the branching of a single stamen. When there are +three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral ones +as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect +stamens, each having at the base of the filament two abortive +stamens or staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules. +Filaments sometimes are adherent to the pistil, forming a column +(<i>gynostemium</i>), as in <i>Stylidium</i>, Asclepiadaceae, <i>Rafflesia</i>, and +Aristolochiaceae (fig. 66); the flowers are then termed <i>gynandrous</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:351px" src="images/img566d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 68.</span>—Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (<i>Lathyrus</i>). The +stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments +(<i>f</i>), while one of them (<i>e</i>) is free; <i>st</i>, stigma; <i>c</i>, calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 69.</span>—Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus</i>). +<i>ce</i>, Exothecium; <i>cf</i>, endothecium; highly magnified.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 70.</span>—Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering +Rush (<i>Butomus umbellatus</i>). The anther entire (<i>a</i>) with its filament; +section of anther (<i>b</i>) showing the four loculi.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The <i>anther</i> consists of lobes containing the minute powdery +pollen grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure +or opening of some sort. There is a double covering +of the anther—the outer, or <i>exothecium</i>, resembles the +<span class="sidenote">The anther.</span> +epidermis, and often presents stomata and projections of +different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or <i>endothecium</i>, is formed by a +layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, <i>cf</i>), the cells of which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the wall. +The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner +towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears +entirely. The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that +when the anther attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and +these by their elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The +anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile in +the first instance, and sometimes continues so. It appears at +first as a simple cellular papilla of meristem, upon which an +indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon these projections +the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, usually four +in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation takes +place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer +of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells. +Those central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the +small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium, +the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.</p> + +<p>In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for +each anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete +it is a <i>quadrilocular</i> or <i>tetrathecal</i> anther (fig. 70). Sometimes, +however, only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of +the sacs in each lobe, in which case the anther is said to be <i>bilocular</i> +or <i>dithecal</i>. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and +becomes <i>unilocular</i>, or <i>monothecal</i>, or <i>dimidiate</i>, either by the +disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the +abortion of one of its lobes, as in <i>Styphelia laeta</i> and <i>Althaea +officinalis</i> (hollyhock). Occasionally there are numerous cavities +in the anther, as in <i>Viscum</i> and <i>Rafflesia</i>. The form of the +anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a more or less oval +or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as in <i>Mercurialis +annua</i>; at other times linear or clavate: curved, flexuose, or +sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of +union of the lobes and the unequal development of different +parts of their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced. +That part of the anther to which the filament is attached is the +<i>back</i>, the opposite being the <i>face</i>. The division between the lobes +is marked on the face of the anther by a groove or <i>furrow</i>, and +there is usually on the face a <i>suture</i>, indicating the line of dehiscence. +The suture is often towards one side in consequence of +the valves being unequal. The stamens may cohere by their +anthers, and become <i>syngenesious</i>, as in composite flowers, and in +lobelia, jasione, &c.</p> + +<p>The anther-lobes are united to the <i>connective</i>, which is either +continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the +filament is continuous with the connective, and is +prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be united +<span class="sidenote">The connective.</span> +to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition +to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said to be <i>adnate</i> or +<i>adherent</i>; when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then +the latter is <i>innate</i> or <i>erect</i>. In these cases the anther is to a +greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is +very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are movable +(<i>versatile</i>) and are easily turned by the wind, as in <i>Tritonia</i>, +grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only to the +middle of the connective. The connective may unite the anther-lobes +completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short +and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or +free. At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes, +assuming various forms, as in <i>Acalypha</i> and oleander; or it is +extended backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71), +forming a nectar-secreting spur. In <i>Salvia officinalis</i> the connective +is attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as +to separate the two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which +contains pollen, the other being imperfectly developed and sterile. +The connective is joined to the filament by a movable joint +forming a lever which plays an important part in the pollination-mechanism. +In <i>Stachys</i> the connective is expanded laterally, +so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and bring them into +a horizontal line.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:503px" src="images/img567.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 71.</span>—Two stamens of +Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), with +their two anther-lobes and the +connectives (<i>p</i>) extending beyond +them. One of the stamens +has been deprived of its spur, +the other shows its spur <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 72.</span>—Anther of <i>Salvia +officinalis</i>. <i>lf</i>, fertile lobe full +of pollen; <i>ls</i>, barren lobe without +pollen; <i>e</i>, connective; <i>f</i>, +filament.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 73.</span>—Stamen of Lady’s +Mantle (<i>Alchemilla</i>), with the +anther opening transversely.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 74.</span>—Stamen of a species +of Nightshade (<i>Solanum</i>), +showing the divergence of the +anther-lobes at the base, and +the dehiscence by pores at the +apex.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 75.</span>—The stamen of the +Barberry (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>), +showing one of the valves of +the anther (<i>v</i>) curved upwards, +bearing the pollen on its inner +surface.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The opening or <i>dehiscence</i> of the anthers to discharge their +contents takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores. +When the anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the +line of the suture—<i>longitudinal dehiscence</i> (fig. 25). At other +<span class="sidenote">Antherdehiscence.</span> +times the slit is horizontal, from the connective to the +side, as in <i>Alchemilla arvensis</i> (fig. 73) and in <i>Lemna</i>; +the dehiscence is then <i>transverse</i>. When the anther-lobes +are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the connective, +then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear +to be transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole +length of the anther-lobe at once, +but often for a time it extends +only partially. In other instances +the opening is confined +to the base or apex, each loculament +opening by a single pore, +as in <i>Pyrola</i>, <i>Tetratheca juncea</i>, +Rhododendron, <i>Vaccinium</i> and +<i>Solanum</i> (fig. 74), where there are +two, and <i>Poranthera</i>, where there +are four; whilst in the mistletoe +the anther has numerous pores +for the discharge of the pollen. +Another mode of dehiscence is +the valvular, as in the barberry +(fig. 75), where each lobe opens +by a valve on the outer side of +the suture, separately rolling up +from base to apex; in some of +the laurel tribe there are two +such valves for each lobe, or four +in all. In some Guttiferae, as +<i>Hebradendron cambogioides</i> (the +Ceylon gamboge plant), the +anther opens by a lid separating +from the apex (<i>circumscissile</i> +dehiscence).</p> + +<p>The anthers dehisce at different +periods during the process of +flowering; sometimes in the bud, +but more commonly when the +pistil is fully developed and the +flower is expanded. They either +dehisce simultaneously or in succession. +In the latter case individual +stamens may move in +succession towards the pistil and +discharge their contents, as in +<i>Parnassia palustris</i>, or the outer +or the inner stamens may first +dehisce, following thus a centripetal +or centrifugal order. These +variations are intimately connected +with the arrangements +for transference of pollen. The +anthers are called <i>introrse</i> when +they dehisce by the surface next +to the centre of the flower; they +are <i>extrorse</i> when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they +dehisce by the sides, as in <i>Iris</i> and some grasses, they are +<i>laterally</i> dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature, +anthers originally introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower +and <i>Oxalis</i>.</p> + +<p>The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great +variety in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in +the poppy and tulip, orange in <i>Eschscholtzia</i>, &c. The colour +and appearance of the anthers often change after they have +discharged their functions.</p> + +<p>Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or +non-development of the anthers, when they are known as +<i>staminodia</i>, or rudimentary stamens. In <i>Scrophularia</i> the fifth +stamen appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons +it is reduced to a filament with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at +the apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are +converted into petals; this is also probably the case with such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +plants as <i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, where there is a multiplication +of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in <i>Canna</i>, one of the +anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is +produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. +Some are enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in <i>Cinchona</i> +(<i>included</i>); others are <i>exserted</i>, or extend beyond the flower, +as in <i>Littorella</i> or <i>Plantago</i>. Sometimes the stamens in the early +state of the flower project beyond the petals, and in the progress +of growth become included, as in <i>Geranium striatum</i>. Stamens +also vary in their relative lengths. When there is more than one +row or whorl in a flower, those on the outside are sometimes +longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times those in the interior +are longest, as in <i>Luhea</i>. When the stamens are in two rows, +those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those which +alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single +stamen is longer than +all the rest. A definite +relation, as regards +number, sometimes +exists between the long +and the short stamens. +Thus, in some flowers +the stamens are <i>didynamous</i>, +having only +four out of five stamens +developed, and the +two corresponding to +the upper part of the +flower longer than the +two lateral ones. This +occurs in Labiatae and +Scrophulariaceae (fig. +76). Again, in other +cases there are six +stamens, whereof four +long ones are arranged +in pairs opposite to each +other, and alternate +with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to <i>tetradynamous</i> +flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their direction, +may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In the +last-mentioned case they are called <i>declinate</i>, as in amaryllis, +horse-chestnut and fraxinella.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:153px; height:191px" src="images/img568a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:110px; height:282px" src="images/img568b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.—Corolla +of foxglove (<i>Digitalis +purpurea</i>), cut +in order to show +the didynamous +stamens (two long +and two short) +which are attached +to it.</td> +<td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger’s +<i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, +by permission of Gustav +Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.—Tetradynamous +stamens +(four long and two +short) of wallflower +(<i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist +of small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled +mother-cells formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia) +of the young anther. These mother-cells are either +separated from one another and float in the granular fluid which +fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, or are not so isolated. A +division takes place, by which four cells are formed in each, the +exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and monocotyledons. +These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase +in size and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into +an outer cuticular layer, or <i>extine</i>, and an inner layer, or <i>intine</i>. +Then the walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-grains +float freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually +disappears, and the mature grains form a powdery mass within +the anther. They then either remain united in fours, or multiples +of four, as in some acacias, <i>Periploca graeca</i> and <i>Inga anomala</i>, +or separate into individual grains, which by degrees become +mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane of the mother-cell is +not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in a +viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagraceae. +In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses, +or <i>pollinia</i> (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids each +of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (<i>caudicle</i>) which +adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (<i>rostellum</i>) +by means of a viscid gland (<i>retinaculum</i>) which is either naked +or covered. The term <i>clinandrium</i> is sometimes applied to the +part of the column in orchids where the stamens are situated. +In some orchids, as <i>Cypripedium</i>, the pollen has its ordinary +character of separate grains. The number of pollinia varies; +thus, in <i>Orchis</i> there are usually two, in <i>Cattleya</i> four, and in +<i>Laelia</i> eight. The two pollinia in <i>Orchis Morio</i> contain each +about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small masses, when +bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In Asclepiadaceae +the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), belonging +to two contiguous anther-lobes—each pollen-mass having a +caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of +which they are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia +are also provided with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80). +The <span class="correction" title="amended from extine">exine</span> is a firm membrane, which +defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and +gives colour to it. It is either smooth, or +covered with numerous projections (fig. 81), +granules, points or crested reticulations. +The colour is generally yellow, and the surface +is often covered with a viscid or oily +matter. The intine is uniform in different +kinds of pollen, thin and transparent, +and possesses great power of extension. +In some aquatics, as <i>Zostera</i>, <i>Zannichellia</i>, <i>Naias</i>, &c., only one +covering exists.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:280px" src="images/img568c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 78.—Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (<i>g</i>) or +viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (<i>p</i>) +are supported on stalks or caudicles (<i>c</i>). These masses are easily +detached by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 79.—Pistil of <i>Asclepias</i> (<i>a</i>) with pollen-masses (<i>p</i>) adhering +to the stigma (<i>s</i>). <i>b</i>, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united +by a gland-like body. Enlarged.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 80.—Stamen of <i>Asclepias</i>, showing filament f, anther a, and +appendages p. Enlarged.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:103px; height:100px" src="images/img568d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:250px; height:152px" src="images/img568e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:167px; height:146px" src="images/img568f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 81.—Pollen of +Hollyhock (<i>Althaea rosea</i>), highly magnified.</td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>From Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of +Botany</i>, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein +& Co.<br /><br /></td> +<td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 83.—Male flower of +Pellitory (<i>Parietaria officinalis</i>), +having four stamens with in-curved +elastic filaments, and +an abortive pistil in the centre. +When the perianth (<i>p</i>) expands, +the filaments are thrown +out with force as at <i>a</i>, so as to +scatter the pollen.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 82.—Germinating pollen-grain +of Epilobium (highly mag.) +bearing a pollen-tube <i>s</i>; <i>e</i>, exine; +<i>i</i>, intine; <i>abc</i>, the three spots +where the exine is thicker in +anticipation of the formation of +the pollen-tube developed in this +case at <i>a</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Pollen-grains vary from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">300</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">700</span> of an inch or less in diameter. +Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is +ellipsoidal, more or less narrow at the extremities, which are +called its <i>poles</i>, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from +the extremities, which is its equator. Pollen-grains are also +spherical; cylindrical and curved, as in <i>Tradescantia virginica</i>; +polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and Compositae; nearly triangular in +section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae (fig. 82). The surface of the +pollen-grain is either uniform and homogeneous, or it is marked +by folds formed by thinnings of the membrane. There are also +rounded portions of the membrane or pores visible in the pollen-grain; +these vary in number from one to fifty, and through one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination of +the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only +one, while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards; +when numerous, the pores are either scattered irregularly, or +in a regular order, frequently forming a circle round the equatorial +surface. Sometimes at the place where they exist, the outer +membrane, in place of being thin and transparent, is separated +in the form of a lid, thus becoming <i>operculate</i>, as in the passion-flower +and gourd. Within the pollen-grain is the granular +protoplasm with some oily particles, and occasionally starch. +Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes place in the pollen-grain +into a vegetative cell or cells, from which the tube is +developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides to +form the male cells (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span>).</p> + +<p>When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the +pollen is shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the +pollen must be conveyed to the stigma of the pistil. +This process, termed <i>pollination</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pollination</a></span>), +<span class="sidenote">Pollination.</span> +is promoted in various ways,—the whole form and +structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some +plants, as <i>Kalmia</i> and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity +of the filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants +pollination is effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees, +grasses, &c., and in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are +produced. These plants are <i>anemophilous</i>. But the common +agents for pollination are insects. To allure and attract them +to visit the flower the odoriferous secretions and gay colours +are developed, and the position and complicated structure of +the parts of the flower are adapted to the perfect performance +of the process. It is comparatively rare in hermaphrodite flowers +for self-fertilization to occur, and the various forms of dichogamy, +dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent this.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:260px" src="images/img569a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 84.</span>—Flower of Tree +Paeony (<i>Paeonia Moutan</i>), +deprived of its corolla, and +showing the disk in the form +of a fleshy expansion (<i>d</i>) +covering the ovary.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Under the term <i>disk</i> is included every structure intervening +between the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures +that the name of <i>nectary</i> was applied by old authors. +It presents great varieties of form, such as a ring, scales, +<span class="sidenote">Disk.</span> +glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c., and in the progress of +growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus becoming truly +nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by degeneration +or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of +processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens, +and thus representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be +opposite to the stamens. In some +flowers, as <i>Jatropha Curcas</i>, in which +the stamens are not developed, their +place is occupied by glandular +bodies forming the disk. In Gesneraceae +and Cruciferae the disk consists +of tooth-like scales at the base +of the stamens. The parts composing +the disk sometimes unite and +form a glandular ring, as in the +orange; or they form a dark-red +lamina covering the pistil, as in +<i>Paeonia Moutan</i> (fig. 84); or a +waxy lining of the hollow receptacle, +as in the rose; or a swelling at the +top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae, +in which the disk is said to be +epigynous. The enlarged torus +covering the ovary in <i>Nymphaea</i> +(<i>Castalia</i>) and <i>Nelumbium</i> may be regarded as a form of disk.</p> + +<p>The pistil or <i>gynoecium</i> occupies the centre or apex of the +flower, and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes +when these are present. It constitutes the innermost +whorl, which after flowering is changed into the fruit +<span class="sidenote">The pistil.</span> +and contains the seeds. It consists essentially of two parts, a +basal portion forming a chamber, the <i>ovary</i>, containing the ovules +attached to a part called the <i>placenta</i>, and an upper receptive +portion, the <i>stigma</i>, which is either seated on the ovary (<i>sessile</i>), +as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called the +<i>style</i>, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil +consists of one or more modified leaves, the <i>carpels</i> (or <i>megasporophylls</i>). +When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is <i>simple</i> or +monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several carpels, +more or less united, it is <i>compound</i> or <i>polycarpellary</i> (fig. 86). +In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are +synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when +present), and stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded +leaf, the upper surface of which is turned inwards towards the +axis, and the lower outwards, while from its margins are developed +one or more <i>ovules</i>. This comparison is borne out by an examination +of the flower of the double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit +is produced, and the pistil consists merely of sessile leaves, +the limb of each being green and folded, with a narrow prolongation +upwards, as if from the midrib, and ending in a thickened +portion. In <i>Cycas</i> the carpels are ordinary leaves, with ovules +upon their margin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:359px" src="images/img569b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger’s +<i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, +by permission of Gustav +Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 85.—Pistil of Broom (<i>Cytisus</i>) consisting of ovary <i>o</i>, style <i>s</i>, +and stigma <i>t</i>. It is formed by a single carpel.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 86.—Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (<i>Helleborus +niger</i>). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct +carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite, +and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 87.—Fruit of the Strawberry (<i>Fragaria vesca</i>), consisting of +an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small +dry seed-like fruits (achenes).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 88.—Fruit of <i>Rosa alba</i>, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis +s´, the persistent sepals s, and the carpels <i>fr</i>. The stamens (<i>c</i>) have +withered. (After Duchartre.)</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 89.—Pistil of <i>Ranunculus</i>. <i>x</i>, Receptacle with the points of +insertion of the stamens <i>a</i>, most of which have been removed.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 90.—Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (<i>Linum</i>), consisting of five +carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are +separate.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels +may be arranged either at the same or nearly the same height +in a verticil, or at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they +remain separate and distinct, thus showing at once the composition +of the pistil, as in <i>Caltha, Ranunculus</i>, hellebore (fig. 86), and +<i>Spiraea</i>, the term <i>apocarpous</i> is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 22) +the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels <i>o</i>, alternating with +the stamens <i>e</i>. In magnolia and <i>Ranunculus</i> (fig. 89) the separate +carpels are numerous and are arranged in a spiral cycle upon an +elongated axis or receptacle. In the raspberry the carpels are +on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on a swollen succulent +one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a hollow one. When +the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and chickweed, +the pistil becomes <i>syncarpous</i>. The number of carpels in a pistil +is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple +pistil is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three +carpels, trigynous, &c.</p> + +<p>The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete; +it may take place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and +stigmas remain free (fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries +form apparently a single body, the organ receives the name of +<i>compound</i> ovary; or the union may take place by the ovaries +and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or by the stigmas +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate states +exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where +they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as +in Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base; +but in Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and +in Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When +the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound +pistil may be determined by the number of styles and +stigmas; when complete, the external venation, the grooves +on the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary indicate +the number.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:201px; height:280px" src="images/img570a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 91.</span>—Pistil of Pea +after fertilization of the +ovules, developing to form +the fruit. <i>f</i>, Funicle or +stalk of ovule (<i>ov</i>); <i>pl</i>, placenta; +<i>s</i>, withered style and +stigma; <i>c</i>, persistent calyx.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:170px" src="images/img570b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig. 92.</span>—Trilocular ovary of the Lily (<i>Lilium</i>), cut transversely. +<i>s</i>, Septum; <i>o</i>, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle +of each chamber. Enlarged.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 93.</span>—Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed +of five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet +in the centre forming the septa, <i>s</i>. The ovules (<i>o</i>) are attached to a +central placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures. +Dorsal suture, <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 94.</span>—Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in +which the edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules <i>o</i>, are +not folded inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules +appear sessile on the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:435px" src="images/img570c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 95.—Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in +which the septa (<i>s</i>) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the +placentas and ovules (<i>o</i>). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the +placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 96.—Pistil of Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), enlarged. 1, Vertical; +2, horizontal section; <i>c</i>, calyx; <i>d</i>, wall of ovary; <i>o</i>, ovules; <i>p</i>, +placenta; <i>s</i>, stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 97.—Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (<i>Cucumis +Melo</i>), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The +three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From +the centre, processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas +bearing the ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 98.—Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary, +in which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (<i>o</i>) are +attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with +the walls of the ovary.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The ovules are attached to the <i>placenta</i>, which consists of a +mass of cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels +pass to the ovule. The placenta is usually formed on +the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig. 91)—<i>marginal</i>. +<span class="sidenote">The placenta.</span> +In many cases, however, the placentas are formations +from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary +leaves. In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing +the placenta is the <i>inner</i> or <i>ventral +suture</i>, corresponding to the margin +of the folded carpellary leaf, while +the <i>outer</i> or <i>dorsal suture</i> corresponds +to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. +As the placenta is formed on each +margin of the carpel it is essentially +double. This is seen in cases where +the margins of the carpel do not +unite, but remain separate, and consequently +two placentas are formed in +place of one. When the pistil is +formed by one carpel the inner margins +unite and form usually a common +marginal placenta, which may extend +along the whole margin of the ovary +as far as the base of the style (fig. 91), +or may be confined to the base or +apex only. When the pistil consists +of several separate carpels, or is +apocarpous, there are generally separate +placentas at each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil, +on the other hand, the carpels are so united that the edges of +each of the contiguous ones, by their union, form a <i>septum</i> or +<i>dissepiment</i>, and the number of these septa consequently indicates +the number of carpels in the compound pistil (fig. 92). When the +dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided +into cavities or <i>cells</i>, and it may be <i>bilocular</i>, <i>triloculur</i> (fig. 92), +<i>quadrilocular</i>, <i>quinquelocular</i>, or <i>multilocular</i>, according as it is +formed by two, three, four, five or many carpels, each carpel +corresponding to a single cell. In these cases the marginal +placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a single <i>central</i> +one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the central angle of +the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do not fold +inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the walls +of the ovary, then the ovary is <i>unilocular</i> (fig. 95) and the +placentas are <i>parietal</i>, as in <i>Viola</i> (fig. 96). In these instances +the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous +leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be +united, each developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of +the carpels, which fold in to the centre, split there into two +lamellae, each of which is curved outwards and projects into the +loculament, dilating at the end into a placenta. This is well +seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), <i>Pyrola</i>, &c. The carpellary leaves +may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be applied in a +valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the placentas +then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or thickenings +along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas +are not connected with the +walls of the ovary, and form +what is called a <i>free central +placenta</i> (fig. 98). This is seen +in many of the Caryophyllaceae +and Primulaceae (figs. +99, 100). In Caryophyllaceae, +however, while the placenta +is free in the centre, there are +often traces found at the base +of the ovary of the remains of +septa, as if rupture had taken +place, and, in rare instances, +ovules are found on the +margins of the carpels. But +in Primulaceae no vestiges of +septa or marginal ovules can +be perceived at any period of +growth; the placenta is +always free, and rises in the +centre of the ovary. Free +central placentation, therefore, +has been accounted for in two ways: either by supposing +that the placentas in the early state were formed on the margins of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development these +leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules +free in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not +<i>marginal</i> but <i>axile</i> formations, produced by an elongation of the +axis, and the carpels verticillate leaves, united together around +the axis. The first of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae, +the second to Primulaceae.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:256px" src="images/img570d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 99.—Pistil of <i>Cerastium +hirsutum</i> cut vertically. <i>o</i>, Ovary; +<i>p</i>, free central placenta; <i>g</i>, ovules; +<i>s</i>, styles.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 100.—The same cut horizontally, +and the halves separated +so as to show the interior of the +cavity of the ovary <i>o</i>, with the free +central placenta <i>p</i>, covered with +ovules <i>g</i>.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:340px" src="images/img571a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 101.—Carpel of Lady’s-mantle +(<i>Alchemilla</i>) with lateral style <i>s</i>; <i>o</i>, +ovary, <i>st</i>, stigma. Enlarged.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 102.—Pistil of Primrose (<i>Primula</i>) +composed of five carpels which are completely +united; <i>o</i>, ovary; <i>s</i>, style; <i>st</i>, +stigma. Enlarged.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 103.—Gynoecium of the Flower-de-Luce +(<i>Iris</i>), consisting of an inferior +ovary (<i>o</i>) and a style which divides into +three petaloid segments (<i>s</i>), each bearing +a stigma (<i>st</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 104.—Capsule of Poppy, opening +by pores (<i>p</i>), under the radiating peltate +stigma (<i>s</i>).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not +formed by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called +<i>spurious dissepiments</i>. They are often horizontal, as in <i>Cathartocarpus +Fistula</i>, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations +from the walls of the ovary, only developed after +fertilization, and therefore more properly noticed under fruit. +At other times they are vertical, as in <i>Datura</i>, where the ovary, +in place of being two-celled, becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae, +where the prolongation of the placentas forms a vertical partition; +in <i>Astragalus</i> and <i>Thespesia</i>, where the dorsal suture is folded +inwards; and in <i>Oxytropis</i>, where the ventral suture is folded +inwards.</p> + +<p>The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form, +sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times +hairy and grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions +between the carpels and correspond to the dissepiments. The +dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection or by a +superficial groove. When the ovary is situated on the centre +of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its base is +above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed <i>superior</i>, as in +<i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Primula</i> (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. 28). +When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying +with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion +of the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary +leaves alone closing in the apex, the ovary is <i>inferior</i>, as in +pomegranate, aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see +fig. 30). In some plants, +as many Saxifragaceae, +there are intermediate +forms, in which the term +<i>half-inferior</i> is applied to +the ovary, whilst the +floral whorls are <i>half-superior</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>style</i> proceeds +from the summit of the +carpel (fig. +102), and is +traversed by a narrow +canal, in which there are +some loose projecting +cells, a continuation of +the placenta, constituting +what is called conducting +tissue, which ends in +the stigma. This is particularly +abundant when +<span class="sidenote">The style.</span> +the pistil is ready for +fertilization. In some +cases, owing to more +rapid growth of the +dorsal side of the ovary, +the style becomes <i>lateral</i> +(fig. 101); this may so +increase that the style +appears to arise from +near the base, as in the +strawberry, or from the base, as in <i>Chrysobalanus Icaco</i>, when +it is called <i>basilar</i>. In all these cases the style still indicates +the organic apex of the ovary, although it may not be the +apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the style of each +carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were +depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression +in the midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus. +Such a style is <i>gynobasic</i>, and is well seen in Boraginaceae. +The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or less filiform +and simple; sometimes it is grooved on one side, at other times +it is flat, thick, angular, compressed and even petaloid, as in <i>Iris</i> +(fig. 103) and <i>Canna</i>. In Goodeniaceae it ends in a cuplike +expansion, enclosing the stigma. It sometimes bears hairs, +which aid in the application of the pollen to the stigma, and are +called <i>collecting hairs</i>, as in <i>Campanula</i>, and also in <i>Aster</i> and other +Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth of the +style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and +carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the +mature stigma of other flowers. In <i>Vicia</i> and <i>Lobelia</i> the hairs +frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous +pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they +alternate with the septa; when united completely, the style is +said to be <i>simple</i> (fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of +each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. Each +division of the tricarpellary ovary of <i>Jatropha Curcas</i> has a +<i>bifurcate</i> or forked style, and the ovary of <i>Emblica officinalis</i> has +three styles, each of which is twice forked. The length of the +style is determined by the relation which should subsist between +the position of the stigma and that of the anthers, so as to allow +the proper application of the pollen. The style is deciduous or +persists after fertilization.</p> + +<p>The <i>stigma</i> is the termination of the conducting tissue of the +style, and is usually in direct communication with the placenta. +It consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid +matter which detains the pollen, and causes it to +<span class="sidenote">The stigma.</span> +germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly speaking, +the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the +divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated. +The stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous +pistil, or, in other words, corresponds with the back of the +loculaments; but in some cases it would appear that half the +stigma of one carpel unites with half that of the contiguous +carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepiments, that is, +alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:189px; height:271px" src="images/img571b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 105.—Flower of a grass +with glumes removed, showing +three stamens and two +feathery styles. <i>p</i>, Pale; <i>l</i>, +lodicules. Enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which +compose the pistil. Thus in <i>Campanula</i> a five-cleft stigma +indicates five carpels; in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and +Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or bilamellar stigma indicates a +bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in Gramineae, the +stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be terminal +or lateral. In <i>Iris</i> it is situated on a cleft on the back of the +petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as +those of <i>Mimulus</i>, present sensitive flattened laminae, which +close when touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may +be globular, as in <i>Mirabilis Jalapa</i>; orbicular, as in <i>Arbutus +Andrachne</i>; umbrella-like, as in +<i>Sarracenia</i>, where, however, the +proper stigmatic surface is beneath +the angles of the large expansion +of the apex of the style; ovoid, as +in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral; +radiating, as in the poppy +(fig. 104), where the true stigmatic +rays are attached to a sort of <i>peltate</i> +or shield-like body, which may +represent depressed or flattened +styles; <i>cucullate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> covered by a +hood, in calabar bean. The lobes +of a stigma are flat and pointed as +in <i>Mimulus</i> and <i>Bignonia</i>, fleshy +and blunt, smooth or granular, or +they are feathery, as in many +grasses (fig. 105) and other wind-pollinated +flowers. In Orchidaceae +the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column +beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are +united to the face of the anthers, and along with them form +a solid mass.</p> + +<p>The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become +the seed. Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +the carpellary leaves, but are also formed over the whole +surface of the leaf, as in <i>Butomus</i>. In other instances they rise +<span class="sidenote">The ovule.</span> +from the floral axis itself, either terminal, as in Polygonaceae +and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in Primulaceae +and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary, +and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed +<i>angiospermous</i>; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no +proper ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being +denominated <i>gymnospermous</i>. In <i>Cycas</i> the altered leaf, upon +the margin of which the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales, +from which they are pendulous in <i>Zamia</i>, are regarded by all +botanists as carpellary leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion +has arisen regarding the morphology of parts in many +genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a +way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the +ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In <i>Leontice thalictroides</i> +(Blue Cohosh), species of <i>Ophiopogon</i>, <i>Peliosanthes</i> and <i>Stateria</i>, +the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules +are exposed; and in species of <i>Cuphea</i> the placenta ultimately +bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing +the exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either +directly, when it is <i>sessile</i>, or by means of a prolongation <i>funicle</i> +(fig. 110, <i>f</i>). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after +fertilization. The part by which the ovule is attached to the +placenta or cord is its <i>base</i> or <i>hilum</i>, the opposite extremity being +its <i>apex</i>. The latter is frequently turned round in such a way +as to approach the base. The ovule is sometimes embedded in +the placenta, as in <i>Hydnora</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:496px; height:195px" src="images/img572a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 106 and 107.—Successive stages in the development of an +ovule. <i>n</i>, Nucellus; <i>i</i>, inner; <i>o</i>, outer integument in section; <i>m</i>, +micropyle.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 108.—Orthotropous ovule of <i>Polygonum</i> in section, showing +the embryo-sac <i>s</i>, in the nucellus <i>n</i>, the different ovular coverings, +the base of the nucellus or chalaza <i>ch</i>, and the apex of the ovule with +its micropyle <i>m</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 109.—Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine +(<i>Pinus austriaca</i>), showing the nucellus <i>a</i>, consisting of delicate +cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac <i>b</i>. +The micropyle <i>m</i> is very wide.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from +the placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or +less enlarged ovate form constituting what has been called the +<i>nucellus</i> (fig. 106, <i>n</i>), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This +nucellus may remain naked, and alone form the ovule, as in +some orders of parasitic plants such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae, +&c.; but in most plants it becomes surrounded by certain +coverings or integuments during its development. These appear +first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the nucellus, +which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In some +cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous +dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also +in walnut, &c. But usually besides the single covering another +is developed subsequently (fig. 106, <i>o</i>), which gradually extends +over that first formed, and ultimately covers it completely, +except at the apex. There are thus two integuments to the +nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do not +completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed +the <i>micropyle</i> is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex +of the ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to +form the <i>embryo-sac</i> or megaspore (fig. 108, <i>s</i>). This embryo-sac +increases in size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the +nucellus until it is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it +may actually extend at the apex beyond it, as in <i>Phaseolus</i> +and <i>Alsine media</i>; or it may pass into the micropyle, as in +<i>Santalum</i>. In Gymnosperms it usually remains deep in the +nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue (fig. +109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore, +and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization +is formed the embryo, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:209px" src="images/img572b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 110.—Campylotropous ovule of +wall-flower (<i>Cheiranthus</i>), showing the +funicle <i>f</i>, which attaches the ovule to the +placenta; <i>p</i>, the outer, <i>s</i>, the inner coat, +<i>n</i>, the nucellus, <i>ch</i>, the chalaza. The +ovule is curved upon itself, so that the +micropyle is near the funicle.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 111.—Anatropous ovule of Dandelion +(<i>Taraxacum</i>), <i>n</i>, nucellus, which is +inverted, so that the chalaza <i>ch</i>, is removed +from the base or hilum <i>h</i>, while +the micropyle <i>f</i> is near the base. The +connexion between the base of the ovule +and the base of the nucellus is kept up +by means of the raphe <i>r</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The point where the integuments are united to the base of +the nucellus is called the <i>chalaza</i> (figs. 111, 112). This is often +coloured, is of a denser +texture than the surrounding +tissue, and is +traversed by fibro-vascular +bundles, which +pass from the placenta +to nourish the ovule.</p> + +<p>When the ovule is +so developed that the +chalaza is at the +hilum (next the placenta), +and the micropyle +is at the opposite +extremity, there being +a short funicle, the +ovule is <i>orthotropous</i>. +This form is well seen in +Polygonaceae (fig. 112), +Cistaceae, and most +gymnosperms. In such +an ovule a straight line +drawn from the hilum +to the micropyle passes +along the axis of the +ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one side than on the +other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is curved upon +itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and ultimately +is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the ovule is +<i>campylotropous</i> (fig. 110). Curved ovules are found in Cruciferae, +and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or <i>anatropous</i> ovule (fig. 111) +is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the +apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment +of the funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated +at the opposite extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the +side usually next the placenta, coalesces with the ovule and +constitutes the <i>raphe</i> (<i>r</i>), which often forms a ridge. The +anatropous ovule arises from the placenta as a straight or only +slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, gradually +becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the integuments +(cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round +it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes +adherent to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument +be formed it covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not +form on the side to which the raphe is adherent. These may be +taken as the three types of ovule; but there are various intermediate +forms, such as <i>semi-anatropous</i> and others.</p> + +<p>The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When +there is a single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached +to the placenta at the base of the ovary (<i>basal placenta</i>), and is +then <i>erect</i>, as in Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be +inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its +apex upwards, and then is <i>ascending</i>, as in <i>Parietaria</i>. It may +hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its +apex being directed downwards, and is <i>inverted</i> or <i>pendulous</i>, +as in <i>Hippuris vulgaris</i>; or from a parietal placenta near the +summit, and then is <i>suspended</i>, as in <i>Daphne Mezereum</i>, Polygalaceae +and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle arises +from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and +there bending over suspends the ovule, as in <i>Armeria</i> (sea-pink); +at other times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the +ovule becomes <i>horizontal</i>. When there are two ovules in the +same cell, they may be either <i>collateral</i>, that is, placed side by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +side (fig. 92), or the one may be erect and the other inverted, +as in some species of <i>Spiraea</i> and <i>Aesculus</i>; or they may be +placed one above another, each directed similarly, as is the case +in ovaries containing a moderate or definite number of ovules. +Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the ovules, o, +are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the +other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each +margin of the carpel. When the ovules are <i>definite</i> (<i>i.e.</i> are +uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attachment +so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When +the ovules are very numerous (<i>indefinite</i>), while at the same time +the placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great +variation, some being directed upwards, others downwards, +others transversely; and their form is altered by pressure into +various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it frequently happens +that some of the ovules are arrested in their development and +become abortive.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:248px; height:486px" src="images/img573a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Strasburger’s <i>Lehrbuch der +Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 112.</span>—Ovary of <i>Polygonum +Convolvulus</i> in longitudinal +section during fertilization. +(× 48.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>fs</i>, Stalk-like base of ovary.</p> +<p><i>fu</i>, Funicle.</p> +<p><i>cha</i>, Chalaza.</p> +<p><i>nu</i>, Nucellus.</p> +<p><i>mi</i>, Micropyle.</p> +<p><i>ii</i>, inner, ie, outer integument.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Embryo-sac.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>ek</i>, Nucleus of embryo-sac.</p> +<p><i>ei</i>, Egg-apparatus.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Antipodal cells.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Style.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Stigma.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pollen-grains.</p> +<p><i>ps</i>, Pollen-tubes.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:102px; height:154px" src="images/img573b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 113.</span>—Vertical section of +the ovule of the Scotch Fir (<i>Pinus +sylvestris</i>) in May of the second +year, showing the enlarged embryo-sac +b, full of endosperm +cells, and pollen-tubes c, penetrating +the summit of the nucellus +after the pollen has entered the +large micropyle.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes +ready for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and +the pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angiosperms, +or the summit of the nucellus in gymnosperms, +<span class="sidenote">Fertilization.</span> +it is detained there, and the viscid secretion from the +glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the nucellus in +the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a pollen-tube +through the pores of the grain. +The pollen-tube or tubes pass +down the canal (fig. 112), +through the conducting tissue +of the style when present, and +reach the interior of the ovary +in angiosperms, and then pass +to the micropyle of the ovule, +one pollen-tube going to each +ovule. Sometimes the micropyle +lies close to the base of +the style, and then the pollen-tube +enters it at once, but +frequently it has to pass some +distance into the ovary, being +guided in its direction by various +contrivances, as hairs, +grooves, &c. In gymnosperms +the pollen-grain resting on the +apex of the nucellus sends out +its pollen-tubes, which at once +penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113). +In angiosperms when the pollen-tube +reaches the micropyle it +passes down into the canal, and this portion of it increases +considerably in size. Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in +contact with the tip of the embryo-sac and perforates it. The +male cells in the end of the pollen-tube are then transmitted to +the embryo-sac and fertilization is effected. Consequent upon +this, after a longer or shorter period, those changes commence +in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the embryo +plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into +the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of +nutriment for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization +confined to the ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant. +The ovary enlarges, and, with the seeds enclosed, constitutes +the fruit, frequently incorporated with which are other parts +of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In gymnosperms the +pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down the +tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer +or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are +discussed in a separate article—<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> Imitations of natural flowers are +sometimes made for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass +flowers at Harvard University, which illustrates the flora of the +United States), but more often as articles of decoration and +ornament. A large variety of materials have been used in their +manufacture by different peoples at different times—painted +linen and shavings of stained horn by the Egyptians, gold and +silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese, silkworm +cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South +America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the +18th century the French, who originally learnt the art from the +Italians, made great advances in the accuracy of their reproductions, +and towards the end of that century the Paris manufacturers +enjoyed a world-wide reputation. About the same +time the art was introduced into England by French refugees, +and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The industry +is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of +operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes +may be distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various +fabrics and materials employed into shapes suitable for forming +the leaves, petals, &c.; this may be done by scissors, but more +often stamps are employed which will cut through a dozen or +more thicknesses at one blow. The veins of the leaves are next +impressed by means of a die, and the petals are given their +natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various shapes. +The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the +flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the +fourth is to mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron +wire wrapped round with suitably coloured material, and to +fasten on the leaves required to complete the spray.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOYD, JOHN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in +Cambridgeshire in 1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when +at Rome in 1592 and is also known as Daniel à Jesu, Hermannus +Loemelius, and George White, the names under which he published +a score of controversial treatises. He had considerable +fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently arrested +in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died +at St Omer on the 15th of September 1649. His brother Edward +Floyd was impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for +speaking disparagingly of the elector palatine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1807-1863), American politician, +was born at Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He +was the son of John Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in +Congress from 1817 to 1829 and governor of Virginia from +1830 to 1834. After graduating at South Carolina College in 1826, +the son practised law in his native state and at Helena, Arkansas, +and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia, which in +1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state legislature. +Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governor of Virginia, +in which position he recommended to the legislature the enactment +of a law laying an import tax on the products of such states +as refused to surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters. +In March 1857 he became secretary of war in President +Buchanan’s cabinet, where his lack of administrative ability +was soon apparent. In December 1860, on ascertaining that +Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government contractors +in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested +his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for +malversation in office, but the indictment was overruled on +technical grounds. There is no proof that he profited by +these irregular transactions; in fact he went out of the office +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +financially embarrassed. Though he had openly opposed secession +before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that event, +especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion, +and he was accused of having sent large stores of government +arms to Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In +the last days of his term he apparently had such an intention, +but during the year 1860 the Southern States actually received +less than their full quota of arms. After the secession of Virginia +he was commissioned a brigadier-general in the Confederate +service. He was first employed in some unsuccessful operations +in western Virginia, and in February 1862 became commander +of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which he fled +with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the +night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to +surrender to General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis +relieved him of his command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia, +on the 26th of August 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLOYER, SIR JOHN<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1649-1734), English physician and +author, was born at Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated +at Oxford. He practised in Lichfield, and it was by his advice +that Dr Johnson, when a child, was taken by his mother to be +touched by Queen Anne for the king’s evil on the 30th of March +1714. He died on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was an +advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the +rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the pathological +changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings include:—<span class="grk" title="Pharmako-Basanos">Φαρμακο-Βάσανος</span>: <i>or the Touchstone of +Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and Animals, +by their Tastes and Smells</i> (2 vols., 1687); <i>The praeternatural State of +animal Humours described by their sensible Qualities</i> (1696); <i>An +Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the hot, cold and temperate +Baths in England</i> (1697); <i>A Treatise of the Asthma</i> (1st ed., 1698); +<i>The ancient</i> <span class="grk" title="Psychrolousia">Ψυχρολουσία</span> <i>revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing +both safe and useful</i> (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged, +Manchester, 1844, 12mo); <i>The Physician’s Pulse-watch</i> (1707-1710); +<i>The Sibylline Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and compared +with the sacred Prophecies</i> (1st ed., 1713); <i>Two Essays: the +first Essay concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of +good and bad Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System +of the World</i> (Nottingham, 1717); <i>An Exposition of the Revelations</i> +(1719); <i>An Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism</i> +(1722); <i>Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old +Men’s Healths</i> (1st ed., 1724); <i>A Comment on forty-two Histories +described by Hippocrates</i> (1726).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUDD,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flud</span>, <b>ROBERT</b> [<span class="sc">Robertus de Fluctibus</span>] (1574-1637), +English physician and mystical philosopher, the son of +Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France +and the Low Countries, was born at Milgate, Kent. After +studying at St John’s College, Oxford, he travelled in Europe +for six years, and became acquainted with the writings of +Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a +member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ultimately +became a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised +in London with success, though it is said that he combined with +purely medical treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following +Paracelsus, he endeavoured to form a system of philosophy +founded on the identity of physical and spiritual truth. The +universe and all created things proceed from God, who is the +beginning, the end and the sum of all things, and to him they +will return. The act of creation is the separation of the active +principle (light) from the passive (darkness) in the bosom of the +divine unity (God). The universe consists of three worlds; +the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm +(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both +sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is +possible for man (and even for the mineral and the plant) +to undergo transformation and to win immortality. Fludd’s +system may be described as a materialistic pantheism, which, +allegorically interpreted, he put forward as containing the real +meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam by God himself, +handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs, and revealed +a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the +honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne. +Though rapt in mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied +attainments. He did not disdain scientific experiments, and is +thought by some to be the original inventor of the barometer. +He was an ardent defender of the Rosicrucians, and De Quincey +considers him to have been the immediate, as J.V. Andreä +was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the 8th +of September 1637.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Craven, <i>Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian</i> (1902), +where a list of his works is given; A.E. Waite, <i>The Real History +of the Rosicrucians</i> (1887); De Quincey, <i>The Rosicrucians and Freemasons</i>; +J. Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i> (1870), i. 240 seq. +His works were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1802-1870), German +orientalist, was born at Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802. +He received his early education at the gymnasium of his native +town, and studied theology and philology at Leipzig. Gradually +he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental languages, which he +studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became professor at the +<i>Fürstenschule</i> of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health compelled him +to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to Vienna, +where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and +Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden +on the 5th of July 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Flügel’s chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and encyclopaedic +lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols., +London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition +of the Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed <i>Concordantiae +Corani arabicae</i> (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); <i>Mani, +seine Lehren und seine Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1862); <i>Die grammatischen +Schulen der Araber</i> (Leipzig, 1862); and <i>Ibn Kutlûbugas Krone der +Lebensbeschreibungen</i> (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of <i>Kitâb-al-Fihrist</i>, +prepared by him, was published after his death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1788-1855), German lexicographer, +was born at Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of +November 1788. He was originally a merchant’s clerk, but +emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a special study +of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819, +was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the university +of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and +subsequently representative and correspondent of the Smithsonian +Institution at Washington and several other leading +American literary and scientific institutions. He died at Leipzig +on the 24th of June 1855.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fame of Flügel rests chiefly on the <i>Vollständige englisch-deutsche +und deutsch-englische Wörterbuch</i>, first published in 2 vols. +(Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation not only +in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was +assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition, edited by +his son Felix Flügel (1820-1904), was published at Brunswick (1890-1892). +Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel +Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London & New York) +in 1906. Among his other works are—<i>Vollständige engl. Sprachlehre</i> +(1824-1826); <i>Triglotte, oder kaufmännisches Wörterbuch in drei +Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Französisch</i> (1836-1840); <i>Kleines +Kaufmännisches Handwörterbuch in drei Sprachen</i> (1840); and +<i>Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz</i> (1827, 9th ed. +1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition, +Flügel also published in the English language: <i>A series of Commercial +Letters</i> (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in +1874 under the title <i>Practical Mercantile Correspondence</i> and a +<i>Practical Dictionary of the English and German Languages</i> (2 vols., +Hamburg and Leipzig, 1847-1852; 15th ed., Leipzig, 1891). The +last was continued and re-edited by his son Felix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUKE<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (probably connected with the Ger. <i>flach</i>, flat), a name +given to several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the +common flounder; also the name of a trematoid worm, resembling +a flounder in shape, which as a parasite infects the liver +and neighbouring organs of certain animals, especially sheep, +and causes liver-rot. The most common is the <i>Fasciola hepatica</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trematodes</a></span>). It is also the name of a species of kidney +potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish, +“fluke” is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in +shape, at the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular +extremities of the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang +expression for a lucky accident appears to have been first applied +in billiards to an unintentional scoring shot.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUME<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (through an O. Fr. word <i>flum</i>, from the Lat. <i>flumen</i>, +a river), a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly +for the tail of a mill-race. It is used in America for a very +narrow gorge running between precipitous rocks, with a stream +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +at the bottom, but more frequently is applied to an artificial +channel of wood or other material for the diversion of a stream +of water from a river for purposes of irrigation, for running a sawmill, +or for various processes in the hydraulic method of gold-mining +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUMINI MAGGIORE,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a town of the province of Cagliari, +Sardinia, 10 m. by road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast. +Pop. (1901) town 3908; commune 9647. It is the centre of +a considerable lead and zinc mining district. Three miles to the +S. are the ruins of a temple erected probably in the time of +Commodus (<i>Corpus inscr. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, No. 7539). +They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on the +coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining +district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found +two ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian’s name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUORANTHENE,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">10</span>, also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon +occurring with phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other +substances in “Stupp” fat (the fat obtained in working up the +mercury ores in Idria), and also in the higher boiling fractions +of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered by R. Fittig in 1878, +who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its constitution +(see <i>Ann.</i>, 1879, 200, p. 1). The hydrocarbons are separated +from the “Stupp” by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on +distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene +and fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be +fractionally precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated +from most of the pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial +vacuum. In either case the two hydrocarbons are finally +separated by fractional crystallization of their picrates, which +are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene crystallizes +in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at 109-110° +C. and boiling at 250-251° C. (60 mm.). It is easily soluble in hot +alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with chromic +acid it forms a quinone, C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and an α-diphenylene ketocarboxylic +acid <img style="width:120px; height:38px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img575a.jpg" alt="" /> The picrate melts at 182-183° C.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUORENE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (α-diphenylene methane), C<span class="su">13</span>H<span class="su">10</span> or (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>, +a hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher +boiling fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene, +by fractional distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340° C. +being taken. The fluorene is separated from this by placing it in +a freezing mixture, and is then redistilled or crystallized from +glacial acetic acid, or purified by means of its picrate. It may +be prepared by distilling diphenylene ketone over zinc dust, +or by heating it with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 150-160° +C.; and also by passing the vapour of diphenyl methane through +a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless plates, possessing +a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113° and boiling at 293-295° +C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution, +it is converted into diphenylene ketone (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CO; whilst on +heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 250-260° C. it +gives a hydro derivative of composition C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">22</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUORESCEIN,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Resorcin-Phthalein</span>, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, in +chemistry, a compound discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by +the condensation of phthalic anhydride with resorcin at 195-200° +C. (<i>Ann.</i>, 1876, 183, p. 1). The two reacting substances are either +heated alone or with zinc chloride for some hours, and the melt +obtained is boiled out with water, washed by dilute alcohol, +extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so +obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well +washed with water and then dried. By repeating this process +two or three times, the fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure +condition. It forms a yellow amorphous powder, insoluble in +water but soluble in alcohol, and crystallizing from the alcoholic +solution in small dark red nodules. It is readily soluble in solutions +of the caustic alkalis, the solution being of a dark red colour +and showing (especially when largely diluted with water) a +brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of this +last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid +solution, <i>eosin</i> (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same +compound being formed by heating 3.5-dibrom-2.4-dioxybenzoylbenzoic +acid above its melting point (R. Meyer, <i>Ber.</i>, +1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes from alcohol in yellowish red +needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted cotton a fine pink +colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields dibromresorcin +and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding +iodo compound is known as <i>erythrosin</i>. Fluorescein is readily +nitrated, yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to +conditions. The entrance of the negative nitro group into the +molecule weakens the central pyrone ring in the fluorescein +nucleus and the di- and tetra-nitro compounds readily yield +hydrates (see J.T. Hewitt and B.W. Perkins, <i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, +1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines the di-nitro +fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F. Reverdin, +<i>Ber</i>., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from fluorescein +are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and rose +Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, and monoresorcin phthalein (dioxybenzoylbenzoic +acid), (HO)<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>·CO·C H<span class="su">4</span>·COOH. With zinc dust and caustic +soda it yields fluorescin. By warming fluorescein with excess of +phosphorus pentachloride it yields fluorescein chloride, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span> +(A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from alcohol in small prisms, melting +at 252° C. When heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride, +fluorescein yields a colourless anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, <i>Ber</i>., +1893, 26, p. 2236), which is readily methylated by methyl iodide +and potash to a fluoresceinanilidedimethyl ether, which when heated +for six hours to 150° C. with acetic and hydrochloric acids, is hydrolysed +and yields a colourless fluoresceindimethyl ether, which melts +at 198° C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic +potash, methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow) +dimethyl ether, melting at 208° C. is obtained (Fischer and Hepp). +By heating the coloured dimethyl ether with caustic soda, the +monomethyl ether is obtained (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, <i>Ber</i>., 1895, +28, p. 397); this crystallizes in triclinic tables, and melts at 262° C. +It is to be noted that the colourless monomethyl ether fluoresces +strongly in alkaline solution, the dimethyl ether of melting point +208° fluoresces only in neutral solution (<i>e.g.</i>, in alcoholic solution), +and the dimethyl ether of melting point 198° C. only in concentrated +hydrochloric or sulphuric acid solution (Fischer and Hepp). Considerable +discussion has taken place as to the position held by the +hydroxyl groups in the fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (<i>Ber</i>., 1895, +28, p. 28) asserting that they were in the ortho position to the linking +carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller (<i>Ber</i>., +1895, 28, p. 312), however, showed that monoresorcin-phthalein +when brominated in glacial acetic acid gives a dibrom derivative +which, with fuming sulphuric acid, yields dibromxanthopurpurin +(1.3-dioxy-2.4-dibromanthraquinone), a reaction which is only +possible if the fluorescein (from which the monoresorcin-phthalein +is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in the para position to the +linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:230px" src="images/img575b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">FLUORESCENCE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>. In a paper read before the Royal Society +of Edinburgh in 1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable +phenomenon he had discovered to which he gave the name of +“internal dispersion.” On admitting a beam of sunlight, condensed +by a lens, into a solution of chlorophyll, the green colouring +matter of leaves (see fig. 1), he was surprised to find that the +path of the rays within the fluid +was marked by a bright light of a +blood-red colour, strangely contrasting +with the beautiful green of the +fluid when seen in moderate thickness. +Brewster afterwards observed +the same phenomenon in various +vegetable solutions and essential +oils, and in some solids, amongst +which was fluor-spar. He believed +this effect to be due to coloured +particles held in suspension. A few +years later, Sir John Herschel independently +discovered that if a +solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted +light, appears colourless and transparent like water, were +illuminated by a beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue +colour was seen in a thin stratum of the fluid adjacent to +the surface by which the light entered. The blue light was +unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of the +fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the +stratum from which the blue light came, was not sensibly +enfeebled or coloured, but yet it had lost the power of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +producing the characteristic blue colour when admitted into a +second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam of light modified +in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel “epipolized.” +Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case of +internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays +capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:166px; height:177px" src="images/img576a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken +up by Sir G.G. Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present +knowledge of the subject is due. Stokes’s first paper “On the +Change of the Refrangibility of Light” appeared in 1852. He +repeated the experiments of Brewster and Herschel, and considerably +extended them. These experiments soon led him to +the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had +imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but +that the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from +the light which excited it. He therefore termed it “true internal +dispersion” to distinguish it from the scattering of light, which +he called “false internal dispersion.” As this name, however, +is apt to suggest Brewster’s view of the phenomenon, he afterwards +abandoned it as unsatisfactory, and substituted the word +“fluorescence.” This term, derived from fluor-spar after the +analogy of opalescence from opal, does not presuppose any theory. +To examine the nature of the fluorescence produced by quinine, +Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun’s rays in the usual +manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine +sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum +and then gradually moved along the spectrum to the other +extremity. No fluorescence was observed as long as the tube +remained in the more luminous portion, but as soon as the violet +was reached, a ghost-like gleam of blue light shot right across +the tube. On continuing to move the tube, the blue light at +first increased in intensity and afterwards died away, but not +until the tube had been moved a considerable distance into the +ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first +appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before +disappearing it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side +at which the exciting rays entered. Stokes varied this experiment +by placing a vessel filled with the dilute solution in a +spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The appearance is +illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part of the +light passed freely as if through water, +but from about half-way between the +Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond +the extreme violet, the incident rays +gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour, +which emanated in all directions from +the portion of the fluid (represented +white in fig. 2) which was under the +influence of the incident rays. The +anterior surface of the blue space coincided, +of course, with the inner surface +of the glass vessel. The posterior surface +marked the distance to which the incident rays were able +to penetrate before they were absorbed. This distance was at +first considerable, greater than the diameter of the vessel, but +decreased with great rapidity as the refrangibility of the incident +light increased, so that from a little beyond the extreme violet +to the end, the blue space was reduced to an excessively thin +stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to the ultra-violet +rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part of +the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather +planes, intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the +fluorescent light is not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident +rays to a narrow band of homogeneous light, and examining the +dispersed beam through a prism, he found that the blue light +consisted of rays extending over a wide range of refrangibility, +but not into the ultra-violet.</p> + +<p>Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in +examining different substances for fluorescence, was as follows. +Two coloured media were prepared, one of which transmitted +the upper portion of the spectrum and was opaque to the lower +portion, while the second was opaque to the upper and transparent +to the lower part of the spectrum. These were called by +Stokes “complementary absorbents.” No pair could be found +which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition +was approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses +or solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue +solution of ammioniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass +coloured with silver. The two media together were almost +opaque. The light of the sun being admitted through a hole in +the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet was laid on a shelf +fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel containing the blue +solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the tablet was +viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered the +eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid +on the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs +of complementary absorbents were required according to the +colour of the fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly +that the light which passed through the first absorbent and +which would have been stopped by the second gave rise in the +fluorescent substance to rays of a different wave-length which +were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered light, +with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was +eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second +absorbent.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:339px; height:197px" src="images/img576b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Fig. 3.</i>—Spectrum of Chlorophyll.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:197px" src="images/img576c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Fig. 4.</i>—Spectrum of Aesculin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton’s method of +crossed prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light. +A spectrum was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit +being horizontal instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow +spectrum was projected on a white paper moistened with a +fluorescent solution, and viewed through a second prism with its +refracting edge perpendicular +to that of +the first prism. In +addition to the sloping +spectrum seen +under ordinary circumstances, +another +spectrum due to the +fluorescent light +alone, made its +appearance, as seen +in figs. 3 and 4. In +this spectrum the +colours do not run +from left to right, +but in horizontal +lines. Thus the dark +lines of the solar +spectrum lie across +the colours. The +spectra in figs. 3 and +4 were obtained by +V. Pierre with an +improved arrangement +of Stokes’s method. It will be seen that, in the case +of chlorophyll, the whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet, +gives rise to a short range of red fluorescent light, while +the effective part of the exciting light in the case of aesculin +(a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark) begins a little +above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers a wide +range extending from orange to blue.</p> + +<p>Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number +of vegetable extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly +fluorescent. Stokes found that most organic substances show +signs of fluorescence. Green fluor-spar from Alston Moor +exhibits a violet, uranium glass a yellowish-green fluorescence. +Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a greenish light, and the extract +of seeds of <i>Datura stramonium</i> a pale green light. Ordinary +paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium platinocyanide, which is +much used in the fluorescent screens employed in work with the +Röntgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with ordinary +light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the +remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +the colour and plane of polarization depending on the position +of the crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized +light is used, on the plane of polarization of the latter.</p> + +<p><i>Stokes’s Law.</i>—In all the substances examined by Stokes, the +fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the +light which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this +lowering of the refrangibility of the light was a general law which +held for all substances. This is known as Stokes’s law. It has +been shown, however, by E. Lommel and others, that this law +does not hold generally. Lommel distinguishes two kinds of +fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the first kind are those +which possess strong absorption bands, of which only one remains +appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are always +strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids) +surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the +fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption. +Stokes’s law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be produced +by means of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility +than a great part of the fluorescent light. The second kind of +fluorescence is the most common, and is exhibited by bodies which +show absorption only in the upper part of the spectrum, <i>i.e.</i> +they are usually yellow or brown or (if the absorption is in the +ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also are different +from those of substances of the first kind, for they readily disappear +on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by those +substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.</p> + +<p><i>Nature of Fluorescence.</i>—No complete theory of fluorescence +has yet been given, though various attempts have been made to +explain the phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to +phosphorescence (<i>q.v.</i>), the difference consisting in the duration +of the effect after the exciting cause is removed. Liquids which +fluoresce only do so while the exciting light is falling on them, +ceasing immediately the exciting light is cut off. In the case +of solids, on the other hand, such as fluor-spar or uranium glass, +the effect, though very brief, does not die away quite instantaneously, +so that it is really a very brief phosphorescence. The +property of phosphorescence has been generally attributed to +some molecular change taking place in the bodies possessing it. +That some such change takes place during fluorescence is rendered +probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state +of the sensitive substance; some bodies, such as barium platinocyanide, +fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while +others, such as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluorescence +is always associated with absorption, but many bodies are +absorbent without showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory +would have to account for these facts as well as for the production +of waves of one period by those of another, and the non-homogeneous +character of the fluorescent light. Quite recently W. +Voigt has sought to give a theory of fluorescence depending on +the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory assumes that the +electrons which constitute the molecule of the sensitive body +can exist in two or more different configurations simultaneously, +and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the molecule +in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different +periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would +happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with +that of the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter, +and if they then underwent a transformation into a different +configuration with a different period, this absorbed energy +would be given out in waves of a period corresponding to that of +the new configuration.</p> + +<p><i>Applications of Fluorescence.</i>—The phenomenon of fluorescence +can be utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of reflection +and refraction in lecture experiments since the path of +a ray of light through a very dilute solution of a sensitive substance +is rendered visible. The existence of the dark lines in the +ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum can also be demonstrated +in a simple manner. In addition to the foregoing +applications, Stokes made use of this property for studying the +character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different sources of +illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property +would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a +small quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture. +Fluorescent screens are largely used in work with Röntgen rays. +There appears to be some prospect of light being thrown on the +question of molecular structure by experiments on the fluorescence +of vapours. Some very interesting experiments in this +direction have been performed by R.W. Wood on the fluorescence +of sodium vapour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—Sir G.G. Stokes, <i>Mathematical and Physical +Papers</i>, vols. iii. and iv.; Müller-Pouillet, <i>Lehrbuch der Physik</i>, Bd. ii. +(1897); A. Wullner, <i>Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik</i>, Bd. iv. +(1899); A.A. Winkelmann, <i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, Bd. vi. (1906); +R.W. Wood, <i>Physical Optics</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUORINE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element +of the halogen group. It is never found in the uncombined +condition, but in combination with calcium as fluor-spar CaF<span class="su">2</span> +it is widely distributed; it is also found in cryolite Na<span class="su">3</span>AlF<span class="su">6</span>, +in fluor-apatite, CaF<span class="su">2</span>·3Ca<span class="su">3</span>P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, and in minute traces in sea-water, +in some mineral springs, and as a constituent of the enamel +of the teeth. It was first isolated by H. Moissan in 1886 by the +electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid containing +dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic vessel +and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium, +the limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar, +and fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases +evolved. Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus +is kept at a constant temperature of −23° C. by means of liquid +methyl chloride. The fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at +the anode, is passed through a well cooled platinum vessel, +in order to free it from any acid fumes that may be carried over, +and finally through two platinum tubes containing sodium +fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric acid; it is +then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar plates. +B. Brauner (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained fluorine +by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF·HF·PbF<span class="su">4</span>. At 200° C. +this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between +230-250° C. fluorine is liberated.</p> + +<p>Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell; +its specific gravity is 1.265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied, +the liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at -187° C. +It is the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact +with hydrogen combination takes place between the two gases +with explosive violence, even in the dark, and at as low a temperature +as −210° C; finely divided carbon burns in the gas, +forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is decomposed even at +ordinary temperatures, with the formation of hydrofluoric acid +and “ozonised” oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus melt +and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides, +and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides; +it does not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds +are rapidly attacked by the gas.</p> + +<p>Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known, +namely <i>hydrofluoric acid</i>, HF or H<span class="su">2</span>F<span class="su">2</span>, which was first obtained +by C. Scheele in 1771 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated +sulphuric acid, a method still used for the commercial preparation +of the aqueous solution of the acid, the mixture being distilled +from leaden retorts and the acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha +bottles. The perfectly anhydrous acid is a very volatile colourless +liquid and is best obtained, according to G. Gore (<i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the double fluoride of +hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum retort fitted +with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing mixture, and +having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be prepared +in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen +over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most +dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly +diluted with air having an exceedingly injurious action on the +respiratory organs, whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is +followed by death. The anhydrous acid boils at 19°.5 C. (H. +Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid mass at −102°.5 C, +which melts at −92°.3 C. (K. Olszewski, <i>Monats. für Chemie</i>, +1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in the +anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and +dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is +that it rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass +to form gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for +etching. T.E. Thorpe (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1889, 55, p. 163) +determined the vapour density of hydrofluoric acid at different +temperatures, and showed that there is no approach to a definite +value below about 88° C. where it reaches the value 10.29 +corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at temperatures +below 88° C. the value increases rapidly, showing that the +molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see +J.N. Friend, <i>The Theory of Valency</i> (1909), p. 111.) The aqueous +solution behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen +acids; E. Deussen (<i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408; +1906, 49, p. 297) found the solution of constant boiling point +to contain 43.2% HF and to boil at 110° (750 mm.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as <i>fluorides</i> and are +easily obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides, +hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of +silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those +of the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of +the alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of +hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative +elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other +metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power +of etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid; or by warming +them in a glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a +moistened glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently +gelatinizes owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed. +The atomic weight of fluorine has been determined by the conversion +of calcium, sodium and potassium fluorides into the corresponding +sulphates. J. Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride +into silver chloride, obtained the value 19.44, and by analysing +calcium fluoride the value 19.16; the more recent work of H. +Moissan gives the value 19.05.</p> + +<p>See H. Moissan, <i>Le Fluor et ses composes</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUOR-SPAR,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> native calcium fluoride (CaF<span class="su">2</span>), known also +as <span class="sc">Fluorite</span> or simply <span class="sc">Fluor</span>. In France it is called fluorine, +whilst the term fluor is applied to the element (F). All these +terms, from the Lat. <i>fluere</i>, “to flow,” recall the fact that the spar +is useful as a flux in certain metallurgical operations. (Cf. its +Ger. name <i>Flussspat</i> or <i>Fluss</i>.)</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:449px; height:256px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img578.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in +cubes, either alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic +dodecahedron, four-faced cube, &c. The four-faced cube has +been called the fluoroid. In fig. 1, <i>a</i> is the cube (100), <i>d</i> the +rhombic dodecahedron (110), and <i>f</i> the four-faced cube (310). +Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of interpenetrant cubes. +The crystals are sometimes polysynthetic, a large octahedron, +<i>e.g.</i>, being built up of small cubes. The faces are often etched or +corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the +octahedron.</p> + +<p>Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife, +though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3.2. +The colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral +is too soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome +material for vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed +in bands, regularly following the contour of the crystal. As the +colour is usually expelled, or much altered, by heat, it is believed +to be due to an organic pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons +has been detected in many specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and +other observers. H.W. Morse (<i>Proc. Amer. Acad.</i>, 1906, p. 587) +obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen +and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by +heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decomposition +of an organic colouring matter, which has, however, no +connexion with the fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of +the mineral. Certain crystals from Cumberland are beautifully +fluorescent, appearing purple with a bluish internal haziness +by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted light. Fluor-spar, +though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double refraction, +probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar are +thermo-luminescent, <i>i.e.</i> they glow on exposure to a moderate +heat, and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety +which exhibits a green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces +under the Röntgen rays. Cavities containing liquid occasionally +occur in crystals of fluor-spar, notably in the greasy green cubes +of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet fluor-spar from Wölsendorf +in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when struck, and has +been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a violet fluor-spar +from Quincié, dep. Rhône, France. In both cases the spar +evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.</p> + +<p>Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially +in lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and +ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries, +and has been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in +the reduction of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric +acid, which it evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The +mineral is also used in the production of opal glass and enamel +ware. In consequence of its low refractive and dispersive power, +colourless pellucid fluor-spar is valuable in the construction of +apochromatic lenses, but this variety is rare. The dark violet +fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as “Blue John,” is +prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively at +Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the +workmen “bull beef,” may be changed, by heat, to a rich +amethystine tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult +to work on the lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin. +F. Corsi, the eminent Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was +the material of the famous murrhine vases.</p> + +<p>Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the +finest crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous +Limestone series in the north of England, especially at Weardale, +Allendale and Alston Moor. It is also found in the lead and +copper-mines of Cornwall and S. Devon, notably near Liskeard, +where fine crystals have been found, with faces of the six-faced +octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In Cornwall fluor-spar +is known to the miners as “cann.” Fine yellow fluor-spar +occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red +octahedra are found in the Alps, near Göschenen. Many +localities in the United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked +commercially in a few places, notably at Rosiclare in southern +Illinois.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUSHING,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly a township and a village of Queens county, +New York, U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing +Bay, since the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of +Queens, New York City. Flushing is served by the Long Island +railroad and by electric lines. It was settled in 1644 by a company +of English non-conformists who had probably been residents of +Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its name. +Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in +1672 George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the +War of Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich +New Yorkers and colonial officials.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUSHING<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Vlissingen</i>), a fortified seaport in the +province of Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of +Walcheren, at the mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt, +4 m. by rail S. by W. of Middelburg, with which it is also connected +by steam tramway and by a ship canal. There is a steam +ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the coast of Zeeland-Flandres. +Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval station +and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the +care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial +port. In 1872 the railway was opened which, in conjunction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +with the regular day and night service of steamers to Queenborough +in the county of Kent, forms one of the main routes +between England and the east of Europe. In 1873 the great +harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the +navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or +Antwerp, the tonnage being in 1899 about 7.9% of that of the +kingdom. As a summer resort, however, Flushing has acquired +considerable popularity, sea-baths and a large modern hotel +being situated on the fine beach about three-quarters of a mile +north-west of the town. It possesses a town hall, containing a +collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an exchange, an academy +of sciences and a school of navigation. The Jakobskerk, or +Jacob’s church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to Admiral +de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786), +who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town +are connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery, +the state railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron +and steel works’ depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture. +The chief imports are colonial produce and wine, wood and coal. +The exports include agricultural produce (wheat and beans), +shrimps and meat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUTE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a word adapted from O. Fr. <i>fleüte</i>, modern <i>flûte</i>; from +O. Fr. have come the Span. <i>flauta</i>, Ital. <i>flauto</i> and Ger. <i>Flöte</i>. +The <i>New English Dictionary</i> dismisses the derivations suggested +from Lat. <i>flatuare</i> or <i>flavitare</i>; ultimately the word must be +referred to the root seen in “blow,” Lat. <i>flare</i>, Ger. <i>blasen</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>1. In music “flute” is a general term applied to wood-wind +instruments consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and +blown directly through the mouthpiece without the intervention +of a reed. The flute family is classified according to the mouthpiece +used to set in vibration the column of air within the tube: +<i>i.e.</i> (1) the simple lateral mouth-hole or embouchure which +necessitates holding the instrument in a transverse position; +(2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows the performer +to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There is a +third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no mouthpiece +of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration by +blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the +ancient Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (<i>q.v.</i>). The +transverse flute has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which +has survived only in the so-called penny whistle, in the “flute-work” +of the organ (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the French flageolet.</p> + +<p><i>The Transverse Flute</i> or <i>German Flute</i> (Fr. <i>flûte traversière</i>, +<i>flûte allemande</i>: Ger. <i>Flöte</i>, <i>Querflöte</i>, <i>Zwerchpfeiff</i>, <i>Schweitzerpfeiff</i>; +Ital. <i>flauto traverso</i>) includes the <i>concert flute</i> known both +as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (<i>q.v.</i>) or octave flute, +and the fife (<i>q.v.</i>). The modern flute consists of a tube open at +one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug +or cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one +giving the consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a +stretched string. The primitive flute was made in one piece, +but the modern instrument is composed of three adjustable +joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the upper end and containing +at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole or embouchure. +This embouchure, always open when the instrument +is being played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an +acoustical sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys +necessary to produce the scale which gave the flute its original +designation of D flute, the head and body together, when the +holes are closed, giving the fundamental note D. Before the +invention of keys, this fundamental note and the notes obtained +by the successive opening of the six holes produced the diatonic +scale of D major. All other semitones were obtained by what +is known as cross fingering (Fr. <i>doigté fourchu</i>; Ger. <i>Gabelgriffe</i>). +It became usual to consider this the typical fingering nomenclature, +whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute, +and to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the +six lateral holes are covered by the fingers. The result is +that the tonality is always a tone lower than the name of +the instrument indicates. Thus the D flute is really in C, +the F flute is E♭, &c. (3) The foot-joint or tail-joint containing +the two additional keys for C♯ and C which extend the +compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C in the +fundamental octave.</p> + +<p>The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with +chromatic semitones from <img style="width:84px; height:50px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img579.jpg" alt="" /> The sound is produced +by holding the flute transversely with the embouchure +turned slightly outwards, the lower lip resting on the nearer +edge of the embouchure, and blowing obliquely across, not +into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the lips, known +as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the +embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces +in the stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsations +or vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rarefaction +of the air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional +to the length of the stationary column, which is practically +somewhat longer than the length of the tube.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The length of this +column is varied by opening the lateral finger-holes. The current +or air-reed thus acts upon the air column within the flute, without +passing through the tube, as a plectrum upon a string, setting it +in vibration. The air column of the flute is the sound-producer, +whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the vibrating +reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air column, +acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed by +vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> at which the +current of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure +be made less acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same +time increased, the frequency of the alternate pulses of compression +and rarefaction within the tube will be increased two, +three or fourfold, forming a corresponding number of nodes and +loops which results in harmonics or upper partials, respectively +the octave, the twelfth, the double octave. By this means sounds +of higher pitch are produced without actually shortening the +length of the column of air by means of lateral holes. The +acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which +there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be +treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult +the works of Rockstro,<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Helmholtz,<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and others.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The effect of +boring lateral holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of +the air column, which may be regarded as being effective only +between the hole in question and the mouthpiece. In order to +obtain this result the diameter of the hole should be equal to that +of the bore; as long as the holes were covered by the fingers, +this was obviously impossible. The holes, therefore, being smaller +than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be placed proportionally +nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening the pitch +and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by wind-instrument +makers of classic Greece (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clarinet</a></span>), +and has been explained by Chladni<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and Gottfried Weber.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:612px; height:45px" src="images/img580a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Captain Day’s <i>Catalogue, &c.</i>, by permission of Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:809px; height:61px" src="images/img580b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably +cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century +a modification took place, the head joint alone remaining +cylindrical while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone +having its smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +conoidal bore greatly improved the quality of tone and the +production of the higher harmonics of the third octave. Once +the conical bore had been adopted, the term flute was exclusively +applied to the new instruments, the smaller flutes, then +cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife (<i>q.v.</i>). At +the present day in England, France and America, the favourite +mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm, +and known as the “cylinder flute with the parabolic head,” +of which more will be said further on. The successive opening +of the holes and keys on the flute produces the chromatic scale +of the first or fundamental octave. By increasing the pressure +of the breath and slightly altering the position of the lips over +the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes of the +fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave +of the compass is obtained by the production of the higher +harmonics (Fr. <i>sons harmoniques</i>; Ger. <i>Flageolettöne</i>), of the +fundamental scale, facilitated by the opening of certain of the +finger-holes as “vent holes.” The quality of tone depends +somewhat on the material of which the flute is made; silver and +gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite delicacy suitable for solo +music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow tone of considerable +power suitable for orchestral music. The tone differs further +in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough, the medium +sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The +proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air +chamber situated between it and the embouchure are mainly +influential in giving the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre, +due to the paucity of the upper partials of which according to +Helmholtz<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> only the octave and twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +states, however, that when the fundamental D is played, he can +discern the seventh partial. The technical capabilities of the +flute are practically unlimited to a good player who can obtain +sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic and chromatic +scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps, +turns, shakes, &c. By the articulation with the tongue of the +syllables <i>te-ke</i> or <i>ti-ke</i> repeated quickly for groups of double notes, +or of <i>te-ke-ti</i> for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced, +known respectively as <i>double</i> or <i>triple tonguing</i>, a device understood +early in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin +Agricola,<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a> who gives the syllables as <i>de</i> for sustained notes, +di-ri for shorter notes, and <i>tel-lel-lel</i> for staccato passages in +quick tempo.<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p> + + + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is +set in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air +directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice +serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The +Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of +blowing from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long +pipe held obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its +upper extremity; it was known as <i>Saïb-it</i><a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and was frequently +figured on the monuments. The same instrument, called “nay,” +is still used in Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the +Greeks, plagiaulos,<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a> was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first +blown from the end as described above,<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a> since we know that the +Greeks were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx +or pan-pipe. The instruments preserved at the British Museum<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a> +having lateral embouchures show, however, that they were also +acquainted—probably through the Hindus—with the transverse +flute, although in the case of these specimens a reed must +have been inserted into the mouth-hole or no sound would +have been obtained.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:380px" src="images/img580c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> From the +Tope at Amarābati, British Museum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe +is generally admitted; the flute evidently penetrated +from the East at some period not yet determined. A +transverse flute is seen on Indian +sculptures of the Gandhara +school showing Greek influence, +and dating from the beginning +of our era (fig. 3). But although +the transverse flute was evidently +known to the Greeks and +Romans, it did not find the same +favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no +evidence of the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the +Roman empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources +during the early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a +group of caskets<a name="fa16f" id="fa16f" href="#ft16f"><span class="sp">16</span></a> of Italo-Byzantine work of the 9th or 10th century, +while of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +MSS.<a name="fa17f" id="fa17f" href="#ft17f"><span class="sp">17</span></a> preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere. +There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev<a name="fa18f" id="fa18f" href="#ft18f"><span class="sp">18</span></a> an orchestra +depicted on frescoes said to date from the 11th century; among +the musicians is a flautist.</p> + +<p>The first essentially western European trace of the transverse +flute occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated +<i>Hortus deliciarum</i> of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg.<a name="fa19f" id="fa19f" href="#ft19f"><span class="sp">19</span></a> Fol. 221 +shows a syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad +explains in a legend as <i>tibia</i>; in the vocabulary the latter is translated +swegel. In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of +the fifty-one musicians in the beautiful MS. <i>Las Cantigas de Santa +Maria</i> in the Escorial, Madrid.<a name="fa20f" id="fa20f" href="#ft20f"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Eustache Deschamps, a French +poet of the 14th century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the +“flute traversaine,” and we are justified in supposing that he refers +to the transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in +the 15th century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Virdung’s +celebrated work,<a name="fa21f" id="fa21f" href="#ft21f"><span class="sp">21</span></a> where it is called “Zwerchpfeiff,” and, with +the drums, it already constituted the principal element of the +military music. Agricola (<i>op. cit.</i>) alludes to it as the “Querchpfeiff” +or “Schweizerpfeiff,” the latter designation dating, it is +said, from the battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops +used it for the first time in war.</p> + +<p>From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family, +said to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass—<img style="width:257px; height:52px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581a.jpg" alt="" /> respectively. +Praetorius<a name="fa22f" id="fa22f" href="#ft22f"><span class="sp">22</span></a> designates +the transverse flute as +“Flauta traversa’ Querpfeiff” +and “Querflöt,” and gives the +pitch of +the bass +in +<img style="width:78px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581b.jpg" alt="" /> +the tenor +and alto +in +<img style="width:79px; height:41px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581c.jpg" alt="" /> +and the +discant +in +<img style="width:75px; height:42px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581d.jpg" alt="" /> +as varieties +then +in use. A +flute concert at that time included two discants, four altos or +tenors, and two basses. The same author distinguishes between the +“Traversa” and the “Schweizerpfeiff” or fife (which he also calls +“Feldpfeiff,” <i>i.e.</i> military flute), although the construction was the +same. There were +two kinds of +“Feldpfeiff,” in +<img style="width:77px; height:42px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581f.jpg" alt="" /> +and +<img style="width:79px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581g.jpg" alt="" /> +respectively; they were +employed exclusively +with the military drum.</p> + +<p>Mersenne’s<a name="fa23f" id="fa23f" href="#ft23f"><span class="sp">23</span></a> account of the transverse flute, then designated “flûte +d’Allemagne” or “flûte allemande” in France, and an “Air de Cour” +for four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in +use in France +the soprano +flute in +<img style="width:79px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581g.jpg" alt="" /> +the tenor +or alto +flute in +<img style="width:78px; height:51px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581h.jpg" alt="" /> +and the bass +flute descending +to +<img style="width:82px; height:31px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581i.jpg" alt="" />. +The museum of the Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses +specimens of all these varieties except the last. All of them are +laterally pierced with six finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore, +and are fashioned out of a single piece of wood. Their compass consists +of two octaves and a fifth. Mersenne’s tablature for fingering +the flute differs but little from those of Hotteterre-le-Romain<a name="fa24f" id="fa24f" href="#ft24f"><span class="sp">24</span></a> and +Eisel<a name="fa25f" id="fa25f" href="#ft25f"><span class="sp">25</span></a> for the diatonic scale; he does not give the chromatic semitones +and the flute had as yet no keys.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:584px" src="images/img581k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4. <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Bass Flute. +From Museo Civico, +Verona (facsimile).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Bass Flute. +Brussels Museum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in +<img style="width:74px; height:30px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581j.jpg" alt="" /> +at the French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per +second. It measures 0.95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to +the lower extremity of the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes +is such that it is impossible to cover them with the fingers if the +flute is held in the ordinary way. The instrument +must be placed against the mouth +in an almost vertical direction, inclining the +extremity of the tube either to the right or +the left. This inconvenient position makes +it necessary that the instrument should be +divided into two parts, enabling the player +to turn the head joint that the embouchure +may be most commodiously approached by +the lips, which is not at all easy. The first +and fourth of the six lateral holes are +double in order to accommodate both right- and +left-handed players, the holes not in +use being stopped up with wax. The bass +flute shown in fig. 4 is the facsimile of an +instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona. +The original, unfortunately no longer fit for +use, is nevertheless sufficiently well preserved +to allow of all its proportionate +measurements being given. The lowest +note, E♭, is obtained with a remarkable +amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very +prevalent opinion that it is impossible to +produce by lateral insufflation sounds which +go a little lower than the ordinary limit +downwards of the modern orchestral flute.<a name="fa26f" id="fa26f" href="#ft26f"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p> + +<p>The bass flute cited by Mersenne should +not differ much from that of the Museo +Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have +been in <img style="width:82px; height:31px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581l.jpg" alt="" />, and that it was furnished +with an open key like that which was +applied to the recorders (<i>flûtes douces</i>) of +the same epoch, the function of the key +being to augment by another note the compass +of the instrument in the lower part. A +bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5 +is figured and described in Diderot and +D’Alembert’s encyclopaedia <a name="fa27f" id="fa27f" href="#ft27f"><span class="sp">27</span></a> (1751). According +to Quantz,<a name="fa28f" id="fa28f" href="#ft28f"><span class="sp">28</span></a> it was in France and +about the middle of the 17th century that +the first modifications were introduced in +the manufacture of the flute. The improvements +at this period consisted of the +abandonment of the cylindrical bore in +favour of a conical one, with the base of the cone forming the +head of the instrument. At the same time the flute was +made of three separate pieces called head, body, and tail or foot, +which were ultimately further subdivided. The body or middle +joint was divided into two pieces, so that the instrument could be +tuned to the different pitches then in use by a replacement with +longer or shorter pieces. It was probably about 1677, when Lully +introduced the German flute into the opera, that recourse was had +for the first time to keys, and that the key of D# was applied to the +lower part of the instrument.<a name="fa29f" id="fa29f" href="#ft29f"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The engraving of B. Picart, dated +1707, given in Hotteterre’s book, represents the flute as having +reached the stage of improvement of which we have just spoken. In +1726 Quantz,<a name="fa30f" id="fa30f" href="#ft30f"><span class="sp">30</span></a> finding himself in Paris, had a second key applied to +the flute, placed nearly at the same height as the first, that of the +<img style="width:81px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581m.jpg" alt="" />, intended to differentiate the D# and the E♭.<a name="fa31f" id="fa31f" href="#ft31f"><span class="sp">31</span></a> This +innovation was generally well received in Germany, but +does not appear to have met with corresponding success +in other countries. In France and England manufacturers adopted +it but rarely; in Italy it was declared useless.<a name="fa32f" id="fa32f" href="#ft32f"><span class="sp">32</span></a> About the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> +time flutes were constructed with the lower extremity lengthened +sufficiently to produce the fundamental C, and furnished with a +supplementary key to produce the C♯. This innovation, spoken of +by Quantz,<a name="fa33f" id="fa33f" href="#ft33f"><span class="sp">33</span></a> did not meet with a very favourable reception, and was +shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing mention may be made of +the drawing of a flute with a C key in the <i>Music-Saal</i> of J.F.B. +Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45.</p> + +<p>The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected +by changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or +shorter upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences +in the pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion +of it were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the +different parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications +in the length, it was conceived that the just relation could be re-established +by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key. +These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was +asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened proportionately +to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus improved took +the name of “flûtes à registre.” The register system was, about +1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint<a name="fa34f" id="fa34f" href="#ft34f"><span class="sp">34</span></a> and, the embouchure +section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable to the performer, +according to the opinion of this professor, to lower the pitch +of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other lengthening +pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.</p> + +<p>The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice, +is closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork +depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is +in its right place when the accompanying octaves <img style="width:108px; height:58px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582a.jpg" alt="" /> are +true. Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions +the use of a nut-screw to give the required position to +the cork.<a name="fa35f" id="fa35f" href="#ft35f"><span class="sp">35</span></a> He does not name the inventor of this appliance, +but, according to Tromlitz,<a name="fa36f" id="fa36f" href="#ft36f"><span class="sp">36</span></a> the improvement was due to +Quantz himself. The invention goes back to 1726.</p> + +<p>When the <i>Method</i> of Quantz appeared there were still in use, +besides the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the +low fourth flute in A, and the flûte d’amour a note higher; in +France they had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave). +A bass flute in D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When +Ribock published his <i>Bemerkungen über die Flöte</i><a name="fa37f" id="fa37f" href="#ft37f"><span class="sp">37</span></a> the flute +had already the five keys here shown. <img style="width:186px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582b.jpg" alt="" /> +This author states that the inventor of these +new keys is not known to him, but that +either Kusder, a musical instrument-maker in London, or Johann +Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was the originator, since he has not been +able to trace those keys on the flutes of any other maker. Although +Tromlitz does not claim for himself the invention of the keys for F, +G♯ and B♭, he states that “he had occupied himself for several years +in applying these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing, +but on the contrary to render the handling of them as easy as +possible.”<a name="fa38f" id="fa38f" href="#ft38f"><span class="sp">38</span></a> In the later work published in 1800,<a name="fa39f" id="fa39f" href="#ft39f"><span class="sp">39</span></a> however, he +seems to attribute the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of +London; he says that he has never yet been fortunate enough to +come across a good flute by that maker—“the flute has certainly +gained by the addition of the keys for F, G♯ and B♭, but this is not +everything, for on such a flute much must perforce be left unattempted.... +Only a flute with eight keys according to my invention +is capable of everything.” It would seem, moreover, from +circumstantial evidence stated clearly and on good authority by +Rockstro<a name="fa40f" id="fa40f" href="#ft40f"><span class="sp">40</span></a> that the keys for F, G♯ and B♭ must have been used +first in England and made by Richard Potter before 1774. The +higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz, we believe to have +been first recommended by Ribock (1782).<a name="fa41f" id="fa41f" href="#ft41f"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Tromlitz in <i>Über +Flöten</i> describes at length what may be termed the first systematic +effort to overcome the difficulties created by the combination of +open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the question +by determining the positions of the holes according to the exigencies +of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more arbitrary +theories connected with the musical scale.</p> + +<p>In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz’s slide applied to the +head joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system +of tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document<a name="fa42f" id="fa42f" href="#ft42f"><span class="sp">42</span></a> +describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the +holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the +keys. Potter’s patent conical valves were an adaptation of the +contrivance first invented by J.F. Boie or Boye of Göttingen,<a name="fa43f" id="fa43f" href="#ft43f"><span class="sp">43</span></a> +who used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The +keys mentioned in the patent were four—D♯, F, G♯, A♯. The idea +of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up again +about the same time by two players of the flute in London named +Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C +and C#, and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In +Dr Arnold’s <i>New Instructions for the German Flute</i> occurs a tablature, +the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century, and +bears the following title, “A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale +and Description of Tacet and Florio’s new invented German Flute, +with all the additional keys explained.” It explains the use of six +keys—C, C♯, D♯, F, G♯, A♯—that are not always figured, because +the employment of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz +himself, who, however, made flutes with nine keys—adding E♭, +another F, and C♮, declared that he was not in favour of so great +a complication, and that he preferred the flute with only two keys, +D♯ and E♭, with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the +head joint. This instrument met all requirements. He was always +much opposed to the use of the old keys for C♮ and C♯, because they +altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When +Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become +modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flûte +d’amour a minor third lower, a “third” flute a minor third higher, +and, finally, the little octave flute.</p> + +<p>While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of +augmenting the compass of the flute downwards by employing open +keys for C♮ and C♯, an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi,<a name="fa44f" id="fa44f" href="#ft44f"><span class="sp">44</span></a> increased +the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of five +new keys, viz. B, B♭, A, A♭, and G. At the same time that he +produced this invention <a name="fa45f" id="fa45f" href="#ft45f"><span class="sp">45</span></a> he conceived the plugging of the lateral +holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But +it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral +holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there +were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of +Orazi proved a failure.</p> + +<p>In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan,<a name="fa46f" id="fa46f" href="#ft46f"><span class="sp">46</span></a> of Stratford, near London, +conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring, +permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was +being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the +embryo of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the +system of the flute. Two years later Macgregor,<a name="fa47f" id="fa47f" href="#ft47f"><span class="sp">47</span></a> a musical-instrument +maker in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower +than the ordinary flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the +existence of the bass flute mentioned above. The difference between +the two instruments lies in the mechanism of the keys. That employed +by Macgregor consisted of a double lever, a contrivance +dating from before the middle of the 18th century, of which the +application is seen in an oboe of large dimensions preserved in the +National Museum at Munich.<a name="fa48f" id="fa48f" href="#ft48f"><span class="sp">48</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra D[natural] hole +and key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern +construction.<a name="fa49f" id="fa49f" href="#ft49f"><span class="sp">49</span></a></p> + +<p>About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more +keys, those of F♯ and C♯, and a key, called +“de cadence,” to facilitate the accompanying +shakes.</p> + +<p>To increase the number of keys, to improve +their system of plugging, and to extend the <img style="width:172px; height:79px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582c.jpg" alt="" /> +scale of the instrument in the lower region,—these +had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in +the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose +labours we have called attention, had as yet devoted his attention +to the rational division of the column of air by means of the +lateral holes. In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to +be in London, was struck with the power of tone the celebrated +English performer Charles Nicholson drew from his instrument. +Boehm learned, and not without astonishment, that his English +colleague obtained this result by giving the lateral holes a much +greater diameter than was then usually admitted. About the +same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an amateur player +named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he had +bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a +key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These innovations +set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span> +instrument.<a name="fa50f" id="fa50f" href="#ft50f"><span class="sp">50</span></a> He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832 +he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument +is distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger +holes disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.</p> + +<p>Boehm’s system had preserved the key of G♯ open; Coche,<a name="fa51f" id="fa51f" href="#ft51f"><span class="sp">51</span></a> a +professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet +the younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified +Boehm’s flute by closing the G♯ with a key, wishing thus to render +the new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a +key, facilitating the shake upon C♯ with D♯, and brought about +some other changes in the instrument of less importance.</p> + +<p>Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had +been conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however, +he made further experiments, and the results obtained were put in +practice by the construction of a new instrument, of which the body +was given a cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was +modified at the embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic +(see fig. 2). The inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in +the tones of the lower octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect +accuracy of intonation, by establishing the more exact proportions +which a column of air of cylindrical form permitted.</p> + +<p>The priority of Boehm’s invention was long contested, his detractors +maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the +flute was due to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindicates +the claim of the former to the invention of the large lateral +holes.<a name="fa52f" id="fa52f" href="#ft52f"><span class="sp">52</span></a> His greatest title to fame is the invention of the mechanism +which allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones +intermediate between the fundamental note and its first harmonic +by means of eleven holes so disposed that in opening them successively +they shorten the column of air in exact proportional +quantities.<a name="fa53f" id="fa53f" href="#ft53f"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Boehm (<i>Essays</i>, &c.) published a diagram or scheme to +be adopted in determining the position of the note-holes of wind +instruments for every given pitch. This diagram gives the position +of the intermediate holes which he had been enabled to +establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of the lengths +of strings.</p> + +<p>The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection +it has reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there +are players who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering +required for some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derangement +of the mechanism, have something to do with this. In England +especially, the ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to +the improvements introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in +1845 (Patent No. 10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A +lower, and covered them with open keys. He added some keys, and +made a better disposition of the other lateral holes, of which he +increased the diameter, producing thus a sonorousness almost equal +to that of the Boehm flute, while yet preserving the old fingering +for the notes of the first two octaves. But in spite of these improvements +the old flute will not bear an impartial comparison with that +of Boehm.</p> + +<p>A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signor Carlo +Tommaso Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of +the instrument on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal +features of this flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper +extremity of the tube instead of at the side, which allows the instrument +to be held in a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is required. +There are eleven holes mathematically placed in the tube +which give the semitones of the scale; there are no keys. The +eleven holes are fingered by the fingers and thumbs, the C♯ hole +being closed by the side of the left fore-finger. All the notes are +obtained by means of simple fingering as far as G♯ of the third +octave, the remaining notes of which are produced by cross-fingering. +For the convenience of players with short fingers keys can be added, +and the head of the Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute. +The compass of the Georgi flute is almost the same as that of +the concert flute; viz. <img style="width:105px; height:79px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img583.jpg" alt="" /> If the lower C and C♯ are +required, extra holes and keys can be added. +Everything that is possible on the Boehm flute is +possible on the Georgi and more, owing to the simplicity +of the fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform, +all trills are equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant +and sympathetic.<a name="fa54f" id="fa54f" href="#ft54f"><span class="sp">54</span></a></p> + +<p>The old English <i>fipple flute</i>, or <i>flûte à bec</i>, is described under the +headings <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Recorder</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flageolet</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(V. M.; K. S.)</div> + +<p>2. In architecture the name “flute” is given to the vertical +channels (segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal +section) employed on the shafts of columns in the classic styles. +The flutes are separated one from the other by an “arris” in +the Doric order and by a “fillet” in the Ionic and Corinthian +orders. The earliest fluted columns are those in Egypt, at first +with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at Karnac +(1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about +one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one +of the “beehive” tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and +are the earliest Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric +temples at Metapontum and Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the +flutes are also segmental, but in later examples in order to +emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs and are known +as “false ellipses,” and this applies to nearly all the fluting in +Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or +Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52 +in the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52 +flutes in the Persian columns according to the diameter of the +column. In the Greek Doric column 20 is the usual number, but +there are 16 only in the temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and +the temple of Apollo at Syracuse; 18 in one of the temples of +Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse, and 24 in the temple +of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also varies; +in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of +the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius +of the central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the +smaller arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar +accentuation is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where +the flutes are separated by fillets, and their section is always +elliptical in Greek work, the depth of the flute, however, being +always greater than in the Doric order. Thus, in the temple of +Ilissus and the Ionic column in the cella of the temple at Bassae, +the depth is about one-quarter of the width, in the Propylaea +at Priene it is about one-third, and in the Erechtheum and other +examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more than one-half. +The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one quarter of +the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek +Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian +orders, the flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth +being about one third of the width in the Doric column, and in all +Ionic, Corinthian and Composite columns half the width of the +flute. The fillet also is much broader in Roman examples, being +about one-third of the width of the flute. In Roman columns +sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the shaft, about one-third +of the height, are partly filled with a convex moulding, +“cabling” being the usual term applied to this treatment. +The French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this +decorative feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the +Louvre carved a series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian +buildings, instead of the fluting of the column being vertical, +it twines round the column and is known as spiral fluting; a fine +example is found in the Bevilacqua palace at Verona by San +Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into capitals, as in +the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at Cnidos, +the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one +of the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which +are sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many +of the Roman temples were carved with flutes. In medieval +buildings, fluting was occasionally introduced in imitation of +Roman work, as in the churches of central Syria and of Autun and +Langres in France, but in the south of Italy and Sicily it would +seem to have been brought in as a variety of treatment, in the +decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of cloisters, as at +Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and St Paul-outside-the-Walls +at Rome.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See E.F.F. Chladni, <i>Die Akustik</i> (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sonreck, “Über die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung +der Luftsäule in offenen und gedeckten Röhren,” <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1876, +vol. 158.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>The Flute</i> (London, 1890), § 90-105, pp. 34-40.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Röhren mit offenen Enden</i> +(Berlin, 1896). Ostwald’s <i>Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften</i>, +No. 80.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> V.C. Mahillon, <i>Experimental Studies on the Resonance of Trunco-Conical +and Cylindrical Air Columns</i>, translated by F.A. Mahan +(London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, <i>Acoustics in Relation to Wind +Instruments</i> (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und +die musikalischen Instrumente, &c.</i> (Giessen, 1855); <i>idem.</i> “Sur le +mouvement vibratoire de l’air dans les tuyaux,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, +1855, vol. 41, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, § 73, pp. 87-88, note 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> “Akustik der Blasinstrumente,” <i>Allgem. musikal. Zeit.</i> (Leipzig, +1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, <i>Zur +Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert</i>. Inaugural +Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität. (Berlin, 15th of +March 1899), p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Lehre von der Tonempfindung</i> (Braunschweig, 1877).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See additions by D. J. B. to article “Flute” in Grove’s <i>Dictionary +of Music and Musicians</i> (London, 1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Musica instrumentalis deutsch</i> (Wittenberg, 1528).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See also L’Artusi, <i>Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna</i> +(Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cäcilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See “Les Anciennes Flûtes égyptiennes,” by Victor Loret in +<i>Journal asiatique</i> (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two careful +articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still extant. See +also Lauth, “Über die ägyptische Instrumente,” <i>Sitzungs. der philos., +philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu München</i> (1873).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Albert A. Howard, “The Aulos or Tibia,” <i>Harvard Studies</i>, +iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Representations of flutes blown as here described have been +found in Europe. See <i>Comptes rendus de la commission impériale +archéologique</i> (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same +date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, <i>Wandgemälde</i>, +No. 7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18; +Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, <i>Les Figurines</i>, p. 136.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9 +and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood +encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head +of a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube. +This hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The +pipe is stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern +flute. There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus +in the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in <i>History +of Discoveries at Halicarnassus</i> (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre +has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing +satyrs playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles +have been restored, especially in the details affecting our present +subject, and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another +statue representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum. +The instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but +erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which +the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the intervention +of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column of +air.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze, +<i>Catalogo</i> (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in +<i>Gallerie nazionali italiane</i>, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263, +L’Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, “Antike Vorlagen +byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs,” in <i>Jahrb. d. K. Preuss. Kunst-Sammlungen</i> +(Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven, “Ein +Reliquienkästchen aus Pirano,” id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl. iii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Greek MS. 510, Grégoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliothèque +Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, <i>L’Épopée +byzantine à la fin du dizième siècle</i> (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i. +p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b. +written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A +cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being +uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol. +72a, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, “Der Bilderkreis des +griechischen Physiologus,” in <i>Byzantinisches Archiv</i> (Leipzig, 1899), +Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, <i>Histoire de l’art byzantin</i> (Paris, +1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; “Kuseyr’ Amra,” issued by <i>K. Akad. d. +Wissenschaften</i> (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18f" id="ft18f" href="#fa18f"><span class="fn">18</span></a> A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes +has been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue, +sect. “Academies,” St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab. +1325a).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century, +was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt +during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in +facsimile published by the <i>Soc. pour la conservation des monuments +historiques d’Alsace</i>. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller +(Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, <i>Herrad von +Landsperg und ihr Werk</i> (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1818), twelve +plates.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in <i>Critical and Bibliographical Notes +on Early Spanish Music</i> (London, 1887), p. 119.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p> + +<p><a name="ft22f" id="ft22f" href="#fa22f"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Organographia</i> (Wolfenbüttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23f" id="ft23f" href="#fa23f"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), <i>Livre</i> v. p. 241.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24f" id="ft24f" href="#fa24f"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Principes de la flûte traversière ou flûte d’Allemagne, de la flûte +à bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25f" id="ft25f" href="#fa25f"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Musicus <span class="grk" title="autodidaktos">αὐτοδιδακτός</span> oder der sich selbst informirende Musicus</i> +(Erfurt, 1738), p. 85.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26f" id="ft26f" href="#fa26f"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Fétis, <i>Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique à +l’Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27f" id="ft27f" href="#fa27f"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See <i>Recueil de planches</i>, vol. iv., and article “Basse de flûte +traversière,” vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also <i>The Flute</i>, by R.S. +Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced +together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the +Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted French +maker Delusse.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28f" id="ft28f" href="#fa28f"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen</i> (Berlin, +1752).</p> + +<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in describing +the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute in D, +which is considered to be typical of the family.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30f" id="ft30f" href="#fa30f"><span class="fn">30</span></a> “Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst +entworfen,” in the <i>Historisch-Kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der +Musik</i>, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor +of the flute to Frederick the Great.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31f" id="ft31f" href="#fa31f"><span class="fn">31</span></a> See Johann Georg Tromlitz, <i>Ausführlicher und gründlicher +Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen</i> (Leipzig, 1791), 1, § 7, and <i>Über Flöten +mit mehrern Klappen</i> (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. § 21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32f" id="ft32f" href="#fa32f"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Antonio Lorenzoni, <i>Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso</i> +(Vicenza, 1779).</p> + +<p><a name="ft33f" id="ft33f" href="#fa33f"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See <i>Anweisung</i>, i. § 15.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34f" id="ft34f" href="#fa34f"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See <i>Lebenslauf</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 248, where Quantz states that he invented +the adjustable head for the flute.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35f" id="ft35f" href="#fa35f"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See <i>Anweisung</i>, i. §§ 10-13 and iv. § 26.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36f" id="ft36f" href="#fa36f"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Ausführlicher und gründlicher Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen</i> +(Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. § 20. Compare Schilling, <i>Univ.-Lexikon</i> +(Leipzig, 1835).</p> + +<p><a name="ft37f" id="ft37f" href="#fa37f"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R., +see p. 2).</p> + +<p><a name="ft38f" id="ft38f" href="#fa38f"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Kurze Abhandlung von Flötenspielen</i> (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="ft39f" id="ft39f" href="#fa39f"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Über Flöten</i>, &c., pp. 133 and 134.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40f" id="ft40f" href="#fa40f"><span class="fn">40</span></a> See <i>The Flute</i>, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.</p> + +<p><a name="ft41f" id="ft41f" href="#fa41f"><span class="fn">41</span></a> See <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 51 and 62.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42f" id="ft42f" href="#fa42f"><span class="fn">42</span></a> English patent, No. 1499.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43f" id="ft43f" href="#fa43f"><span class="fn">43</span></a> See Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 197.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44f" id="ft44f" href="#fa44f"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico che +ha i suoni bassi del violino</i> (Rome, 1797).</p> + +<p><a name="ft45f" id="ft45f" href="#fa45f"><span class="fn">45</span></a> The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by Trexler +of Vienna, who called it the “panaulon.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft46f" id="ft46f" href="#fa46f"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a +diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 273-274.</p> + +<p><a name="ft47f" id="ft47f" href="#fa47f"><span class="fn">47</span></a> Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a +diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 273-274.</p> + +<p><a name="ft48f" id="ft48f" href="#fa48f"><span class="fn">48</span></a> Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775, +and called “Basse de Musette,” may be seen in the Museum of the +Paris Conservatoire.</p> + +<p><a name="ft49f" id="ft49f" href="#fa49f"><span class="fn">49</span></a> See account of Capeller’s inventions by Carl Maria von Weber +in <i>Allgem. musikal. Zeit.</i> (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation +of which is given by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 279 and 280.</p> + +<p><a name="ft50f" id="ft50f" href="#fa50f"><span class="fn">50</span></a> See <i>Über den Flötenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen desselben</i> +(Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, <i>An Essay on the Construction +of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm, published with the +addition of Correspondence and other Documents</i> (London, 1882).</p> + +<p><a name="ft51f" id="ft51f" href="#fa51f"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Examen critique de la flûte ordinaire comparée à la flûte Boehm</i> +(Paris, 1838).</p> + +<p><a name="ft52f" id="ft52f" href="#fa52f"><span class="fn">52</span></a> They existed long before, however, in the Chinese <i>Ty</i> and the +Japanese <i>Fuye</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft53f" id="ft53f" href="#fa53f"><span class="fn">53</span></a> The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch’s <i>History +of the Boehm Flute</i> (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating +to this interesting discussion have been collected with great +impartiality.</p> + +<p><a name="ft54f" id="ft54f" href="#fa54f"><span class="fn">54</span></a> For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments +of the Orchestra</i>, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is given, +and Paul Wetzger, <i>Die Flöte</i> (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24, and Tafel +iv. No. 20.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLUX<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fluxus</i>, a flowing; this being also the meaning +of the English term in medicine, &c.), in metallurgy, a substance +introduced in the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to +remove objectionable impurities in the form of a slag. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span> +substances in commonest use are:—lime or limestone, to slag +off silica and silicates, fluor-spar for lead, calcium and barium +sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica for removing basic +substances such as limestone. Other substances are also used, +but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium +and potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica; +mixed with potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable +oxidizing fusion mixture; “black flux” is a reducing flux +composed of finely divided carbon and potassium carbonate, and +formed by deflagrating a mixture of argol with ¼ to ½ its weight +of nitre. Borax is very frequently employed; it melts to a clear +liquid and dissolves silica and many metallic oxides. Potassium +bisulphate is useful in the preliminary treatment of refractory +aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used in silver and +gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any metallic oxides +present.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. <i>fleugan</i>, +to fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of +many insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lepidoptera</a></span>), dragon-fly (<i>q.v.</i>), may-fly (<i>q.v.</i>), caddis-fly (<i>q.v.</i>), +&c.; also specially employed by entomologists to mean any +species of the two-winged flies, or Diptera (<i>q.v.</i>). In ordinary +parlance <i>fly</i> is often used in the sense of the common house-fly +(<i>Musca domestica</i>); and by English colonists and sportsmen +in South Africa in that of a species of tsetse-fly (<i>Glossina</i>), or a +tract of country (“belt”) in which these insects abound (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Apart from the house-fly proper (<i>Musca domestica</i>), which in +England is the usual one, several species of flies are commonly +found in houses; <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i>, or stable-fly; +<i>Pollenia rudis</i>, or cluster-fly; <i>Muscina stabulans</i>, another stable-fly; +<i>Calliphora erythrocephala</i>, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly, +with smaller sorts of blue-bottle, <i>Phormia terraenovae</i> and +<i>Lucilia caesar</i>; <i>Homalomyia canicularis</i> and <i>brevis</i>, the small +house-fly; <i>Scenopinus fenestralis</i>, the black window-fly, &c. +But <i>Musca domestica</i> is far the most numerous, and in many +places, especially in hot weather and in hot climates, is a regular +pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau of Entomology +U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in 1900 +he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different parts +of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808 +were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is +of the widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard +filth, so great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially +cholera and typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent +source of danger; and various sanitary regulations have been +made, or precautions suggested, for getting rid of it. These are +discussed by Mr Howard in the paper referred to, but in brief +they all amount to measures of general hygiene, and the isolation, +prompt removal, or proper sterilization of the animal or human +excrement in which these flies breed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYCATCHER<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray, +being a translation of the <i>Muscicapa</i> of older authors, and +applied by Pennant to an extremely common English bird, the +<i>M. grisola</i> of Linnaeus. It has since been used in a general and +very vague way for a great many small birds from all parts of the +world, which have the habit of catching flies on the wing. Ornithologists +who have trusted too much to this characteristic and +to certain merely superficial correlations of structure, especially +those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill and a gape beset +by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the title of +<i>Muscicapidae</i> an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of +forms much reduced in number by later systematists. Great +advance has been made in establishing as independent families +the <i>Todidae</i> and <i>Eurylaemidae</i>, as well as in excluding from it +various members of the <i>Ampelidae</i>, <i>Cotingidae</i>, <i>Tyrannidae</i>, +<i>Vireonidae</i>, <i>Mniotiltidae</i>, and perhaps others, which had been +placed within its limits. These steps have left the <i>Muscicapidae</i> +a purely Old-World family of the order <i>Passeres</i>, and the chief +difficulty now seems to lie in separating it from the <i>Campephagidae</i> +and the <i>Laniidae</i>. Only a very few of the forms of flycatchers +(which, after all the deductions above mentioned, may be +reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps +250 species) can here be even named.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens +to be the type of the Linnaean genus <i>Muscicapa</i>—the spotted +or grey flycatcher (<i>M. grisola</i>). It is a common summer visitant +to nearly the whole of Europe, and is found throughout Great +Britain, though less abundant in Scotland than in England, as +well as in many parts of Ireland, where, however, it seems to be +but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one of the latest +migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands till the +latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured +bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever +and anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap +of its bill some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot +it has quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as +before. It has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note, +uttered from time to time with a jerking gesture of the +wings and tail. It makes a neat nest, built among the small twigs +which sprout from the bole of a large tree, fixed in the branches +of some plant trained against a wall, or placed in any hole of +the wall itself that may be left by the falling of a brick or stone. +The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale greenish-blue, +closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and inconspicuous +as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the closest +vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost everybody. +A second British species is the pied flycatcher (<i>M. atricapilla</i>), +a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except in the +hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to Cumberland, +and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere. +It is not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed +in Ireland. More of a woodland bird than the former, the +brightly-contrasted black and white plumage of the cock, +together with his agreeable song, readily attracts attention +where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all western Europe, +but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly allied species +(<i>M. collaris</i>) in which the white of the throat and breast extends +like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species (<i>M. +parva</i>), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has +also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west +of England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range, +which has received generic recognition under the name of <i>Erythrosterna</i>, +and it has several relations in Asia and particularly in +India, while the allies of the pied flycatchers (<i>Ficedula</i> of Brisson) +are chiefly of African origin, and those of the grey or spotted +flycatcher (<i>Muscicapa</i> proper<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a>) are common to the two continents.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable groups of <i>Muscicapidae</i> is that +known as the paradise flycatchers, forming the genus <i>Tchitrea</i> of +Lesson. In nearly all the species the males are distinguished by +the growth of exceedingly long feathers in their tail, and by their +putting on, for some part of the year at least, a plumage generally +white, but almost always quite different from that worn by the +females, which is of a more or less deep chestnut or bay colour, +though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy steel-blue. They are +found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical Asia to Japan, +and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than the open +country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian <i>T. +paradisi</i>; but the Chinese <i>T. incii</i>, and the Japanese <i>T. princeps</i>, +from being very commonly represented by the artists of those +nations on screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the +cock of the last named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +eyes surrounded by bare skin of the same colour—though these +are characters possessed in some degree by all the species—seems +to be the most beautiful of the genus. <i>T. bourbonnensis</i>, +which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius and Réunion, +appears to be the only species in which the outward difference of +the sexes is but slight. In <i>T. corvina</i> of the Seychelles, the adult +male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers are not only +very long but very broad. In <i>T. mutata</i> of Madagascar, some +of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the +elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates +over the whole body; but whether this sex is here +actually dimorphic, or whether the one dress is a passing phase +of the other, is at present undetermined. Some of the African +species, of which many have been described, seem always to +retain the rufous plumage, but the long tail-feathers serve to +mark the males.</p> + +<p>A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they +exhibit, as <i>Myiagra azurea</i>, and others as <i>Monarcha</i> (or <i>Arses</i>) +<i>chrysomela</i> by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned +to the <i>Muscicapidae</i> are very varied. <i>Sisura inquieta</i> has some +of the habits of a water-wagtail (<i>Motacilla</i>), and hence has received +the name of “dishwasher,” bestowed in many parts of +England on its analogue; and the many species of <i>Rhipidura</i> +or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in various parts of the +Australian Region, have manners still more singular—turning +over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as they catch their +prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority of the +<i>Muscicapidae</i>, and especially of the numerous African forms, +hardly anything is known.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his +<i>Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers</i> +(published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the <i>Muscicapidae</i> at +all, and one of them, <i>Todus</i>, not even to the order <i>Passeres</i>. It is +perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose substance +so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson wrote it filled +with faith in the so-called “Quinary System”—that fanciful theory, +invented by W.S. Macleay, which misled and kept back so many of +the best English zoologists of his generation from the truth,—and, +unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was warped to fit +his hypothesis.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> By some writers this section is distinguished as <i>Butalis</i> of Boie, +but to do so seems contrary to rule.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1807-1892), Swedish novelist, +was born in Strömstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father, +Rutger Smith, was a retired sea-captain who had settled down +as a small merchant, and she often accompanied him on the +voyages he made along the coast. She married in 1827 a doctor +named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live in the province +of Småland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her old home +and published in 1838 her first novel, <i>Waldemar Klein</i>. In the +next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the +jurist and poet, Johan Gabriel Carlén (1814-1875). Her house +became a meeting-place for Stockholm men of letters, and for +the next twelve years she produced one or two novels annually. +The premature death of her son Edvard Flygare (1829-1853), +who had already published three books, showing great promise, +was followed by six years of silence, after which she resumed her +writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are <i>Rosen på +Tistelön</i> (1842; Eng. trans. <i>The Rose of Tistelön</i>, 1842); +<i>Enslingen på Johannesskäret</i> (1846; Eng. trans. <i>The Hermit</i>, +4 vols., 1853); and <i>Ett Köpemanshus i skärgården</i> (1859; <i>The +Merchant’s House on the Cliffs</i>). Fru Carlén published in 1878 +<i>Minnen af svenskt författarlif</i> 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888 +three volumes of <i>Efterskörd från en 80- årings författarbana</i>, +containing her last tales. She died at Stockholm on the 5th of +February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlén (1836-1883), was +also a popular novelist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Emilie Flygare-Carlén’s novels were collected in thirty-one +volumes (Stockholm, 1869-1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYING BUTTRESS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, in architecture, the term given to a +structural feature employed to transmit the thrust of a vault +across an intervening space, such as an aisle, chapel or cloister, +to a buttress built outside the latter. This was done by throwing +a semi-arch across to the vertical buttress. Though employed +by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it was generally +masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but in +the 12th century it was recognized as rational construction and +emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in +the cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims, +&c. Sometimes, owing to the great height of the vaults, two +semi-arches were thrown one above the other, and there are +cases where the thrust was transmitted to two or even three +buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical buttress, +placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to +thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical +buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built +outside the chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical +buttresses are, as a rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to +give them greater power of resistance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYING COLUMN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> in military organization, an independent +corps of troops usually composed of all arms, to which a particular +task is assigned. It is almost always composed in the course of +operations, out of the troops immediately available. Mobility +being its <i>raison d’être</i>, a flying column is when possible composed +of picked men and horses accompanied with the barest minimum +of baggage. The term is usually, though not necessarily, applied +to forces under the strength of a brigade. The “mobile columns” +employed by the British in the South African War of 1899-1902, +were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a +battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry—almost exactly +half that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in +savage or guerrilla warfare.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">“FLYING DUTCHMAN,”<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a spectre-ship popularly believed to +haunt the waters around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend +has several variants, but the commonest is that which declares +that the captain of the vessel, Vanderdecken, was condemned for +his blasphemy to sail round the cape for ever, unable to “make” +a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the ghost of the Dutch +seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the “Flying Dutchman” +is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German +legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that +he is condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship +without helm or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with +the devil. Sir Walter Scott says the “Flying Dutchman” was +originally a vessel laden with bullion. A murder was committed +on board, and thereafter the plague broke out among the crew, +which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft. The legend has been +used by Wagner in his opera <i>Der fliegende Holländer</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYING-FISH,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> the name given to two different kinds of fish. +The one (<i>Dactylopterus</i>) belongs to the gurnard family (<i>Triglidae</i>), +and is more properly called flying gurnard; the other (<i>Exocoetus</i>) +has been called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the +gar-pike than to the herring. Some other fishes with long +pectoral fins (<i>Pterois</i>) have been stated to be able to fly, but this +has been proved to be incorrect.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:272px" src="images/img585.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Dactylopterus volitans.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the <i>Exocoeti</i> +with regard to individuals as well as species, there being only +three or four species known of the former, whilst more than fifty +have been described of the latter, which, besides, are found in +numerous shoals of thousands. The <i>Dactylopteri</i> may be readily +distinguished by a large bony head armed with spines, hard +keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c. The <i>Exocoeti</i> have thin, +deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the ventrals placed +far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have long +barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly +prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in +many species of <i>Exocoetus</i> the ventral fins are similarly enlarged, +and evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes. +Flying-fishes are found in the tropical and sub-tropical seas only, +and it is a singular fact that the geographical distribution of the +two kinds is nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +observed in rough weather and in a disturbed sea than during +calms; they dart out of the water when pursued by their +enemies or frightened by an approaching vessel, but frequently +also without any apparent cause, as is also observed in many +other fishes; and they rise without regard to the direction of +the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended, without +any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air +whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of +the wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship +going 10 m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not +extending beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer +when the fishes fly against, than with or at an angle to, the wind. +Any vertical or horizontal deviation from a straight line is not +caused at the will of the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they +retain a horizontally straight course when flying with or against +the wind, but are carried towards the right or left whenever the +direction of the wind is at an angle with that of their flight. +However, it sometimes happens that the fish during its flight +immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a stroke of its tail +turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line of their flight is +always also vertically straight or rather parabolic, like the course +of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough sea, +when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then +frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the +pressure of the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of +vessels, but this never happens during a calm or from the lee side, +but during a breeze only and from the weather side. In day time +they avoid a ship, flying away from it, but during the night +when they are unable to see, they frequently fly against the +weather board, where they are caught by the current of the air, +and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the surface of the +water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep close to it. +All these observations point clearly to the fact that any deflection +from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and not +to voluntary action on the part of the fish.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:176px" src="images/img586a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>Exocoetus callopterus.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been +discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water +flying-fish. It has been named <i>Pantodon buchholzi</i>. It has very +large pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached +to the inner ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the +Congo region, and has been caught in its flight above the water +in a butterfly-net.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYING-FOX,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or, more correctly, <span class="sc">Fox-Bat</span>. The first name +is applied by Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the +genus <i>Pteropus</i>, which contains more than half the family +(<i>Pteropidae</i>). This genus is confined to the tropical regions of the +Eastern hemisphere and Australia. It comprises numerous +species, a considerable proportion of which occur in the islands +of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes are the largest of +the bats, the kalong of Java (<i>Pteropus edulis</i>) measuring about +a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane +measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal +bats, suspending themselves during the day head-downwards +by thousands from the branches of trees, where with their wings +gathered about them, they bear some resemblance to huge +shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of some peculiar fruit. In +Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend themselves chiefly +from the branches of dead trees, where they are easily caught +or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home in +basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices, +and “are really very good eating, something like hare.” Towards +evening these bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies +to the village plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit, +and so numerous and voracious are they that no garden crop +has much chance of being gathered which is not specially protected +from their attacks. The flying-fox of India (<i>Pteropus +medius</i>) is a smaller species, but is found in great numbers +wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:540px" src="images/img586b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel +(<i>Idiurus zenkeri</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">FLYING-SQUIRREL,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> properly the name of such members of +the squirrel-group of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like +expansion of the skin of the flanks, with attachments to the +limbs, by means of which they are able to take long flying-leaps +from tree to tree. The parachute is supported by a cartilage +attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the lateral +membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front +of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third +(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long +tail. Of the two widely distributed genera, <i>Pteromys</i> includes +the larger and <i>Sciuropterus</i> +the smaller species. +The two differ in certain +details of dentition, and +in the greater development +in the former of the +parachute, especially the +interfemoral portion, +which in the latter is +almost absent. In <i>Pteromys</i> +the tail is cylindrical +and comparatively thin, +while in <i>Sciuropterus</i> it is +broad, flat and laterally +expanded, so as to compensate +for the absence +of the interfemoral membrane +by acting as a +supplementary parachute.</p> + +<p>In general appearance +flying-squirrels resemble +ordinary squirrels, +although they are even +more beautifully coloured. +Their habits, +food, &c., are also very +similar to those of the +true squirrels, except that +they are more nocturnal, +and are therefore less +often seen. The Indian flying-squirrel (<i>P. oral</i>) leaps with its +parachute extended from the higher branches of a tree, and +descends first directly and then more and more obliquely, until +the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a horizontal +direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch or +trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these +rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. <i>Sciuropterus</i> +is represented by <i>S. velucella</i> in eastern Europe and +northern Asia, and by a second species in North America, but the +other species of this genus and all those of <i>Pteromys</i> are Indo-Malayan. +A third genus, <i>Eupetaurus</i>, typified by a very large, +long-haired, dark-grey species from the mountains to the north-west +of Kashmir (<i>Eu. cinereus</i>), differs from all other members of +the squirrel-family by its tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a +total length of 37 in., of which 22 are taken up by the tail.</p> + +<p>In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members +of a very different family of rodents, the <i>Anomaluridae</i>, which are +provided with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is +absent in some members of the family, the most distinctive +character is the presence of a double row of spiny scales on the +under surface of the tail, which apparently aid in climbing. +The flying species are also distinguished from ordinary flying-squirrels +by the circumstance that the additional bone serving +for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane rises +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is +represented by two flying genera, <i>Anomalurus</i> and <i>Idiurus</i>; the +latter containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut) +characterized by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the +species are West African. In habits these rodents appear to be +very similar to the true flying-squirrels. The species without a +parachute constitutes the genus <i>Zenkerella</i>, and looks very like +an ordinary squirrel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied +to such marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals +which naturalists prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marsupialia</a></span>)</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLYSCH,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> in geology, a remarkable formation, composed +mainly of sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending +from S.W. Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone +to the Vienna basin, whence it may be followed round the +northern flanks of the Carpathians into the Balkan peninsula. +It is represented in the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Caucasus +and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like deposits are related +to the Himalayas as the European formations are to the Alps. +The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the +western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong +to the Eocene period, but the principal development is of +Oligocene age; as it is traced eastward we find in the east Alps +that it descends into the upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna +region and the Carpathians it contains intercalations which clearly +indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon for the lower parts. It +appears indeed that this type of formation was in progress of +deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated +above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of +fossils from enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation +with other formations difficult; often the only indications +of organisms are the abundant markings supposed to represent +Algae (Chondrites, &c.), which have given rise to the term +“Hieroglyphic-sandstone.” The most noteworthy exceptions +are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene nummulitic +beds in Calabria, and the <i>Aptychus</i> beds of Waidhofen. +Local phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is +the “Vienna” or “Carpathian” sandstone of those regions; +the “macigno” (a soft sandstone with calcareous cement) of +the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the “scagliose” (scaly clays) +and “alberese” (limestones) of the same places are portions of +this formation. The <i>gris de Menton</i>, the <i>gris d’Annot</i> of the +Basses Alps, and the <i>gris d’Embrun</i> of Chaillot appear in Switzerland +as the <i>gris de Taveyannaz</i>. At several places the upper +layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Léman +and at the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the “Red-Flysch.” +Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &c., occur +in the Flysch in Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of +granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates +are found near Vienna, near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near Lake Thun +(Wild Flysch) and at other points, which have been variously +regarded as indications of glaciation or of coastal conditions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOČA<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Fáwtcha</i>), a town of Bosnia, situated at +the confluence of the Drina and Čehotina rivers, and encircled +by wooded mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the headquarters +of a thriving industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid +weapons, for which it was famous. With its territories enclosed +by the frontiers of Montenegro and Novi Bazar, Foča, then +known as <i>Chocha</i>, was the scene of almost incessant border +warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this period +are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful mosques, +which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining +towns of Foča, Goražda and Ustikolina were trading-stations +of the Ragusans in the 14th century, if not earlier. In the 16th +century, Benedetto Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the +Porte, described the town, in his <i>Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi</i>, +as <i>Cozza</i>, “a large settlement, with good houses in Turkish style, +and many shops and merchants. Here dwells the governor of +Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the whole of Servia. +Through this place all goods must pass, both going and returning, +between Ragusa and Constantinople.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOCHABERS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the +Spey, about 9 m. E. by S. of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of +the Highland railway connecting at Orbliston Junction with the +main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was rebuilt in its +present situation at the end of the 18th century, when its earlier +site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon Castle, +in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead at +right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are +held. The public buildings include a library and reading-room, +the court-house and the Milne school, named after Alexander +Milne, who endowed it with a legacy of £20,000. Adjoining the +town, surrounded by a park containing many magnificent old +trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the duke of +Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The antiquary +George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William +Marshall (1748-1833) were natives of the burgh.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOCSHANI<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Rumanian <i>Focşani</i>, sometimes incorrectly written +<i>Fokshani</i> or <i>Fokshan</i>), the capital of the department of Putna, +Rumania; on the river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier +of the former principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop. +(1900) 23,783; of whom 6000 were Jews. The chief buildings +are the prefecture, schools, synagogues, and many churches, +including those of the Armenians and Protestants. Focshani +is a commercial centre of some importance, the chief industries +being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large wine trade +is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to Galatz. The +annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government explorations +in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in minerals, +such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line Focshani-Galatz +is covered by a very strong line of fortifications, known +as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish +diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbourhood +the Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and +Russians in 1789.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOCUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Latin for “hearth” or “fireplace”), a point at which +converging rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from +which diverging rays are directed; in the latter case called +the virtual focus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Microscope</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telescope</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lens</a></span>). In +geometry the word is used to denote certain points (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conic Section</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perspective</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOG,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid +particles in the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders +surrounding objects notably indistinct or altogether invisible +according to their distance. In its more intense forms it hinders +and delays travellers of all kinds, by sea or land, by railway, road +or river, or by the mountain path. It is sometimes so thick as +to paralyse traffic altogether. According to the <i>New English +Dictionary</i> the word “appears to be” a back formation from +the adjective “foggy,” a derivative of “fog” used with its old +meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain, +of “moss.” Such a formation would be reasonable, because +wreaths of fog in the atmospheric sense are specially characteristic +of meadows and marshes where fog, in the more ancient +sense, grows.</p> + +<p>Two other words, <i>mist</i> and <i>haze</i>, are also in common use with +reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface +layers of the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and +in ordinary literature the three words are used almost according +to the fancy of the writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction +between mist and haze that would be fairly well supported by +usage. Mist may be defined as a cloud of water particles at the +surface of land or sea, and would only occur when the air is nearly +or actually saturated, that is, when there is little or no difference +between the readings of the dry and wet bulbs; the word haze, +on the other hand, may be reserved for the obscuration of the +surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.</p> + +<p>It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this +distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic +code of the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for +mist and haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had +no separate letter for haze (now indicated by <i>z</i>), though it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +distinguished between +<i>f</i>, fog, and <i>m</i>, mist. It is +possible, however, that +these practices may +arise, not from confusion +of idea, but from +economy of symbols, +when the meaning can +be made out from a +knowledge of the associated +observations.</p> + +<p>As regards the distinction +between mist +and fog, careful consideration +of a number +of examples leads to the conclusion that the word “fog” is +used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological +nature of the obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers +whether on land or sea. It is, generally speaking, “in a +fog” that a traveller loses himself, and indeed the phrase +has become proverbial in that sense. A “fog-bell” or “fog-horn” +is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that the aid of +sound is required for navigation. A vessel is “fog-logged” +or “fog-bound” when it is stopped or detained on account of +thick atmosphere. A “fog-signal” is employed on railways +when the ordinary signals are obliterated within working +distances. A “fog-bow” is the accompaniment of conditions +when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his way.</p> + +<p>These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the +cloud which interferes with effective vision and necessitates the +special provision; the word “mist” is seldom used in similar +connexion. We may thus define a fog as a surface cloud sufficiently +thick to cause hindrance to traffic. It will be a <i>thick mist</i> +if the cloud consists of water particles, a <i>thick haze</i> if it consists +of smoke or dust particles which would be persistent even in a +dry atmosphere.</p> + +<p>It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use +of the word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm +weather, and that the obscurity of the atmosphere +when it is blowing hard and perhaps raining hard +as well should be indicated by the terms “thick +weather” or “very thick weather” and not by +“fog”; but the term “fog” would be quite correctly +used on such occasions from the point of view of +cautious navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or +heavy rain cause such obscurity that passing ships +are not visible within working distances the sounding +of a fog-horn becomes a duty.</p> + +<p>The number of occasions upon which fog and +mist may be noted as occurring with winds of different strengths +may be exemplified by the following results of thirty years for +St Mary’s, Scilly Isles, where the observations have always +been made by men of nautical experience.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Wind Force.</td> <td class="tccm allb">0 & 1</td> <td class="tccm allb">2</td> <td class="tccm allb">3</td> <td class="tccm allb">4</td> <td class="tccm allb">5</td> <td class="tccm allb">6</td> <td class="tccm allb">7</td> <td class="tccm allb">8-12</td> <td class="tccm allb">All<br />Winds.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Number of occasions of fog per 1000 observations</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb"><1</td> <td class="tcc rb"><1</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Number of occasions of mist per 1000 observations</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">84</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The use of the word “fog” in the connexion “high fog,” +to describe the almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally +noted in London and other large cities due to the persistent +opaque cloud in the upper air without serious obscuration of the +surface layers, is convenient but incorrect.</p> + +<p>Regarding “fog” as a word used to indicate the state of the +atmosphere as regards transparency considered with reference to +its effect upon traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced +for use on land or at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is +indicated by the numbers 1 to 5 in the table following. At +sea or in the country a fog, as a rule, is white and consists of +a cloud of minute water globules, of no great vertical thickness, +which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection but is fully +translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or coloured +fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the +Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns +the fog cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some +cases may be regarded as due entirely to the smoke.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Description of Effects.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Name.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On Land.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On Sea.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On River.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">Slight Fog or Mist</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Objects indistinct, but<br /> traffic by rail or road<br /> unimpeded</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Horizon invisible, but<br /> lights and landmarks<br /> visible at working<br /> distances </td> + <td class="tcl rb">Objects indistinct, but<br /> navigation unimpeded</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb cl">Moderate Fog</td> <td class="tcc rb cl">2<br /><br />3</td> <td class="tcl rb cl">Traffic by rail requires<br /> additional caution <br />Traffic by rail or road<br /> impeded</td> + <td class="tcl rb cl">Lights, passing vessels<br /> and landmarks generally<br /> indistinct under<br /> a mile. Fog signals<br /> are sounded</td> + <td class="tcl rb cl">Navigation impeded,<br /> additional caution<br /> required</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb">Thick Fog</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4<br /><br />5</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Traffic by rail or road<br /> impeded<br />Traffic by rail or road<br /> totally disorganized</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Ships’ lights and vessels<br /> invisible at ¼ mile or<br /> less</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Navigation suspended</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles +are complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account +for the formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth’s +surface; and the process of cloud-formation which is probably +most usual in nature, namely, the cooling of air by <span class="correction" title="amended from rarefraction">rarefaction</span> +due to the reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, +except in the case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills, +which are perhaps not fairly included. We have to fall back upon +the only other process hitherto recognized as causing cloudy +condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the mixing of +masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is +brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow +motion is probably essential to the phenomenon.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>—<i>Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia, +round by the Azores.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb tb">Successive Temperatures of sea</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">59°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">54° F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Successive Temperatures of air</td> <td class="tcc rb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb">70°</td> <td class="tcc rb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb">60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">56° F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Successive States of the atmosphere</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">shower</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">mist</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>—<i>Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb tb">Successive Temperatures of sea</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">63°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">54° F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Successive Temperatures of air</td> <td class="tcc rb">66°</td> <td class="tcc rb">64°</td> <td class="tcc rb">53° F.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Successive State of atmosphere</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">fair</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">shower</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">mist with shower</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a +surface layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The +amount of motion of the air must be sufficient to prevent the +condensation taking place at the sea surface without showing +itself as a cloud. In a research on the Life History of Surface Air +Currents the changes incidental to the movement of the air over +the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great care, and the +above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72 +of the work referred to are typical of the formation +of sea fog by the cooling of a relatively warm +current passing over cold water.</p> + +<p>In conformity with this suggestion we find that +fog is most liable to occur over the open ocean +in those regions where, as off the Newfoundland +banks, cold-water currents underlie warm +air, and that it is most frequent at the season of the year when the +air temperature is increasing faster than the water temperature. +But it is difficult to bring this hypothesis always to bear upon +actual practice, because the fog is representative of a temperature +difference which has ceased to exist. One cannot therefore +observe under ordinary circumstances both the temperature +difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only the +initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which +favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and +consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog, +the characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +the conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the +mast-head than it is on deck.</p> + +<p>One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm +sea surface would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air +and hence cause cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers +rather than surface fog, but one cannot resist the conclusion that +sea fog is sometimes formed by slow transference of cold air over +relatively warm water, giving rise to what may be called a +“steaming-pot” fog. In such a case the actual surface layer in +contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog would +be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour +is more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in +comparison with the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold +current over warm water were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current +of warm air over cold water appears to be, the geographical +distribution of notable fog would be much more widespread than +it actually is, and the seasonal distribution of fog would also be +other than it is.</p> + +<p>The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more +complicated process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases +mistiness amounting to fog arises from the replacement of cold +surface air which has chilled the earth and the objects thereon +by a warm current. But this process can hardly give rise to +detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary land or valley +fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the combination +of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of +air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more +particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow +(in the absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower +levels following roughly the course of the natural water drainage +of the land, and thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation +from warm moist soil or from the relatively warm water surface +of river or lake. In this way steaming-pot fog gradually forms +and is carried downward by the natural though slow descent of +the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and banks in the lowest +parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled with a cloud +of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is minutely +described by J.B. Cohen (<i>Q.J. Roy. Met. Soc.</i> vol. 30, p. 211, +1904).</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances +favourable for fog formation are (1) a site near the bottom level of +the drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an evening +or night of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant +moisture in the surface-soil. These conditions define with +reasonable accuracy the circumstances in which fog is actually +observed.</p> + +<p>The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable +when one considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however +small they may be, must be continually sinking through the air +which holds them, and that unless some upward motion of the +air keeps at least a balance against this downward fall, the +particles of the cloud must reach the earth or water and to that +extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys it is easy +to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and +colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers displaced +from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the +result of the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface +cloud gets thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and +persistence of land fog seems too great to be accounted for by +persistent radiation cooling. For example, in the week before +Christmas of 1904 the whole of England south of the Humber +was covered with fog for several days. It is of course possible +that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the sides of +mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the fog, +as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but +without more particulars such a statement seems almost incredible. +Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems +capricious and unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-formation, +so that one is tempted to invoke the aid of electrification +of the particles or some other abnormal condition to account +for the persistence of fog. The observations at Kew observatory +show that the electrical potential is abnormally high during fog, +but whether that is the cause or the result of the presence of the +water particles, we are not yet in a position to say. It must be +remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as being, +generally speaking, <i>in process of formation</i> by mixing. Observations +upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show +that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still +for only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear. +The apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due +to the fact that mixing is still going on in the persistent ones, +but is completed in the disappearing ones.</p> + +<p>One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness +of the foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun’s +rays falling upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable +example may be quoted from the case of London, which was under +fog all day on 28th January 1909. The maximum temperature +only reached 31° F., whereas at Warlingham in Surrey from which +the fog lifted it was as high as 46° F.</p> + +<p><i>A priori</i> we might suppose that the formation of fog would +arrest cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a +protection of plants against frost. The condensation of water +evaporated from wet ground, which affords the material for making +fog, does apparently act as a protection, and heavy watering is +sometimes used to protect plants from frost, but the same cannot +be said of fog itself—cooling appears to go on in spite of the formation +of fog.</p> + +<p>A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a +cloud from above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls +for remark. In so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules +of clouds and rain and are therefore independent of surface +conditions.</p> + +<p>These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with +advantage in relation to the geographical distribution of fog. +Statistics on this subject are not very satisfactory on account of +the uncertainty of the distinction between fog and mist, but a +good deal may be learned from the distribution of fog over the +north Atlantic Ocean and its various coasts as shown in the +Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north Atlantic issued by +the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of the North +Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog, +which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent +in the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most +extensive and frequent in the spring and summer. By June the +fog area has extended from the Great Banks over the ocean to +the British Isles, in July it is most intense, and by August it has +notably diminished, while in November, which is proverbially a +foggy month on land, there is hardly any fog shown over the +ocean.</p> + +<p>The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in +London were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council +by Captain A. Carpenter and Mr R.G.K. Lempfert, based upon +special observations made in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1902-1903 +in order to examine the possibility of more precise forecasts +of fog.</p> + +<p>The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially +important for large towns in consequence of the economic and +hygienic results which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The +fogs of London in particular have long been a subject of inquiry. +It is difficult to get trustworthy statistics on the subject in consequence +of the vagueness of the practice as regards the classification +of fog. For large towns there is great advantage in using a +fog scale such as that given above, in which one deals only with +the practical range of vision irrespective of the meteorological +cause.</p> + +<p>Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog +and haze or mist, but not between the two latter terms, as +equivalent to specifying fog when the thickness amounts to the +figure 2 or more on the fog scale, we are enabled to compare the +frequency of fog in London by the comparison of the results at +the London observing stations. The comparison was made by +Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal Meteorological Society +(<i>Quarterly Journal</i>, vol. 31, p. 15), and it appears therefrom +that in recent years there has been a notable diminution of fog +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span> +frequency, as indicated in the following table of the total number +of days of fog in the years from 1871:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1872.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1873.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1874.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1875.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1876.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1877.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1878.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1879.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1882.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1883.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1884.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1886.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1887.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1888.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">42</td> <td class="tcc allb">35</td> <td class="tcc allb">75</td> <td class="tcc allb">53</td> <td class="tcc allb">49</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">46</td> <td class="tcc allb">63</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">74</td> <td class="tcc allb">59</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">61</td> <td class="tcc allb">53</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">86</td> <td class="tcc allb">83</td> <td class="tcc allb">62</td> <td class="tcc allb">75</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1892.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1893.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1894.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1908.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">65</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">68</td> <td class="tcc allb">31</td> <td class="tcc allb">51</td> <td class="tcc allb">48</td> <td class="tcc allb">43</td> <td class="tcc allb">48</td> <td class="tcc allb">47</td> <td class="tcc allb">56</td> <td class="tcc allb">13</td> <td class="tcc allb">45</td> <td class="tcc allb">42</td> <td class="tcc allb">26</td> <td class="tcc allb">44</td> <td class="tcc allb">19</td> <td class="tcc allb">16</td> <td class="tcc allb">37</td> <td class="tcc allb">19</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog +it must not be understood that the atmosphere of London is +approaching that of the surrounding districts as regards transparency. +Judged by the autographic records it is still almost +opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the card of the +recorder during the winter months.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to +fog, mist and haze in the <i>Bibliography of Meteorology</i> (part ii.) +of the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among +more recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in +the text, may be mentioned:—Köppen, “Bodennebel,” <i>Met. Zeit.</i> +(1885); Trabert, <i>Met. Zeit.</i> (1901), p. 522; Elias in <i>Ergebnisse des +aëronautischen Observatoriums bei Berlin</i>, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott, +<i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i> xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, “Fog Studies,” <i>Amer. +Inv.</i> ix. (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, “Fogs on the +Coasts of Scotland,” <i>Journ. Scot. Met. Soc.</i> xii. p. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. N. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1842-  ), Italian novelist and +poet, was born at Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate +Zanella, one of the best of the modern Italian poets, whose +tender, thoughtful and deeply religious spirit continued to +animate his literary productions. He began his literary career +with <i>Miranda</i>, a poetical romance (1874), followed in 1876 +by <i>Valsolda</i>, which, republished in 1886 with considerable additions, +constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which +is not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and +D’Annunzio’s impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes +a Wordsworthian simplicity and pathos, contributing to modern +Italian literature wholesome elements of which it would otherwise +be nearly destitute. His novels, <i>Malombra</i> (1882), <i>Daniele +Cortis</i> (1887), <i>Misterio del Poeta</i> (1888), obtained considerable +literary success upon their first publication, but did not gain +universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by +French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious, +and a new work, <i>Piccolo Mondo antico</i> (1896), which critics far +from friendly to Fogazzaro’s religious and philosophical ideas +pronounced the best Italian novel since <i>I Promessi Sposi</i>, went +through numerous editions. Even greater sensation was caused +by his novel <i>Il Santo</i> (<i>The Saint</i>, 1906), on account of its being +treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and Fogazzaro’s sympathy +with the Liberal Catholic movement—his own Catholicism +being well known—made this novel a centre of discussion in the +Roman Catholic world.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the biography by Molmenti (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOGELBERG, BENEDICT<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bengt</span>) <b>ERLAND</b> (1786-1854), +Swedish sculptor, was born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August +1786. His father, a copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited +taste for design, sent him in 1801 to Stockholm, where +he studied at the school of art. There he came much under the +influence of the sculptor Sergell, who communicated to him his +own enthusiasm for antique art and natural grace. Fogelberg +worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his instinct +for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality +of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a +government pension enabled him to travel. He studied from +one to two years in Paris, first under Pierre Guérin, and afterwards +under the sculptor Bosio, for the technical practice of +sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg realized a dream of his life in +visiting Rome, where the greater part of his remaining years +were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and the careful +study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his native +country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great +enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence +of those remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural +beauty to which he had been so long accustomed. Returning +to Italy, he died suddenly of apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd +of December 1854. The subjects of Fogelberg’s earlier works +are mostly taken +from classic mythology. +Of these, +“Cupid and +Psyche,” “Venus +entering the +Bath,” “A +Bather” (1838), +“Apollo Citharede,” “Venus and Cupid” (1839) and “Psyche” +(1854) may be mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian +mythology Fogelberg showed, perhaps for the first time, that he +had powers above those of intelligent assimilation and imitation. +His “Odin” (1831), “Thor” (1842), and “Balder” (1842), though influenced +by Greek art, display considerable power of independent +imagination. His portraits and historical figures, as those of +Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles XII. (1851), of Charles XIII. +(1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm (1853), +are faithful and dignified works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Casimir Leconte, <i>L’Œuvre de Fogelberg</i> (Paris, 1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOGGIA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy, +the capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level, +in the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E. +of Ancona and 123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, +49,031; commune, 53,134. The name is probably derived from +the pits or cellars (<i>foveae</i>) in which the inhabitants store their +grain. The town is the medieval successor of the ancient Arpi, +3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after conquering the district from +the Eastern empire, gave it its first importance. The date of the +erection of the cathedral is probably about 1179; it retains some +traces of Norman architecture, and the façade has a fine figured +cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals of +the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much +altered after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace +of the emperor Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia) +is also preserved. Here died his third wife, Isabella, daughter +of King John of England. Charles of Anjou died here in 1284. +After his son’s death, it was a prey to internal dissensions and +finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who converted the +pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445, and +made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be +paid and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town +are modern. Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance +for the produce of the surrounding country, and is also a considerable +railway centre, being situated on the main line from +Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where this is joined by the line +from Benevento and Caserta. There are also branches to +Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza, +or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FÖHN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Ger., probably derived through Romansch <i>favongn</i>, +<i>favoign</i>, from Lat. <i>favonius</i>), a warm dry wind blowing down the +valleys of the Alps from high central regions, most frequently +in winter. The Föhn wind often blows with great violence. +It is caused by the indraft of air from the elevated region to +areas of low barometric pressure in the neighbourhood, and the +warmth and dryness are due to dynamical compression of the +air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local winds occur +in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes of the +Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Föhn +wind is often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different +from the true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes +from the Sahara dies hard; and still finds expression in some +textbooks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full account of these winds see Hann, <i>Lehrbuch der Meteorologie</i>, +p. 594.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FÖHR,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a German island in the North Sea, belonging to +the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast. +Pop. 4500. It comprises an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by +a regular steamboat service from Husum and Dagebüll on the +mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort on the E. coast of +the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the Sandwall, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span> +promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. Föhr, +the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally +marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous +pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of +which the most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum. +The inhabitants are mainly engaged in the fishing +industry, and are known as excellent sailors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOIL.<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. <i>folium</i>, a leaf, modern +Fr. <i>feuille</i>), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names, +such as the “trefoil” clover; and hence applied to anything resembling +a leaf. In architecture, the word appears for the small +leaf-like spaces formed by the cusps of tracery in windows or +panels, and known, according to the number of such spaces, as +“quatrefoil,” “cinquefoil,” &c. The word is also found in +“counterfoil,” a leaf of a receipt or cheque book, containing +memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the +receiver or drawer as a “counter” or check. “Foil” is particularly +used of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape +as much as in thinness. In thickness foil comes between “leaf” +and “sheet” metal. In jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper, +sometimes known as Dutch foil, is used as a backing for paste +gems, or stones of inferior lustre or colour. This is coated with +a mixture of isinglass and translucent colour, varying with the +stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is required, left uncoloured, +but highly polished. From this use of “foil,” the +word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by +contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive +qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The +commonest “foil” is that generally known as “tinfoil.” The +ordinary commercial “tinfoil” usually consists chiefly of lead, +and is used for the wrapping of chocolate or other sweetmeats, +tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese variegated foil gives the +effect of “damaskeening.” A large number of thin plates of +various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with alloys of +different metals are soldered together in a particular order, +a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is +hammered or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then +appearing in the order in which the various metals were placed.</p> + +<p>2. (From an O. Fr. <i>fuler</i> or <i>foler</i>, modern <i>fouler</i>, to tread or +trample, to “full” cloth, Lat. <i>fullo</i>, a fuller), an old hunting +term, used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks, +to confuse the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in +wrestling, of a “throw.” Thus comes the common use of the +word, in a figurative sense, with reference to both these meanings, +of baffling or defeating an adversary, or of parrying an attack.</p> + +<p>3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Foil-Fencing</a></span>) +the word is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based +on a supposed similar use of Fr. <i>fleuret</i>, literally a “little flower,” +for the weapon, is that foil means a leaf, and must be referred +in origin to Lat. <i>folium</i>. A second suggestion is that it means +“blunted,” and is the same as (2). A third is that it is an +adaptation of an expression “at foils,” <i>i.e.</i> “parrying.” Of +these suggestions, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, the +first has nothing to support it, the second is not supported by +any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to blunt. +The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that +the word is an alteration of an old word “foin,” meaning a +thrust with a pointed weapon. The origin of this word is +probably an O. Fr. <i>foisne</i>, from the Lat. <i>fuscina</i>, a three-pronged +fork.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOIL-FENCING,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil. +The word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the +English writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in +the sense of a weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of +a real weapon. Blunt swords for practice in fencing have been +used in all ages. For the most part these were of wood and flat in +general form, but when, towards the close of the 17th century, all +cutting action with the small-sword was discarded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fencing</a></span>), +foil-blades were usually made of steel, and either round, three-cornered +or four-cornered in form, with a button covering the +point. The foil is called in French <i>fleuret</i>, and in Italian +<i>fioretto</i> (literally “bud”) from this button. The classic small-sword +play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the +present time by fencing with the <i>épée de combat</i> (fighting-rapier), +which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a +button (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Épée-de-Combat</a></span>), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing +is a conventional art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule +that no hits except those on the body shall be considered good, +and not even those unless they be given in strict accordance with +certain standard precepts. In épée-fencing on the contrary, +a touch on any part of the person, however given, is valid. +Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as practice is concerned, +of all sword-play, whether with foil, épée or sabre.</p> + +<p>There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and +the Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted +everywhere except in Italy, is described in this article, reference +being made to the important differences between the two schools.</p> + +<p><i>The Foil.</i>—The foil consists of the “blade” and the “handle.” +The blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section, +consists of two parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard +to the button, and the “tongue,” which runs through the handle +and is joined to the pommel. The blade proper is divided into +the “forte,” or thicker half (next the handle), and the “foible” +or thinner half. Some authorities divide the blade proper into +three parts, the “forte,” “middle” and “foible.” The handle +is comprised of the “guard,” the “grip” and the “pommel.” +The guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr. +<i>lunettes</i>, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of +the same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a +hollow piece of wood, usually wound with twine, through which +the tongue of the blade passes. The pommel is a piece of metal, +usually pear-shaped, to which the end of the tongue is joined and +which forms the extremity of the handle. The blade from guard +to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), though a somewhat shorter +and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. The handle is +about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.</p> + +<p>The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the +blade a trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the +handle, which consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from +4 to 5 in. in diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining +the grip with the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends +slightly on each side. Of late years many Italian masters use +French blades and even discard the cross-bar, retaining, however, +the bell-guard.</p> + +<p>In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex +surface of the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than +the top and bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other +three sides. This is the position of “supination,” or thumb-up. +“Pronation” is the reverse position, with the knuckles up. +The French lay stress upon holding the foil lightly, the necessary +pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb and forefinger, the +other fingers being used more to guide the direction of the executed +movements. This is in order to give free scope to the +<i>doigté</i> (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil +by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility +of changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying, +the end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even +less, of the guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near +the pommel as possible, in order to gain additional length. +It will be seen that <i>doigté</i> is impossible with the Italian foil, +in holding which the forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar, +preventing any movement of the hand. The lightness of +grasp inculcated by the French is illustrated by the rule of the +celebrated master Lafaugère: “Hold your sword as if you had +a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent its escape, yet +not so firmly as to crush it.” This lightness has for a consequence +that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the French +school.</p> + +<p><i>To Come on Guard.</i>—The position of “on guard” is that in +which the fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence. +It is taken from the position of “attention”; the feet together +and at right angles with each other, head and body erect, facing +forward in the same direction as the right foot, left arm and hand +hanging in touch with the body, and the right arm and foil +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +forming a straight line so that the button is about 1 yd. in +front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this position the +movements to come “on guard” are seven in number:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary +(or master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.</p> + +<p>2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from +the floor.</p> + +<p>3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally +backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers +of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and +along the blade.</p> + +<p>4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above +the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept +horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.</p> + +<p>5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position, +the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring +the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from +it; keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed +towards the opponent’s eye.</p> + +<p>6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without +moving the feet.</p> + +<p>7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the +right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the height +of the fencer).</p> +</div> + +<p>In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right +arm fully extended, the body more effaced, <i>i.e.</i> the left shoulder +thrown farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At +the present time, however, many of the best Italian fencers have +adopted the guard with crooked sword-arm, owing to their +abandonment of the old long-foil blade.</p> + +<p><i>The Recover</i> (at the close of the lesson or assault).—To recover +“in advance”: extend the right arm at right angles with the +body, drop the left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the +rear foot up to the one in advance. To recover “to the rear”: +extend the right arm and drop the left as before, and straighten +the legs by drawing the forward foot back to that in the rear.</p> + +<p><i>The Salute</i> always follows the recover, the two really forming +one manœuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a +position just in front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical +with point upwards; then lower and extend the arm with nails +up until the point is 4 in. from the floor and slightly to the right.</p> + +<p><i>To Advance.</i>—Being on guard, take a short step forward with +the right foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same +distance, the position of the body not being changed. However +the step, or series of steps, is made, the right foot should always +move first.</p> + +<p><i>To Retreat.</i>—This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot +always moving first.</p> + +<p><i>The Calls</i> (<i>deux appels</i>).—Being on guard, tap the floor twice +with the right foot without altering the position of any other +part of the person. The object of the calls is to test the +equilibrium of the body, and they are usually executed as a preliminary +to the recover.</p> + +<p><i>The Lunge</i> is the chief means of attack. It is immediately +preceded by the movement of “extension,” in fact the two +really form one combined movement. Extension is executed by +quickly extending the right arm, so that point, hand and shoulder +shall have the same elevation; no other part of the person is +moved. The “lunge” is then carried out by straightening the +left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that it shall +be planted as far forward as possible without losing the equilibrium +or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard. +The left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is +advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand +open and thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the +position of guard is accomplished by smartly throwing the body +back by the exertion of the right leg, until its weight rests again +on the left leg, the right foot and arms resuming their on-guard +positions. The point upon which the French school lays most +stress is, that the movement of extension shall, if only by a +fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the right +foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge, +<i>i.e.</i> the direction of the point.</p> + +<p><i>The Gain.</i>—This consists in bringing up the left foot towards +the right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In +this manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can +be made without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common +stratagem of fencers whose reach is short.</p> + +<p><i>Defence.</i>—For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the +fencer’s jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters, +the two upper ones being called the “high lines,” and the two +lower ones the “low lines.” Thus a thrust directed at the upper +part of the breast is called an attack in the high lines. In like +manner the parries are named from the different quarters they +are designed to protect. There are four traditional parries +executed with the hand in supination, and four others, practically +identical in execution, made with the hand held in pronation. +Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of the +jacket are “sixte” (sixth; with the hand in supination) and +“tierce” (third; hand in pronation). Those defending the +upper left-hand quarter are “quarte” (fourth; in supination) +and “quinte” (fifth; in pronation). Those defending the lower +right-hand quarter are “octave” (eighth; in supination) and +“seconde” (second; in pronation). Those defending the lower +left-hand quarter are “septime” (seventh; in supination), +more generally called “demicircle,” or “half-circle”; and +“prime” (first; in pronation).</p> + +<p><i>The Parries.</i>—The tendency of the French school has always +been towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present +day the parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although +recognized and taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong +adversary in foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in +turning the hand. The theory of parrying is to turn aside the +opponent’s foil with the least possible expenditure of time and +exertion, using the arm as little as possible while letting the hand +and wrist do the work, and opposing the “forte” of the foil +to the “foible” of the adversary’s. The foil is kept pointed +as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the parries are +made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. The +slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent’s blade is +the most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, “simple,” +in which the attack is warded off by a single movement, and +“counter,” in which a narrow circle is described by the point of +the foil round that of the opponent, which is thus enveloped and +thrown aside. There are also complex parries, composed of +combinations of two or more parries, which are used to meet +complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into simple +parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.</p> + +<p><i>Simple Parries.</i>—The origin of the numerical nomenclature of +the parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that +they received their names from the positions assumed in the process +of drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position +of the hand and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard +on the left side, is practically that of the first, or “prime,” parry. +To go from “prime” to “seconde” it is only necessary to drop +the hand and carry it across the body to the left side; thence +to “tierce” is only a matter of raising the point of the sword, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Prime</i> (to ward off attacks on the—usually lower—left-hand +side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite +the left eye and the point directed towards the opponent’s knee. +This parry is now regarded more as an elegant evolution than a +sound means of defence, and is little employed.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Seconde</i> (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side). +This is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand +downwards and slightly to the right, knuckles up.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Tierce</i> (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). +A quick, dry beat on the adversary’s “foible” is given, forcing +it to the right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the +middle of the right breast. This parry has been practically +discarded in favour of “sixte.”</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Quarte</i> (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side). +This parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing +the adversary’s blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in +supination, opposite the left breast.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Quinte</i> (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like +“quarte”). This is practically a low “quarte,” and is little +used.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span></p> + +<p><i>Parry of Sixte</i> (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). +This parry is, together with “quarte,” the most important of all. +It is executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right +breast, a quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary’s +blade to the right.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Septime or Half-Circle</i> (against thrusts at the lower +left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the +foil a small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand +moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.</p> + +<p><i>Parry of Octave</i> (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side) +is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle +downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few +inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.</p> + +<p><i>Counter Parries</i> (Fr. <i>contre</i>).—Although the simple parries +are theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived +by feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in +which the blade describes narrow circles, following that of the +adversary and meeting and turning it aside; thus the point +describes a complete circle while the hand remains practically +stationary. Each simple parry has its counter, made with the +hand in the same position and on the same side as in the simple +parry. The two most important are the “counter of quarte” +and the “counter of sixte,” while the counters of “septime” +and “octave” are less used, and the other four at the present +time practically never.</p> + +<p><i>Counter of Quarte.</i>—Being on guard in quarte (with your +adversary’s blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under +and thrusts in sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe +a narrow circle with your point round his blade, downward to the +right and then up over to the left, bringing hand and foil back to +their previous positions and catching and turning aside his blade +on the way. The “Counter of Sixte” is executed in a similar +manner, but the circle is described in the opposite direction, +throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The “Counters of +Septime and Octave” are similar to the other two but are +executed in the low lines.</p> + +<p><i>Complex or Combined Parries</i> are such as are composed of two +or more parries executed in immediate succession, and are made +in answer to feint attacks by the adversary (see below); <i>e.g.</i> +being on guard in quarte, should the adversary drop his point +under and feint at the right breast but deflect the point again +and really thrust on the left, it is evident that the simple parry +of sixte would cover the right breast but would leave the real +point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The sixte parry +is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by the +parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are +numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.</p> + +<p><i>Engagement</i> is the junction of the blades, the different engagements +being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in +the position of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte. +To engage in another line (Change of Engagement) <i>e.g.</i> from +quarte to sixte, the point is lowered and passed under the +adversary’s blade, which is pressed slightly outward, so as to be +well covered (called “opposition”). “Double Engagement” +is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in succession +in the high lines, the last with opposition.</p> + +<p><i>Attack.</i>—The attack in fencing comprises all movements the +object of which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary’s +breast, body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space +upon which hits count is called the “target” and differs according +to the rules prevailing in the several countries, but is usually +as above stated. In Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones +count, while in America the target is only the left breast between +the median line and a line running from the armpit to the belt. +The reason for this limitation is to encourage accuracy.</p> + +<p>Attacks are either “primary” or “secondary.” <i>Primary +Attacks</i> are those initiated by a fencer before his adversary has +made any offensive movement, and are divided into “Simple,” +“Feint” and “Force” attacks.</p> + +<p><i>Simple Attacks</i>, the characteristic of which is pace, are those +made with one simple movement only and are four in number, +viz. the “Straight Lunge,” the “Disengagement,” the +“Counter-disengagement” and the “Cut-over.” The Straight-Lunge +(<i>coup droit</i>), used when the adversary is not properly +covered when on guard, is described above under “Lunge.” +The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil +under the opponent’s blade and executing a straight lunge on the +other side. It is often used to take an opponent unawares or +when he presses unduly hard on your blade. The Counter-disengagement +is used when the adversary moves his blade, <i>i.e.</i> +changes the line of engagement, upon which you execute a narrow +circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original line. The +Cut-over (<i>coupé</i>) is a disengagement executed by passing the +point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the +opposite line. The preliminary movement of raising the point +is made by the action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn +back.</p> + +<p><i>Feint Attacks</i>, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded +by one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the +adversary into thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple +extension, often with a slight movement of the body, threatening +the adversary in a certain line, for the purpose of inducing him +to parry on that side and thus leave the other open for the real +thrust. At the same time any movement of the blade or any +part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in regard to the +nature of the attack about to follow, must also be considered a +species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the “One-Two,” +the “One-Two-Three” and the “Double.”</p> + +<p>The “One-Two” is a feint in one line, followed (as the +adversary parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement. +Thus, being engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the +adversary’s blade and extend your arm as if to thrust at his left +breast, but instead of doing this, the instant he parries you +move your point back again and lunge in quarte, <i>i.e.</i> on the +side on which you were originally engaged. In feinting it is +necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so +complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a +part of a real thrust in that line.</p> + +<p>The “One-Two-Three” consists of two feints, one at each +side, followed by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the +original engagement. Thrusts preceded by three feints are also +sometimes used. It is evident that the above attacks are useless +if the adversary parries by a counter (circular parry), which must +be met by a “Double.” This is executed by feinting and, upon +perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular parry, by +following the circle described by his point with a similar circle, +deceiving (<i>i.e.</i> avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting +home.</p> + +<p>The “Double,” which is a favourite manœuvre in fencing, is +a combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.</p> + +<p><i>Force-Attacks</i>, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent +by assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones +being the “Beat,” the “Press,” the “Glide” and the “Bind.” +The “Beat” is a quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon +the foible of the adversary’s, for the purpose of opening a way +for a straight lunge which follows instantly. The blow is made +with the hand only. A “false beat” is a lighter blow made for +the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting the opponent, and is +often followed by a disengagement. The “Press” is similar in +character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse blade, +a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy +to force it aside and allow one’s own blade to be thrust home. A +“false press” may be used to entice the adversary into a too +heavy responsive pressure, which may then be taken advantage +of by a disengagement. The “Traverse” (Fr. <i>froissé</i>, Ital. +<i>striscio</i>) is a prolonged press carried sharply down the adverse +blade towards the handle. The “Glide” (“Graze,” Fr. <i>coulé</i>) +is a stealthy sliding of one’s blade down that of the adversary, +without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made inside +his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The +“Bind” (<i>liement</i>) consists in gaining possession of the adversary’s +foible with one’s forte, and pressing it down and across +into the opposite low line, when one’s own point is thrust home, +the adversary’s blade being still held by one’s hilt. It may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +also carried out from a low line into a high one. The bind is +less used in the French school than in the Italian. The “Flanconnade” +is a bind made by capturing the adversary’s blade +in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the outside +line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by +means of a twist and thrust is the “Cross” (<i>croisé</i>), which is +executed when the adversary’s blade is held low by passing one’s +point over his wrist and forcing down both blades into seconde +with a full extension of the arm. The result is to create a sudden +and wide opening, and often disarms the adversary.</p> + +<p><i>Secondary Attacks</i> are those made (1) just as your adversary +himself starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the +completion of his attack if it fails.</p> + +<p>1. “Attacks on the Preparation” are a matter of judgment +and quickness. They are usually attempted when the adversary +is evidently preparing a complicated attack, such as the “one-two-three” +or some other manœuvre, involving one or more +preliminary movements. At such a time a quick thrust will +often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for preparation +attacks are often given when the adversary attempts +a beat preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an +“absence of the blade,” <i>i.e.</i> your blade is made to avoid +contact with his by a narrow movement, and your point +thrust home into the space left unguarded by the force of +his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an +“absence” by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades, +in the hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will +fly off to one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared +for his “absence” a straight thrust will score.</p> + +<p>2. The chief “Attacks on the Development,” or “Counter +Attacks,” are the “Stop Thrust” and the “Time Thrust,” +both made while the adversary is carrying out his own attack. +The “Stop Thrust” (<i>coup d’arrêt</i>) is one made after the adversary +has actually begun an attack involving two or more movements, +and is only justified when it can be brought off without +your being hit by the attacking adversary’s point on any part of +the person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree +that the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this +and attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his +opponent while totally avoiding the latter’s point. Should he, +however, be touched, even on the foot or mask, by the adversary, +his touch, however good, is invalid. If both touches are good, +that of the original attacker only counts. Stop thrusts are +employed mostly against fencers who attack wildly or without +being properly covered. The “Time Thrust” is delivered with +opposition upon the adversary’s composite attack (one involving +several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the +original attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer +employing it is touched on any part of the person.</p> + +<p>3. “Attacks on the Completion” (<i>i.e.</i> of the adversary’s +attack) are “Ripostes,” “Counter-ripostes,” “Remises” and +“Renewals of Attack.”</p> + +<p>The <i>Riposte</i> (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately +after parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm, +the body remaining immovable. The “counter-riposte” is a +riposte made after parrying the adversary’s riposte, and generally +from the position of the lunge, or while recovering from it, +since one must have attacked with a full lunge if the adversary +has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. There are three +kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a pause.</p> + +<p>The “direct <i>riposte</i>” may be made instantly after parrying +the adversary’s thrust by quitting his blade and straightening +the arm, so that the point will touch his body on the nearest +and most exposed part; or by not quitting his blade but running +yours quickly down his and at the same time keeping a strong +opposition (“riposte d’opposition”). The quickest direct riposte +is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a right-hand fencer), +and is called by the French the riposte of “<i>tac-au-tac</i>,” imitative +of the sudden succession of the click of the parry and the tap of +the riposting fencer’s point on his adversary’s breast. In making +“ripostes with a feint” the point is not jabbed on to the opponent’s +breast immediately after the parry, but one or more +preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a +disengagement, a cut-over or a double.</p> + +<p><i>Ripostes</i> with a pause (<i>à temps perdu</i>, with lost time) are made +after a second’s hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers +are too near for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the +adversary time to make a quick parry, which is then deceived.</p> + +<p>The <i>remise</i> is a thrust made after one’s first thrust has been +parried and in the same line; it must be made in such a way +that the adversary’s justified riposte is at the same time parried +by opposition or completely avoided. It is really a renewal of +the attack in the original line, while the so-called “renewal of +attack” (“<i>redoublement d’attaque</i>”) is a second thrust which +ignores the adversary’s riposte, but made in a different line. +Both the remise and the renewal are valid only when the +adversary’s riposte does not hit.</p> + +<p>“False Attacks” are broad movements made for the purpose +of drawing the adversary out or of disconcerting him. They +may consist of an advance, an extension, a change of engagement, +an intentional uncovering by taking a wide guard (called +“invitation guard”), or any movement or combination of +movements tending to make the adversary believe that a real +attack is under way.</p> + +<p>“The Assault” is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in +public, while formal fencing in private is called “loose play” +or a “friendly bout.” Bouts between fencers take place on a +platform about 24 ft. long and 6 ft. wide (in the United States +20 × 3 ft.). Formal bouts are usually for a number of touches, +or for a certain number of minutes, the fencer who touches +oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) are sometimes +empowered to score one or more points against a competitor +for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space +limits. In the United States bouts are for four minutes, with +a change of places after two minutes, and the competitors are +not interrupted, the winner being indicated by a vote of the +judges, who take into account touches and style. In all countries +contestants are required to wear jackets of a light colour, so +that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of all +touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered +to be a fencer’s duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great +Britain under the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association, +and in the United States under those of the Amateur Fencers’ +League of America.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Fencing Terms</i> (not mentioned above): “<i>Cavazione</i>,” Ital. for +disengagement. “Contraction, Parries of,” those which do not parry +in the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another +line, <i>e.g.</i> to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte. “<i>Controtempo</i>,” +Ital. for time-thrust. “Coronation,” an attack preceded +by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and vice +versa) made famous by Lafaugère. “<i>Corps-à-corps</i>” (body to +body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters +that their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again +come on guard. “<i>Coulé</i>,” Fr. for glide. “Disarm,” to knock the +foil out of the adversary’s hand; it is of no value in the French +school. “Double Hit,” when both fencers attack and hit at the +same time; neither hit counts. “<i>Filo</i>,” Ital. for glide (graze). +“Flying Cut-over,” a cut-over executed as a continuation of a +parry, the hand being drawn back towards the body. “<i>Incontro</i>,” +Ital. for double attack. “Give the blade,” to allow the adversary +easy contact with the foil; it is often resorted to in order to tempt +the adversary into a beat or bind. “Menace,” to threaten the +adversary by an extension and forward movement of the trunk. +“<i>Mur</i>,” see “Salute.” “Passage of arms,” a series of attacks and +parries, ending in a successful hit. “Phrase of arms,” a series of +attacks and parries ending in a hit or invalidation. “Invalidation,” +a hit on some part of the person outside the target, made by the fencer +whose right it is at that moment to attack or riposte; such a hit +invalidates one made simultaneously or subsequently by his opponent, +however good. “Rebeat,” two beats, executed as quickly as possible +together, one on each side of the adversary’s blade. “<i>Reprises +d’attaque</i>,” Fr. for renewed attacks. “Salute,” the courteous +salutation of the public and the adversary before and after a bout. +A more elaborate salute, called by the French the <i>Mur</i>, consists of +a series of parries, lunges and other evolutions carried out by both +fencers at the same time. Important exhibition assaults are usually +preceded by the <i>Mur</i>, which is called in English the Grand Salute. +“<i>Septime enveloppée</i>,” a riposte by means of a twist and thrust after +a parry in septime. It envelops and masters the adverse blade, +whence the name. “Secret thrusts,” the French “<i>bottes secrètes</i>,” +pretended infallible attacks of which the user is supposed alone to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +know the method of execution; they have no real existence. +“<i>Sforza,</i>” Ital. for disarmament. “<i>Scandaglio,</i>” Ital for examination, +studying the form of an opponent at the beginning of a bout. +“<i>Toccato!</i>” Ital. for “Touched!”,. Fr. “<i>Touché.</i>”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The literature of foil-fencing is practically +identical with that of the art in general (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fencing</a></span>). The following +modern works are among the best. French School: <i>Fencing</i>, +in the Badminton library (1897); <i>Foil and Sabre</i>, by L. Rondelle +(Boston, 1892); “Fencing,” by C. Prevost in the <i>Encyclopaedia +of Sport</i> (1901); <i>Fencing</i>, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906). +Italian school: <i>Istruzione per la scherma, &c.</i>, by S. de Frae +(Milan, 1885); <i>La Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola</i>, by F. +Masiello (Florence, 1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOIX, PAUL DE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist. +He studied Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence +at Toulouse, where shortly after finishing his curriculum +he delivered a course of lectures on civil law, which gained +him great reputation. At the age of nineteen he was named +councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in this capacity +expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild measures +in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was +arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained +the favour of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent +ambassador to England, where he remained four years. He was +then sent to Venice, and returned a short time afterwards to +England to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and +the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled several important missions +during the reign of Henry III. of France. In 1577 he was made +archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed ambassador +to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et +ambassadeur pour le roy auprès du pape Grégoire XIII, au roi +Henry III</i>, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to +their authenticity. See <i>Gallia Christiana</i> (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret, +<i>Oraison funèbre de Paul de Foix</i> (Paris, 1584); “Lettres de Catherine +de Médicis,” edited by Hector de la Ferrière (Paris, 1880 seq.) in +the <i>Collection de documents inédits sur l’histoire de France</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOIX<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages +capital of the counts of Foix, and now capital of the department +of Ariège, 51 m. S. of Toulouse, on the Southern railway from +that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is +situated between the Ariège and the Arget at their confluence. +The old part of the town, with its ill-paved winding streets and +old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated rock crowned +by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th centuries), +while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de +Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic +building of the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture, +a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycée, +training colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the +Bank of France. Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on. +Foix probably owes its origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne. +This afterwards became an abbey, in which were laid +the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of Tours in the 5th +century.</p> + +<p>The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the +modern department of Ariège, a region watered chiefly by the +Ariège and its affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted +of an agglomeration of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though +subordinate to the counts of Foix, had some voice in the government +of the district. Protestantism obtained an early entrance +into the county, and the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th +centuries were carried on with much implacability therein. The +estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th +century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable +power and virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed +one of the thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was +incorporated in the department of Ariège.</p> + +<p><i>Counts of Foix.</i>—The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished +French family which flourished from the 11th to the +15th century. They were at first feudatories of the counts of +Toulouse, but chafing under this yoke they soon succeeded in +throwing it off, and during the 13th and 14th centuries were +among the most powerful of the French feudal nobles. Living +on the borders of France, having constant intercourse with +Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they +were in a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of +independence, and acted rather as the equals than as the +dependents of the kings of France.</p> + +<p>The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of +Bernard Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of +Carcassonne (d. 1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and +the adjoining lands, which had hitherto formed part of the county +of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, Roger was succeeded by his +brother Peter, who died six years later, and was succeeded in +turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the crusade +of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II. +for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased +the anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died +in 1125 he was succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of +Roger III. about 1149, and of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188, +brought the county to Roger Bernard’s only son, Raymond +Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French king, Philip +Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the capture +of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the Albigenses, +and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to +Simon IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to +terms with the church and recovered his estates before his death +in 1223, was a patron of the Provençal poets, and counted +himself among their number. He was succeeded by his son, +Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted Raymond VII., +count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance to the +French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated +on two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who +followed, died in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger +Bernard III., who, more famous as a poet than as a warrior, +was taken prisoner both by Philip III. of France and by Peter +III. of Aragon. This count married Marguerite, daughter and +heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Béarn (d. 1290), and this union +led to the outbreak of a long feud between the houses of Foix +and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger +Bernard’s son and successor, Gaston I., who became count +in 1302, inheriting both Foix and Béarn. Becoming embroiled +with the French king, Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle +with the count of Armagnac, Gaston was imprisoned in Paris; +but quickly regaining his freedom he accompanied King Louis X. +on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and died on his return +to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston II., was +the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of +Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and +Spain, dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his +son, Gaston III. (1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed +Phoebus on account of his beauty, was the most famous member +of the old Foix family. Like his father he assisted France in her +struggle against England, being entrusted with the defence of +the frontiers of Gascony; but when the French king, John II., +showed a marked preference for the count of Armagnac, Gaston +left his service and went to fight against the heathen in Prussia. +Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble ladies +from the attacks of the adherents of the <i>Jacquerie</i> at Meaux, and +was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle +he also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in +Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI. +he made peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued +to fight against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362, +was defeated and compelled to pay a ransom; and this war +lasted until 1377, when peace was made. Early in 1380 the +count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when Charles +VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this +appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the +royal command, and supported by the communes of Languedoc, +Gaston fought for about two years against John, duke of Berry, +who had been chosen as his successor, until, worsted in the +combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to his estates, +remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had +married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), +by his wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +divorced in 1373, he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have +been incited by his uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison +his father, and who met his death in 1381. It is probable, as +Froissart says, that he was killed by his father. Left without +legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded to bequeath his +lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and Béarn +when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond +of hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature. +Several beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed +by his orders, and he himself wrote <i>Déduits de la chasse +des bestes sauvaiges et des oiseaulx de proye</i>. Froissart, who gives +a graphic description of his court and his manner of life, speaks +enthusiastically of Gaston, saying: “I never saw none like him +of personage, nor of so fair form, nor so well made,” and again, +“in everything he was so perfect that he cannot be praised too +much.”</p> + +<p>Almost immediately after Gaston’s death King Charles VI. +granted the county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, +a descendant of Count Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, +Matthew’s lands were seized by Archambault, count of Grailly +and captal de Buch, the husband of his sister Isabella (d. 1426), +who became count of Foix in 1401. Archambault’s eldest son, +John (<i>c.</i> 1382-1436), who succeeded to his father’s lands and +titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter of Charles +III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in +Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the +royal representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between +Foix and Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle +between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, he intrigued +with both parties, and consequently was distrusted by the +dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the cause of +France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but +when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former +allegiance and became the king’s representative in Languedoc +and Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding +bands which were devastating France; fought for Aragon +against Castile; and aided his brother, the cardinal of Foix, to +crush some insurgents in Aragon. Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), +was the fifth son of Archambault of Grailly, and was made +archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent part in the +struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed +the Collège de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John’s +son, Gaston IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of +John, king of Aragon and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty +of Narbonne, and having assisted King Charles VII. in +Guienne, he was made a peer of France in 1458. In 1455 his +father-in-law designated him as his successor in Navarre, and +Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and +Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and +Guienne; but these marks of favour did not prevent him +from joining a league against Louis in 1471. His eldest son, +Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of +France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. died two years later, +his lands descended to his grandson, Francis Phoebus (d. 1483), +who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded by his +sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d’Albret (d. 1516). +Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret +and subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of +Navarre became king of France in 1589 the lands of the counts +of Foix-Grailly became part of the French royal domain. A +younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. 1500), who +received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and married +Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good +terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death +of his nephew Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom +of Navarre against Jean d’Albret and his wife, Catherine de +Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted until 1497, when John +renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix (1489-1512), +the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine, +who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. +In 1507 Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with +King Louis XII. for the duchy of Nemours, and as duke of +Nemours he took command of the French troops in Italy. +Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston encountered +the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and +after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. +From the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also +sprung the viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of +Bénanges and Candale, and of Gurson and Fleix.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D.J. Vaissète, <i>Histoire générale de Languedoc</i>, tome iv. (Paris, +1876); L. Flourac, <i>Jean I<span class="sp">er</span>, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de +Béarn</i> (Paris, 1884); Le Père Anselme, <i>Histoire généalogique</i>, tome +iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, <i>Histoire du comte de Foix</i> (Toulouse, +1852); Madaune, <i>Gaston Phœbus, comte de Foix et souverain de +Béarn</i> (Pau, 1865); and Froissart’s <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S. Luce +and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> <span class="sc">Chevalier de</span> (1669-1752), +French soldier and military author, was born at Avignon on the +13th of February 1669. His military ardour was first awakened +by reading Caesar’s <i>Commentaries</i>, and he ran away from home +and joined the army. He soon saw active service, and, young +as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the manuscript +of which passed with Folard’s other papers to Marshal Belleisle +on the author’s death. In 1702 he became a captain, and aide-de-camp +to the duke of Vendôme, then in command of the French +forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendôme’s brother, +the Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant +feat of arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at +the battle of Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was +during his tedious recovery from his wounds that he conceived +the tactical theories to the elucidation of which he devoted most +of his life. In 1706 he again rendered good service in Italy, and +in 1708 distinguished himself greatly in the operations attempted +by Vendôme and the duke of Burgundy for the relief of Lille, +the failure of which was due in part to the disagreement of the +French commanders; and it is no small testimony to the ability +and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both. +Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his +services were rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. +He saw further active service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles +XII. of Sweden in the north, and under the duke of Berwick in +the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. he regarded as the +first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm that Folard +began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on Polybius. +On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his +papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, +and in 1724 appeared his <i>Nouvelles Découvertes sur la guerre dans +une dissertation de Polybe</i>, followed (1727-1730) by <i>Histoire de +Polybe traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... +de M. de Folard, Chevalier de l’Ordre de St Louis</i>. Folard spent +the remainder of his life in answering the criticisms provoked +by the novelty of his theories. He died friendless and in obscurity +at Avignon in 1752.</p> + +<p>An analysis of Folard’s military writings brings to light not +a connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of +independent ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far +more often extravagant. The central point of his tactics was +his proposed column formation for infantry. Struck by the +apparent weakness of the thin line of battle of the time, and +arguing from the <span class="grk" title="embolon">ἔμβολον</span> or <i>cuneus</i> of ancient warfare, he desired +to substitute the shock of a deep mass of troops for former +methods of attack, and further considered that in defence a solid +column gave an unshakable stability to the line of battle. +Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst +some famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido +Starhemberg, approved it and put it in practice, the weight of +military opinion throughout Europe was opposed to it, and +eventually history justified this opposition. Amongst the most +discriminating of his critics was Frederick the Great, who is +said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian king +certainly caused a <i>précis</i> to be made by Colonel von Seers, and +wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like +others by Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its +publication (Paris, 1760) under the title <i>Esprit du Chev. Folard</i>, +created a great impression. “Thus kept within bounds,” said +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span> +the prince de Ligne, “Folard was the best author of the time.” +Frederick himself said tersely that “Folard had buried diamonds +in a rubbish-heap.” Thus began the controversy between line +and column formations, which long continued and influenced +the development of tactics up to the most modern times. Folard’s +principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy +and Menil Durand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard</i> +(Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard’s +works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jähns, <i>Geschichte +der Kriegswissenschaften</i>, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig, +1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any +surface, whence its particular application in geology with which +this article deals. The verb “to fold” (O. Eng. <i>fealdan</i>) meant +originally to double back a piece of cloth or other material so as +to form a pleat, whence has evolved its various senses of to roll +up, to enclose, enfold or embrace as with the arms, to clasp the +hands or arms together, &c. The word is common to Teutonic +languages, cf. Ger. <i>falten</i>, Dutch <i>vouwen</i> (for <i>vouden</i>), &c., and the +ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. <span class="grk" title="plekein">πλέκειν</span>, Lat. +<i>plicare</i>, <i>plectere</i>, to plait, pleat, weave, and in the suffixes of such +words as <span class="grk" title="diplasios">διπλάσιος</span>, <i>duplex</i>, double, <i>simplex</i>, &c. Similarly the +termination “-fold” is added to numbers implying “so many,” +<i>e.g.</i> twofold, hundredfold, cf. “manifold.” The similar word +for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for sheep, and +hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of worshippers, +or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ’s flock, +must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is <i>falæd</i>, and cognate forms +are found in Dutch <i>vaalt</i>, &c. It apparently meant a planked or +boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. <i>fjael</i>, Swed. <i>fjöl</i>, plank.</p> + +<p>In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified +rocks of the earth’s crust, whereby they have been made +to take up less horizontal space. The French equivalents are +<i>pli</i>, <i>plissement</i>, <i>ridement</i>; in Germany, <i>Falte</i>, <i>Faltung</i>, <i>Sattelung</i> +are the terms usually employed. It is comparatively rarely that +bedded rocks are observed in the position in which they were +first deposited, a certain amount of buckling up or sagging down +of the crust being continually in progress in one region or another. +In every instance therefore where, in walking over the surface, +we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and without dislocations, +increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part of a +great curvature in the strata of the earth’s crust.</p> + +<p>Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on +some cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or +mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his +researches in the field without discovering that the rocks of the +earth’s crust have been almost everywhere thrown into curves, +usually so broad and gentle as to escape observation except +when specially looked for. The outcrop of beds at the surface +is commonly the truncation of these curves. The strata must +once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases +may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, +the intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:73px" src="images/img587a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Section of the Isle of Wight—a Monoclinal Curve, <i>a</i>, +Chalk; <i>b</i>, Woolwich and Reading beds; <i>c</i>, London clay; <i>d</i>, Bagshot +series; <i>e</i>, Headon series; <i>f, g</i>, Osborne and Bembridge series.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or +gently inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and +then an immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping +character. The strata are thus bent up and continue on the other +side of the tilt at a higher level. Such bends are called <i>monoclines</i>, +<i>monoclinal folds</i> or <i>flexures</i>, because they present only one +fold, or one half of a fold, instead of the two which we see in an +arch or trough. The most notable instance of this structure in +Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of which a section is given in +fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south side of the island +rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly vertical. +The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, but +rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable +cases of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. +Powell in his survey of the Colorado region.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:341px" src="images/img587b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It much more frequently happens that the strata have been +bent into arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping +under the surface on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up +again on the other side. Where they dip away from the axis of +movement the structure is termed an <i>anticline</i> or <i>anticlinal fold</i>; +where they dip towards the axis, it is a <i>syncline</i> or <i>synclinal fold</i>. +The diagram in fig. 2 may be taken to represent a series of strata +(1-17) thrown into an anticline (AA′) and syncline (BB′). A +section drawn across these folds in the line CD would show +the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the part of the +anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 forms the +crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it. +On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular +succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under +the next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the +centre of a trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on +the east side the same beds rise to the surface which passed +beneath it on the west side. The particular bed marked EF has +been entirely removed by denudation from the top of the anticline, +and is buried deep beneath the centre of the syncline.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:181px" src="images/img587c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the line CD +(fig. 2).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are +abruptly terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. +2, both the arch and trough are represented as diminishing, the +former towards the north, the latter towards the south. The +observer in passing northwards along the axis of that anticline +finds himself getting into progressively higher strata as the fold +sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing southwards along +the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and gets into +lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this way +it is said to “nose out.” In fig. 2 there is obviously a general +inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward +dip from the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. +Hence the anticline noses out to the north and the syncline to +the south.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:282px; height:124px" src="images/img598a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Simple Folds.</i>—In describing rock-folds special terms have +been assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +sides of an anticline or syncline are known as the “limbs,” +“slopes,” “flanks” or “members” of the fold; in an anticline, +the part X, fig. 3, the angle of the bend, is the “crest” or +“crown” (Ger. <i>Gewölbebiegung</i>, Fr. <i>charnière anticlinale</i>), the +corresponding part of a syncline being the “trough-core” or +“base,” Y, fig. 3 (Ger. <i>Muldenbiegung</i>, Fr. <i>charnière synclinale</i>). +The portion of an anticline which has been removed by denudation +is the “aerial arch,” dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata +in a fold constitute the “core,” arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core +B, in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending +of the strata has taken place about an “axial plane” (often +called the “axis”), which in the examples illustrated in fig. 3 +would pass through the points A and B, perpendicularly to the +horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded regions the axial +planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be moderately +inclined, producing an “inversion,” “inverted fold” or +“overfold.” When the inclination of the axial plane is great a +“recumbent overfold” is produced (Fr. <i>pli couché</i>, Ger, <i>liegende +Falte</i>). In a fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an “arch limb” +(<i>a</i>), a middle limb (<i>b</i>) and a +floor or “trough limb” (<i>c</i>). +X and Y are the upper and +lower bends respectively. +One of the important functions +of a fold is its direction; +this of course depends +upon the orientation of the +axial plane. The crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of +a syncline is rarely horizontal for any great distance; its +departure from horizontality is designated the “pitch,” and +the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards the north, &c. Most +simple folds—with the exception of very shallow curvatures +of wide area,—when considered in their entirety, are seen to be +somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations +of the simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs, +(1) the limbs may tend to diverge as they recede from the +crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled an “open anticline”; (2) the +limbs may be parallel in “closed” folds (commonly known as +isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open angle or +widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a fan-shaped +fold (Fr. <i>pli en éventail</i>, Ger. <i>Fächerfalte</i>); another +variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. <i>pli en champignon</i>). +The axial plane is not always extended: it may be +so abbreviated that the folding appears to have taken place +about a point; anticlines of this type are variously designated +“short-anticlines,” “<i>brachyanticlinaux</i>” or “domes”; similarly, +there are “short-synclines,” “<i>brachysynclinaux</i>” or +“cuvettes.” The dip in cases of this kind has been described as +“qua-qua versal” or “periclinal.”</p> + +<p><i>Complex Folding.</i>—Sometimes a simple fold has been itself +subjected to further folding repeated more than once, it is then +termed a “refolded fold” (Fr. <i>pli replié</i>); fine examples may be +observed in the Alps and in other mountain chains. A great +regional major fold containing within itself a number of minor +“special” or subsidiary folds is described as a “geanticline” +(Fr. <i>structure en éventail composé</i>), or as a “geosyncline” (Fr. +<i>structure en éventail renversé</i>). Even folds of lesser magnitude +may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal movement, +and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or higher +order (Fr. <i>couches gaufrées</i> [fig. 5]). In its smaller manifestation, +this class of folding passes into “crumpling” or “puckering,” +where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a single +hand specimen. In “frilling” or “frilled structure” the folds +have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated +rocks minute folds are observable with the microscope that do +not appear to the unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal +overfolds has passed into a series of thrusts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fault</a></span>), +the so-called “imbricated” structure (Fr. <i>structure imbriquée</i>, +Ger. <i>Schuppenstruktur</i>) is generated. Occasionally crust-blocks +resembling “graben” and “horsts” are circumscribed by folds +instead of faults; when this is so they have been called respectively +“infolded graben” or “overfolded horsts.”</p> + +<p>The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has +always had a marked influence on the nature of the folding; +some beds have yielded much more readily than others, certain +beds will be found to be faulted, while those above and below +have folded without fracture. In many examples of apparent +plasticity it can be shown that this effect has been produced +by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock +substance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:214px" src="images/img598b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of Kinsale. +(Du Noyer.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The larger rock folds have produced important economic +results. For example, in many coal regions the deposits have +been conserved in some districts in the synclines or “basins,” +while they have been removed by denudation from the uplifted +anticlines in others. Near the crest of anticlines is commonly +an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized districts; and, +in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata determines the +direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most convenient +site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or “dome,” +where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a +subjacent saturated layer under pressure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement +of the great folded regions of the earth’s crust, see E. Suess, +<i>Das Antlitz der Erde</i>, English translation. <i>The Face of the Earth</i>, +vols. i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim, +<i>Les Dislocations de l’écorce terrestre</i> (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz, +<i>Geotektonische Probleme</i> (Stuttgart, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLENGO, TEOFILO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino +Coccajo or Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, +was born of noble parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th +of November 1491, From his infancy he showed great vivacity +of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in making verses. At the +age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte Casino near +Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a professed +member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a +monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to +have produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, +not unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 +he forsook the monastic life for the society of a well-born young +woman named Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about +the country for several years, often suffering great poverty, +having no other means of support than his talent for versification. +His first publication was the <i>Merlini Cocaii macaronicon</i>, which +relates the adventures of a fictitious hero named Baldus. The +coarse buffoonery of this work is often relieved by touches of +genuine poetry, as well as by graphic descriptions and acute +criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic style is rendered +peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent introduction +of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though frequently +censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression, +it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very +few years passed through several editions. Folengo’s next +production was the <i>Orlandino</i>, an Italian poem of eight cantos, +written in rhymed octaves. It appeared in 1526, and bore on +the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco (Merlin +the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life +of dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; +and shortly afterwards wrote his <i>Chaos del tri per uno</i>, in which, +partly in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes +in Italian, and sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account +of the vicissitudes of the life he had lived under his various names, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +We next find him about the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves +a life of Christ entitled <i>L’Umanità del Figliuolo di Dio</i>; and he is +known to have composed, still later, another religious poem upon +the creation, fall and restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. +These, however, have never been published. Some of his later +years were spent in Sicily under the patronage of Don Fernando +de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a short time to +have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired to +Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on +the 9th of December 1544.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by +Rabelais. The earlier editions of his <i>Opus macaronicum</i> are now +extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the +text as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLEY, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born +at Dublin on the 24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to +study drawing and modelling at the schools of the Royal Dublin +Society, where he took several first-class prizes. In 1835 he was +admitted a student in the schools of the Royal Academy, London. +He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839 with his “Death of +Abel and Innocence.” “Ino and Bacchus,” exhibited in 1840, +gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards +commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. +“Lear and Cordelia” and “Death of Lear” were +exhibited in 1841. “Venus rescuing Aeneas” and “The Houseless +Wanderer” in 1842, “Prospero and Miranda” in 1843. In +1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his +“Youth at a Stream,” and was, with Calder Marshall and John +Bell, chosen by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for +the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. Statues of John +Hampden and Selden were executed for this purpose, and received +liberal praise for the propriety, dignity and proportion of their +treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to come rapidly. +Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental +statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him +with a steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was +made an associate and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. +Among his numerous works the following may be noticed, +besides those mentioned above:—“The Mother”; “Egeria,” +for the Mansion House; “The Elder Brother in Comus,” his +diploma work; “The Muse of Painting,” the monument of +James Ward, R.A.; “Caractacus,” for the Mansion House; +“Helen Faucit”; “Goldsmith” and “Burke,” for Trinity +College, Dublin; “Faraday”; “Reynolds”; “Barry,” for +Westminster Palace Yard; “John Stuart Mill,” for the Thames +embankment; “O’Connell” and “Cough,” for Dublin; +“Clyde,” for Glasgow; “Clive,” for Shrewsbury; “Hardinge,” +“Canning” and “Outram,” for Calcutta; “Hon. James +Stewart,” for Ceylon; the symbolical group “Asia,” as well as +the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in +Hyde Park; and “Stonewall Jackson,” in Richmond, Va. +The statue of Sir James Outram is probably his masterpiece. +Foley’s early fanciful works have some charming qualities; but +he will probably always be best remembered for the workmanlike +and manly style of his monumental portraits. He died at +Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the 4th of +September was buried in St Paul’s cathedral. He left his models +to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part +of his property to the Artists’ Benevolent Fund.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, <i>The Works of J.H. Foley</i> (1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLEY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1757-1833), British admiral, entered +the navy in 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a +good deal of active service in the West Indies against American +privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, he served under +Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel and Sir Charles Hardy +in the Channel, and with Rodney’s squadron was present at +the defeat of De Lángara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at the +relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney’s command, he went +out to the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which +culminated in the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the +Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-captain +to Admiral John Gell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde +Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action +of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off Toulon on the 13th +of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he was flag-captain +to the second in command, and in the following year +was sent out in command of the “Goliath” (74), to reinforce +Nelson’s fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the +“Goliath” in the battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the +squadron round the French van, and this manœuvre contributed +not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by +Foley’s own initiative, or intended by Nelson, has been a matter +of controversy (see <i>Journal of the Royal United Service Institution</i>, +1885, p. 916). His next important service was with Nelson in +the Baltic. The “Elephant” carried Nelson’s flag at the battle +of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health +obliged Foley to decline Nelson’s offer (made when on the +point of starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain +of the Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs +and at the peace was made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be +full admiral and G.C.B. He died while commanding in chief at +Portsmouth in 1833.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Herbert, <i>Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley</i> (Cardiff, +1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLI<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Foley</span>), <b>ALLAN JAMES</b> (1837-1899), Irish bass singer, +was born at Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; +originally a carpenter, he studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and +made his first appearance at Catania in 1862. From the opera +in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for the season of 1865, and +appeared with much success in various parts. He sang in the +first performance of <i>The Flying Dutchman</i> (Daland) in England +in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod’s <i>Redemption</i> in +1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his +vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request +at ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLIGNO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (anc. <i>Fulginiae</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal see of +Umbria, Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, +from which it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), +26,278 (commune). It lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a +tributary of the Tiber; it is almost square in shape and is surrounded +by walls. It is a picturesque and interesting town; +several of its churches contain paintings by Umbrian masters, +notably works by Niccolò di Liberatore (or Niccolò Alunno, +1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece +(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolò. The +cathedral has a romanesque S. façade of 1133, restored in 1903; +the interior was modernized in the 18th century. To the left +of the choir is an octagonal chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the +younger (1527). In the same piazza as the S. façade is the Palazzo +del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a chapel with frescoes +by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra Portas is +said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only +the columns of the portico remain. Raphael’s “Madonna +di Foligno,” now in the Vatican, was originally painted for the +church of S. Anna. The Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are +two good Renaissance buildings.</p> + +<p>Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the +8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It changed hands often during the wars of the +13th century, and was destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From +1305 to 1439 it was governed by the family of the Trinci as +deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter year one of its members +went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a force against +Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and the +last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth +Foligno belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It +suffered from a severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station +on the main line from Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the +junction for Perugia. Three miles to the E. is the abbey of +Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like those of S. Paolo +fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns supporting +arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic (“Cosmatesque” +work). The church has been modernized.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLIO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (properly the ablative case of the Lat. <i>folium</i>, leaf, but +also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. <i>foglio</i>), a term in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span> +bibliography and printing, with reference either to the size of +paper employed, or of the book, or to the pagination. In the +phrase “in folio” it means a sheet of paper folded once, and +thus a book bound up in sheets thus folded is a book of the largest +size and is known as a “folio” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bibliography</a></span>). Similarly, +“folio” is one of the sizes of paper adapted to be thus folded +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>). In book-keeping the word is used for a page in a +ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in +law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, +used for measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. +In Great Britain, a “folio” is taken to contain 72 words, except +in parliamentary and chancery documents, when the number +is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words form a “folio.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:169px; height:190px" src="images/img600.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">FOLIUM,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by +René Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x³ + y³ = 3axy. The +curve is symmetrical about the line x = y, +and consists of two infinite branches +asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and +a loop in the first quadrant. It may be +traced by giving m various values in the +equations x = 3am / (1 + m³), y = 3am² +(1 + m³), since by eliminating m between +these relations the equation to the curve +is obtained. Hence it is <i>unicursal</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curve</a></span>). The area of the loop, which +equals the area between the curve +and its asymptote, is 3a/2.</p> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLKES, MARTIN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born +in London on the 29th of October 1690. He was educated at +Saumur University and Clare College, Cambridge, where he so +distinguished himself in mathematics that when only twenty-three +years of age he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. +He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723 Sir Isaac +Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the vice-presidents. +On the death of Newton he became a candidate +for the presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, +however, he succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member +of the French Academy; in 1746 he received honorary degrees +from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 he set out on a tour +through Italy, in the course of which he composed his <i>Dissertations +on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins</i>. Before the +Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to +1754, he read in 1736 his <i>Observations on the Trajan and Antonine +Pillars at Rome</i> and his <i>Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th +Year of King Edward III</i>. In 1745 he printed the latter with +another on the history of silver coinage. He also contributed +both to the Society of Antiquaries and to the Royal Society +other papers, chiefly on Roman antiquities. He married in +1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had appeared at the +Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols’s Lit. <i>Anecdot.</i> ii. +578-598).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Sir John Hill’s attack on Folkes (<i>Review of the Works of the +Royal Soc.</i>, 1751), see D’Israeli, <i>Calamities and Quarrels of Authors</i> +(1860), pp. 364-366.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLKESTONE,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place +of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of +Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern & +Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905; (1901) 30,650. This is +one of the principal ports in cross-Channel communications, the +steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older part of +Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the shore +between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the +hills on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered +by hills rising sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of +which, such as Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. +Above the cliff west of the old town is a broad promenade +called the Lees, commanding a notable view of the channel +and connected by lifts with the shore below. On this cliff also +stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, a cruciform +building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly Early +English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine +priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established +by Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The +site of this foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments +of the sea. The monastery was destroyed at the +dissolution of religious houses by Henry VIII. Folkestone inner +harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep water pier for +use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not only +the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried +on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be +mentioned the grammar school, founded in 1674, the public +library and museum, and a number of hospitals and sanatoria. +The discontinued Harveian Institution for young men was +named after William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the +blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also commemorated +by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a member +of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7 +aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of +Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb +of Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).</p> + +<p>Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl +Godwine and was called upon to supply him with ships when he +was exiled from England; at the time of the Domesday Survey +it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. From early times it was +a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to find one out +of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the royal +service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose +liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone +by Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was +prescriptive, was entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty +of Folkestone. The history of Folkestone is a record of its +struggle against the sea, which was constantly encroaching +upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, impoverished by their +losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the end of the 18th +century the town had become prosperous by the increase of its +fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th century +one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLKLAND<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (<i>folcland</i>). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon +documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is +contrasted with bookland in a way which shows that these two +kinds of tenure formed the two main subdivisions of landownership: +no one is to deny right to another in respect of folkland or +bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. Dipl. 281), King Æthelberht +exchanges five hides of folkland for five hides of bookland which +had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the latter for the +newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal exactions except +the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd and joining +in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland was +not free from the payment of <i>gafål</i> (land tax) and providing +quarters for the king’s men. In ealdorman Alfred’s will the +testator disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his +sons and his daughter, but to a son who is not considered as +rightful offspring five hides of folkland are left, provided the +king consents. It is probable that folkland is meant in two or +three cases when Latin documents speak of <i>terra rei publicae +jure possessa</i>.</p> + +<p>Two principal explanations have been given to this term. +Allen thought that folkland was similar to the Roman <i>ager +publicus</i>: it was the common property of the nation (<i>folc</i>), +and the king had to dispose of it by carving out dependent +tenures for his followers more or less after the fashion of continental +<i>beneficia</i>. These estates remained subject to the superior +ownership of the folk and of the king: they could eventually +be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a holder +of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A +letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted +to apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, +H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and others followed Allen’s lead.</p> + +<p>Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an +article on folkland in the <i>English Hist. Review</i> for 1893. It +considers folkland as landownership by folkright—at common +law, as might be said in modern legal speech. In opposition to it +bookland appears as landownership derived from royal privilege. +The incidents recorded in the charters characterize folkland as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to limitations in respect of +testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to be relieved from +fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from folkland into +bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred’s son, not being recognized +as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession +or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and +limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to +the fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless +“books.” These are exemptions from fiscal dues and +freedom of disposition of the owner. This view of the matter has +been accepted by the chief modern authorities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—J. Allen, <i>Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of +Royal Prerogative in England</i> (London, 1849); K. Maurer, <i>Kritische +Überschau</i> (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book +and Beyond</i>, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, “Folcland,” +in the <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, <i>Land Laws</i> +(London, 1896); H. Brunner, <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Band i. +(2nd ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. Vi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLKLORE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a +designation for the traditional learning of the uncultured classes +of civilized nations. The word has been adopted in this sense +into many foreign languages; it is sometimes regarded as the +equivalent of the Ger. <i>Volkskunde</i>. But folklore is, properly +speaking, the “lore <i>of</i> the folk,” while <i>Volkskunde</i> is lore or +learning <i>about</i> the folk, and includes not only the mental life +of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term folklore is +also used to designate the science which deals with folklore; +the study of survivals involves the investigation of the similar +customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture; consequently +folklore, as interpreted by the English and American +societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as +with the popular superstitions of the white races.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The scientific study of folklore dates back to the +first quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long +before that date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of +recent growth. The first Folklore Society was founded in London +in 1878; similar bodies now exist in the United States, France, +Italy, Switzerland and especially in Germany and Austria. +The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at a very early +period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the +28th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In Greece the Homeric poems contain many +folk-tale incidents; for India we have the <i>Jatakas</i> and <i>Panchatantra</i>; +and for the Arabs the great collection of the <i>Thousand +and One Nights</i>. Another type of folk-narrative is represented +by Aesop’s <i>Fables</i>. Not unnaturally beliefs and customs received +less attention; our knowledge of them among the ancients is as +a rule pieced together. Among the oldest professed collections +are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), <i>Traité des superstitions</i> (1679), +Aubrey’s <i>Miscellanies</i> (1686) and H. Bourne’s (1696-1733) +<i>Antiquitates vulgares</i> (1725); but they belong to the antiquarian, +non-scientific period.</p> + +<p>The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore +were the brothers Grimm, by the publication of their <i>Kinder-und +Hausmärchen</i> (1812-1815) and <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i> (1835). +They were the first to present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated +form. They differed from their predecessors in +regarding the myth, not as the result of conscious speculation, +but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, disposed to +press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the figures +of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as the +folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was +exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and +others. At the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), +the forerunner of the anthropological school of folklore, shared +in this mistake. Breaking away eventually from the philological +schools, which interpreted myths and their supposed descendants, +the folk-tales, as relating to the storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mythology</a></span>), Mannhardt made folk-custom and belief his +basis. To this end he set himself to collect and compare the +superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was always +feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt’s +researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor +abroad. In 1878 the foundation of the Folklore Society marked +a new era in England, where the philological school had had +few adherents; and the anthropological school soon produced +evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew Lang, Dr J.G. +Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.</p> + +<p>With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom +and belief on the one hand, and of rites and religions of people +in the lower stages of culture on the other hand, it has become +abundantly clear that there is no line of demarcation between +the two. Each throws light upon the other, and the superstitions +of Europe are the lineal descendants of savage creeds +which have their parallels all over the world in the culture of +primitive peoples.</p> + +<p><i>Subdivisions.</i>—The folklore of civilized peoples may be +conveniently classified under three main heads: (1) belief and +custom; (2) narratives and sayings; (3) art. These again may +be subdivided. The first division, <i>Belief and Custom</i>, includes +(A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, including (<i>a</i>) those +connected with natural phenomena or inanimate nature, (<i>b</i>) +tree and plant superstitions, (<i>c</i>) animal superstitions, (<i>d</i>) ghosts +and goblins, (<i>e</i>) witchcraft, (<i>f</i>) leechcraft, (<i>g</i>) magic in general +and divination, (<i>h</i>) eschatology, and (<i>i</i>) miscellaneous superstitions +and practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including +(<i>a</i>) festival customs for which are set aside certain days and +seasons, (<i>b</i>) ceremonial customs on the occasion of events such as +birth, death or marriage, (<i>c</i>) games, (<i>d</i>) miscellaneous local +customs, such as agricultural rites connected with the corn-spirit +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>), and (<i>e</i>) dances. The second head of <i>Narratives +and Sayings</i> may be subdivided (A) into (<i>a</i>) sagas or tales +told as true, (<i>b</i>) Märchen or nursery tales, (<i>c</i>) fables, (<i>d</i>) drolls, +apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (<i>e</i>) myths (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mythology</a></span>), +and (<i>f</i>) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as +they do not come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, +riddles, jingles, proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The +third head, <i>Art</i>, subdivides into (<i>a</i>) folk music with ballads and +songs, (<i>b</i>) folk drama. Any classification, however, labours +under the disadvantage of separating items which properly +belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form in +which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be +aetiological in their nature and form an elaborate record of a +custom. Eschatological beliefs naturally take the form of myths. +Traditional narratives can also be classified under art, and so on.</p> + +<p><i>Literature.</i>—The literature of the subject falls into two sharply +defined classes—synthetic works and collections of folklore—of +which the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former +class the most important is Dr J.G. Frazer’s <i>Golden Bough</i>, +which sets out from the study of a survival in Roman religion +and covers a wide field of savage and civilized beliefs and customs. +Especially important are the chapters on agricultural rites, in +which are set forth the results of Mannhardt’s researches. Other +important lines of folklore research in the <i>Golden Bough</i> are +those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view +of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. +Mr E.S. Hartland’s <i>Legend of Perseus</i> is primarily concerned +with the origin of a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is +dismissed as insoluble. A large part of the book is taken up +with a discussion of sympathetic magic, and especially with the +“life index,” an object so bound up with the life of a human +being that it acts as an indication of his well-being or otherwise. +The importance of children’s games in the study of folklore has +been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection of the +games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. +With the more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem +of the diffusion of games has also come to the fore. In particular +it is found that the string-game called “cat’s cradle” in various +forms is of very wide diffusion, being found even in Australia. +The question of folk-music has recently received much attention +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Song</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<b>Introductory works:</b> M.R. Cox, <i>Introduction +to Folklore</i>; Kaindl, <i>Die Volkskunde</i>; Marillier in <i>Revue de l’histoire +des religions</i>, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.</p> + +<p><b>General works:</b> J.G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>; E.S. Hartland, +<i>The Legend of Perseus</i>; A. Lang, <i>Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual +and Religion</i>; Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Liebrecht, <i>Zur Volkskunde</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span></p> + +<p><b>British Isles.</b> England: Burne, <i>Shropshire Folklore</i>; <i>Denham +Tracts</i> (F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, <i>Lancashire Folklore</i>; +Henderson, <i>Folklore of Northern Counties</i>; <i>County Folklore Series</i> +(Printed Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, <i>Welsh +Folklore</i>; Rhys, <i>Celtic Folklore</i>. Scotland: Dalyell, <i>Darker +Superstitions</i>; Gregor, <i>Folklore of N.E. of Scotland</i>; the works of +J.G. Campbell, &c.</p> + +<p><b>Germany:</b> Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, English translation by +Stallybrass; Wuttke, <i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</i>; Meyer, <i>Deutsche +Volkskunde</i>; Tetzner, <i>Die Slaven in Deutschland</i>; Mogk in Paul’s +<i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>, and the works cited by +Kaindl (see above).</p> + +<p><b>France:</b> Sebillot’s works; Rolland, <i>Faune populaire</i>; Laisnel +de la Salle, <i>Croyances et légendes</i>.</p> + +<p>On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for +Bohemia, Grohmann, <i>Aberglaube</i>; for Greece, Abbott, <i>Macedonian +Folklore</i>, and Rennell Rodd, <i>Folklore of Greece</i>; for Italy, Pitré’s +bibliography; for India, Crooke’s works, and the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>. +For questionnaires see <i>Handbook of Folklore</i> (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot, +<i>Essai de questionnaires</i>; <i>Journal of American Folklore</i> (1890, &c.); +and Kaindl’s <i>Volkskunde</i>. For a bibliography of folk-tales see +Hartland, <i>Mythology and Folk-tales</i>; to his list may be added +Petitot’s <i>Légendes indiennes</i>; Rand, <i>Legends of the Micmacs</i>; +Lummis, <i>The Man who Married the Moon</i>; and the publications +of the American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies +in <i>Folklore</i> and other periodicals. On special points may +be mentioned Miss Cox’s <i>Cinderella</i> (Folklore Society); Kohler’s +works, &c. (see also bibliography to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tale</a></span>). For games +see Gomme, <i>English Games</i>; Culin, <i>Korean Games</i>; Rochholz, +<i>Alemannisches Kinderlied</i>; Böhme, <i>Deutsches Kinderlied</i>; Handelmann, +<i>Volks- und Kinderspiele</i>; Jayne, <i>String Figures</i>, &c.; and +the bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Doll</a></span>. See also Sonnenschein’s <i>Best Books</i>.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the more important Societies and publications:—</p> + +<p>England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.</p> + +<p>U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.</p> + +<p>France: <i>Société des traditions populaires</i>.</p> + +<p>Germany: <i>Verein für Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung für +Volkskunde</i>; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other +provinces.</p> + +<p>Austria: <i>Verein für österreichische Volkskunde</i>.</p> + +<p>Switzerland: <i>Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde</i>.</p> + +<p>Italy: <i>Società per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari</i>.</p> + +<p>In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or +less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies +mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for +the following among others: Belgium, <i>Wallonia</i>; Poland, <i>Wisla</i>; +France, <i>Melusine</i> (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, <i>Cesky Lid</i>; Denmark, +<i>Dania</i>, &c.; Germany, <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i> +(1859-1890); <i>Am Urguell</i> (1890-1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLLEN, AUGUST<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (or, as he afterwards called himself, +<span class="sc">Adolf</span>) <b>LUDWIG</b> (1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen +on the 21st of January 1794, the son of a district judge. He +studied theology at Giessen and law at Heidelberg, and after +leaving the university edited the Elberfeld <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>. +Suspected of being connected with some radical plots, he was +imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821 he +went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at +Aarau, farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in +Thurgau, and then retired to Bern, where he lived till his death +on the 26th of December 1855. Besides a number of minor +poems he wrote <i>Harfengrüsse aus Deutschland und der Schweiz</i> +(1823) and <i>Malegys und Vivian</i> (1829), a knightly romance after +the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many translations, +mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration +with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso’s <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> (1818) +and <i>Siegfrieds Tod</i> from the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> (1842); he also +collected and translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). +In 1846 he published a brief collection of sonnets entitled <i>An +die gottlosen Nichtswüteriche</i>. This was aimed at the liberal +philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the occasion of a literary duel +between the two authors. Follen’s posthumous poem <i>Tristans +Eltern</i> (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known work +is a collection of German poetry entitled <i>Bildersaal deutscher +Dichtung</i> (1827).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLLEN, KARL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother +of A.L. Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the +5th of September 1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, +but after the campaign of 1814, in which, like his brother +August, he took part as a Hessian volunteer, began the study of +jurisprudence, and in 1818 established himself as <i>Privatdocent</i> +of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being suspected of political +intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after the assassination +of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political murder +of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen +being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in +Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school +at Coire and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian +authorities imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in +1824 the hospitality of the United States of America. Here he +became an instructor in German at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 +obtained an appointment as professor of German language +and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation having +given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835, +and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in +Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat +which was totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from +New York to Boston, on the night of the 13th-14th of January +1840. Follen was the author of several celebrated patriotic +songs written in the interests of liberty. The best is perhaps +<i>Horch auf, ihr Fürsten! Du Volk, horch auf!</i> of which Johannes +Wit, called von Dörring (1800-1863), was long, though erroneously, +considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen’s +collection of patriotic songs, <i>Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some +reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with +a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1798-1845), English lawyer, +was born at Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December +1798. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Follett, who had +retired from the army in 1790, and engaged in business at +Topsham. He received his education at Exeter grammar school +and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He had +entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a +pleader below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, +and joined the western circuit in 1825. At the very outset +his great qualifications were universally recognized. He was +thoroughly master of his profession, and his rapid rise in it was +due not only to his quick perception and sound judgment, but +to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of temper. +In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding +Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to +parliament for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished +himself, and under the first administration of Sir Robert Peel +was appointed solicitor-general (November 1834); but resigned +with the ministry in April 1835. In the course of this year he was +knighted. On the return of Peel to power in 1841 Sir William +was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April 1844 he succeeded +Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his +health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been +permanently injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, +and he was compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the +south of Europe. He returned to England in March 1845; but +the disease, consumption, reasserted itself, and he died in +London on the 28th of June following. A statue of Follett, +executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in Westminster +Abbey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1793-1872), English +journalist, descended from a noble French Huguenot family, +the Greniers of Languedoc, was born in London in 1793. John +Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England under the +name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque +(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the +author of a standard legal work, a <i>Treatise on Equity</i>, was the +father of Albany Fonblanque; he represented the borough of +Camelford in parliament; and was one of the Whig friends of +George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young Fonblanque +was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His +health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be +suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a +view to being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) +he commenced writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted +notice both by the boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span> +the superiority of his style to what Macaulay, when speaking of +him, justly called the “rant and twaddle of the daily and weekly +press” of the time. While he was eagerly taking his share in all +the political struggles of this eventful period, he was also continuing +his studies, devoting no less than six hours a day to the +study of classics and political philosophy. Under this severe +mental training his health once more broke down. His energy, +however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to +the newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his +habits were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary +anxieties.</p> + +<p>From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively +employed upon the staff of <i>The Times</i> and the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, +whilst he contributed to the <i>Examiner</i>, to the <i>London Magazine</i> +and to the <i>Westminster Review</i>. In 1828 the <i>Examiner</i> newspaper, +which had been purchased by the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the +<i>Religion of the Universe</i>, &c., was given over to Fonblanque’s +complete control; and for a period of seventeen years (1830 to +1847) he not only sustained the high character for political independence +and literary ability which the <i>Examiner</i> had gained +under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, +but even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a +certain delight in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed +against themselves. When it was proposed that the admirers +and supporters of the paper should facilitate a reduction in its +price by the payment of their subscription ten years in advance, +not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord Lytton) volunteer his +aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting with radicalism. +During his connexion with the <i>Examiner</i>, Fonblanque had +many advantageous offers of further literary employment; +but he devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to +the service of the paper he had resolved to make a standard of +literary excellence in the world of journalism. Fonblanque was +offered the governorship of Nova Scotia; but although he took +great interest in colonial matters, and had used every effort to +advocate the more generous political system which had colonial +self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his +beloved <i>Examiner</i> even for so sympathetic an employment. In +1847, however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post +of statistical secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course +compelled him to resign the editorship of the <i>Examiner</i>, but he +still continued to contribute largely to the paper, which, under the +control of John Forster, continued to sustain its influential +position. During the later years of his life Fonblanque took no +prominent part in public affairs; and when he died at the age of +seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew, Edward Fonblanque, +rightly observes, “a man who had lived and toiled in an age gone +by and in a cause long since established.”</p> + +<p>The character of Albany Fonblanque’s political activity may +be judged of by a study of his <i>England under Seven Administrations</i> +(1837), in comparison with the course of social and political +events in England from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must +be regarded in the light of a reformer. Journalism before his +day was regarded as a somewhat discreditable profession; men +of true culture were shy of entering the hot and dusty arena lest +they should be confounded with the ruder combatants who fought +there before the public for hire. But the fact that Fonblanque, +a man not only of strong and earnest political convictions but +also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate to choose this +field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a man of +letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best +gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old +prejudice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque</i>, edited by his +nephew, Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a +collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOND DU LAC,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac +county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the +S. end of Lake Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du +Lac river, which is navigable for only a short distance. Pop. +(1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom 2952 were foreign-born; +(1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of some importance, +and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the +Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western +railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat +lines connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great +Lakes. At North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, +are car-shops of the two last-mentioned railways, and in the +city are manufactories of machinery, automobiles, wagons +and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, refrigerators, agricultural +implements, toys and furniture. The total value of the +city’s factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase of +95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal +cathedral, the Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital +and convent, and a public library with about 25,000 volumes in +1908. The first settlers on the site of Fond du Lac arrived about +1835. Subsequently a village was laid out which was incorporated +in 1847; a city charter was secured in 1852.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONDI<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (anc. <i>Fundi</i>), a town of Campania, Italy, in the +province of Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. +of Terracina by road. Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above +sea-level, at the N. end of a plain surrounded by mountains, +which extend to the sea. It occupies the site of the ancient +Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to <i>Latium adjectum</i>, on +the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road which +passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan, +and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly +in <i>opus incertum</i>, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no +doubt, from the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still +exists, and bears the inscription of three aediles who erected the +gate, the towers and the wall. A similar inscription of three +different aediles from the N.W. gate still exists, but not <i>in situ</i>. +In the neighbourhood are the remains of several ancient villas, +and along the Via Appia still stands an ancient wall of <i>opus +reticulatum</i>, with an inscription, in large letters, of one Varronianus, +the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. The engineering of +the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where it +passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.</p> + +<p>The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The +castle on the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with +beautiful tracery. Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro +(formerly S. Maria), which was the cathedral until the see was +suppressed in 1818 and united with that of Gaeta; it contains +a fine pulpit with “cosmatesque” work and the fine tomb of +Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century triptychs +and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of the +anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery +the cell which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.</p> + +<p>The ancient city of Fundi in 338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 332) received (with +Formiae) the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>, because it had always secured +the Romans safe passage through its territory; the people +as a whole did not join Privernum in its war against Rome three +years later, though Vitruvius Vacca, the leader, was a native of +Fundi. It acquired the full citizenship in 188 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was +partly under the control of a <i>praefectus</i>. The inscription upon +some waterpipes which have been discovered shows that later it +became a <i>municipium</i>. It was governed by three aediles: +Horace’s jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due to the +exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in <i>Hermes</i>, xiii. p. 113). The +family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. +During the Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily +abandoned, but it seems to have come under the rule of the +papacy by <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 754 at any rate. Pope John VIII. ceded it with +its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but its history is somewhat +intricate after this period. Sometimes it appears as an +independent countship, though held by members of the Caetani +family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to +Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to +carry off Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. +After this Fondi was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the +Di Sangro family, in which it still remains. Its position as a +frontier town between the papal states and the kingdom of +Naples, just in the territory of the latter—the Via Appia can +easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual frontier called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +Portella<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or S.E. of it—affected it a good deal during the French +Revolution and the events which led up to the unification of +Italy.</p> + +<p>The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and +the partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the +ancient Via Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a +considerable détour. The lake was also known in classical times +ass, <i>lacus Amyclanu</i> from the town of Amyclae or Amunclae, +which was founded, according to legend, by Spartan colonists, +and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +(E. Pais in <i>Rendiconti dei Lincei</i>, 1906, 611 seq.); the bay was +also known as <i>mare Amunclanum</i>.</p> + +<p>The ancient Speluncae (mod. <i>Sperlonga</i>) on the coast also +belonged to the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa +in which Sejanus saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost +crushed by a fall of rock. Considerable remains of it, and of the +caves from which it took its name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the +modern village. For modern discoveries see P. di Tucci in +<i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1880), 480; G. Patroni, <i>ibid.</i> (1898), 493. +The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient writers, though the +<i>ager Caecubus</i>, the coast plain round the Lago di Fundi, was even +more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; and +though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost +entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even +more to the excavation works of Nero’s projected canal from the +lacus Avernus to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is +spoken of in the inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of +Hadrian, together with Falernian and Setian wines (<i>Corpus +inscript. Lat.</i> vi. Berlin, 1882, 9797). The plain of Fondi is the +northernmost point in Italy where the cultivation of oranges and +lemons is regularly carried on in modern times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Conte Colino, <i>Storia di Fondi</i> (Naples, 1902); B. Amante +and R. Bianchi, <i>Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania</i> +(Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in <i>English Historical Review</i>, xix. (1904) +557 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the pass of Ad Lautulas see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terracina</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONNI,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft. +above sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S. +of Nuoro by road. Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village +in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut +woods. The church of the Franciscans, built in 1708, contains +some curious paintings by local artists. The costumes are extremely +picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the +Baptist, the patron saint. The men’s costume is similar to that +worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and +black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; +over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with +blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and +red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is +accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one +above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs, +the married women black. A little to the N. of Fonni, by the +high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in +the <i>Antonine Itinerary</i> as situated 87 m. from Carales on the +road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the +discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three +sides of a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of +baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above +them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips +(F. Vivanet, in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while +a discharge certificate (<i>tabula honestae missionis</i>) of sailors +who had served in the <i>classis Ravennas</i> was found in some +ruins here or hereabouts (<i>id. ib.</i>, 1882, 440; T. Mommsen, +<i>Corp. inscr. Lat.</i> x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several +“menhirs” (called <i>pietre celtiche</i> in the district) and other +prehistoric remains.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONSAGRADA,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province +of Lugo; 25 m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302. +Fonsagrada is situated 3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed +between the rivers Rodil and Suarna. It is an important market +for all kinds of agricultural produce, and manufactures linen and +frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing to the mountainous +character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a railway or +navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any +considerable export trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1892), first +president of the united states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas +on the 5th of August 1827, being the third son of Lieut.-Colonel +Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He was educated at +the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained the rank +of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864 +against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez, +dictator of Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and +before the close of the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel, +and some years later that of general of division. After holding +several military commands, he was appointed in 1886 governor +of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In this position he threw +himself heartily into politics, espoused the republican opinions +then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their exponents with +his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the government +at the close of the year removed him from his post, and recalled +him to the capital as director of the service of army material. +Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage +insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed +him from office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the +viscount de Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of +the military officers’ political rights. From that time his influence +was supreme in the army. In December 1888, when the Conservative +Correa d’Oliveira became prime minister, Fonseca was +appointed to command an army corps on the frontier of Matto +Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a +dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to +the chamber of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in +September. Divisions of opinion soon arose within the Liberal +party on the question of provincial autonomy. The more +extreme desired the inauguration of a complete federal system. +Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the journalist +and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to +head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection +broke out on the 15th of November 1889. The government +commander, Almeida Barreto, hastened to place himself +under Fonseca’s orders, and the soldiers and sailors made +common cause with the insurgents. The affair was almost +bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being the +only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn +the ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican, +leaders and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government +was constituted by the army and navy in the name of the nation, +with Fonseca at its head. The council was abolished, and both +the senate and the chamber of deputies were dissolved. The +emperor was requested to leave the territory of Brazil within +twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of November was embarked +on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a decree of +banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So +universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt +at armed resistance. The provisional government exercised +dictatorial powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891 +Fonseca was elected president of the republic. He was, however, +no politician, and possessed indeed little ability beyond the art +of acquiring popularity. His tenure of office was short. In +May he became involved in an altercation with congress, and in +November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond his +constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule insurrection +broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of +November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office. +From that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de +Janeiro on the 23rd of August 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONSECA,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> <span class="sc">Amapala</span> or <span class="sc">Conchagua</span>, <b>BAY OF,</b> an inlet of the +Pacific Ocean in the volcanic region between the Central American +republics of Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is +unsurpassed in extent and security by any other harbour on +the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest length, by about +30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea about +18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita +and Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called “Los Farellones,” +divide the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient +depth for the largest vessels. A channel called “El Estero +Real” extends from the extreme southern point of the bay into +Nicaragua for about 50 m., reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake +Managua. The principal islands in the bay are Sacate Grande, +Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to Honduras, +and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri +belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest, +being about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its +position is the most important in the bay, being about 20 m. +in circumference, and rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft. +On the southern and eastern shores of the island the lava forms +black rocky barriers to the waves, varying in height from 10 +to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward are a number +of <i>playas</i> or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the most +considerable of these is the port of Amapala (<i>q.v.</i>). Fonseca +Bay was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named +by him after his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable +enemy of Columbus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONT<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fons</i>, “fountain” or “spring,” Ital. <i>fonte</i>, Fr. +<i>les fonts</i>), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for +Christian baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered +at rivers or natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no +doubt the primitive form of the rite was by <i>immersion</i> in the +water. <i>Infusion</i>—pouring water on the head of the neophyte—was +early introduced into the west and north of Europe on +account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its occasional +danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental +churches. <i>Aspersion</i>, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid, +but recorded early examples of its use are rare (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baptism</a></span>). +These different modes of administering baptism have caused +corresponding changes in the receptacles for the water. After +the cessation of persecution, when ritual and ornament began +to develop openly, special buildings were erected for administering +the rite of baptism. This was obviously necessary, for a large +<i>piscina</i> (basin or tank) in which candidates could be immersed +would occupy too much space of the church floor itself. These +baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an ascent of +three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but not +the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baptistery</a></span>).</p> + +<p>By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries +had generally given place to that of fonts. The material of +which these were made was stone, often decorative marble; +as early as 524, however, the council of Lerida enacted that if a +stone font were not procurable the presbyter was to provide +a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament exclusively, which +might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the font +never became an important decorative article of church furniture: +“The font, <span class="grk" title="kolumbêthra">κολυμβήθρα</span> (says Neale, <i>Eastern Church</i>, i. 214), in +the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in +the West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the +font seldom or never possesses any beauty. The material is +usually either metal or wood. In Russia the <i>columbethra</i> is +movable and only brought out when wanted.”</p> + +<p>One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by +Anastasius in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been +presented thereto by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry, +overlaid with silver inside and out. In the middle were two +porphyry pillars carrying a golden dish, on which burnt the +Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick and fed with balsam). +On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with silver statues +of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags poured +out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional; +the majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine +early Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed, +at Beer-Sheba.</p> + +<p>Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These +are all of stone, except a few of lead; much less common are +fonts of cast bronze (a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the +Church of St Barthélemy, Liége). The most ancient are plain +cylindrical bowls, with a circular—sometimes cruciform or +quatrefoil—outline to the basin, either without support or with +a single central pillar; occasionally there is more than one pillar. +The basins are usually lined with lead to prevent absorption +by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh, possesses +an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the +circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not +infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone +is found. Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon; +hexagons are even less common, and pentagons very rare. +There is a pentagonal font of this period at Cabourg, dept. +Calvados, N. France.</p> + +<p>Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief. +Arcading and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and +pictorial representation. A very remarkable leaden font is +preserved at Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in +the life of Christ. At Pont-à-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs +of St John the Baptist preaching, and baptizing Christ. +Caryatides sometimes take the place of the pillars, and sculptured +animals and grotesques of strange design not infrequently +form the base. More remarkable is the occasional persistence +of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very ancient +font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian +symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor +(see G. Stephens’ brochure, <i>Thunor the Thunderer</i>).</p> + +<p>In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A +very remarkable example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim +in Hanover, resting on four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase +from which water is running (typical of the rivers of Paradise). +Above is an inscription explaining the connexion of these rivers +with the virtues of temperance, courage, justice and prudence. +On the sides of the cup are representations of the passage of the +Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the Virgin +and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with +bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and +Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures +of Our Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles, +exists at Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters +inscribed upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries +octagonal fonts became the rule. They are delicately ornamented +with mouldings and similar decorations, in the contemporary +style of Gothic architectural art. Though the basin is usually +circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are not infrequently +found in which the outline of the basin follows the octagonal +shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this type +are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.</p> + +<p>In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the +Norman conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude +examples, such as those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton, +Sussex, are actually of Saxon times; of course we cannot count +as “Saxon fonts” those adapted from pre-Norman sculptured +stones originally designed for other purposes, such as that at +Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are very +common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman +parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain, +but generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage, +&c. Among good examples that might be instanced of this +period are Alphington, Devon (inverted cone, without foot); +Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on caryatides); Ilam, Staffs +(cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale, Sculthorpe, +Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the last, +remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a +projecting stoup in the side for the chrism—a unique detail); +besides others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden, +Kent; Coleshill, Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome, +Herefordshire. Some of the best examples of “Norman” +fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in Winchester +cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the +Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font +at Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden +fonts that remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +Gloucestershire, 4 in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford +and Sussex, 1 in Derby, Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and +Wiltshire); perhaps the finest examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire, +and Walton, Surrey. Early English fonts are comparatively +rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth +ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of +an Early English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be +seen at St Giles’, Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the +Decorated period are commoner, but not so frequent as those of +the preceding Norman or subsequent Perpendicular periods. +Fonts of the Perpendicular period are very common, and are +generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem, which, together with +the body of the font, are frequently richly ornamented with +panelling. It was also the custom during this period to ornament +the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic +insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however, +are as a rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular +work, are stiff and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable +font, with sculptured figures, belonging to the late 14th century, +at West Drayton in Middlesex.</p> + +<p>In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal +children of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544 +by Sir R. Lea, and given by him to the church at St Albans, +but was afterwards destroyed by the Puritans. A silver font +existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes brought to Westminster +on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham, +Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the +16th century. The only existing structure at all recalling the +ancient baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in +Bedfordshire. The font at Luton belongs to the Decorated +style, and is enclosed in an octagonal structure of freestone, +consisting of eight pillars about 25 ft. in height, supporting a +canopy. The space around the font is large enough to hold +twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a vessel +for containing the consecrated water, which when required was +let down into the font by means of a pipe.</p> + +<p>In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, +that baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a +precaution against sorcery:—“Fontes baptismales sub sera +clausi teneantur propter sortilegia.” The lids appear at first to +have been quite simple and flat. They gradually, however, +partook of the ornamentation of the font itself, and are often +of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated with finials, +crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers are +very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be +raised at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme, +Oxon; St Gregory, Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk; +Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary position of the font in +the church was and is near the entrance, usually to the left of +the south door.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Arcisse de Caumont, <i>Cours d’antiquités monumentales</i> (Paris, +1830-1843); Francis Simpson, <i>A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts</i> +(London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dict. +raisonné de l’architecture</i> (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker’s <i>Glossary +of Architecture</i>; Francis Bond, <i>Fonts and Font-Covers</i> (London, 1908). +A large number of fine illustrations of fonts, principally of the earlier +periods, will be found in the volumes of the <i>Reliquary</i> and <i>Illustrated +Archaeologist</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1762-1853), +French architect, was born at Pontoise on the 20th of September +1762. He came of a family several of whose members had distinguished +themselves as architects. Leaving the college of +Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to L’Isle-Adam to +assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect André. +To facilitate his improvement André allowed him to have access +to his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was +sent to Paris to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and +there began his acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into +a life-long friendship. After six years of study he competed +for a prize at the Academy, and, winning the second for the plan +of an underground chapel, he received a pension and was sent +to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The Revolution +breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge in +England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was +employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by +the painter, David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth +he was fully engaged in the principal architectural works +executed in Paris as architect successively to Napoleon I., +Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe. In conjunction with Percier +(till his death) he was employed on the arch of the Carrousel, +the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand staircase of the +Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the Louvre and +the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the Academy +of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the +emperor. With Percier he published the following works—<i>Palais</i>, +<i>maisons</i>, <i>et autres édifices de Rome moderne</i> (1802); +<i>Descriptions de cérémonies et de fêtes</i> (1807 and 1810); <i>Recueil +de décorations intérieures</i> (1812); <i>Choix des plus célèbres maisons +de plaisance de Rome et des environs</i> (1809-1813); <i>Résidences +des souverains, Parallèle</i> (1833). <i>L’histoire du Palais-Royal</i> was +published by Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and +associate, in 1838, and himself died in Paris on the 10th of +October 1853.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTAINEBLEAU<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, a town of northern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E. +of Paris on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau, +a town of clean, wide and well-built streets, stands in the +midst of the forest of Fontainebleau, nearly 2 m. from the left +bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the Tambour mansion, and +a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of Ferrara, +both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the +palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of +General Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a +monument to President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau +is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first +instance and a communal college. The school of practical +artillery and engineering was transferred to Fontainebleau from +Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part of the palace +surrounding the cour des offices.</p> + +<p>Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills, +and manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are +grown in the vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort, +and during the season the president of the Republic frequently +resides in the palace. This famous building, one of the largest, +and in the interior one of the most sumptuous, of the royal +residences of France, lies immediately to the south-east of the +town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by buildings, +extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du +Cheval Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting +scene between Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour +de la Fontaine, the Cour Ovale, built on the site of a more +ancient château, and the Cour d’ Henri IV.: the smaller Cour +des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the Cour Ovale. The +exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. <i>Fons Bleaudi</i>) +are equally unknown, but the older château was used in the +latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas +Becket to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued +a favourite residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The +creator of the present edifice was Francis I., under whom the +architect Gilles le Breton erected most of the buildings of the +Cour Ovale, including the Porte Dorée, its southern entrance, +and the Salle des Fêtes, which, in the reign of Henry II., was +decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio and Nicolo +dell’ Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber in +France. The Galerie de François I. and the lower storey of the +left wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same +architect, who also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin. +In the same reign the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the +Chapelle de la Ste Trinité and the Galerie d’Ulysse, destroyed +and rebuilt under Louis XV., was constructed by Pierre +Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes most to Henry +IV., to whom are due the Cour d’ Henri IV., the Cour des Princes, +with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs, used +as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase +in the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +on works of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and +Napoleon III. devoted considerable sums to the same end. The +palace is surrounded by gardens and ornamental waters—to the +north the Jardin de l’Orangerie, to the south the Jardin Anglais +and the Parterre, between which extends the lake known as the +Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large numbers. A space +of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered by the park, +which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of Henry IV. +On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine +white grapes.</p> + +<p><i>Forest of Fontainebleau.</i>—The forest of Fontainebleau is one +of the most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations +it has been the chosen haunt of French landscape painters. +Among the most celebrated spots are the Vallée de la Solle, +the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de Franchard and d’Apremont, +and the Fort l’Empereur. The whole area extends to 42,200 +acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter of this +area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone supplied +a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech, hornbeam +and birch are the chief varieties of trees.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical +events which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the +Fair, Henry III. and Louis XIII. were all born in the palace, +and the first of these kings died there. James V. of Scotland +was there received by his intended bride; and Charles V. of +Germany was entertained there in 1539. Christina of Sweden +lived there for years, and the gallery is still to be seen where in +1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to death. +In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of +the edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the +great Condé. In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests +in Peter the Great of Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark; +and in the early part of the 19th century it was twice the residence +of Pius VII.,—in 1804 when he came to consecrate the emperor +Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his prisoner.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pfnor, <i>Monographie de Fontainebleau</i>, with text by Champollion +Figeac (Paris, 1866); <i>Guide artistique et historique au palais +de Fontainebleau</i> (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, <i>Recherches sur Fontainebleau</i> +(Fontainebleau, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1801-1839), French man of letters, +was born at Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began +his career as a clerk in a government office, but was dismissed +for taking part in a political banquet. At the age of nineteen +he went to Paris and began to contribute to the <i>Tablettes</i> and +the <i>Album</i>. He was brought to trial for political articles written +for the latter paper, but defended himself so energetically that +he secured the indefinite postponement of his case. The offending +paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a collection +of political poems, <i>Odes et épîtres</i>, and a number of plays, of +which <i>Perkins Warbec</i> (1828), written in collaboration with +MM. Halévy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828 +the <i>Album</i> was revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent +but witty attack on Charles X., entitled <i>Le Mouton enragé</i> +(20th June 1829). To escape the inevitable prosecution Fontan +fled over the frontier, but, finding no safe asylum, he returned +to Paris to give himself up to the authorities, and was sentenced +to five years’ imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was liberated +by the revolution of 1830, and his <i>Jeanne la folle</i>, performed in +the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to sympathy +with the author’s political principles than to the merits of the +piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton +history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which +he wrote in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, <i>Le Procès d’un +maréchal de France</i> (printed 1831), was suppressed on the +night of its production. Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of +October 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis +of his principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin’s <i>Histoire de la +littérature dramatique</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, DOMENICO<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1543-1607), Italian architect and +mechanician, was born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in +1543. After a good training in mathematics, he went in 1563 +to join his elder brother, then studying architecture at Rome. +He made rapid progress, and was taken into the service of +Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in the church of +Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the cardinal’s +pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana +volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense. +The cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of +Sixtus V., he immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect. +Amongst the works executed by him were the Lateran palace, +the palace of Monte Cavallo (the Quirinal), the Vatican library, +&c. But the undertaking which brought Fontana the highest +repute was the removal of the great Egyptian obelisk, which +had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from the place +where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in front +of St Peter’s he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus +V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation +of public moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his +post (1592). This appears to have been just in time to save +the Colosseum from being converted by Fontana into a huge +cloth factory, according to a project of Sixtus V. Fontana was +then called to Naples, and accepted the appointment of architect +to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples he built the +royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a new +harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only +literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the +obelisk (Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was +honoured with a public funeral in the church of Santa Anna. +His plan for a new harbour at Naples was carried out only after +his death. His son Giulio Cesare succeeded him as royal architect +in Naples, the university of that town being his best-known +building.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, LAVINIA<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter, +was the daughter of Prospero Fontana (<i>q.v.</i>). She was greatly +employed by the ladies of Bologna, and, going thence to Rome, +painted the likenesses of many illustrious personages, being under +the particular patronage of the family (Buoncampagni) of Pope +Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman ladies, from the +days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in 1605, showed +no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had done; +and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits, +often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works +of a different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness. +Among the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum; +the “Virgin lifting a veil from the sleeping infant Christ,” in the +Escorial; and the “Queen of Sheba visiting Solomon.” Her +own portrait in youth—she was accounted very beautiful—was +perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts Zappi of +Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband, +whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the +draperies in many of Lavinia’s pictures. She is deemed on the +whole a better painter than her father; from him naturally +came her first instruction, but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque +style, with strong quasi-Venetian colouring. She was +elected into the Academy of Rome, and died in that city in 1614.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, PROSPERO<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1512-1597), Italian painter, was +born in Bologna, and became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola. +He afterwards worked for Vasari and Perino del Vaga. It was +probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a practice of offhand, +self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of commissions, +and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few +weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Città di Castello. +Along with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works +of parade he attained a certain measure of success, although his +drawing was incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs +to the degenerate period of the Bolognese school, under the +influence chiefly of the imitators of Raphael—Sabbatini, Sammachini +and Passerotti being three of his principal colleagues. +His soundest successes were in portraiture, in which branch of +art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo introduced +him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was +pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court +with the three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand +scale, and figured as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +professional brethren. Returning to Bologna, after doing some +work in Fontainebleau and in Genoa, he opened a school of art, +in which he became the preceptor of Lodovico and Agostino +Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as reformers and +innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue of +Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane +history and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in +Bologna,—the picture of the “Adoration of the Magi,” in the +church of S. Maria delle Grazie, being considered his masterpiece—not +unlike the style of Paul Veronese. He died in Rome in +1597.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTANE, THEODOR<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1819-1898), German poet and novelist, +was born at Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At +the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a chemist, and after +qualifying as an apothecary, he found employment in Leipzig +and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in England, and settling +in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature. He made +repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English +ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published <i>Ein Sommer +in London</i> (1854); <i>Aus England, Studien und Briefe</i> (1860) and +<i>Jenseit des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland</i> (1860). +Fontane was particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg, +in which his home lay; he was proud of its past achievements, +and delighted in the growth of the capital city, Berlin. The +fascination which the country of his birth had for him may be +seen in his delightfully picturesque <i>Wanderungen durch die Mark +Brandenburg</i> (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the wars of +Prussia in <i>Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864</i> (1866) +and <i>Der deutsche Krieg von 1866</i> (1869). He proceeded to the +theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs, +remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates +in <i>Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870</i> (1871), and he published the +result of his observations of the campaign in <i>Der Krieg gegen +Frankreich 1870-71</i> (1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries, +he at first sought inspiration for his poetry in the heroes +of other countries. His <i>Gedichte</i> (1851) and ballads <i>Manner und +Helden</i> (1860) tell of England’s glories in bygone days. Then the +achievements of his own countrymen entered into rivalry, and +these, as an ardent patriot, he immortalized in poem and narrative. +It is, however, as a novelist that Fontane is best known. +His fine historical romance <i>Vor dem Sturm</i> (1878) was followed +by a series of novels of modern life: <i>L’Adultera</i> (1882); <i>Schach +von Wuthenow</i> (1883); <i>Irrungen, Wirrungen</i> (1888); <i>Stine</i> (1890); +<i>Unwiederbringlich</i> (1891); <i>Effi Briest</i> (1895); <i>Der Stechlin</i> (1899), +in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the realistic +methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to +the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September +1898 at Berlin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fontane’s <i>Gesammelte Romane und Erzählungen</i> were published in +12 vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the autobiographical +works <i>Meine Kinderjahre</i> (1894) and <i>Von zwanzig bis +dreissig</i> (1898), also <i>Briefe an seine Familie</i> (1905); also F. Servaes, +<i>Theodor Fontane</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTANES, LOUIS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1821), French poet and +politician, was born at Niort (Deux Sèvres) on the 6th of March +1757. He belonged to a noble Protestant family of Languedoc +which had been reduced to poverty by the revocation of the edict +of Nantes. His father and grandfather remained Protestant, +but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His parents died +in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he +found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published +poems, some of which were inspired by English models, appeared +in the <i>Almanack des Muses</i>; “Le Cri de mon cœur,” describing +his own sad childhood, in 1778; and “La Forêt de Navarre” +in 1780. His translation from Alexander Pope, <i>L’Essai sur +l’homme</i>, was published with an elaborate preface in 1783, and +<i>La Chartreuse</i> and <i>Le Jour des morts</i> in the same year, +<i>Le Verger</i> in 1788 and his <i>Épître sur l’édit en faveur des +non-catholiques</i>, and the <i>Essai sur l’astronomie</i> in 1789. +Fontanes was a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became +joint-editor of the <i>Modérateur</i>. He married at Lyons in 1792, +and his wife’s first child was born during their flight from the +siege of that town. Fontanes was in hiding in Paris when the four +citizens of Lyons were sent to the Convention to protest against +the cruelties of Collot d’Herbois. The petition was drawn up +by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered, he fled from +Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and afterwards +at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor +of literature in the École Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he +was one of the original members of the Institute. In the +<i>Mémorial</i>, a journal edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated +reaction to the monarchical principle. He was exiled by the +Directory and made his way to London, where he was closely +associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to France, +and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to +write an <i>éloge</i> on Washington, secured his return to the Institute +and his political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative +chamber, of which he was president from 1804 to 1810. +Other honours and titles followed. He has been accused of +servility to Napoleon, but he had the courage to remonstrate +with him on the judicial murder of the due d’Enghien, and as +grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he consistently +supported religious and monarchical principles. He +acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis +in 1817. He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving +eight cantos of an unfinished epic poem entitled <i>La Grèce sauvée</i>.</p> + +<p>The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of +the 18th century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve +edited the <i>Œuvres</i> (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic +critical study of the author and his career. But by +that time the Romantic movement was in the ascendant and +Fontanes met with small appreciation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a town of western France, capital +of an arrondissement in the department of Vendée 30 m. N.E. +of La Rochelle on the State railway between that town and +Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639; commune, 10,326. Fontenay, +an ancient and straggling town, is situated a few miles south of +the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the Vendée, at the +point where it becomes navigable. The church of Notre-Dame +(15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly +sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th +and 17th centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town +has several houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most +remarkable of these is the Hôtel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600), +which contains much rich decoration together with collections +of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay was the birthplace of many +prominent men during the 15th and 16th centuries, and the +Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the Renaissance style, +given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates the fact. +The chief square is named after François Viète, the great +mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public +institutions of the town include a tribunal of first instance and +a communal college. Among its industries are the manufacture +of felt hats, oil and soap and timber-sawing, flour-milling and +tanning. There is trade in horses, mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c.</p> + +<p>Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls. +The affix of “comte” is said to have been applied to it when it +was taken by King Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and +given to his brother Alphonse, count of Poitou, under whom +it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to the English by the +treaty of Brétigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by Duguesclin. +It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of the +16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both +by the republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From +1790 to 1806 it was capital of the department of Vendée.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1657-1757), +French author, was born at Rouen, on the 11th of February +1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of January 1757, having +thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His father was +an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two +Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his +native city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary +precocity and versatility of his talents. His teachers, who +readily appreciated these, were anxious for him to join their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span> +order, but his father had designed him for the bar, and an +advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost the first +cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and +gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was +first directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for +prizes of the French Academy, but never with success. He +visited Paris from time to time and established intimate relations +with the abbé de Saint Pierre, the abbé Vertot and the mathematician +Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in 1680, the total +failure of his tragedy <i>Aspar</i>. Fontenelle afterwards acknowledged +the justice of the public verdict by burning his unfortunate +drama. His opera of <i>Thétis et Pélée</i>, 1689, though highly praised +by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and +it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic +works not one has kept the stage. His <i>Poésies pastorales</i> +(1688) have no greater claim to permanent repute, being characterized +by stiffness and affectation; and the utmost that can +be said for his poetry in general is that it displays much of the +<i>limae labor</i>, great purity of diction and occasional felicity of +expression.</p> + +<p>His <i>Lettres galantes du chevalier d’Her</i> ..., published +anonymously in 1685, was an amusing collection of stories that +immediately made its mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of +Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised as the rival princesses +Mreo and Eenegu, in the <i>Relation de l’île de Bornéo</i>, gave proof +of his daring in religious matters. But it was by his <i>Nouveaux +Dialogues des morts</i> (1683) that Fontenelle established a genuine +claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three +years later by the appearance of the <i>Entretiens sur la pluralité +des mondes</i> (1686), a work which was among the very first +to illustrate the possibility of being scientific without being +either uninteresting or unintelligible to the ordinary reader. +His object was to popularize among his countrymen the astronomical +theories of Descartes; and it may well be doubted if +that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or successful +expositor among his disciples.</p> + +<p>Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687 +he removed to Paris; and in the same year he published his +<i>Histoire des oracles</i>, a book which made a considerable stir in +theological and philosophical circles. It consisted of two essays, +the first of which was designed to prove that oracles were not +given by the supernatural agency of demons, and the second +that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It excited the +suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus, published +a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition +of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered. +To the following year (1688) belongs his <i>Digression sur les +anciens et les modernes</i>, in which he took the modern side in +the controversy then raging; his <i>Doutes sur le système physique +des causes occasionnelles</i> (against Malebranche) appeared shortly +afterwards.</p> + +<p>In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of +the determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this +quarrel, especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous +occasions had secured his rejection. He consequently was +admitted a member both of the Academy of Inscriptions and of +the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he became perpetual +secretary to the latter body. This office he actually held for +the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official +capacity that he wrote the <i>Histoire du renouvellement de l’Académie +des Sciences</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts +and analyses of the proceedings, and also the <i>éloges</i> of the members, +written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best +known of his <i>éloges</i>, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that +of his uncle Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the +<i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i> (January 1685) and, as +<i>Vie de Corneille</i>, was included in all the editions of Fontenelle’s +<i>Œuvres</i>. The other important works of Fontenelle are his +<i>Élements de la géometrie de l’infini</i> (1727) and his <i>Apologie des +tourbillons</i> (1752). Fontenelle forms a link between two very +widely different periods of French literature, that of Corneille, +Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and that of Voltaire, +D’Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in virtue of his +great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually had +much in common with the <i>beaux esprits</i> of the 17th century, as +well as with the <i>philosophes</i> of the 18th. But it is to the latter +rather than to the former period that he properly belongs.</p> + +<p>He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve +has said, he well deserves a place “<i>dans la classe des +esprits infiniment distingués</i>”—distinguished, however, it ought +to be added by intelligence rather than by intellect, and less +by the power of saying much than by the power of saying a little +well. In personal character he has sometimes been described +as having been revoltingly heartless; and it is abundantly +plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling strongly the +more generous emotions—a misfortune, or a fault, which revealed +itself in many ways. “<i>Il faut avoir de l’âme pour avoir du goût.</i>” +But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken +too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the +esteem of many friends suffices to show that the theoretical +selfishness which he sometimes professed cannot have been +consistently and at all times carried into practice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle’s works, +the first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The +best is that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate +works have been very frequently reprinted and also translated. +The <i>Pluralité des mondes</i> was translated into modern Greek in 1794. +Sainte-Beuve has an interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several +useful references, in the <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. iii. See also Villemain, +<i>Tableau de la littérature française au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; the abbé +Trublet, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la vie et des ouvrages +de M. de Fontenelle</i> (1759); A. Laborde-Milaà, <i>Fontenelle</i> (1905), +in the “Grands écrivains français” series; and L. Maigron, +<i>Fontenelle, l’homme, l’œuvre, l’influence</i> (Paris, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTENOY,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, +about 4 m. S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of +Fontenoy, in which on the 11th of May 1745 the French army +under Marshal Saxe defeated the Anglo-Allied army under the +duke of Cumberland. The object of the French (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austrian Succession, War of the</a></span>) was to cover the siege +of the then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies, +who slowly advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed +of the impending attack, Louis XV., with the dauphin, came +with all speed to witness the operations, and by his presence to +give Saxe, who was in bad health and beset with private enemies, +the support necessary to enable him to command effectively. +Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal Königsegg, +and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of Waldeck.</p> + +<p>The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river +at Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between +Antoing and Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed, +and Fontenoy itself was put in a complete state of defence. On +the left rear of this line, and separated from Fontenoy by some +furlongs of open ground, another redoubt was made at the corner +of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain. The infantry +was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy +redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood; +behind them was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were +guarded by a mounted volunteer corps called <i>Grassins</i>. At +Calonne the marshal had constructed three military bridges +against the contingency of a forced retreat. The force of the +French was about 60,000 of all arms, not including 22,000 left +in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself, who was +suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to + mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the +troops. At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian +army with the Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vézon, +facing towards Fontenoy and the wood, while the Dutch on their +left extended the general line to Péronne. The total force was +46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe could actually put into +the line of battle.</p> + +<p>The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Königsegg and +Waldeck on the 10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary +skirmish had cleared the broken ground immediately about +Vézon and revealed a part of the defender’s dispositions. It was +resolved that the Dutch should attack the front Antoing-Fontenoy, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span> +while Cumberland should deliver a flank attack +against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground +between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round +the wood was projected but had to be given up, as in the late +evening of the 10th the Allies’ light cavalry drew fire from its +southern edge. Cumberland then ordered his cavalry commander +to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to cover the formation of +the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another and most +important modification had to be made. The advance was +beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became +visible. Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby +(major and brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and +an artillery detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing +its fire with that of Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the +development of the flank attack. At 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the brigade moved +off, but it was irresolutely handled and halted time after time; +and after waiting as long as possible, the British and Hanoverian +cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and extended +in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious cannonade +which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir +John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were +to have covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns +of the Dutch towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward +through the lanes, each unit on reaching open ground +covering the exit and deployment of the one in rear, all under the +French cannonade. This went on for two hours, and save that +it showed the magnificent discipline of the British and Hanoverian +regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack. Cumberland’s +own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the +Guards’ Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed +Antoine Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Françaises, +and another Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe’s artillery +commander.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:518px; height:608px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img610.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">It was now 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and while the guns from the wood redoubt +battered the upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby’s brigade was +huddled together, motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself +galloped thither, and under his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the +last remnants of self-possession. To Sir John Ligonier’s aide-de-camp, +who delivered soon afterwards a bitterly formal order +to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the duke’s orders +were for him to advance in line with Ligonier’s main body. +By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had +collapsed.</p> + +<p>But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together +had roused a stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the +men they led. Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the +Hanoverian general Zastrow, gave up the right attack and +brought his battalions into the main body. A second halfhearted +attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by some Dutch +troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of these +battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland +regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own +accord. Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal +had agreed to take all risks and to storm through +between Fontenoy and the wood redoubt, and had launched the +great attack, one of the most celebrated in the history of war. +The English infantry was in two lines. The Hanoverians on +their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to file into third +line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were the +battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn, +accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry +followed. The column may have numbered 14,000 infantry. +All the infantry battalions closed on their centre, the normal +three ranks becoming six. If the proper distances between lines +were preserved, the mass must have formed an oblong about +500 yds × 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).</p> + +<p>The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the +front line and gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade +order, drums beating and colours flying, the mass advanced, +straight up the gentle slope, which was swept everywhere by +the flanking artillery of the defence. Then, when the first line +reached the low crest on the ends of which stood the French +artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full enfilade +from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy’s horse and +foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the +front gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to +avoid the fire. Then the French advanced, and the Guards +Brigade and the Gardes Françaises met face to face. Captain +Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760), lieutenant of the First (Grenadier) +Guards, suddenly ran in front of the line, took off his hat to the +enemy and drank to them from a pocket flask, shouting a taunt, +“We hope you will stand till we come up to you, and not swim +the river as you did at Dettingen,” then, turning to his own men, +he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers +returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether +or not the French, as legend states, were asked and refused to +fire first, the whole British line fired one tremendous series of +volleys by companies. 50 officers and 760 men of the three +foremost French regiments fell at once, and at so appalling a +loss the remnant broke and fled. Three hundred paces farther +on stood the second line of the French, and slowly the mass +advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the +French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept +the crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up, +the assailants were practically in square and repelled various +partial attacks coming from all sides. The Régiment du Roi +lost 33 officers and 345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream) +Guards. But these counter-attacks gained a few +precious minutes for the French. It was the crisis of the battle. +The king, though the court meditated flight, stood steady with +the dauphin at his side,—Fontenoy was the one great day of +Louis XV.’s life,—and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to +collect his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians +were now at a standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes +were repulsed, but no progress was made; their cavalry was unable +to get to the front, and Saxe was by now thinking of victory. +Captain Isnard of the Touraine regiment suggested artillery to +batter the face of the square, preparatory to a final charge. +General Löwendahl galloped up to Saxe, crying, “This is a great +day for the king; they will never escape!” The nearest guns +were planted in front of the assailants, and used with effect. +The infantry, led by Löwendahl, fastened itself on the sides of +the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +Irish Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting +for the cannon to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie +and all the light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of +Richelieu and count d’Estrées. The left wing of the Allies was +still inactive, and troops were brought up from Antoing and +Fontenoy to support the final blow. About 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> it was delivered, +and in eight minutes the square was broken. As the +infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn groups the +French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts +to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and +they regained the broken ground about Vézon, whence they had +come. Cumberland himself and all the senior generals remained +with the rearguard.</p> + +<p>The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat +less than normally heavy when distributed over the whole of +both armies, but exceedingly severe in the units really engaged. +Eight out of nineteen regiments of British infantry lost over +200 men, two of these more than 300. A tribute to the loyalty +and discipline of the British, as compared with the generality +of armies in those days, may be found in the fact that the three +Guards’ regiments had no “missing” men whatever. The 23rd +(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Böschlanger’s +Hanoverian regiment suffered even more heavily, and four +others of that nation had 200 or more casualties. The total +loss was about 7500, that of the French 7200. The French +“Royal” regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men; some other +regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch +lost a bare 7% of their strength.</p> + +<p>Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the +Prussian Guards at St Privat is to-day, <i>a locus classicus</i> for military +theorists. But the technical features of the battle are completely +overshadowed by its epic interest, and above all it illustrates +the permanent and unchangeable military characteristics of the +British and French nations.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FONTEVRAULT,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fontevraud</span> (Lat. <i>Fons Ebraldi</i>), a +town of western France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, +10 m. S.E. of Saumur by road and 2½ m. from the confluence of +the Loire and Vienne. Pop. (1906) 1279. It is situated in the +midst of the forest of Fontevrault. The interest of the place +centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has been utilized and abused +as a central house of detention for convicts. The church (12th +century), of which only the choir and apse are appropriated to +divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by four +cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the +crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of +Henry II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard +I. of England and of Isabella of Angoulême, wife of John of +England—Eleanor’s being of oak and the rest of stone. The +cloister, refectory and chapter-house date from the 16th century. +The second court of the abbey contains a remarkable building, +the Tour d’Évrault (12th century), which long went under the +misnomer of <i>chapelle funéraire</i>, but was in reality the old kitchen. +Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc’s <i>Dictionnaire +de l’architecture</i>. There are three stories, the whole being +surmounted by a pyramidal structure.</p> + +<p>The <i>Order of Fontevrault</i> was founded about 1100 by Robert +of Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec, +in the diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher +and ascetic. The establishment was a double monastery, +containing a nunnery of 300 nuns and a monastery of 200 monks, +separated completely so that no communication was allowed +except in the church, where the services were carried on in +common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers and +other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by +the nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the +observance of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency. +The special feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled +the monks as well as the nuns. At the beginning the order had +a great vogue, and at the time of Robert’s death, 1117, there +were several monasteries and 3000 nuns; afterwards the number +of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the same plan. The +institute never throve out of France; there were attempts to +introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were +three houses—at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton, +and Westwood in Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in +France were recruited from the highest families, and the abbess +of Fontevrault, who was the superior-general of the whole order, +was usually of the royal family of France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Hélyot, <i>Hist, des ordres religieuses</i> (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13; +Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1907), i. 46; the arts. +“Fontevrauld” in Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2), and +in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), supply full references +to the literature. The most recent monograph is Édouard, <i>Fontevrault +et ses monuments</i> (1875); for the later history see art. by +Edmund Bishop in <i>Downside Review</i> (1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOD<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (like the verb “to feed,” from a Teutonic root, whence +O. Eng. <i>foda</i>; cf. “fodder”; connected with Gr. <span class="grk" title="pateiothai">πατεῖσθαι</span>, +to feed), the general term for what is eaten by man and other +creatures for the sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of +human food is dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutrition</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Infancy.</i>—The influence of a normal diet upon the health of +man (we exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must +depend on the abnormal conditions existing) begins at the +earliest stage of his life. No food has as yet been found so suitable +for the young of all animals as their mother’s milk. This, however, +has not been from want of seeking. Dr Brouzet (<i>Sur l’éducation +médicinale des enfants</i>, i. p. 165) had such a bad opinion of human +mothers, that he expressed a wish for the state to interfere and +prevent them from suckling their children, lest they should +communicate immorality and disease! A still more determined +pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who thought +life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn +propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer +and honey for milk, which latter he calls “brute’s food.” Baron +Justus von Liebig, as the result of his chemical researches, +introduced a “food for infants,” which in more modern days +has been followed by a multiplication of patent foods. A close +imitation of human milk may also be made by the addition to +fresh cow’s milk of half its bulk of soft water, in each pint of +which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of powdered +“sugar of milk” and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These +artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value +where for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food, +however, for the first six months is certainly mother’s milk alone. +A vigorous baby can indeed bear with impunity much rough +usage, and often appears none the worse for a certain quantity +of farinaceous food; but the majority do not get habituated to +it without an exhibition of dislike which indicates rebellion of +the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on their way to the +front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands secrete +an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then +anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered +in the light of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.</p> + +<p>The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child’s +age, partly by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth +nine times out of ten consists of the lower central front teeth, +which may appear any time during the sixth and seventh month. +The mother may then begin to diminish the number of suckling +times; and by a month she can have reduced them to twice +a day, so as to be ready when the second group makes its way +through the upper front gums to cut off the supply altogether. +The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders, usually +after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid food +can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a considerable +portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which +seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.</p> + +<p><i>Childhood and Youth.</i>—At this stage of life the diet must +obviously be the best which is a transition from that of infancy +to that of adult age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire +surrender of every consideration to the claim of growth is not +possible, nor indeed desirable. Moreover, that abundance of +adipose tissue, or reserve new growth, which a baby can bear +is an impediment to the due education of the muscles of the boy +or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so continuous as +before, but at the same time should be more frequent than for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule +should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in +nutritive power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate, +all sufficient. The maturity the body then reaches involves a +hardening and enlargement of the bones and cartilages, and a +strengthening of the digestive organs, which in healthy young +persons enables us to dispense with some of the watchful care +bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are generally +sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be +allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition +which has hitherto been paramount.</p> + +<p><i>Adults.</i>—It is only necessary here to refer to the article on +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vegetarianism</a></span>) for a discussion of the food +of normal adults; and to such headings as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietary</a></span> (for fixed +allowances) or <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cookery</a></span>. Different staple articles of food are +dealt with under their own headings. For animals other than +man see the respective articles on them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those +enumerated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span>, see Sir Henry Thompson’s <i>Foods and +Feeding</i> (1894); Hart’s <i>Diet in Sickness and Health</i> (1896); Knight, +<i>Food and its Functions</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOD PRESERVATION.<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> The preservation of food material +beyond the short term during which it naturally keeps sound and +eatable has engaged human thought from the earliest dawn of +civilization. Necessity compelled man to store the plenitude +of one season or place against the need of another. The hunter +dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man preserved +milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented grape-juice +into wine. With the separation of country from town, the +development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural +and food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man +from torrid to arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and +sea and of armies on the march, the problem of the prevention +of the natural decomposition to which nearly all food substances +are liable became increasingly urgent, and forms to-day, next +to the production of food, the most important problem in connexion +with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long as the +reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at preservation +were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless +processes which have during modern times been proposed and +attempted comparatively few have stood the test of experience. +In the light of modern knowledge, however, the guiding principles +appear to be very simple.</p> + +<p>Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it +were, of their own accord. They may lose water by evaporation, +and fatty substances may alter by the absorption of oxygen +from the air. They are otherwise quite stable and unchangeable +while not attacked and eaten up by living organisms, or while +the life with which they may be endowed is in a state of suspense. +An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its ripening change; +a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A substance, +in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under the +attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be +available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the +life be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower +organism. All decomposition of food is due to the development +within the food of living organisms. Under conditions under +which living organisms cannot enter or cannot develop food +keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length of time. The +problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore, into that +of keeping out or killing off all living things that might feed +upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly +belong to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food +preservation is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.</p> + +<p>The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily +intelligible when once their biological origin is recognized. +Yeasts cause the decomposition of saccharine substances into +alcohol and carbon dioxide, acetic and lactic ferments produce +from sugar or from alcohol the organic acids causing the souring +of food, moulds as a rule cause oxidation and complete destruction +of organic matter, nitrogenous or saccharine, while most +bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous constituents, producing +albumoses and peptones and breaking up the complex albumen-molecule +into numerous smaller molecules often allied to alkaloids, +generally with the production of evil-smelling gases. +These processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently +take place successively in the decomposition of food, one set of +organisms taking up the work of destruction as the conditions +become favourable to its development and unfavourable to its +predecessor. The organisms may come from the air, the soil +or from animal sources. The air teems with organisms which +settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable nidus; +the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life; +while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all +animals harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in +countless millions. Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed +to the air, or touched by the soil or by animals or man, +it becomes infected with living cells, which by their development +lead to its decomposition and destruction.</p> + +<p>Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals; +or their development may be arrested by cold, removal of water, +or by the presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not +destroying their life. All successful processes of food preservation +depend upon one or other of these circumstances.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation by Heat.</i>—At the boiling-point of water all living +cells perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about +three hours. Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75° C. (167° F.) +in the presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty +at 140° C. (284° F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly +in solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction; +hence acid fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which, +when quite fresh, is alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food +becomes temporarily sterile, until a fresh crop of organisms finds +access from the air. By repeated cooking all food can be indefinitely +preserved. One of the most important functions of +cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts +against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of +certain fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous +ages; few materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in +vegetables some sort of sterilizing process is attempted by +washing (of salads) or removal of the outer skin (of fruits). +All preparation of food for the table, cooking being the most +important, tends towards preservation, but is effectual only for +a few hours or days at most, unless special means are adopted +to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with +a thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin +layer of lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria +and other minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent +manner and on a commercial scale it has to be cooked in a +receptacle which must be sufficiently strong for transport, +cheap, light and unattacked by the material in contact with it. +None of the receptacles at present in use quite fulfils the whole +of these conditions: glass and china are heavy and fragile, and +their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called tin-plate, +is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to its +strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing +scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought +iron, now generally consists of steel containing but very little +carbon; it is cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a +very thin layer of pure tin, all excess of tin being removed by +hot rollers and brushes. The layer of tin, which formerly constituted +from 3 to 5% of the total weight of the plate, has, +owing to the increased price of tin and the improvement in +machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is only from +1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect, +perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid +juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception +of milk, all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all +food that has been preserved in tin canisters contains variable +traces of dissolved tin. Happily, salts of tin have but little +physiological action. Nevertheless, the employment cf tin-plate +for very acid materials, like tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very +objectionable.</p> + +<p>The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +follows:—The canister, which has been made either by the use +of solder or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material +to be preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the +interstices the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally +the former. Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in +pressure chambers, which are heated by steam to 120° C. or more. +The tins are exposed to that temperature for such time as +experience has shown to be necessary to heat the contents +throughout to at least 100° C. The temperature is then allowed +to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of water, when the +tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they are placed +in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride and +are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small +aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the +expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means +of a drop of solder. This process, which was originally introduced +by François Appert early in the 19th century, is employed +on an enormous scale, especially in America. The use of +lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the tin covered with +a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. Imperfect +sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development +within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and +drummy. More frequently than not the contents of the larger +tins, containing meat or other animal products, are not absolutely +sterile, but the conditions are mostly such that the organisms +which have survived the cooking process cannot develop. When +they can develop without formation of gas dangerous products +of decomposition may be produced without showing themselves +to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine poisoning +have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated +with preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no +class of preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine +formation. The formation of poisonous substances has never +been traced to preserved fruit or other material poor in nitrogen. +The mode of preserving food in china or glass is quite similar, +but the losses by breakage are not inconsiderable. Food which +has been preserved in tins is sometimes transferred to glass and +re-sterilized, the feeling against “tinned” food caused by the +“Chicago scandals” not having entirely subsided. Were it not +for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and that the +food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to keep +for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances, +however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of +canned food.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation by Chemicals.</i>—Salt is the oldest chemical preservative +and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and +with wood-smoke, has been used for many centuries, mainly as +a meat preservative. It is used either dry in layers strewn on +the surface of the meat or fish to be preserved, or in the form of +brine in which the meat is submerged or which is injected into +the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is but moderate. +It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is non-injurious, +that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and +that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When +aided by wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power +upon traces of creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite +efficient. The addition of saltpetre is principally for the purpose +of giving to the meat a bright pink tint. The strongly saline +taste of pickled meat or salted butter appears gradually to have +become repugnant to a large part of mankind, and other preservatives +have come into use, possessing greater bactericidal +power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to them +is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>. At the present time +the use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England. +Meat which has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde, +and has thus been superficially sterilized, is also coming into +commerce in increasing quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is +distinctly poisonous, and has the property of combining with +albuminoids and rendering them completely insoluble in the +digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are not infrequently +used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages +or deterioration of so-called “potted meats,” which are supposed +to last fresh and sweet on the consumer’s table for a considerable +length of time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used +in the preservation of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium +fluoride has been found in butter. The whole of these substances +possess decided and injurious physiological properties. Alcohol +now rarely forms a preservative of food material, its employment +being confined to small fruit. The use of sugar as a preservative +depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute solution it +is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it +possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated +syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less +does not undergo any biological change; in the presence of +organic acids, like those contained in fruit, growth of organisms +is inhibited when the percentage of water is somewhat greater. +Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in the manufacture of +jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the surface +of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains unaffected +and unaltered.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation by Drying.</i>—Food materials in which the percentage +of moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little +liable to bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent +<i>Penicillium</i>. Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts, +which are laden with otherwise decomposable food material, +by the simple expedient of water removal. The life of cereal +grains and many seeds appears to be unlimited. By the removal +of water the most perishable materials, like meat or eggs, can be +rendered unchangeable, except so far as the inevitable oxidation +of the fatty substances contained in them is concerned and +which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat, upon +which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of +attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively +small articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish. +It has been superseded even among less civilized communities +by the spread of canned food. Fruit, however, is very largely +preserved in the dried state. Grapes are sun-dried and thus form +currants, raisins and sultanas, the last variety being often +bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums, apples and pears +are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on wire +sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated +with notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried +vegetables, including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans +and cabbages, are also manufactured.</p> + +<p>The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to +some extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due +to J. von Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the +middle of the 19th century. The soluble material is extracted +mainly from beef, in Australia to some extent from mutton, +by means of warm water; the albumen is coagulated by heat +and removed, and the broths thus obtained are evaporated <i>in +vacuo</i> until the extract contains no more than about 20% of +water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 ℔ of lean +beef.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation by Refrigeration.</i>—At or below the freezing-point +of water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication. +Although it has been asserted that many of them perish +when kept for some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that +the vast majority of bacteria and their germs remain merely +dormant. Even so highly organized structures as cereal seeds +do not suffer in vitality on being kept for a considerable length +of time at the far lower temperature of liquid air. Biological +change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point, and as long as +that temperature is maintained food material remains unaltered, +except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation +of water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations +due to oxidation.</p> + +<p>Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a +reasonably long time, and without the addition of any preservative +substance, food in a raw condition. It is the only +process of preservation which from a sanitary point of view is +entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and properly employed. +Its introduction on a commercial scale has more powerfully +affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less degree, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +of the United States than any other scientific advance since the +establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities +of frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced +in the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until +required. Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have +become almost impossible, and the abundance of Australian and +New Zealand ranches, and of West Indian orchards, has been +made readily accessible to the British consumer. For household +purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers suffices to preserve +food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used for the +purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored +from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far +larger quantity is artificially produced by the methods described +in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refrigerating</a></span>, which also contains an account +of the means by which low temperatures are produced for +industrial purposes of importation and storage. Fleets of +steamships fitted with refrigerating machinery and insulated +cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food materials, which +are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses, markets and +hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July 1873 +from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory +state. In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America. +The first cargo of frozen meat was successfully brought to the +United Kingdom in 1880 from Australia in the “Strathleven,” +fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine. The temperature in the +cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34° F., whilst in the +chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the freezing room or +chambers a much lower temperature (between 0° and 10° F.) +is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled +slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent +damage by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice. +The carcasses when freezing must be hung separated from each +other, but for storage or transportation they are packed tightly +together. Fish such as salmon is washed, thoroughly cleansed, +and frozen on trays. Butter should be cooled as rapidly as +possible to about 10° F.; its composition as regards proportion +of volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely unaltered for +years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe and +should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each +one being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases +holding about three hundred, which are taken first to a room +in which they are slowly cooled to about 33° F., and are then kept +in store just below freezing-point. Particular attention must be +paid to the relative humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit +should be quite fresh; grapes may be chilled to 26° F., while +lemons cannot safely be kept at a lower temperature than 36°. +The time during which soft fruit can be kept even in cold-store +is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.</p> + +<p>In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable +prejudice existed against stored meat. While in many cases the +flavour of fresh meat is rather superior, the food value is in no +way altered by cold-storage.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Preservation by Pickling other than Salt.</i>—For the preservation +of vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to +a limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute +solution of sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage +of eggs the more aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a +portion of its water to the more concentrated yolk, which thereby +expands and renders its thin containing-membrane liable to +rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats and salmon, is preserved +by packing in olive or other oil.</p> + +<p>The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely, +milk, deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that +alkaline liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat +than acid materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour +which milk undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact +that milk forms perhaps the best medium for the growth and +propagation of bacterial organisms, there is exceptional difficulty +in its sterilization. As secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly +sterile fluid, and, as shown by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under +aseptic conditions and kept under such, it remains definitely +fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other pollution at the time of +milking arises from the animal, the stable, the milker and the +vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other +bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder. +Milk as it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000 +bacteria and often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh +country cream 100 millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual. +These bacteria are of many kinds, some of them spore-bearing. +The spores are more difficult to kill than the adult organism. +The first step towards preservation is the removal of the dirt +unavoidably present, to the particles of which a considerable +proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through cloths or, +better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects that +removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a +breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet +of the milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate, +a process known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the +cream separates slowly, and does not form the coherent layer +thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating is then effected either after +bottling or by passing the milk continuously through pipes in +which it is heated to from 160° to 170° F. By a repetition of +the heating process on two or more succeeding days, complete +sterilization may be effected, although a single treatment is +sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many forms +of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general +introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark +for the feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals +has practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use +of sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found +little favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board +ship.</p> + +<p>Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a +most extensive sale. The first efforts to condense and thus +preserve milk date from 1835, when an English patent was +granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N. Horsford prepared condensed +milk with the addition of lactose. Commercially successful milk +condensation began in 1856. The milk is heated to about +180° F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, after having +been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts of +milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122° F., +and is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration +that 100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar, +contain the solids of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed +milk, although rarely quite sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is +invariably brought into commerce in tin canisters. The preparation +of sweetened condensed milk forms one of the most important +branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is steadily increasing +in England. Although milk can quite well be preserved in the +form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically possesses +immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the +balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable, +such unsweetened milk has found little or no favour. +Milk powder is manufactured under various patents, the most +successful of which depends upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate +and the subsequent rapid evaporation of the milk on +steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk powder made from +skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but full-cream +milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of the +finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation +of so-called milk chocolates.</p> +<div class="author">(O. H.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Per contra</i>, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the <i>Year-book +for 1907</i> (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 197-206, +with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two and three +years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on the +efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an “indefinite” period is +concerned; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat +may really account for various modern diseases.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOL<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>fol</i>, modern <i>fou</i>, foolish, from a Late Latin use of +<i>follis</i>, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester, +a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester.</p> + +<p>The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its +culminating point of influence and recognized place and function +in the social organism during the middle ages, appears to have +existed in all times and countries. Not only have there always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +been individuals naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others; +there has been besides in most communities a definite class, the +members of which have used their powers or weaknesses in this +direction as a regular means of getting a livelihood. Savage +jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests, have certainly much in +common with the jester by profession. There existed in ancient +Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose habits were not +essentially different from those of the jesters of the middle ages. +Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon has +given a picturesque account in the <i>Banquet</i>. Philip of Macedon +is said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as +well as court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have +sometimes been not unreasonably confounded) were common +in a number of the petty courts at that era of civilization. <i>Scurrae</i> +and <i>moriones</i> were the Roman parallels of the medieval witty +fool; and during the empire the manufacture of human monstrosities +was a regular practice, slaves of this kind being much +in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester again has +from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories +are told of Bahalul (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">D’Herbelot</a></span>, s.v.) the jester of Harun al-Reshid, +which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the +conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures +of all kinds were found at the court of Montezuma. But that +monarch no doubt hit upon one great cause of the favour of +monarchs for this class when he said that “more instruction +was to be gathered from them than from wiser men, for they +dared to tell the truth.” Douce, in his essay <i>On the Clowns and +Fools of Shakespeare</i>, has made a ninefold division of English +fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the +domestic fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool +of the mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the +“vice,” and is the original of the stage clowns so common among +the dramatists of the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so +much of the wit of Shakespeare. A very palpable classification +is that which distinguishes between such creatures as were chosen +to excite to laughter from some deformity of mind or body, and +such as were so chosen for a certain (to all appearance generally +very shallow) alertness of mind and power of repartee,—or briefly, +butts and wits. The dress of the regular court fool of the middle +ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge from the prints +and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge on this +matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time. +The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight, +with generally one leg different in colour from the other. The +head was covered with a garment resembling a monk’s cowl, +which fell over the breast and shoulders, and often bore +asses’ ears, and was crested with a cockscomb, while bells +hung from various parts of the attire. The fool’s bauble was +a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was sometimes +attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham +castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occasionally +worn, but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots +than to the wits.</p> + +<p>The fool’s business was to amuse his master, to excite him +to laughter by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression +of state affairs, and, in harmony with a well-known physiological +precept, by his liveliness at meals to assist his lord’s digestion. +The names and the witticisms of many of the official jesters at +the courts of Europe have been preserved by popular or state +records. In England the list is long between Hitard, the fool of +Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I., +and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are +remembered from some connexion with general or literary history. +Scogan was attached to Edward IV., and later was published +a collection of poor jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew +Boorde’s name was attached, but without authority.</p> + +<p>Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have +been a kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally +used his influence with the king for good and charitable +purposes. Armin, who, in his <i>Nest of Ninnies</i>, gives a full +description of Sommers, and introduces many popular fools, +says of him—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Only this much, he was a poor man’s friend.</p> +<p class="i05">And helpt the widow often in her end.</p> +<p class="i05">The king would ever grant what he would crave.</p> +<p class="i05">For well he knew Will no exacting knave.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is +full of allusions to Will Sommers.</p> + +<p>Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted +from any list of jesters. A book of Tarleton’s Jests was published +in 1611, and, together with his <i>News out of Purgatory</i>, was reprinted +by Halliwell Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844. +Archie Armstrong, for a too free use of wit and tongue against +Laud, lost his office and was banished the court. The conduct +of the archbishop against the poor fool is not the least item of the +evidence which convicts him of a certain narrow-mindedness +and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of the court-jester +flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with fantastic +effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of the +times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais’s romance, +and is the hero of Victor Hugo’s <i>Le Roi s’amuse</i>, and, with some +changes, of Verdi’s opera <i>Rigoletto</i>; while Chicot, the lithe and +acute Gascon, who was so close a friend of Henry III., is portrayed +with considerable justness by Dumas in his <i>Dame de +Monsoreau</i>. In Germany Rudolph of Habsburg had his Pfaff +Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen (whose features, +as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved by the +pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after jester.</p> + +<p>Late in the 16th century appeared <i>Le Sottilissime Astuzie di +Bertoldo</i>, which is one of the most remarkable books ever written +about a jester. It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of +Bologna, and is a comic romance giving an account of the +appearance at the court of Alboin king of the Lombards of a +peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and wit. The book +was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number of +editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified. +Though fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo +are typical of the jester. That the private fool existed as late +as the 18th century is proved by Swift’s epitaph on Dicky Pearce, +the earl of Suffolk’s jester.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Flögel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The +History of Court Fools (1858).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOLS, FEAST OF<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (Lat. <i>festum stultorum</i>, <i>fatuorum</i>, <i>follorum</i>, +Fr. <i>fête des fous</i>), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious +festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical +counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The +celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of +ancient Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire +to Christianity, and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical +councils, continued to be celebrated by the people on the +Kalends of January with all their old licence. The custom, +indeed, so far from dying out, was adopted by the barbarian +conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths in Spain, +Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in +Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms +thought it necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected +with it (<i>Decretum</i>, xix. c. 5, Migne, <i>Patrologia lat</i>. 140, p. 965). +Then, just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among +the people, the clergy themselves gave it the character of a +specific religious festival. Certain days seem early to have been +set apart as special festivals for different orders of the clergy: +the feast of St Stephen (December 26) for the deacons, St John’s +day (December 27) for the priests, Holy Innocents’ Day for the +boys, and for the sub-deacons Circumcision, the Epiphany, +or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy Innocents became +a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected by his +fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or +archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy, +while the canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At +first there is no evidence to prove that these celebrations were +characterized by any specially indecorous behaviour; but in the +12th century such behaviour had become the rule. In 1180 +Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens, calls the festival of the +sub-deacons <i>festum stultorum</i> (Migne, <i>Patrol</i>. <i>lat</i>. 202, p. 79). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span> +The burlesque ritual which characterized the Feast of Fools +throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A young +sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal <i>insignia</i> +(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary. +A mock mass was begun, during which the lections were read +<i>cum farsia</i>, obscene songs were sung and dances performed, +cakes and sausages eaten at the altar, and cards and dice played +upon it.</p> + +<p>This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though +condemned by serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the +child-like popular mind of the middle ages no suggestion of +contempt, though when belief in the doctrines and rites of +the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready instrument +in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this kind +of retribution Scott in <i>The Abbot</i> gives a vivid picture, the +Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling +remnant of the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting +on substituting the traditional Feast of Fools.</p> + +<p>This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously +displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under +various forms was celebrated in a large number of churches +throughout the West. The ass had been introduced into the +ritual of the church in the 9th century, representing either +Balaam’s ass, that which stood with the ox beside the manger +at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt, +or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often +the ass was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes +he was the occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to +modern notions, but by no means intended in an irreverent +spirit. The three most notable celebrations of the Feast of the +Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. At Rouen the feast +was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to represent +the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with +a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs +and kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil, +the chief figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow +wooden effigy, within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies. +The procession was followed, inside the church, by +a curious combination of ritual office and mystery play, the text +of which, according to the <i>Ordo processionis asinorum secundum +Rothomagensem usum</i>, is given in Du Cange.</p> + +<p>Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was +held on the 14th of January, and represented the flight into +Egypt. A richly caparisoned ass, on which was seated the +prettiest girl in the town holding in her arms a baby or a large +doll, was escorted with much pomp from the cathedral to the +church of St Étienne. There the procession was received by +the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the sanctuary. +Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to +the <i>Introit</i>, <i>Kyrie</i>, <i>Gloria</i>, &c., the congregation chanted “Hinham” +(Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this +feast actually runs: <i>In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum +vice, Ite missa est, Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias, +ter respondebit Hinham, Hinham, Hinham</i> (At the close of the +mass the priest turning to the people instead of saying, <i>Ite missa +est</i>, shall bray thrice: the people, instead of <i>Deo gratias</i>, shall +thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw, Hee-haw).</p> + +<p>At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast +of Fools, celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision. +The clergy went in procession to the west door of the church, +where two canons received the ass, amid joyous chants, and led +it to the precentor’s table. Bizarre vespers followed, sung +falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts from all the +vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was solemnly +fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the precentor +out into the square before the church (<i>conductus ad ludos</i>); +water was poured on the precentor’s head, and the ass became +the centre of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery +being carried on far into the night, while the clergy and the +serious-minded retired to matins and bed.</p> + +<p>Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish +the Feast of Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed +its more obvious indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III. +forbade the feasts of priests, deacons and sub-deacons altogether; +and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened those who disobeyed this +prohibition with excommunication. How little effect this had, +however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, archbishop of +Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses of +the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the +university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed +a letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King +Charles VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology +to forbid it in collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact, +too popular to succumb to these efforts, and it survived throughout +Europe till the Reformation, and even later in France; +for in 1645 Mathurin de Neuré complains in a letter to Pierre +Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries which yearly on Innocents’ +Day took place in the monastery of the Cordeliers at Antibes. +“Never did pagans,” he writes, “solemnize with such extravagance +their superstitious festivals as do they.... The lay-brothers, +the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen ... +occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the +sacerdotal garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands +books turned upside down, and pretend to read through spectacles +in which for glass have been substituted bits of orange-peel.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Picart, <i>Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples</i> +(1723); du Tilliot, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la fête des +Fous</i> (Lausanne, 1741); Aimé Cherest, <i>Nouvelles recherches sur la +fête des Innocents et la fête des Fous dans plusieurs églises et notamment +dans celle de Sens</i> (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Müller’s <i>Zeitschrift +für deutsche Kulturgeschichte</i> (1858); H. Böhmer, art. “Narrenfest” +in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklop</i>. (ed. 1903); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i> +(ed. 1884), <i>s.v.</i> “Festum Asinorum.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOLSCAP,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb +running up the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn +by jesters and fools (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fool</a></span>); also a conical cap worn by +dunces. The name is given to a size of writing or printing paper, +varying in size from 12 × 15 in. to 17 × 13-1/2 in. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>). The +name is derived from the use of a “fool’s cap” as a watermark. +A German example of the watermark dating from 1479 was +exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The <i>New English +Dictionary</i> finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction of +the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-mill +at Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the +familiar story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool’s cap +for the royal arms as a watermark on the paper used for the +journals of parliament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOL’S PARSLEY,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> in botany, the popular name for <i>Aethusa +Cynapium</i>, a member of the family <i>Umbelliferae</i>, and a common +weed in cultivated ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform +root and a smooth hollow branched stem 1 to 2 ft. high, with +much divided (ternately pinnate) smooth leaves and small compound +umbels of small irregular white flowers. The plant has a +nauseous smell, and, like other members of the order (<i>e.g.</i> hemlock, +water-drop wort), is poisonous.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOT,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting +of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests +when in an upright position, standing or moving (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: +<i>Superficial and Artistic</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>: <i>Appendicular</i>). The +word is also applied to such parts of invertebrate animals as serve +as a foot, either for movement or attachment to a surface. +“Foot” is a word common in various forms to Indo-European +languages, Dutch, <i>voet</i>, Ger. <i>Fuss</i>, Dan. <i>fod</i>, &c. The Aryan root +is <i>pod</i>-, which appears in Sans. <i>pūd</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="pous, podos">ποῦς, ποδός</span> and Lat. +<i>pes</i>, <i>pedis</i>. From the resemblance to the foot, in regard to its +position, as the base of anything, or as the lowest member of the +body, or in regard to its function of movement, the word is +applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a +sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part +of an organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the +bottom of a type is divided by a groove into two portions known +as “feet.” Probably referring to the beating of the rhythm +with the foot in dancing, the Gr. <span class="grk" title="pous">ποῦς</span> and Lat. <i>pes</i> were applied in +prosody to a grouping of syllables, one of which is stressed, +forming the division of a verse. “Foot,” <i>i.e.</i> foot-soldier, was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +formerly, with an ordinal number prefixed, the name of the +infantry regiments of the British army. It is now superseded by +territorial designations, but it still is used in the four regiments of +the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a lineal +measure of length the “foot” is of great antiquity, estimated +originally by the length of a man’s foot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weights and +Measures</a></span>). For the ceremonial washing of feet, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maundy +Thursday</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic +Aphtha, Eczema Epizootica), a virulent contagious and inoculable +malady of animals, characterized by initial fever, followed by the +formation of vesicles or blisters on the tongue, palate and lips, +sometimes in the nostrils, fourth stomach and intestine of +cattle, and on parts of the body where the skin is thin, as on the +udder and teats, between the claws, on the heels, coronet and +pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very rapidly. +A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is +accompanied by salivation and a peculiar “smacking” of the +lips. The vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break, +exposing a red raw patch, which is very sensitive. The animal +cannot feed so well as usual, suffers much pain and inconvenience, +loses condition, and, if a milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or, +if pregnant, may abort. More or less lameness is a constant +symptom, and sometimes the feet become very much diseased and +the animal is so crippled that it has to be destroyed. It is often +fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by the saliva and the +discharges from the vesicles, though all the secretions and +excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all articles and +places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by injecting +the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or the +peritoneal cavity.</p> + +<p>If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of +different disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has +been a European malady for more than 2000 years. But no +reliance can be placed on this evidence, and it is not until we +reach the 17th and 18th centuries that we find trustworthy proof +of its presence, when it was reported as frequently prevailing +extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During the 19th +century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations +between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become +widely diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced +from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower +Austria, Bohemia, Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834. +Cattle in the Vosges and in Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and +the disease extending to France, Belgium and Holland, reached +England in 1839, and quickly spread over the three kingdoms (see +also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>). At this time the importation of +foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was supposed +that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships’ +stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the +voyage. This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct +outbreaks, and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-mouth +disease. From the observations of the best authorities it +would appear to be an altogether exotic malady in the west of +Europe, always invading it from the east; at least, this has been +the course noted in all the principal invasions. It was introduced +into Denmark in 1841; and into the United States of America in +1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by diseased cattle +from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic from +the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually +extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North +America. It was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was +stamped out on each occasion. It appears to be well known in +India, Ceylon, Burma and the Straits Settlements. In 1870 it +was introduced into the Andaman Islands by cattle imported +from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in the same year +it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is frequently +epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks +used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle +also spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also +prevails in central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle +of the Dinkas suffering from a disease of the kind.</p> + +<p>Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young +animals, or when malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge. +In one year (1892) in Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with +an estimated loss to the owners of £7,500,000 sterling. It is +transmissible to nearly all the domestic animals, but its ravages +are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Human +beings are also liable to infection.</p> + +<p>The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet, +with salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to +the sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation +of the diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough +disinfection of all places and substances which are capable of +conveying the infection.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTBALL,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a game between two opposing sides played with +a large inflated ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or +by both feet and hands.</p> + +<p>Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity, +and their existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris, +Faroe Islanders, Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos, +points to their primitive nature. In Greece the <span class="grk" title="episkyros">ἐπίσκυρος</span> +seems to have borne a resemblance to the modern game. Of this +we read in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Antiquities</i>—“It was the game +at football, played in much the same way as with us, by a great +number of persons divided into two parties opposed to one +another.” Amongst the Romans the <i>harpastum</i>, derived from +the Greek verb <span class="grk" title="harpazô">ἁρπάζω</span>, I seize, thus showing that carrying the +ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil Kennett, +in his <i>Romae antiquae notitia</i>, terms this missile a “larger kind +of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and +striving to throw it into one another’s goals, which was the +conquering cast.” The <i>harpastum</i> was a gymnastic game and +probably played for the most part indoors. The real Roman +football was played with the inflated <i>follis</i>, which was kicked from +side to side over boundaries, and thus must have closely resembled +the modern Association game. Tradition ascribes its introduction +in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It has been played in +Tuscany under the name of <i>Calcio</i> from the middle ages down to +modern times.</p> + +<p>Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman +tradition has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians +assert that a variety of football has been played in Ireland for +over 2000 years. In early times the great football festival of the +year was Shrove Tuesday, though the connexion of the game +with this particular date is lost in obscurity. William Fitzstephen, +in his <i>History of London</i> (about 1175), speaks of the +young men of the city annually going into the fields after dinner +to play at the well-known game of ball on the day <i>quae dicitur +Carnilevaria</i>. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention +of football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314) +in consequence of “the great noise in the city caused by hustling +over large balls (<i>rageries de grosses pelotes</i>).” A clear reference is +made “ad pilam ... pedinam” in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39 +Edward III. (1365), memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be +prohibited on account of the decadence of archery, and the same +thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6 (1388). Both Henry VIII. and +Elizabeth enacted laws against football, which, both then and +under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have been violent to +the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by prominent +writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his <i>Boke named the Governour</i> +(1531), speaks of football as being “nothyng but beastely fury +and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and consequently +rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be +wounded, wherefore it is to be put in perpetual silence.” In +Stubbes’ <i>Anatomie of Abuses</i> (1583) it is referred to as “a +develishe pastime ... and hereof groweth envy, rancour and +malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great +effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth.” Fifty years +later (1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone’s <i>Table-Book</i>) as +remarking, “I would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am +stopped by one of your heroic games called football; which I +conceive (under your favour) not very conveniently civil in the +streets, especially in such irregular and narrow roads as Crooked +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like your military +pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed these +two valiant exercises in the streets.”</p> + +<p>An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes +of Galway in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery, +excepting “onely the great foot balle.” In the time of Charles +II. football was popular at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene +College, as is evidenced by the following extract from the register +book of that institution under the date 1679:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation +upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day, +further than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their +thirsts. And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking +and spending money—Sophisters and Freshmen together—upon ye +account of making or not making a speech at that football time be +utterly left off and extinguished.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the +masses, and never took root, except in educational institutions, +among the upper classes until the 19th century. No clubs or +code of rules had been formed, and the sole aim seems to have +been to drive the ball through the opposing side’s goal by fair +means or foul. So rough did the game become that James I. +forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes the exercise in +his <i>Basilikon Doron</i> as “meeter for laming than making able the +users thereof.” Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part +in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses +closed in order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered +that the game fell into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal, +occurred; and Shrove Tuesday “football-day” gradually died +out about 1830, though a relic of the custom still remained in a +few places. For some thirty years football was only practised at +the great English public schools, many of which possessed special +games, which in practically all cases arose from the nature of the +individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its charging, +tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it +was taken up by the great public schools, would have been +extremely dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts +of some schools, as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence +at such institutions the dribbling style of play, in which Mr +Montague Shearman (<i>Football</i>, in the “Badminton Library”) sees +the origin of the Association game, came into existence. Only at +Rugby (later at some other schools), which from the first possessed +an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved and developed, +including even its roughness, for actual “hacking” +(<i>i.e.</i> intentional kicking of an opponent’s legs) was not expressly +abolished at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school +game at Rugby contained in <i>Tom Brown’s School Days</i> has +become classic.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Rugby Union.</i>—We have seen that from early times a +rudimentary game of football had been a popular form of sport in +many parts of Great Britain, and that in the old-established +schools football had been a regular game among the boys. In +different schools there arose various developments of the original +game; or rather, what, at first, must have been a somewhat +rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape as a +definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby +school had developed such a game, and from football played +according to Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about +the middle of the 19th century that football—up till that time a +regular game only among schoolboys—took its place as a regular +sport among men. To begin with, men who had played the game +as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to continue playing +their favourite school game, and others were induced to join +them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had +not had the experience of playing the game at school, but who +had the energy and the will to follow the example of those who +had had this experience. In this way football was established as a +regular game, no longer confined to schoolboys. When football +was thus first started, the game was little developed or organized. +Rules were very few, and often there was great doubt as to what +the rules were. But, almost from the first, clubs were formed to +play football according to Rugby rules—that is, according to the +rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even the +Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost +unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still, +the fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a +certain uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the +English Union, and the commencement of international matches, +that a really definite code of rules was drawn up.</p> + +<p>It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of +Rugby school became so popular in preference to the games of +other schools, such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was +probably very largely due to the reputation and success of Rugby +school under Dr Arnold, and this also led most probably to its +adoption by other schools; for in 1860 many schools besides +Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The rapidity +with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th century +was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the +London district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great +rival, shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been +started in Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield football +club dates back to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of +Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby football clubs had been formed +before 1870, and by that date the game had been implanted both +in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland, before 1860, +football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been +established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many +districts had been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid +as, in some ways, had been the spread of the game between the +years 1850 and 1870, it was as nothing to what happened in the +following twenty years; for by 1890 Rugby football, together +with Association football, had become the great winter amusement +of the people, and roused universal interest; while to-day +on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of thousands +of people playing football, while those who watch the game +can be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to +this great increase in the game and interest taken in it were, +undoubtedly, the establishment of the various national Unions +and the international matches; and, of course, the local rivalry +of various clubs, together with cup or other competitions prevalent +in certain districts, was a leading factor. The establishment +of the English Union led to a codification of the rules +without which development was impossible.</p> + +<p>In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in +London. This Union was an association of some clubs and schools +which joined together and appointed a committee and officials +to draw up a code of rules of the game. From this beginning the +English Rugby Union has become the governing body of Rugby +football in England, and has been joined by practically all the +Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters connected +with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international +teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded in +Edinburgh on the same lines, and with the same objects, while +in 1880 the Welsh Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby +Football Union, were established as the national Unions of Wales +and Ireland, though in both countries there had been previously +Unions not thoroughly representative of the country. All +these Unions became the chief governing body within their own +country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and +laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by +the English Union, the others adopted the English rules, with +amendments to them from time to time. This state of affairs +had one element of weakness—viz. that since all the Unions made +their own rules, if ever a dispute should arise between any of +them, a dead-lock was almost certain to ensue. Such a dispute +did occur in 1884 between the English and Scottish Unions. +This dispute eventually turned on the question of the right of +the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game, +and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior +to the other Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this +claim, and finally, in 1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin +were appointed as a commission to settle the dispute. The +result was the establishment of the International Board, which +consists of representatives from each Union—six from England, +two from each of the others—whose duties were to settle any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span> +question that might arise between the different Unions, and to +settle the rules under which international matches were to be +played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various +Unions as the rules of the game.</p> + +<p>With the establishment of the International Board the organization +of the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail, +and in 1895 occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading +clubs in Yorkshire and Lancashire broke off from the English +Union and formed the Northern Union, which since that date +has had many accessions, and has become the leading body in +the north of England. The question in dispute was the payment +of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer +love of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do, +and who could give the time to play it; but with the increasing +popularity of the game it became the pastime of all classes of the +people, and clubs began to grow rich by “drawing big gates,”—that +is, large numbers of spectators, frequently many thousands +in number, paid for the privilege of witnessing the match. In +these circumstances the temptation arose to reimburse the player +for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to for playing +the game, and thus it became universally recognized as legitimate +to pay a player’s expenses to and from a match. But in the +case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their +weekly wage when they had to go a distance to play a match, +or to go on tour with their club—that is, go off for a few days and +play one or two matches in different parts of the country—and +consequently the claim was made on their behalf to recoup them +for their loss of wage; while at the same time rich clubs began +to be willing to offer inducements to good players to join their +club, and these inducements were generally most acceptable +in the form of money. In Association football (see below) +professionalism—<i>i.e.</i> the hiring and paying of a player for his +services—had been openly recognized. A large section of the +English Union—the amateur party—would not tolerate anything +that savoured of professionalism, and regarded payments made +to a player for broken time as illegitimate. The result was the +formation of the Northern Union, which allowed such payments, +and has practically recognized professionalism. This body has +also somewhat altered the laws of the game, and reduced the +number of players constituting a team from fifteen to thirteen. +In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly amateur; +but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan +the professional element is strong.</p> + +<p>Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to +select international teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first +international match was played between England and Scotland +in Edinburgh. This was a match between teams picked from +English and Scottish players. These matches from the first +roused widespread interest, and were a great stimulus to the +development of the game. With the exception of a few years, +when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all +the countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one +another—England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland +since 1875 and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing +Ireland in 1877 and Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales +met first in 1882 and then in 1884, and since 1887 have played +annually. The qualifications of a player for any country were +at first vaguely considered to be birth; but they were never +definitely settled, and there has been a case of a player playing +for two countries. In 1894, however, the International Board +decided that no player was to play for more than one country, +and this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and +though birth is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is +not essential. Though international matches excite interest +throughout the United Kingdom, the matches between two rival +clubs arouse just as much excitement in their district, particularly +when the clubs may be taken as representatives of two +neighbouring rival towns. But when to this rivalry there is +added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the excitement +is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions +have never been so popular as among Association, but the competition +for the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before +the establishment of the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly +was the main cause of the popularity of the game in that county. +Similarly the competition for the South Wales Cup from 1878 +to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game in that country. +The method of carrying on these competitions is, that all the +clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in the +first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn +in pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is +only one pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elaboration +of this competition is the “League system” of the Association +game. This, likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players. +Still it exists in some districts, especially where clubs are anxious +to draw big gates. In the League system a certain number of +clubs form a league to play one another twice each season; two +points are counted for a win and one for a draw. The club +which at the end of the season comes out with most points wins +the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup +competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season, +and one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming +out first.</p> + +<p>It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with +them, and this has certainly been the case with Rugby football, +especially in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An +interchange of football visits between these colonies and the +motherland is now an important feature in the game. These +tours date from 1888, when an English team visited Australia +and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of +New Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over +to England, and by their play even then indicated how well the +grammar of the game had been studied in that colony. Subsequently +several British teams visited at intervals New Zealand +and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent home a team +which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played +altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England, +Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz. +by a try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for +itself. In 1908 a combined team of English and Welsh players +toured in New Zealand and Australia, and also visited Canada +on their way home. The team was not so strong as could have +been wished, and though they did fairly well in Australia, they +lost all three “test matches” against New Zealand. In South +Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play +is hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The +first British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the +generosity of Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking +against loss. Teams were also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the +result of matches played in each visit showing the steady improvement +of the colonists. In 1906 the South Africans paid their first +visit to England, and the result of their tour proved them to +be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England +managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one +of the home Unions to gain a victory. The success of these +colonial visits, more especially financially, created a development +very foreign to the intentions of their organizers. The Northern +Union as a professional body had drifted into a somewhat parlous +state, through suffering on the one hand from a lack of international +matches, and on the other from the competition of +Association professional teams. The great financial success +resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention +of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered +into negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team +who would come over and play the Northern Union clubs, the +visiting players themselves taking a share of the gate-money. +For this purpose a team of New Zealanders toured the north of +England in 1907, and their action caused the introduction of +professional or Northern Union football in both New Zealand +and Australia.</p> + +<p>The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to +English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil, +and numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 international +matches have been played between France and England, +and the energy of French players, coupled with their national +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +<i>élan</i>, makes them formidable opponents. The Rugby code has +also obtained a firm footing in Canada, India, Ceylon and the +Argentine.</p> + +<p>The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite +conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft +though firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than +110 yds. long nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approximates +to these dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines, +called touch-lines, down the sides, and goal-lines along the ends. +The touch-lines are continued beyond the goal-lines for a distance +of not more than 25 yds.; and parallel to the goal-line and +behind it, at a distance of not more than 25 yds., is drawn a line +called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of the touch-lines +produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from the touch-lines, +are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding 11 ft. +in height, and generally much more—averaging perhaps from +20 to 30 ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a +height of 10 ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar; +and the object of the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar +between the upright posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball +is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate spheroid), and the official +dimensions are—length, 11 to 11¼ in.; length circumference, +30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 25½ to 26 in.; weight, 13 +to 14½ oz. It is made of india-rubber inflated, and covered with +a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is +generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked +by flags on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there +is similarly marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the +side that had gained the majority of goals won the match, and +if no goal had been scored, or an equal number, the game was +said to be left drawn; but a modification was adopted before +long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the ordinary course +of play; but from the very first a try goal could be obtained by +that side one of whose players either carried the ball across his +opponents’ goal-line and then touched it down (<i>i.e.</i> on the +ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the +goal-line, before any of his opponents. The “try” is then +proceeded with as follows: the ball is taken out by a member +of the side obtaining the try in a straight line from the spot where +it was “touched down,” and is deposited in a selected position +on the ground in the field of play, the defending side being all +confined behind their own goal-line until the moment the ball +is so placed on the ground, when another member of the attacking +side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a “place kick”) +over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal +is kicked; very often not. The modification first allowed was +to count that side the winner which had gained the majority +of tries, provided no goal or an equal number of goals had been +scored; but a majority of one goal took precedence of any +number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards abolished, and +a system of points instituted by which the side with the majority +of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and +tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being +as follows:—A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which +case the try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except +from a mark or a penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a +goal obtained by a player who drops the ball from his hands and +kicks it the moment it rises off the ground, as in the “half-volley” +at cricket or tennis. A goal from a mark or penalty kick 3 points. +Under the Northern Union code any sort of goal counts 2 points, +a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a goal, both try +and goal count, <i>i.e.</i> 5 points are scored.</p> + +<p>In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the +direction of the opponents’ goal, but it may also be carried; but +it must not be thrown forward or knocked on—that is, in the +direction of the opponents’ goal—though it may be thrown back. +Thus the game is really a combination of football and handball. +The main principle is that any one who is not “offside” is +in play. A player is offside if he gets in front of the ball—that +is, on the opponents’ side of the ball, nearer than a colleague in +possession of the ball to the opponents’ goal-line; when in this +position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the +ball under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the +“scrummage.” In old days at Rugby school there was practically +no limit to the numbers of players on each side, and not infrequently +there would be a hundred or more players on one side. +This was never prevalent in club football; twenty a-side was +the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to fifteen a-side, +the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides the ball +got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted +to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise +forcing their way through with the ball in front of them. This +was the origin of the scrummage.</p> + +<p>The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten +minutes, sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends +each goal in turn for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players +who compose a side, the usual arrangement is that eight are called +“forwards,” and form the scrummage; two “half-backs” are +posted outside the scrummage; and four “three-quarter-backs,” +a little behind the halves, stretch in a line across the field, their +duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the ball to other +members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents from +doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of +“passing,” the field position of the half-backs has undergone +a change. One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is +known as the “scrum-half,” the other takes a position between +the latter and the three-quarters, and is termed the “stand-off-half.” +Behind the three-quarters comes the “full-back” or +“back,” a single individual to maintain the last line of defence; +his duties are entirely defensive, either to “tackle” an opponent +who has managed to get through, or, more usually, to catch +and return long kicks. Play is started by one side kicking the +ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of the +opponents’ goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other +side, who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on +until he is “tackled,” or caught, by one of his opponents, unless +he should choose to “pass” or throw it to another of his own +side, who, provided he be not offside, may either kick, or run, +or pass as he chooses. The ball in this way is kept moving +until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line, or is tackled. If the +ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at right angles +to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is thrown in +straight either by one of the same side whose player carried +the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown +out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-line +either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending +side touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds. +from the goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field. +If the ball is tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from +the ground as soon as possible, and the forwards at once form +the scrummage by putting down their heads and getting ready +to shove against one another. They shove as soon as the ball +is put down between the two front rows. In the scrummage +the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise +breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in the +direction of the opponents’ goal-line by a series of short kicks +in which the players run after the ball as fast as possible, while +their opponents lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick +or other device stop the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards +breaking away with the ball, sometimes they let the ball come +out of the scrummage to their half-backs, who either kick or run +with it, or pass it to the three-quarter-backs, and so the game +proceeds until the ball is once more “dead”—that is, brought +to a standstill. The scrummage appears to be an uninteresting +manœuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but it is not +merely a manœuvre in which weight and strength alone tell—it +also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet, +applying the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking +the opposing side, as it were—usually termed wheeling—directing +all the force to one side of the scrummage and thus +breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively one, for the players +are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it is called +a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an open +game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span> +game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting +struggle, frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very +rapidly from one side to the other, so that it is a matter of +no surprise to find the British public so ardently attached +to it.</p> +<div class="author">(C. J. N. F.; C. J. B. M.)</div> + +<p>2. <i>Association.</i>—It is generally supposed that the English +game of Association football is the outcome of the game of football +as played at Cambridge University about the middle of +the 19th century. In October 1863 a committee, consisting of +representatives of the schools of Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Marlborough, +Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code of laws +which settled the fundamental principle of the “Association” +game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which +permitted of handling and carrying the ball. In Association +football the use of the hands or arms, either for the purpose of +playing the ball or impeding or holding an opponent, is absolutely +prohibited; “dribbling” or kicking the ball with the feet, and +propelling it by the head or body, are the methods to be adopted. +The Cambridge laws specially provided for “kicking” the ball. +Laws 13 and 14 provided that “the ball, when in play, may be +stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit by +the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding, +pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden.”</p> + +<p>The laws of Association football first took practical shape +as the outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863 +at the Freemasons’ Tavern, London. The clubs which sent +delegates were representative of all classes of football then +played. The meeting was a momentous one, for not only was +the foundation laid of the Football Association, the national +association which has since then controlled the game in England, +but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed +as to “hacking” being permissible under the laws, the representatives +who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is +now so roundly condemned in both the Association and Rugby +games, withdrew and formed the Rugby Union.</p> + +<p>The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the +Football Association at their meeting on the 24th of November +1863. They took the view that those laws “embraced the true +principles of the game with the greatest simplicity”; the laws +were “officially” passed on the 1st of December 1863, and the +first publication was made in <i>Bell’s Life</i> four days later. These +laws have from time to time been modified, but the principles +as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the Association +game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual dimensions +for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and +the goals are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post +8 ft. from the ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and +must be a perfect sphere from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as +distinguished from the elliptical or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A +rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in front of the goals, +and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the “penalty +area”; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the centre +of the goal, is the “penalty kick mark.” The boundary lines +at the sides of the field are called the “touch-lines”; those at +the ends (in the centre of which are the goals) being the “goal-lines.” +The game is started by a place kick from the centre of +the field of play, and none of the opposite side is allowed to +approach within 10 yds. of the ball when it is kicked off. When +the ball passes over the touch line it has to be thrown in by one +of the opposite side, and can be returned into the field of play +in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line at any time +without touching one of the defending side, it has to be kicked +out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in +front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest +the point where the ball left the field of play. But should it +touch one of the defending side in its transit over the goal-line +the attacking side has the privilege of a free kick from the corner +flag (a “corner kick”). This is often a great advantage, but such +free kick does not produce a goal unless the ball touches one of +the other players on its way to the post. Ordinarily a goal is +scored when the ball goes between the goal-posts and under the +cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or carried. The regulation +duration of a game is an hour and a half, and ends are +changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has +the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority +of goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except +when the free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty +for certain infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and +if such infringement take place within the penalty area on the +part of a player on the side then defending the goal, and in +the judgment of the referee be intentional, a “penalty kick” +is awarded to the attacking side. The penalty kick is a free +kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players of the defending +side being excluded from the penalty area, except the goalkeeper, +who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore, +being an almost certain goal.</p> + +<p>A player is always in play as long as there are three of the +opposite side between him and the opposite goal <i>at the time the +ball is kicked</i>. This “offside” rule gives much trouble to the +young player, though why it should do so it is not easy to say. +The rule is simple if the words in italics are remembered. The +ball must not be carried, knocked or wilfully handled under any +pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper, who is allowed to +use his hands in defence of his goal, either by knocking on or +throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus far he +is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the ball +the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the +rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them +the serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player. +Players are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such +as have their heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal +plates or gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this +rule is liable to be prohibited from taking further part in a +match.</p> + +<p>In the early ’sixties of the 19th century there were probably +not more than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association +football in the United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined +in the south of England to the universities and public schools. +But whilst the game was being established in the south it was +making steady progress in the north, particularly in Yorkshire, +where the Sheffield Club had been formed as early as 1854. In +1867 the game had become so well established that it was decided +to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played +“in the wilds of Battersea Park,” terminated in a draw, neither +side having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the +growing popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871, +only three years later, two matches of an international character +were played between Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership +with the Football Association; they were not, however, recognized +as “international” matches. The first real international match, +England v. Scotland, was played on the 30th of November 1872 +at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between +England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879; +and that between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In +1896 amateur international matches were inaugurated with +Germany, Austria and Bohemia; and games are now annually +played with Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany, +Holland, Austria and other continental countries. As the outcome +of the international relations with Scotland, Wales and +Ireland, an International Football Association Board was formed +in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon. Two +representatives from each of the four national associations constitute +the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not +only by the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in +all countries where the Association game is played. At a meeting +held at Paris on the 21st of May 1904 the “International Federation +of Association Football” was instituted. It consists of the +recognized national associations in the respective countries: +and its objects are to develop and control Association international +football. The countries in federation are: Austria, +Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, +Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.</p> + +<p>The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early +days becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +the game in the 20th century. Association football has become +one of the most popular of all national sports in the United +Kingdom. It is slowly but surely taking a similar position on the +continent of Europe and is making progress even in the Far East, +Japan being one of its latest adherents. In the season of 1871-1872 +the Football Association inaugurated its popular challenge +cup competition which is now competed for by both amateur and +professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered, all of +which were from the south of England. The first winners of the +cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the +final tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the +competition was mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the +season of 1881-1882 the Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in +the final tie by the Old Etonians by one goal to nothing. Professionalism +was then unknown in the game, and comparatively +little interest was taken in it except by the players themselves. +In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the first time +taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in +the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900-1901 +it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur +Club, who defeated the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three +goals to one. In the following season the cup was again taken +north by the Bury Club. In the early days of the competition a +few hundred people only attended the final tie, which for many +years was played at Kennington Oval in London. In the course +of time, however, the interest of the public so largely increased +that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity; +accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Manchester, +where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894 +it was played at Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace. +The attendance during the following ten years averaged 80,000 +people. The record attendance was in the season of 1900-1901, +when the south were contesting with the north, the spectators +then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909 +356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had +increased to 404.</p> + +<p>The great development of the game necessitated many changes +in the system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary +to the rules) a practice of making payment to players crept into +the game in the north of England and slowly developed. After +some years of debate as to the best method of dealing with this +development the Football Association decided in 1885 to legalize +and control the payment of players. The rules define a professional +player as one who receives remuneration of any sort +above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually paid, or +is registered as a professional. They further provide that training +expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered as +remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses. +Players competing for any money prizes in football contests are +also considered professionals.</p> + +<p>In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional +clubs of the north and midlands of England, was formed; and a +new scheme was inaugurated for the playing of matches on what +is known as the “League” principle, the essential advantage of +which is that the clubs in membership of a league agree to play +with each other “home and home” matches each season, and +also bind themselves under certain penalties to play their best +team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern League +came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the +interest in the game in the south and west of England. The +Football League and the Southern League very soon had their +imitators, and in 1909 there were upwards of six hundred league +competitions playing under the sanction and control of the Football +Association. The league system also found favour in Scotland, +Wales and Ireland, and has extended to most of the colonies +where Association football is played. In the season of 1893-1894 +the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in +membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated. +In the first season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity +of the competition is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-1909 +there were 229 entries.</p> + +<p>The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs, +had in 1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur +clubs and a quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400 +professional clubs with 7000 professional players. It has also +directly affiliated 52 county, district and colonial associations, +and indirectly in membership a large number of minor associations +which are affiliated through the county and district +associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs +in Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the +various battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other +army stations; and the Royal Navy Football Association +comprises all ships afloat having Association football clubs.</p> + +<p>The regulations of the Football Association, which is the +recognized administrative and legislative body for the game in +England, make provision for the sanction and control of leagues +and competitions; and its rules, regulations, principles and +practices very largely prevail in all national associations. The +king is the patron, and the council consists of 56 members, a +president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10 representatives +elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the country is +subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the navy +and of county associations in England which have upwards of +50 clubs in membership, each representative being directly +appointed by his association. In 1905 the Football Association +became incorporated under the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and +as a consequence the word “Limited” appears in its title. It is +not, however, a trading body; the shareholders are not entitled +to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may the members of the +council, who are the directors, receive any payment for their +services. The Scottish Football Association is also an incorporated +body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the +United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the +regulations of the Football Association they may not pay a larger +dividend to their shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the +directors receive payment for their services.</p> + +<p>The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late +years has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing +every one into full play. The great aim accordingly has been +to encourage combination and to discourage purely individual +efforts. In the early days, though there was a certain amount of +cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on himself. Even up to the +middle of the ’seventies dribbling was looked upon as the great +desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just as long kicks +were the main object of a back. The development of the game +was of course bound to change all that. The introduction of +passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler +pure and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with +which he was mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually +came to be regarded as the keynote to success. Instead of one full +back, as was originally the case, and one half-back, the defence +gradually developed by the addition first of a second half, then of +a second full back, and still later of a third half-back, until it came +to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of course, two full backs +and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used to constitute +the attack in the earliest days of the Association have been +reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood, +until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has +been to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and +as a natural consequence to make the game more open and +thereby generally more interesting and attractive. Association +football is indeed, from the standpoint of the spectator, a much +brighter game than it was in its infancy, the result of the new +methods bringing every one of the eleven players into full relief +<span class="correction" title="amended from throughtout">throughout</span> the game. The players who, as a rule, make or mar +the success of a side in modern football are the centre forward +and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the +attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close +dribbling and following up, the new formation makes for accuracy +of passing among the forwards, with intelligent support from the +half-backs. The net result is practically the effective combination +of the whole side. To do his part as it ought to be done +every member of an eleven must work in harmony with the rest, +and on a definite system, in all cases subordinating his own +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +methods and personal interests to promote the general well-being +of the side.</p> +<div class="author">(C. W. A.; F. J. W.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The literature of British football is very extensive, but the following +works are among the best: <i>Football</i> in the “Badminton Library” +(London, 1904), where the different games played at Eton, Harrow, +Rugby, Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly described; +Rev. F. Marshall, <i>Football; the Rugby Game</i> (London, +Cassells); J.E. Vincent, <i>Football; its History for Five Centuries</i> +(London, 1885); C.J.B. Marriott and C.W. Alcock, <i>Football</i> +(“Oval Series”); “Football,” in the <i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>The +Rugby Football Union Handbook</i>, Richardson, Greenwich, Official +Annual; and <i>The Football Annual</i>, Merritt and Hatcher (Association +Game), London.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—In America the game of football has been +elaborated far more than elsewhere, and involves more complications +than in England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of +football generally resembling the English Association game was +played on the village greens and by the students of colleges and +academies. There was no running with the +ball, but dribbling, called “babying,” was +common. In 1871 a code of rules was drawn +up, but they were unsatisfactory and not invariably +observed. “Batting the ball,” <i>i.e.</i> +striking the ball forward with the fists, was +allowed. There were two backs, sixteen +rushers or forwards, and two rovers or “peanutters,” +who lurked near the opponents’ goal. +During this period the first international football +game was played at Yale between the +college team and one made up of old Etonians, +the rules being a compromise between the +American and the English.</p> + +<p>English Rugby, introduced from Canada, +was first played at Harvard University, and +in 1875 a match under a compromise set of +rules, taken partly from the Rugby Union and +partly from the existing American game, was +played with Yale. The following year Yale +adopted the regular Rugby Union rules, and +played Harvard under these. Later, several +other colleges adopted these English rules. +Absence of tradition necessitated expansion +of these laws, and a convention of colleges +was assembled. Thenceforward annual conventions +were held, which from time to time +altered and amplified the rules. A college +association was formed, and the game grew in +popularity. Public criticism of the roughness +shown in the play early threatened its existence; +indeed at one time the university +authorities compelled Harvard to abstain +from the annual game with Yale. Changes +in the rules were introduced, and the game has been characterized +by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become the +most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal +university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even +40,000 spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but +a Rules Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of +New York, made the necessary changes in the rules from time +to time, and these have been accepted by the country at large. +In the West associations were formed; but the game in the East +is played principally under separate agreements between the +contesting universities, all using, however, one code of rules. +Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new committee +of wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as +well as public and private schools have also taken up the +game. The American football season lasts from the middle +of September to the first of December only, owing to the +severity of the American winter. Professional football is not +played in America.</p> + +<p>The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men +on a field of 330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines +into squares with sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on +each side of the field. Until 1903 the field was divided by +latitudinal lines only and was therefore popularly called the +“gridiron”; subsequently it was called the “checkerboard.” +The end lines are called “goal-lines,” the side “touch-lines.” +The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle line, or +55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of +each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft. +in length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the +ground. The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby +type.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:668px; height:338px" src="images/img623.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Diagram of Field</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The football rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a scrimmage, the +first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the quarter-back, may carry it +forward beyond the line of scrimmage, provided in so doing he crosses such line at least +5 yds. from the point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore, +that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line of scrimmage +at least 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put in play. The field is marked +off at intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in +penalizing fouls and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained in three downs, and also +at intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the side lines, in order to assist the +referee in determining whether the quarter-back runs according to rule, or whether, +in case of a forward pass, such pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed +from the gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the above +diagram shows exactly how the field should be marked. As the width of the field +does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is wise to run the first line through the +middle point of the field and then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle +line. In order to save labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion of the +longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is accomplished if their points of intersection +with the transverse lines are distinctly marked, for instance, by a line a foot long.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2">A match game consists of two periods (<i>halves</i>) of thirty-five +minutes with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games +usually have shorter halves. There are four officials: the <i>umpire</i>, +whose duty it is to watch the conduct of the players and decide +regarding fouls; the <i>referee</i>, who decides questions regarding the +progress of the ball and of play; the <i>field judge</i> who assists +the referee and keeps the time; and the <i>linesman</i>, who (with two +assistants, one representing each eleven) marks the distance +gained or lost in each play.</p> + +<p>In scoring, a “touchdown” (the English Rugby “try”) counts +5 points, a goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the +touchdown), a “goal from the field,” whether from placement or +drop-kick, 4, and a “safety” (the English Rugby “touchdown”) +2. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, these are made as in English Rugby. +American Rugby differs from the English game, because in the +scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other, and, although +separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a constant +man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of “interference” +is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put +“on side” when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward +passing, <i>i.e.</i> throwing the ball toward the opponents’ goal, is +permissible under certain restrictions. The costume usually +consists of a close-fitting jersey with shoulders and elbows padded +and reinforced with leather; short trousers with padded thighs +and knees, heavy stockings and shoes with leather cleats. In the +early period of the game caps were worn, but, as they were +impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour of the +wearing of long hair, and the “chrysanthemum head” became +the distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +proved an inadequate protection, and some players now wear a +“head harness” of soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed +in the places of injured players.</p> + +<p>The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby, +and the rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking, +place-kicking, goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are +practically the same, except that, on a free kick after a fair +catch, the opposing players in the American game may not come +up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in front of it. In the +American game there is no scrummage in the English sense, nor +is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch. The +element of chance in both these methods of play was done away +with by the enunciation of the principle of the “possession of the +ball.” In America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a +runner has been tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is +also put into play by an evolution called a scrimmage, usually +called “line-up,” which beyond the name bears no resemblance +to the English scrummage. The ball, at every moment of the +game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to the other. +It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not being +able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive +attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven linemen +(<i>i.e.</i> forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-lines +on the spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The +ball is placed on the ground by the centre-rush, also called the +snapper-back, who, upon the signal being given by his quarter-back, +“snaps back” the ball to this player, or to the full-back, +by a quick movement of the hand or foot. The moment the ball is +snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it is a foul for the +side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an opponent +except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms); +or for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The +defenders may use their hands and arms only to get their +opponents out of the way in order to get at the man with the ball. +Each member of the attacking side endeavours, of course, to +prevent his opponents from breaking through and interfering +with the quarter-back, who requires this protection from his line +in order to have time to pass the ball to one of the backs, whom he +has notified by a signal to be ready. In the United States a +player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long as hands +and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called “blocking-off” +and “interference” when done to protect a friend running with +the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of +American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the +half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his +interference must form immediately. This means that one or +more of his fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs, +blocking off any opponent who <span class="correction" title="amended from trys">tries</span> to tackle him. The first +duty of the defence against a hostile run is therefore to break up +the interference, <i>i.e.</i> put these defenders out of the play, so that +the runner may be reached and tackled.</p> + +<p>The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off +or goal. If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account +of the direction of wind, the loser must kick off and send the +ball at least 10 yds. into the opponents’ territory from a place-kick +from the 55 yds. line. The two ends of the kicking side, +who are usually fast runners, get down the field after the ball +as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man who catches +the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the kick-off +is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it back +as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his +opponents the ball is down, and a line-up takes place, the ball +being in the possession of the catcher’s side, which now attacks. +In order to prevent the so-called “block game,” once prevalent, +in which neither side made any appreciable progress, the rules +provide that the side in possession of the ball must make <i>at +least 10 yds. in three successive attempts</i>, or, failing to do so, +must surrender the ball to the enemy, or, as it is called, “lose +the ball on downs”. This is infrequent in actual play, because +if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly successful, it becomes +evident that the chances of completing the obligatory 10-yd. +gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a forward +pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball on +the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball, +nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When +the wind is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often, +as the other side, not being able to kick back on equal terms, +is forced to play a rushing game, which is always exhausting. +Again, the kicking game is often resorted to by the side that has +the lead in the score, in order to save its men and yet retain the +advantage. The only remaining way to advance the ball is on +a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English game. The free +kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from placement. +Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is brought +back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who +carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the +side which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of +two ways. Either it may be touched to the ground and then +kicked at least 10 yds. towards the opponents’ goal, or it may be +taken into the field at right angles to the line a distance not +less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and there put down for a +line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring how far he will +go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.</p> + +<p>Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his +weight and ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back. +He must also, in case the full-back is to make the next play, +be able to throw the ball from between his legs accurately into +the full-back’s hands, thus saving the time that would be wasted +if the quarter-back were used as an intermediary. The two +“guards,” who must also be heavy men, form with the centre +the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in defence +blocking the enemy. The two “tackles” must be heavy +yet active and aggressive men, as they must not only help the +centre and guards in repelling assaults on the middle of the line, +but also assist the ends in stopping runs round the line as well +as those between tackle and end, a favourite point of attack. +The “ends” are chosen for their activity, sure tackling, fast +running and ability to follow up the ball after a kick. Of the +four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure +catcher and tackler and a fast runner. The two half-backs +must also be fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is +often chosen for his ability to gain ground by “bucking the line,” +<i>i.e.</i> plunging through the opposing team’s line. He must therefore +be over the average weight, while the other half-back is called +upon to gain by running round the opposing ends. The quarter-back +is the commanding general and therefore the most important +member of his side, as with him lies the choice of plays to be +made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in +decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities +absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains +the ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a +series of numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain +play that is to be carried through the moment the ball is snapped +back. A good quarter-back thinks rapidly and shouts his signal +for the next play as soon as a down has been called and while +the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays are run off rapidly +and the enemy is given as little time as possible to concentrate. +The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard them +from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating +every position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and +other open plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called +sequence-signals, and indicate a prearranged series of plays for +use in certain emergencies. Every manœuvre of the attacking +side is carried out by every member of the team, the ideal being +“every man in every play every time.” As soon as a signal is +given each man should know what part of the ensuing move will +fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for the runner, or getting +down the field under a punt. Every team has its own code.</p> + +<p>About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and +mass plays (wedge-formations, tandems, &c.), <i>i.e.</i> to the grouping +of bodies of men behind the line, and starting them before the +ball was snapped back, so that they struck the line with an +acquired momentum that was extremely severe, particularly +when met by men equally determined. These plays caused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most +important law providing for a limitation to the number of men +who could be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping +seven men drawn up in the line.</p> + +<p><i>Penalties</i> are of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for +refusing to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for +repeated fouls made with the intention of delaying the game; +(2) disqualification of players for unnecessary roughness or +ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for infringement of rules, for +which certain distances are taken away from the previous +gains of the side making the fouls.</p> + +<p>The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages interspersed +with runs and kicks. The systematized development +of plays places at the disposal of the quarter an infinite variety +of attack, which he seeks to direct at the opposing line with +bewildering rapidity and dash. During the preliminary games +of the season “straight football” is generally played; that is, +intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple plunges +into the line are mainly relied upon. “Trick plays,” which +comprise all manœuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved +for later and more important matches. Among these is the +“fake (false) kick,” in which the full-back takes position as if +to receive the ball for a kick, but the ball is passed to a different +player for a run. Another play of this kind is the “wing-shift,” +in which some or all of the players on one side of centre suddenly +change to the other side, thus forming a mass and throwing the +opponents’ line out of balance. To this category belong also +“double passes,” “false passes,” “delayed passes,” “delayed +runs” and “criss-crosses.”</p> + +<p>Training for football in America resembles that for other +sports in regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems +at the universities differ, but there is generally a head coach, +who is assisted by graduates, each of whom pays especial +attention to one set of men, one to the men in the centre of the +line, one to the backs, another to the ends, &c. Candidates for +the teams are put through a severe course of practice in catching +punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts, falling on the +ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking through +the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the kicking +is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves +particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the +ball whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of +cardinal importance in American football, and dribbling for this +reason is unknown. When running with the ball the player is +taught to take short steps, to follow his interference, that is, not +isolate himself from his defenders, and neither to slow up nor +shut his eyes when striking the opposing line. Tackling well +below the waist is taught, but it is a foul to tackle below the knee. +The general rule for defensive work of all kinds is “play low.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Walter Camp, <i>How to play Football</i>, and the <i>Official Football +Guide</i> (annual), both in Spalding’s Athletic Library; his <i>Book of +College Sports</i> (New York, 1893), his <i>American Football</i> (New York, +1894), and his <i>Football</i> (Boston, 1896)—the last in co-operation with +L.F. Deland; R.H. Barbour, <i>The Book of School and College Sports</i> +(New York, 1904); W.H. Lewis, <i>Primer of College Football</i> (Boston, +1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. B.; W. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, ANDREW HULL<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1806-1863), American admiral, was +born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806, +his father, Samuel Augustus Foote (1780-1846), being a prominent +lawyer and Whig politician, who as U.S. senator moved in 1829 +“Foote’s resolutions” on public lands, in the discussion of which +Daniel Webster made his “reply to Hayne.” He entered the +U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830. +After cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the “John Adams,” +he was assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later +(1846-1848) to the Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made +commander of the “Perry,” and engaged for two years in suppressing +the slave trade on the African coast. In 1856, as +commander of the “Portsmouth,” he served on the East India +station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the +Barrier Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak +of the Civil War, he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, +becoming a full captain in 1861. In August 1861 he was assigned +to the command “of the naval operations upon the Western +waters.” His exploit in capturing Fort Henry (on the right +bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the 6th +of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant’s +land forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success; +but their combined attack on Fort Donelson (12 m. off, on the left +bank of the Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry +garrison had escaped, resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16), +in heavy losses to Foote’s gunboats, Foote himself being severely +wounded. In March-April he co-operated in the capture of +New Madrid (<i>q.v.</i>) and Island No. 10. In June he retired from +his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral, and +became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On +the 26th of June 1863 he died at New York.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1847-  ), American author and +illustrator, was born in Milton, New York, on the 19th of +November 1847, of English Quaker ancestry. She was educated +at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female Collegiate Seminary and at +the Cooper Institute School of Design for women, in New York. +In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining engineer, +and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California, +Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories, +in which, as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough +picturesque life, especially the mining life, of the West. Some +of her best drawings appear in her own books. Among her +publications are <i>The Led-Horse Claim</i> (1883), <i>John Bodewin’s +Testimony</i> (1886), <i>The Chosen Valley</i> (1892), <i>Cœur d’Alene</i> +(1894); <i>The Prodigal</i> (1900), a novelette; <i>The Desert and the +Sown</i> (1902); and several collections of short stories, including +<i>A Touch of Sun and other Stories</i> (1903).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, SAMUEL<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor, +was baptized at Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his +attachment to his native Cornwall he gives no better proofs +as an author than by making the country booby Timothy (in +<i>The Knights</i>) sound the praises of that county and of its manly +pastimes; but towards his family he showed a loyal and enduring +affection. His father was a man of good family and position. +His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as +well as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally +supported in the days of his prosperity, and after her death +indignantly vindicated her character from the imputations +recklessly cast upon it by the revengeful spite of the duchess +of Kingston. About the time when Foote came of age, he +inherited his first fortune through the murder of his uncle, Sir +John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel +Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at +Worcester, and at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing +himself in both places by mimicry and audacious pleasantries +of all kinds, and, although he left Oxford without taking his +degree, acquiring a classical training which afterwards enabled +him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion, and helped +to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.</p> + +<p>Foote was “designed” for the law, but certainly not by +nature. In his chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian +Coffee-house hard by, he learned to know something of lawyers +if not of law, and was afterwards able to jest at the jargon and +to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and to satirize the Latitats +of the other branch of the profession with particular success. +The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in <i>The Lame Lovers</i>, +is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v. Pickwick. +But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house +in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was +the social centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the +second of which he appears to have inherited at his father’s +death), and had then passed through severe straits, he made +his first appearance on the actual stage in 1744. It is said that +he had married a young lady in Worcestershire; but the traces +of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to his washer-woman) +are mysterious, and probably apocryphal.</p> + +<p>Foote’s first appearance as an actor was made little more than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +two years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics, +including Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own +first venture, as Othello, was a failure; and though he was +fairly successful in genteel comedy parts, and was, after a favourable +reception at Dublin, enrolled as one of the regular company +at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746, he had not as yet +made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay neither in +tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder “where +the devil it <i>did</i> lie,” when his successful performance of the part +of Bayes in <i>The Rehearsal</i> at last suggested to him the true +outlet for his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the +example of Garrick, he had introduced into this famous part +imitations of actors, and had added a variety of other satirical +comment in the way of “gag.” Engaging a small company +of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April 1747, +at the theatre in the Haymarket “<i>gratis</i>,” “a new entertainment +called the <i>Diversions of the Morning</i>,” to which were to be added +a farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue “spoken by +the B-d-d Coffee-house.” Foote’s success in these <i>Diversions</i> +obtained for him the name of “the English Aristophanes,” +an absurd compliment, declined by Foote himself (see his letter +in <i>The Minor</i>). The <i>Diversions</i> consisted of a series of imitations +of actors and other well-known persons, whose various peculiarities +of voice, gesture, manner or dress were brought directly +before the spectators, while the epilogue introduced the wits +of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and specially +“took off” an eminent physician (probably the munificent +Sir William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in <i>The +Devil on Two Sticks</i>), and a notorious quack oculist of the day. +The actors ridiculed in this entertainment having at once procured +the aid of the constables for preventing its repetition, Foote +immediately advertised an invitation to his friends to drink +a dish of tea with him at the Haymarket on the following day at +noon—“and ’tis hoped there will be a great deal of comedy +and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make the morning +as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to be +had at St George’s coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no +person will be admitted. N.B.—<i>Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there, +and Lady Betty Frisk has absolutely promised.</i>” The device +succeeded to perfection; further resistance was abandoned +as futile by the actors, whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the +“instructions to his pupils” which the entertainer pretended +to impart (typifying them under characters embodying their +several chief peculiarities or defects—the massive and sonorous +James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy Ryan as a +razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had +an occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her +wares and the bill of the play); and Mr Foote’s <i>Chocolate</i>, +which was afterwards converted into an evening <i>Tea</i>, became +an established favourite with the town.</p> + +<p>In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend +a third fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his +means by a speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing +anecdote told of him by Johnson. But he could now command +a considerable income; and when money came he seems to have +freely expended it in both hospitality and charity. During +his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of which +he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and +more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of +other authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop +in his <i>Knights</i> (1749, printed 1754). <i>Taste</i> (1752), in which parts +of the <i>Diversions</i> were incorporated, was followed by some +eighteen pieces, the majority of which were produced at the +Haymarket, the favourite home of Foote’s entertainments. +In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this theatre a licence from +the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766) converted into a +licence for summer performances for life. The entertainments +were a succession of variations on the original idea of the +<i>Diversions</i> and the <i>Tea</i>. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures +(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second +act of the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on <i>Orators</i> (1754), +suggested by some bombastic discourses given by Macklin in +his old age at the Piazza coffee-house in Covent Garden, where +Foote had amused the audience and confounded the speaker +by interposing his humorous comments. <i>The Orators</i> is preserved +in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with a mock +lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England, +and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate, +to which Holberg’s <i>Politician-Tinman</i> can hardly have been a +stranger. At a later date (1773) a new device was introduced +in a <i>Puppet-show</i>. The piece (unprinted) played in this by the +puppets was called <i>Piety in Pattens</i>, and professed to show “by +the moral how maidens of low degree might become rich from +the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by the literature +how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed +under cover of words the most high flown.” In other words, +it was an attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not +altogether extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion +with the notorious Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from +the <i>Puppet-show</i>, and thus was avoided a recurrence of the +quarrel which many years before had led to an interchange +of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by Woodward of the +imitative Foote.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites +became very friendly, and on Foote’s part unmistakably +affectionate, and they have not been always generously represented +by Garrick’s biographers. A comparison between the +two as actors is of course out of the question; but, though +Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue, there +is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character +was one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson’s +opinions of him many records remain in Boswell; when Johnson +had at last found his way into Foote’s company (he afterwards +found it to Foote’s own table) he was unable to “resist” him, +and, on hearing of Foote’s death, he thought the career just +closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile most of poor Foote’s friendships in high life were +probably those that are sworn across the table, and require +“t’other bottle” to keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture—of +Lord Mexborough and his royal guest the duke of York, +and their companions, bantering Foote on his ignorance of horsemanship, +and after he had weakly protested his skill, taking him +out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and +broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the “patientee” +(in which character he said he was now making his first appearance) +consoling himself with the reflection that he would now +be able to take off “old Faulkner” (a pompous Dublin alderman +with a wooden leg, whom he had brought on the stage as Peter +Paragraph in <i>The Orators</i>) “to the life.” The duke of York +made him the best reparation in his power by promising him +a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and +Foote not only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp, +he considered the leg he had lost “a redundancy, a mere nothing +at all,” but ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two +of his later pieces, <i>The Lame Lover</i> and <i>The Devil on Two Sticks</i>, +while, with the true instinct of a public favourite, making constant +reference to it in plays and prologues. Though the characters +played by him in several of his later plays are comparatively +short and light, he continued to retain his hold over the public, +and about the year 1774 was beginning to think of withdrawing, +at least for a time, to the continent, when he became involved +in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his entertainments +nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick’s +case, and it is said in Johnson’s) put any visible restraint upon +personal satire. <i>The Author</i>, in which, under the infinitely +humorous character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh +gentleman of the name of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed, +been ultimately suppressed. But in general he had pursued +his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to public ridicule and +contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or supposed +quacks in medicine (as in <i>The Devil on Two Sticks</i>), enthusiasts +in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in <i>The Cozeners</i>) and George +Whitefield and his connexion (in <i>The Minor</i>). He had not only +dared the wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in <i>The</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +<i>Nabob</i>), and been rewarded by the withdrawal, from among +the pundits who rationalized away Whittington’s Cat, of Horace +Walpole and other eminent members of the body, but had in +the same play attacked a well-known representative of a very +influential though detested element in English society,—the +“Nabobs” themselves. But there was one species of cracked +porcelain which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with +impunity. The rumour of his intention to bring upon the stage, +in the character of Lady Kitty Crocodile in <i>The Trip to Calais</i>, +the notorious duchess of Kingston, whose trial for bigamy was +then (1775) impending, roused his intended victim to the utmost +fury; and the means and influence she had at her disposal +enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to +prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint +as to the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify +Foote’s character in every way that hatred and malice could +suggest. After he had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been +exchanged between the duchess and him equally characteristic +of their respective writers, Foote took his revenge upon the +chief of the duchess’s instruments, a “Reverend Doctor” +Jackson, who belonged to the “reptile” society of the journalists +of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of +<i>The Bankrupt</i>. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper +in <i>The Capuchin</i>, under which name the altered <i>Trip to Calais</i> +was performed in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were +not yet at an end; and a discharged servant of Foote’s was +suborned by Jackson to bring a charge of assault and apply +for a warrant against him. Though the attempt utterly broke +down, and Foote’s character was thus completely cleared, his +health and spirits had given way in the struggle—as to which, +though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part +of the public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the +very audiences of his own theatre had been, or had seemed to +be, divided in opinion. He thus resolved to withdraw, at least +for a time, from the effects of the storm, let his theatre to Colman, +and after making his last appearance there in May 1777, set +forth in October on a journey to France. But at Dover he fell +sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few hours +died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary’s church at Dover +(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that +he had a hand “open as day for melting charity.” His resting-place +in Westminster Abbey is without any memorial.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Foote’s chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of +mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the +mere outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose +likeness he assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility +of voice, though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice +was not disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assuming +characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies, +where he occasionally “doubled” parts. The excellent “patter” +of some of his plays, such as <i>The Liar</i> and <i>The Cozeners</i>, must have +greatly depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person +he was rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his overflowing +humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible +sparkle of his eyes.</p> + +<p>As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank. +He regarded comedy as “an exact representation of the peculiar +manners of that people among whom it happens to be performed; +a faithful imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which +are openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the +correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community.” +This he regarded as the <i>utile</i>, or useful purpose, of comedy; the +<i>dulce</i> he conceived to be “the fable, the construction, machinery, +conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece.” For part at least of this +view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly “Letter” in +which he replied, “to the Reverend Author of the ‘Remarks, +Critical and Christian,’ on <i>The Minor</i>”), he rather loftily appealed +to classical authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of +the <i>dulce</i> to the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species +of art. His comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and +reproducing characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that +he not only took them from real life, but closely modelled them on +well-known living men and women, was not in himself an artistic +sin. Nor indeed was the novelty of this process absolute, though +probably no other comic dramatist has ever gone so far in this +course, or has pursued it so persistently. The public delighted in his +“d——d fine originals,” because it recognized them as copies; and +he was himself proud that he had taken them from real persons, +instead of their being “vamped from antiquated plays, pilfered from +the French farces, or the baseless beings of the poet’s brain.” But +the real excellence of many of Foote’s comic characters lies in the +fact that, besides being incomparably ludicrous types of manners, +they remain admirable comic types of general human nature. Sir +Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile appetite for news; Lady Pentweazel, +and her preposterous vanity in her superannuated charms; +Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages of public schools +(where children may “make acquaintances that may hereafter be +useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they learn there, +does not signify twopence”); Major Sturgeon and Jerry Sneak; +Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or two +of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves, +whatever their origin; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed +by Foote’s vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic +treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies +in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute +contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention +or conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the +interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His +characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them. +With the exception of <i>The Liar</i> (which Foote pretended to have +taken from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele’s +adaptation of Corneille’s <i>Le Menteur</i>), and perhaps of <i>The Bankrupt</i>, +there is hardly one of Foote’s “comedies” in which the conception +and conduct of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest +farce. Not that sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters +are wanting, but these familiar ingredients are as incapable of +exciting real interest as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable +to produce more than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays +Foote constantly resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce—a +disguise. Of course Foote must have been well aware of the shortcomings +of his rapidly manufactured productions; he knew that if +he might sneer at “genteel comedy” as suited to the dramatists +of the servants’ hall, and pronounce the arts of the drama at the great +houses to be “directed by the genius of insipidity,” he, like the little +theatre where he held sway, was looked upon as “an eccentric, a +mere summer fly.”</p> + +<p>At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic +scenes of genuine farce. An oration of “old masters,” an election +of a suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians, +a newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputations +massacred—all these and other equally happy situations are +brought before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And +everywhere the comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour, +and the comic characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy +which at once raises them above the level of mere theatrical conventionalism. +Foote professed to despise the mere caricaturing of +national peculiarities as such, and generally used dialect as a mere +additional colouring; he was, however, too wide awake to the +demands of his public not to treat France and Frenchmen as fair +game, and coarsely to appeal to national prejudice. His satire +against those everlasting victims of English comedy and farce, the +Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned from Paris, was +doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he made fun of +the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the society +of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of +Foote’s social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it +is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone +of his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at +refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made +occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare +against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the +two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of Foote’s farces or “comedies” as he calls +them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print. +The date of production, and the character originally performed by +Foote, are added to the title of each:</p> + +<p><i>The Knights</i> (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir +Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the <i>Diversions</i> is +incorporated; <i>The Englishman in Paris</i> (1753: Young Buck); +<i>The Englishman returned from Paris</i> (1756: Sir Charles Buck); <i>The +Author</i> (1757: Cadwallader); <i>The Minor</i> (1760: Smirk and Mrs +Cole); <i>The Liar</i> (1762); <i>The Orators</i> (1762: Lecturer); <i>The Mayor +of Garratt</i> (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); <i>The Patron</i> +(1764: Sir Thomas Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); <i>The Commissary</i> +(1765: Mr Zac. Fungus); <i>The Devil upon Two Sticks</i> +(1768: Devil,—alias Dr Hercules Hellebore); <i>The Lame Lover</i> +(1770: Sir Luke Limp); <i>The Maid of Bath</i> (1771: Mr Flint); <i>The +Nabob</i> (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); <i>The Bankrupt</i> (1773: Sir Robert +Riscounter); <i>The Cozeners</i> (1774: Mr Aircastle); <i>The Capuchin</i>, a +second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by the censor (1776: +O’Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in 1763-1768.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Foote’s biography may be read in W. (“Conversation”) +Cooke’s <i>Memoirs of Samuel Foote</i> (3 vols., 1805), which +contain, amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things +and of anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously +unpublished occasional pieces (with the <i>Tragedy à la mode</i>, part of +the <i>Diversions</i>, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this +source seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information +in the rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by “Jon Bee” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +(John Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as “John Hunds”) to his +useful edition of Foote’s Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars +will be found in Tate Wilkinson’s <i>Wandering Patentee</i> (York, 1795) +and in other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, reprinted +with additions, from the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, in John Forster’s +<i>Biographical Essays</i> (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy +Fitzgerald (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTMAN,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a name given among articles of furniture to a +metal stand, usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong +or oval in shape, for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-room +fire. In the days before the general use of hot-water dishes +the footman possessed definite utility, but although it is still +in occasional use, it is now chiefly regarded as an ornament. +It was especially common in the hardware counties of England, +where it is still frequently seen; the simple conventionality +of its form is not inelegant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOTSCRAY,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, +on the Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne. +Pop. (1901) 18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from +which most of the building stones in Melbourne and the neighbourhood +is obtained; it is also an important manufacturing centre, +with numerous sugar-mills, jute factories, soap works, woollen-mills, +foundries, chemical works and many other minor industries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOOT-STALL,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a word supposed to be a literal translation of +<i>pièdestal</i>, or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Base</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOPPA, VINCENZO,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> Italian painter, was born near Brescia. +The dates of his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and +1492; but there is now good reason for substituting 1427 and +1515. He settled in Pavia towards 1456, and was the head of a +Lombard school of painting which subsisted up to the advent +of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia. His +contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in +perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially. +Among his noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan, +the “Martyrdom of St Sebastian”; and a “Crucifixion” in +the Carrara gallery, Bergamo, executed in 1455. He worked +much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his paintings are +now lost.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, <i>Vincenzo Foppa</i> (1910).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORAGE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender +collected for the food of the horses of an army. In early usage +the word was confined to the dried forage as opposed to grass. +From this word comes “foray,” an expedition in search of +“forage,” and hence a pillaging expedition, a raid. The word +“forage,” directly derived from the Fr. <i>fourrage</i>, comes from a +common Teutonic origin, and appears in “fodder,” food for +cattle. The ultimate Indo-European root, <i>pat</i>, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="pateisthai">πατεῖσθαι</span>, +Lat. <i>pascere</i>, to feed, gives “food,” “feed,” “foster”; and +appears also in such Latin derivatives as “pastor,” “pasture.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORAIN, J. L.<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1852-  ), French painter and illustrator, +was born in 1852. He became one of the leading modern +Parisian caricaturists, who in his merciless exposure of the +weaknesses of the <i>bourgeoisie</i> continued the work which was +begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The scathing +bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as his +pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in +his painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives +him to caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called “a Degas +pushed on to caricature.” In his pen-and-ink work he combines +extraordinary economy of means with the utmost power of +expression and suggestion. Forain’s popularity dates from the +publication of his <i>Comédie parisienne</i>, a series of two hundred +and fifty sketches republished in book form. He has contributed +many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the <i>Figaro</i>, +<i>Le Rire</i>, <i>L’Assiette au beurre</i>, <i>Le Courrier français</i>, and <i>L’Indiscret</i>. +His political drawings for the <i>Figaro</i> were republished +in book form under the title of <i>Doux Pays</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1846-  ), American +political leader, was born near Rainsboro, Highland county, +Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He passed his early life on a +farm, enlisted as a private in the 89th Ohio Volunteer Infantry +in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for part of the +time as an aide on the staff of General H.W. Slocum, and in +1865 received a captain’s brevet for “efficient services during +the campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia.” After the war +he spent two years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two +years at Cornell. In 1869 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and +began practice in Cincinnati. He was a judge of the Cincinnati +Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he was the Republican +candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in 1885 +and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in +1889. He then for eight years practised law with great success +in Cincinnati. In 1896 he was elected United States senator +to succeed Calvin S. Brice (1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected +and served until 1909. In the Senate he was one of the aggressive +Republican leaders, strongly supporting the administration of +President M’Kinley (whose name he presented to the Republican +National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in the debates preceding, +during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War, +and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt, +was conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence. +He vigorously opposed various measures advocated by the +president, and led the opposition to the president’s summary +discharge of certain negro troops after the Brownsville raid of +the 13th of August 1906 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brownsville</a></span>, Texas).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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