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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5
+       "Fleury, Claude" to "Foraker"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2011 [EBook #35747]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FLORENCE: "... while the new structures erected in their
+      place, especially those in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, are almost
+      uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine
+      architecture." 'Piazza' amended from 'Piaza'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLORIDA: "Not until the last decade of the 17th century did
+      the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the settlements beyond
+      the east coast." 'Not' amended from 'no'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLOWER: "The exine is a firm membrane, which defines the
+      figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it." 'exine'
+      amended from 'extine'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOG: "... the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the
+      reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the
+      case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps
+      not fairly included." 'rarefaction' amended from 'rarefraction'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "Association football is indeed, from the
+      standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in
+      its infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of
+      the eleven players into full relief throughout the game."
+      'throughout' amended from 'throughtout'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "This means that one or more of his fellows must
+      accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any opponent who
+      tries to tackle him." 'tries' amended from 'trys'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE V
+
+         Fleury, Claude to Foraker
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FLEURY, CLAUDE                  FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE
+  FLIEDNER, THEODOR               FLYING BUTTRESS
+  FLIGHT and FLYING               FLYING COLUMN
+  FLINCK, GOVERT                 "FLYING DUTCHMAN,"
+  FLINDERS, MATTHEW               FLYING-FISH
+  FLINSBERG                       FLYING-FOX
+  FLINT, AUSTIN                   FLYING-SQUIRREL
+  FLINT, ROBERT                   FLYSCH
+  FLINT, TIMOTHY                  FOCA
+  FLINT (Michigan, U.S.A.)        FOCHABERS
+  FLINT (county of North Wales)   FOCSHANI
+  FLINT (town of North Wales)     FOCUS
+  FLINT (crystalline substance)   FOG
+  FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS    FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO
+  FLOAT                           FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND
+  FLOCK                           FOGGIA
+  FLODDEN                         FÖHN
+  FLODOARD                        FÖHR
+  FLOE                            FOIL
+  FLOOD, HENRY                    FOIL-FENCING
+  FLOOD                           FOIX, PAUL DE
+  FLOOD PLAIN                     FOIX
+  FLOOR                           FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES
+  FLOORCLOTH                      FOLD
+  FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS         FOLENGO, TEOFILO
+  FLOR, ROGER DI                  FOLEY, JOHN HENRY
+  FLORA                           FOLEY, SIR THOMAS
+  FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR          FOLI, ALLAN JAMES
+  FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN        FOLIGNO
+  FLORENCE OF WORCESTER           FOLIO
+  FLORENCE (Alabama, U.S.A.)      FOLIUM
+  FLORENCE (capital of Tuscany)   FOLKES, MARTIN
+  FLORES (Atlantic Ocean island)  FOLKESTONE
+  FLORES (East Indies island)     FOLKLAND
+  FLOREZ, ENRIQUE                 FOLKLORE
+  FLORIAN, SAINT                  FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG
+  FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE  FOLLEN, KARL
+  FLORIANOPOLIS                   FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB
+  FLORIDA                         FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM
+  FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE         FOND DU LAC
+  FLORIDOR                        FONDI
+  FLORIN                          FONNI
+  FLORIO, GIOVANNI                FONSAGRADA
+  FLORIS, FRANS                   FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA
+  FLORUS                          FONSECA, BAY OF
+  FLORUS, JULIUS                  FONT
+  FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS          FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD
+  FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH ADOLF VON     FONTAINEBLEAU
+  FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN       FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE
+  FLOUNDER                        FONTANA, DOMENICO
+  FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE     FONTANA, LAVINIA
+  FLOURENS, GUSTAVE               FONTANA, PROSPERO
+  FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE     FONTANE, THEODOR
+  FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY       FONTANES, LOUIS
+  FLOWER                          FONTENAY-LE-COMTE
+  FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL             FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE
+  FLOYD, JOHN                     FONTENOY
+  FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN            FONTEVRAULT
+  FLOYER, SIR JOHN                FOOD
+  FLUDD, ROBERT                   FOOD PRESERVATION
+  FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT        FOOL
+  FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED        FOOLS, FEAST OF
+  FLUKE                           FOOLSCAP
+  FLUME                           FOOL'S PARSLEY
+  FLUMINI MAGGIORE                FOOT
+  FLUORANTHENE                    FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
+  FLUORENE                        FOOTBALL
+  FLUORESCEIN                     FOOTE, ANDREW HULL
+  FLUORESCENCE                    FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK
+  FLUORINE                        FOOTE, SAMUEL
+  FLUOR-SPAR                      FOOTMAN
+  FLUSHING (New York, U.S.A.)     FOOTSCRAY
+  FLUSHING (Zeeland, Holland)     FOOT-STALL
+  FLUTE                           FOPPA, VINCENZO
+  FLUX                            FORAGE
+  FLY                             FORAIN, J. L.
+  FLYCATCHER                      FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian, was born at
+Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for the bar, he was educated
+at the aristocratic college of Clermont (now that of Louis-le-Grand). In
+1658 he was nominated an advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for
+nine years followed the legal profession. But he had long been of a
+religious disposition, and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had
+been some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as tutor
+of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king next entrusted
+to him the education of the count of Vermandois, one of his natural
+sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received for his services the
+Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rhodez. In 1689 he was
+appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of
+Berry, and thus became intimately associated with Fénelon, their chief
+tutor. In 1696 he was elected to fill the place of La Bruyère in the
+French Academy; and on the completion of the education of the young
+princes the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the
+diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned, with
+rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu. About this time
+he began his great work, the first of the kind in France, and one for
+which he had been collecting materials for thirty years--the _Histoire
+ecclésiastique_. Fleury's evident intention was to write a history of
+the church for all classes of society; but at the time in which his
+great work appeared it was less religion than theology that absorbed the
+attention of the clergy and the educated public; and his work
+accordingly appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader,
+dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine, of
+discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood and the
+imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success. The first edition,
+printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was followed by many others,
+among which may be mentioned that of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692,
+and that of Nismes, in 25 vols. 8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury
+only comes down to the year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre
+and Goujet down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of
+Fleury and its supplement, the general table of contents, published by
+Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful. Translations
+have been made of the entire work into Latin, German and Italian. The
+Latin translation, published at Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo,
+carries the work down to 1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor
+to the young king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans
+said, he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but
+Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was equalled
+by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness of his conduct.
+
+  Fleury left many works besides his _Histoire ecclésiastique_. The
+  following deserve special mention:--_Histoire du droit françois_
+  (1674, 12mo); _Moeurs des Israélites_ (1681, 12mo); _Moeurs des
+  Chrétiens_ (1682, 12mo); _Traité du choix et de la méthode des études_
+  (1686, 2 vols. 12mo); _Les Devoirs des maîtres et des domestiques_
+  (1688, 12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one
+  volume at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned
+  his _Catéchisme historique_ (1679) and the _Institution du droit
+  ecclésiastique_ (1687).
+
+  See C. Ernst Simonetti, _Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers in
+  dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury_ (Göttingen, 1746,
+  4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, _Notice sur C. Fleury, considéré comme historien
+  de l'église_ (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg, _Geschichte
+  des Christentums, i._
+
+
+
+
+FLIEDNER, THEODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant divine, was born on the
+21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near Wiesbaden), the small village in
+which his father was pastor. He studied theology at the universities of
+Giessen and Göttingen, and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and
+at the age of twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent
+in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the
+Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine, a few
+miles below Düsseldorf. To help his people and to provide an endowment
+for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822 through part of Germany,
+and then in 1823 to Holland and England. He met with considerable
+success, and had opportunities of observing what was being done towards
+prison reform; in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist
+Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad state. The
+prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms, badly fed, and left in
+complete idleness. No one dreamed of instructing them, or of collecting
+statistics to form the basis of useful legislation on the subject.
+Fliedner, at first singly, undertook the work. He applied for permission
+to be imprisoned for some time, in order that he might look at prison
+life from the inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to
+hold fortnightly services in the Düsseldorf prison, and to visit the
+inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded themselves
+together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first Prison Society of
+Germany (_Rheinisch-Westfälischer Gefängnisverein_) was founded. In 1833
+Fliedner opened in his own parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for
+discharged female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly
+increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited his
+interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be best served by an
+organized body of specially trained women. Accordingly in 1836 he began
+the first deaconess house, and the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their
+ordination vows the deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the
+poor, the sick and the young; but their engagements were not final--they
+might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose. In
+addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an infant
+school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses (1836), an
+orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842), and an asylum for
+female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted at the foundation and in
+the management of similar institutions, not only in Germany, but in
+various parts of Europe.
+
+In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851 he
+travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East--the object
+of his journeys being to found "mother houses," which were to be not
+merely training schools for deaconesses, but also centres whence other
+training establishments might arise. He established a deaconess house in
+Jerusalem, and after his return assisted by counsel and money in the
+erection of establishments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and
+Bucharest. Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house
+of refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other
+institutions soon arose) and the "house of evening rest" for retired
+deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received the degree of
+doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in recognition rather of
+his practical activity than of his theological attainments. He died on
+the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind him over 100 stations attended
+by 430 deaconesses; and these by 1876 had increased to 150 with an
+attendance of 600.
+
+Fliedner's son FRITZ FLIEDNER (1845-1901), after studying in Halle and
+Tübingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in Madrid. He followed
+in his father's footsteps by founding several philanthropic institutions
+in Spain. He was also the author of a number of books, amongst which was
+an autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen_
+(1901).
+
+  Theodor Fliedner's writings are almost entirely of a practical
+  character. He edited a periodical, _Der Armen und Kranken Freund,_
+  which contained information regarding the various institutions, and
+  also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides
+  purely educational and devotional works, he wrote _Buch der Märtyrer_
+  (1852); _Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang.
+  Liebesanstalten zu Kaiserswerth_ (1856); _Nachricht über das
+  Diakonissen-Werk in der Christ. Kirche_ (5th ed., 1867); _Die evangel.
+  Märtyrer Ungarns und Siebenbürgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach
+  Jerusalem und Constantinopel_. All were published at Kaiserswerth.
+  There is a translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London,
+  1867). See also G. Fliedner, _Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines
+  Lebens und Wirkens_ (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work
+  _Kaiserswerth Deaconesses_ (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's
+  _Deaconesses_ (London, 1862); _The Service of the Poor_, by E.C.
+  Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson's _Praying and Working_
+  (London, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of modern times,
+there are few possessing a wider or more enduring interest than that of
+aerial navigation (see also AERONAUTICS). To fly has always been an
+object of ambition with man; nor will this occasion surprise when we
+remember the marvellous freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with
+non-volant animals. The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme
+difficulty. To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is,
+at first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are
+thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this feat. These
+creatures, however varied in form and structure, all fly according to
+one and the same principle; and this is a significant fact, as it tends
+to show that the air must be attacked in a particular way to ensure
+flight. It behoves us then at the outset to scrutinize very carefully
+the general configuration of flying animals, and in particular the size,
+shape and movements of their flying organs.
+
+Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from balloons,
+with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously compared; and a
+flying machine constructed upon proper principles can have nothing in
+common with either of those creations. The ship floats upon water and
+the balloon upon air; but the ship differs from the balloon, and the
+ship and the balloon differ from the flying creature and flying machine.
+The water and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The
+analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the
+balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature and
+flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported by the
+water and requires merely to be propelled; a flying creature and a
+flying machine constructed on the living type require to be both
+supported and propelled. This arises from the fact that water is much
+denser than air, and because water supports on its surface substances
+which fall through air. While water and air are both fluid media, they
+are to be distinguished from each other in the following particulars.
+Water is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible; air, on
+the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and compressible.
+If water be struck with violence, the recoil obtained is great when
+compared with the recoil obtained from air similarly treated. In water
+we get a maximum recoil with a minimum of displacement; in air, on the
+contrary, we obtain a minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement.
+Water and air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form
+_movable fulcra_ to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet these
+peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying animals
+(whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made not of rigid
+but of elastic materials. The travelling organs, moreover, increase in
+size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid to be acted upon. The
+difference in size of the travelling organs of animals becomes very
+marked when the land animals are contrasted with the aquatic, and the
+aquatic with the aerial, as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.
+
+The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well
+illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds. A bird
+when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately in a
+backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil. The water supports
+the bird, and the feet simply propel. In this case the bird is lighter
+than the water, and the long axis of the body is horizontal (a of fig.
+4). When the bird dives, or flies under water, the long axis of the body
+is inclined obliquely downwards and forwards, and the bird forces itself
+into and beneath the water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both.
+In diving or sub-aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards,
+the wings downwards and _backwards_ (b of fig. 4). In aerial flying
+everything is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely
+upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards and backwards,
+but downwards and _forwards_ (c of fig. 4). These changes in the
+direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming, diving and flying,
+and in the direction of the stroke of the wings in sub-aquatic and
+aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird is heavier than the air
+and lighter than the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chillingham Bull (_Bos Scoticus_). Small
+travelling extremities adapted for land. r, s, t, u, figure-of-8
+described by the feet in walking.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Turtle (_Chelonia imbricata_). Enlarged
+travelling extremities (flippers) adapted for water.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Bat (_Phyllocina gracilis_). Greatly
+expanded travelling extremities adapted for air.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a
+bird in (a) swimming, (b) diving, and (c) flying.]
+
+The physical properties of water and air explain in a great measure how
+the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how the latter differs
+from the flying creature and flying machine constructed on the natural
+type. The sailing ship is, as it were, immersed in two oceans, viz. an
+ocean of water and an ocean of air--the former being greatly heavier and
+denser than the latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and
+the ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel
+the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes the
+hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water, which, as
+explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the ship is in motion
+it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by the rudder alone, or
+by both combined. A balloon differs from a sailing ship in being
+immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean of air. It resembles the ship
+in floating upon the air, as the ship floats upon the water; in other
+words, the balloon is lighter than the air, as the ship is lighter than
+the water. But here all analogy ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being
+immersed in two fluids having different densities, can be steered and
+made to tack about in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in
+the case of the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The
+balloon in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its
+horizontal movements, which ought to be the more important, are
+accidental movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the
+balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt to steer
+a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence of oars, sails
+and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by currents of air. The
+balloon has no hold upon the air, and this consequently cannot be
+employed as a _fulcrum_ for regulating its course. The balloon, because
+of its vast size and from its being lighter than the air, is completely
+at the mercy of the wind. It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the
+wind for the time being, and the direction of the wind in every instance
+determines the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to
+propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its
+destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree of
+certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another, and hence
+the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as likely as not,
+carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a mere lifting machine
+and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying machine. It resembles the
+flying creature only in this, that it is immersed in the ocean of air in
+which it sustains itself. The mode of suspension is wholly different.
+The balloon floats because it is lighter than the air; the flying
+creature floats because it extracts from the air, by the vigorous
+downward action of its wings, a certain amount of upward recoil. The
+balloon is passive; the flying creature is active. The balloon is
+controlled by the wind; the flying creature controls the wind. The
+balloon in the absence of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical
+line; the flying creature can fly in a horizontal plane in any given
+direction. The balloon is inefficient because of its levity; the flying
+creature is efficient because of its weight.
+
+Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to flight.
+Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air. The inertia of
+the mass of the flying creature enables it to control and direct its
+movements in the air. Many are of opinion that flight is a mere matter
+of levity and power. This is quite a mistake. No machine, however light
+and powerful, will ever fly whose travelling surfaces are not properly
+fashioned and properly applied to the air.
+
+It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed in
+some mysterious way to flight, but this is now known to be erroneous.
+The bats and some of the best-flying birds have no air sacs. Similar
+remarks are to be made of the heated air imprisoned within the bones of
+certain birds.[1] Feathers even are not necessary to flight. Insects and
+bats have no feathers, and yet fly well. The only facts in natural
+history which appear even indirectly to countenance the flotation theory
+are the presence of a swimming bladder in some fishes, and the existence
+of membranous expansions or pseudo-wings in certain animals, such as the
+flying fish, flying dragon and flying squirrel. As, however, the animals
+referred to do not actually fly, but merely dart into the air and there
+sustain themselves for brief intervals, they afford no real support to
+the theory. The so-called floating animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6
+and 7.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Red-throated Dragon (_Draco haematopogon_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Flying Colugo (_Galeopithecus volans_); also
+called flying lemur and flying squirrel.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Flying Fish (_Exocoetus exiliens_).]
+
+It has been asserted, and with some degree of plausibility, that a fish
+lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter than the air
+might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind that, in point of
+fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold its own if the water
+were in the least perturbed, and that a bird lighter than the air would
+be swept into space by even a moderate breeze without hope of return.
+Weight and power are always associated in living animals, and the fact
+that living animals are made heavier than the medium they are to
+navigate may be regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight
+being necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the
+bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for the
+most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that flight in
+every instance is the product, not of superior levity, but of _weight_
+and _power_ directed upon properly constructed flying organs.
+
+This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying
+machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily be a
+light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of surface. On the
+contrary, it favours the belief that it should be a compact and
+moderately heavy and powerful structure, which trusts for elevation and
+propulsion entirely to its flying appliances--whether actively moving
+wings, or screws, or aeroplanes wedged forward by screws. It should
+attack and subdue the air, and never give the air an opportunity of
+attacking or subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a
+master, and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance
+elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be _multum
+in parvo_. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and must extract
+from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces--however fashioned
+and however applied--the recoil or resistance necessary to elevate and
+carry it forward. Extensive inert surfaces indeed are contra-indicated
+in a flying machine, as they approximate it to the balloon, which, as
+has been shown, cannot maintain its position in the air if there are air
+currents. A flying machine which could not face air currents would
+necessarily be a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to
+fall back upon _weight_, or rather the structures and appliances which
+weight represents. These appliances as indicated should not be
+unnecessarily expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever
+practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces, in
+preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.
+
+The question of surface is a very important one in aviation: it
+naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface. As
+there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal, so there
+are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying machine.
+Art should follow nature in this matter. The active surfaces in flying
+creatures are always greatly in excess of the passive ones, from the
+fact that the former virtually increase in proportion to the spaces
+through which they are made to travel. Nature not only distinguishes
+between active and passive surfaces in flying animals, but she strikes a
+just balance between them, and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces
+to the strength and weight of the flying creature and the air currents
+to which the surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to
+operate. In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects
+are to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she
+reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she likewise
+reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying surfaces.
+While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying animal as a
+whole, she increases as occasion demands the active or wing surfaces by
+wing movements, and the passive or dead surfaces by the forward motion
+of the body in progressive flight. She knows that if the wings are
+driven with sufficient rapidity they practically convert the spaces
+through which they move into solid bases of support; she also knows that
+the body in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it
+passes. The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the wing
+movements will be readily understood from the accompanying illustrations
+of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in motion (figs. 8 and 9). In
+fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body of the insect and the wings are,
+as compared with those of fig. 9, trifling. The wing would have much
+less purchase on fig. 8 than on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by
+the latter were passive or dead surfaces. But they are not dead
+surfaces: they represent the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating
+wings, which are actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings
+travel at a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are
+superior to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart
+through the wind in whatever direction it pleases.
+
+The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to realize
+that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes[2] in a flying machine
+would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically, as will be shown
+by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier than fig. 8, and if both
+were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9 would be more blown about than
+fig. 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Blow-fly (_Musca vomitoria_) with its wings at
+rest.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Blow-fly with its wings in motion as in flight.]
+
+It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the
+elytra or wing cases--thin, light, horny structures inclined slightly
+upwards--which in the act of flight are spread out and act as sustainers
+or gliders. The elytra, however, are comparatively long narrow
+structures which occupy a position in front of the wings, of which they
+may be regarded as forming the anterior parts. The elytra are to the
+delicate wings of some insects what the thick anterior margins are to
+stronger wings. The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures.
+They can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with the
+horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight, as flight
+in the great majority of instances is performed without them. The elytra
+serve as protectors to the wings when the wings are folded upon the back
+of the insect, and as they are extended on either side of the body more
+or less horizontally when the insect is flying they contribute to flight
+indirectly, in virtue of their being carried forward by the body in
+motion.
+
+_Natural Flight_.--The manner in which the wings of the insect traverse
+the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support, raises the
+whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, therefore, at this
+stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat fully to the
+subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and bat, a knowledge
+of natural flight preceding, and being in some sense indispensable to, a
+knowledge of artificial flight. The bodies of flying creatures are, as a
+rule, very strong, comparatively light and of an elongated form,--the
+bodies of birds being specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying
+creatures, however, are less remarkable for their strength, shape and
+comparative levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and
+complicated movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first
+satisfactorily analysed those movements, and reproduced them by the aid
+of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867[3] showed that all
+natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are screws
+structurally, and that they act as screws when they are made to vibrate,
+from the fact that they twist in opposite directions during the down and
+up strokes. He also explained that all wings act upon a common
+principle, and that they present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air,
+through which they pass much in the same way that an oar passes through
+water in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying
+creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already
+indicated) strike downwards and _forwards_ during the down strokes, and
+upwards and _forwards_ during the up strokes. Lastly he demonstrated
+that the wings of flying creatures, when the bodies of said creatures
+are fixed, describe _figure-of-8 tracks_ in space--the figure-of-8
+tracks, when the bodies are released and advancing as in rapid flight,
+being opened out and converted into _waved tracks_.
+
+  It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his
+  admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo
+  da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and
+  practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Spirals in Nature and
+  Art_, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo's chief work
+  on flight, bearing the title _Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie
+  Altre Materie_, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of
+  twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations
+  interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references
+  to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In
+  none of Leonardo's manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures,
+  is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral
+  movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the
+  wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the
+  stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by
+  modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo gives
+  a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of the
+  wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes downwards
+  and _backwards_, whereas in reality it strikes downwards and
+  _forwards_. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: "The wings
+  have to row downwards and _backwards_ to support the machine on high,
+  so that it moves forward." In speaking of natural flight he remarks:
+  "If in its descent the bird rows _backwards_ with its wings the bird
+  will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike the air which
+  successively runs behind the bird to fill the void whence it comes."
+  There is nothing in Leonardo's writings to show that he knew either
+  the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the modern sense.
+
+Pettigrew's discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements made by the
+wing in stationary and progressive flight was confirmed some two years
+after it was made by Prof. E.J. Marey of Paris[4] by the aid of the
+"sphygmograph."[5] The movements in question are now regarded as
+fundamental, from the fact that they are alike essential to natural and
+artificial flight.
+
+The following is Pettigrew's description of wings and wing movements
+published in 1867:--
+
+  "The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less
+  triangular in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards
+  the body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical
+  on section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape
+  converting the pinions into delicately graduated instruments balanced
+  with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular
+  system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air on
+  the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumerable
+  varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated or
+  scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some
+  lanceolate and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of
+  one or two pairs--the anterior or upper pair, when two are present,
+  being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous
+  condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. [Greek:
+  elytron], a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the
+  integument, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various
+  directions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists
+  as the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity
+  of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin,
+  where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae
+  are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
+  spiral stair--the anterior one occupying a higher position than that
+  farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also
+  to the margins, _the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves_
+  and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper
+  surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under
+  surface,--their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with
+  such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance and
+  the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the form of
+  wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited--the
+  pinions in those insects acting as _helices_, or _twisted levers_,
+  and elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would
+  seem to warrant" (figs. 10 and 11).... "To confer on the wings the
+  multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied with
+  double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move not only in
+  an upward, downward, forward and backward direction, but also at
+  various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with wings thus
+  hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be not inaptly
+  compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the universality of
+  motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness in another."...
+  "All wings obtain their leverage by presenting oblique surfaces to the
+  air, the degree of obliquity gradually increasing in a direction from
+  behind, forwards and downwards, during extension when the sudden or
+  effective stroke is being given, and gradually decreasing in an
+  opposite direction during flexion, or when the wing is being more
+  slowly recovered preparatory to making a second stroke. The effective
+  stroke in insects, and this holds true also of birds, is therefore
+  delivered _downwards and forwards_, and not, as the majority of
+  writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards.... The wing
+  in the insect is more flattened than in the bird; and advantage is
+  taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in
+  heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, _to reverse the
+  pinion more or less completely during the down and up strokes_."...
+  "This is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of the
+  wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction from
+  above downwards and from behind forwards--the anterior margin
+  travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating. The wing may
+  thus be said to attack the air by a _screwing movement_ from above.
+  During the up or return stroke, on the other hand, the posterior
+  margin rotates in a direction from below upwards and from before
+  backwards, so that by a similar but _reverse screwing motion_ the
+  pinion attacks the air from beneath."... "_A figure-of-8_, compressed
+  laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running from left to
+  right of the spectator, represents the movements in question. _The
+  down and up strokes_, as will be seen from this account, _cross each
+  other_, the wing smiting the air during its descent from above, as in
+  the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as in the flying
+  fish and boy's kite" (fig. 12).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_)
+  when at rest; seen from above.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_)
+  when in motion; seen from behind. This figure shows how the wing
+  twists and untwists when in action, and how it forms a true screw.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12 shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of
+  the wing in extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As
+  the tip of the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the
+  continuous and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The
+  arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how
+  the down and up strokes _cross each other_.]
+
+  ... "The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect or bird
+  may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward reciprocating
+  action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion. In these
+  instances the backward and forward strokes are made to counterbalance
+  each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with considerable
+  fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during extension and
+  flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an object, or
+  still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when the
+  down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and
+  progressing rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being
+  carried forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or
+  spiral course, as shown in fig. 13."
+
+  ... "The down and up strokes are compound movements--the termination
+  of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the up stroke, and the
+  termination of the up stroke including the beginning of the down
+  stroke. This is necessary in order that the down and up strokes may
+  glide into each other in such a manner as to prevent jerking and
+  unnecessary retardation."[6]...
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Wave track made by the wing in progressive
+  flight. a, b, Crests of the wave; c, d, e, up strokes; x, x, down
+  strokes; f, point corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing,
+  and forming a centre for the downward rotation of the wing (a, g); g,
+  point corresponding to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a
+  centre for the upward rotation of the wing (d, f).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--a, b, line along which the wing travels
+  during extension and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in
+  which the wing is spread out in extension and closed or folded in
+  flexion.
+
+  Extension (elbow).  Flexion (wrist).
+
+  Flexion (elbow).  Extension (wrist).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge
+  (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge
+  (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal and ventral aspects as seen from behind;
+  showing auger-like conformation of wing. Compare with figs. 11 and
+  18.]
+
+  "The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex, and
+  _more or less twisted upon itself_ when extended, so that the anterior
+  or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature
+  to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great
+  measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are twisted
+  upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular
+  surfaces--the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other
+  at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter
+  of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion.
+  As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing
+  may be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the
+  same plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during
+  either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of
+  the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance
+  in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
+  forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers which
+  they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact ensures
+  that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which the primary
+  and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and down upon the
+  wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn from the wind during
+  flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore be compared to a huge
+  gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet representing the bones of the
+  wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet the primary and
+  secondary feathers" (figs. 15 and 16).... "From this description it
+  will be evident that by the mere rotation of the bones of the forearm
+  and hand the maximum and minimum of resistance is secured much in the
+  same way that this object is attained by the alternate dipping and
+  feathering of an oar."... "The wing, both when at rest and when in
+  motion, may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw
+  propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of the
+  wing corresponds closely with the outline of the propeller (figs. 11,
+  16 and 18), and the track described by the wing in space _is twisted
+  upon itself_ propeller fashion[7] (figs. 12, 20, 21, 22, 23). The
+  great velocity with which the wing is driven converts the impression
+  or blur made by it into what is equivalent to a solid for the time
+  being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel in violent motion,
+  as is well understood, more or less completely occupy the space
+  contained within the rim or circumference of the wheel" (figs. 9, 20
+  and 21).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina
+  gracilis_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.]
+
+  ... "The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to that of
+  the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-transparent,
+  continuous membrane, supported in divers directions, particularly
+  towards its anterior margin, by a system of osseous stays or
+  stretchers which confer upon it the degree of rigidity requisite for
+  flight. It is, as a rule, deeply concave on its under or ventral
+  surface, and in this respect resembles the wing of the heavy-bodied
+  birds. The movement of the bat's wing in extension is a _spiral_ one,
+  the spiral running alternately from below upwards and forwards and
+  from above downwards and backwards. The action of the wing of the bat,
+  and the movements of its component bones, are essentially the same as
+  in the bird" (figs. 17 and 18).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina
+  gracilis_). Dorsal and ventral aspects, as seen from behind. These
+  show the screw-like configuration of the wing, and also how the wing
+  twists and untwists during its action.]
+
+  ... "The wing strikes the air precisely as a boy's kite would if it
+  were jerked by its string, the only difference being that the kite is
+  _pulled forwards_ upon the wind by the string and the hand, whereas in
+  the insect, bird and bat the wing is _pushed forwards_ on the wind by
+  the weight of the body and the power residing in the pinion itself"
+  (fig. 19).[8]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--The Cape Barn-owl (_Strix capensis_), showing
+the kite-like surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and
+body in flight.]
+
+The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to lead us to
+explain how it happens that the wing, which in many instances is a
+comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet attack the air with such
+vigour as to extract from it the recoil necessary to elevate and propel
+the flying creature. The accompanying figures from one of Pettigrew's
+later memoirs[9] will serve to explain the _rationale_ (figs. 20, 21, 22
+and 23).
+
+As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration sweeps
+through a comparatively very large space. This space, as already
+explained, is practically a solid basis of support for the wing and for
+the flying animal. The wing attacks the air in such a manner as
+virtually to have no slip--this for two reasons. The wing reverses
+instantly and acts as a kite during nearly the entire down and up
+strokes. The angles, moreover, made by the wing with the horizon during
+the down and up strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this
+is a remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed at
+which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase and
+decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to and fro are due
+partly to the resistance offered by the air, and partly to the mechanism
+and mode of application of the wing to the air. The wing, during its
+vibrations, rotates upon two separate centres, the tip rotating round
+the root of the wing as an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior
+margin rotating around the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing
+is really eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the
+rowing feathers of the bird's wing. The compound rotation goes on
+throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately associated
+with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately seizing and evading
+the air.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the
+left wing of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to
+vibrate. These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing
+with the horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing
+reverses and reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite
+directions, and describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22
+represent the forward or down stroke (a b c d e f g), figs. 21 and 23
+the backward or up stroke (g h i j k l a). The terms forward and back
+strokes are here employed with reference to the head of the insect, x,
+x', line to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or
+forward stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward
+stroke, it will be seen that _the wing crosses its own track_ more or
+less completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.]
+
+The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by the wing
+being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the wing to twist
+and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is made to vibrate. The
+twisting referred to is partly a vital and partly a mechanical
+act;--that is, it is occasioned in part by the action of the muscles and
+in part by the greater resistance experienced from the air by the tip
+and posterior margin of the wing as compared with the root and anterior
+margin,--the resistance experienced by the tip and posterior margin
+causing them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior
+margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior
+margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs. 9, 11,
+12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.
+
+The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is represented
+in fig. 24.
+
+Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the remarkable
+power which the wing possesses of making and utilizing its own currents.
+Thus, when the wing descends it draws after it a strong current, which,
+being met by the wing during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy
+of the up stroke. Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it
+creates an upward current, which, being met by the wing when it
+descends, powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke.
+This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with natural
+and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes are complete
+in themselves.
+
+The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed, and in
+such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide into each other.
+It is only in this way that the air can be made to pulsate, and that the
+rhythm of the wing and the air waves can be made to correspond. The air
+must be seized and let go in a certain order and at a certain speed to
+extract a maximum recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is
+regulated by the size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very
+much higher speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing,
+moreover, travel at different degrees of velocity--the tip and posterior
+margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater space, in a
+given time, than the root and anterior margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Wing of the Bird with its root (a, b) cranked
+forwards.
+
+  a, b, Short axis of the wing (axis for tip of wing, h).
+
+  c, d, Long axis (axis for posterior margin of wing, h, i, j, k, l).
+
+  m, n, Short axis of rowing feathers of wing.
+
+  r, s, Long axis of rowing feathers of wing. The rotation of the rowing
+  feathers on their long axis (they are eccentrics) enables them to open
+  or separate during the up, and close or come together during the down
+  strokes.
+
+  e f, g p, concave shape presented by the under surface of the wing.]
+
+The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases enormous. The
+wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at the rate of 110, and the
+common house-fly at the rate of 330 beats per second. Quick as are the
+vibrations of natural wings, the speed of certain parts of the wing is
+amazingly increased. Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a
+consequence, a comparatively slow and very limited movement at the root
+confers great range and immense speed at the tip, the speed of each
+portion of the wing increasing as the root of the wing is receded from.
+This is explained on a principle well understood in mechanics, viz. that
+when a wing or rod hinged at one end is made to move in a circle, the
+tip or free end of the wing or rod describes a much wider circle in a
+given time than a portion of the wing or rod nearer the hinge (fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25 shows how different portions of the wing travel
+at different degrees of speed. In this figure the rod a, b, hinged at x,
+represents the wing. When the wing is made to vibrate, its several
+portions travel through the spaces d b f, j k l, g h i, and e a c in
+exactly the same interval of time. The part of the wing marked b, which
+corresponds with the tip, consequently travels very much more rapidly
+than the part marked a, which corresponds with the root. m n, o p,
+curves made by the wing at the end of the up and down strokes; r,
+position of the wing at the middle of the stroke.]
+
+One naturally inquires why the high speed of wings, and why the
+progressive increase of speed at their tips and posterior margins? The
+answer is not far to seek. If the wings were not driven at a high speed,
+and if they were not eccentrics made to revolve upon two separate axes,
+they would of necessity be large cumbrous structures; but large heavy
+wings would be difficult to work, and what is worse, they would (if too
+large), instead of controlling the air, be controlled by it, and so
+cease to be flying organs.
+
+There is, however, another reason why wings should be made to vibrate at
+high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light, thin, elastic
+medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and unless the wings
+attacked it with great violence the necessary recoil or resistance could
+not be obtained. The atmosphere, because of its great tenuity, mobility
+and comparative imponderability, presents little resistance to bodies
+passing through it at low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly
+accelerated, the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to
+elicit a recoil. This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the
+resistance experienced varying according to the density of the
+atmosphere and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon
+it. While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the progress
+of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly difficult to
+compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy to convert it into
+a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary support and forward
+impetus. This arises from the fact that bodies moving in air experience
+a _minimum of resistance_ and occasion a _maximum of displacement_.
+Another and very obvious difficulty is traceable to the great disparity
+in the weight of air as compared with any known solid, and the
+consequent want of buoying or sustaining power which that disparity
+involves. If we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times
+lighter. To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are
+furnished with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which
+they apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of the
+third order. In this form of lever the power is applied between the
+fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power is represented by the
+wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the weight by the body of the flying
+animal. Although the third order of lever is particularly inefficient
+when the fulcrum is rigid and immobile, it possesses singular advantages
+when these conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as
+happens with the air, is _elastic_ and _yielding_. In this instance a
+very slight movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever
+directed towards the body, is followed by an immense sweep of the
+extremity of the wing, where its elevating and propelling power is
+greatest--this arrangement ensuring that the large quantity of air
+necessary for support and propulsion shall be compressed under the most
+favourable conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--In this figure f, f' represent the movable
+fulcra furnished by the air, p p' the power residing in the wing, and b
+the body to be moved. In order to make the problem of flight more
+intelligible, the lever formed by the wing is prolonged beyond the body
+(b), and to the root of the wing so extended the weight (w, w') is
+attached; x represents the universal joint by which the wing is attached
+to the body. When the wing ascends as shown at p, the air (fulcrum f)
+resists its upward passage, and forces the body (b) or its
+representative (w) slightly downwards. When the wing descends as shown
+at p', the air (fulcrum f') resists its downward passage, and forces the
+body (b) or its representative (w') slightly upwards. From this it
+follows that when the wing rises the body falls, and vice versa--the
+wing describing the arc of a large circle (f f'), the body (b), or the
+weights (w, w') representing it, describing the arc of a small circle.]
+
+In this process the weight of the body performs an important part, by
+acting upon the inclined planes formed by the wings in the plane of
+progression. The power and the weight may thus be said to reciprocate,
+the two sitting as it were side by side and blending their peculiar
+influences to produce a common result, as indicated at fig. 26.
+
+When the wings descend they elevate the body, the wings being active and
+the body passive; when the body descends it contributes to the elevation
+of the wings,[10] the body being active and the wings more or less
+passive. It is in this way that weight forms a factor in flight, the
+wings and the weight of the body reciprocating and mutually assisting
+and relieving each other. This is an argument for employing four wings
+in artificial flight,--the wings being so arranged that the two which
+are up shall always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are
+down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve the driving
+power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.
+
+That the weight of the body plays an important part in the production of
+flight may be proved by a very simple experiment. If two quill feathers
+are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged that they expand and arch
+above it (fig. 27), it is found that if the apparatus be dropped from a
+vertical height of 3 yds. it does not fall vertically downwards, but
+downwards and _forwards_ in a curve, the forward travel amounting in
+some instances to a yard and a half. Here the cork, in falling, acts
+upon the feathers (which are to all intents and purposes wings), and
+these in turn act upon the air, in such a manner as to produce a
+horizontal transference.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--a, b, quill feathers; c, cork; d, e, f, g,
+downward and _forward_ curved trajectory made by the feathers and cork
+before reaching the ground (h, i).]
+
+In order to utilize the air as a means of transit, the body in motion,
+whether it moves in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a
+force super-added, must be heavier than air. It must tread with its
+wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water, or as a kite
+upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple reason that the body
+must be active, the air passive. The flying body must act against
+gravitation, and elevate and carry itself forward at the expense of the
+air and of the force which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it
+were otherwise--if it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the
+one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other, it would
+float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an ordinary balloon.
+
+In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must attack
+the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must attack the
+wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a calm, the wings
+must be made to smite the air after the manner of a boy's kite with
+great vigour and at a high speed. In this case the wings fly the bird.
+If, however, the bird is fairly launched in space and a stiff breeze is
+blowing, all that is required in many instances is to extend the wings
+at a slight upward angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the
+wings present kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly
+moving air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the
+necessary illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights
+upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his wings with
+tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched. This done he extends
+his enormous pinions[11] and sails majestically along, seldom deigning
+to flap his wings, the breeze doing the work for him. A familiar
+illustration of the same principle may be witnessed any day when
+children are engaged in the pastime of kite-flying. If two boys attempt
+to fly a kite in a calm, the one must hold up the kite and let go when
+the other runs. In this case the under surface of the kite is made to
+strike the still air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it
+suffices if the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands
+still. In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface of
+the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the kite what
+the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined planes formed by
+its wings.
+
+The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully expanded,
+is greater than that of any other class of animal, their weight being
+proportionally less. As already stated, however, it ought never to be
+forgotten that even the lightest insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier
+than the air, and that no fixed relation exists between the weight of
+body and expanse of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied
+and large-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and
+others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and partridge.
+Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those apparent inconsistencies
+in the dimensions of the body and wings are readily explained by the
+greater muscular development of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects,
+birds and bats, and the increased power and rapidity with which the
+wings in them are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in
+the science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a
+heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well as by a
+lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore, there is
+apparently no correspondence between the area of the wing and the animal
+to be raised, there is, except in the case of sailing insects, birds and
+bats, an unvarying relation as to the weight and number of oscillations;
+so that the problem of flight would seem to resolve itself into one of
+weight, power, velocity and small surfaces, _versus_ buoyancy, debility,
+diminished speed and extensive surfaces--weight in either case being a
+_sine qua non_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Hawk and Pigeon.]
+
+That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and the size
+and weight of the body to be elevated is evident on comparing the
+dimensions of the wings and bodies of the several orders of insects,
+bats and birds. If such comparison be made, it will be found that the
+pinions in some instances diminish while the bodies increase, and the
+converse. No practical good can therefore accrue to aviation from
+elaborate measurements of the wings and body of any flying thing;
+neither can any rule be laid down as to the extent of surface required
+for sustaining a given weight in the air. The statements here advanced
+are borne out by the fact that the wings of insects, bats and birds may
+be materially reduced without impairing their powers of flight. In such
+cases the speed with which the wings are driven is increased in the
+direct ratio of the mutilation. The inference to be deduced from the
+foregoing is plainly this, that even in large-bodied, small-winged
+insects and birds the wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus
+wing area supplying that degree of elevating and sustaining power which
+is necessary to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal.
+In this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects, and
+the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,--the bats carrying
+their young without inconvenience, the birds elevating surprising
+quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28).
+
+While as explained, no definite relation exists between the weight of a
+flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there being, as
+stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds and bats, and the
+converse, and while, as has been shown, flight is possible within a wide
+range, the wings being, as a rule, in excess of what are required for
+the purposes of flight,--still it appears from the researches of L. de
+Lucy that there is a general law, to the effect that the larger the
+volant animal, the smaller, by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The
+existence of such a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight
+is concerned, for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy,
+powerful flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently
+comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very considerable
+importance, as the object desiderated in a flying machine is elevating
+capacity.
+
+De Lucy tabulated his results as under:--
+
+ +-------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+ |                        INSECTS                  |                BIRDS.              |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ |                           | Flying Surface      |                   |                |
+ |                           | referred to the     |                   | Flying Surface |
+ |                           |  Kilogramme         |                   | referred to the|
+ |          Names.           | = 2 lb. 8 oz. 3 dwt.|       Names.      | Kilogramme.    |
+ |                           |   2 gr. avoird.     |                   |                |
+ |                           | = 2 lb. 3 oz. 4.428 |                   |                |
+ |                           |   dr. troy.         |                   |                |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ |                           |  sq.                |                   |  sq.           |
+ |                           | yds.  ft.  in.      |                   | yds. ft. in.   |
+ | Gnat                      |  11    8   92       | Swallow           | 1    1   104½  |
+ | Dragon-fly (small)        |   7    2   56       | Sparrow           | 0    5   142½  |
+ | Coccinella (Lady-bird)    |   5   13   87       | Turtle-dove       | 0    4   100½  |
+ | Dragon-fly (common)       |   5    2   89       | Pigeon            | 0    2   113   |
+ | Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs|   3    5   11       | Stork             | 0    2    20   |
+ | Bee                       |   1    2   74½      | Vulture           | 0    1   116   |
+ | Meat-fly                  |   1    3   54½      | Crane of Australia| 0    0   130   |
+ | Drone (blue)              |   1    2   20       |                   |                |
+ | Cockchafer                |   1    2   50       |                   |                |
+ |          / Stag-beetle \  |                     |                   |                |
+ | Lucanus <   (female)   /  |   1    1   39½      |                   |                |
+ | cervus  |  Stag-beetle \  |                     |                   |                |
+ |          \  (male)     /  |   0    8   33       |                   |                |
+ | Rhinoceros-beetle         |   0    6  122½      |                   |                |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+  "It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always
+  decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal
+  increases in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one
+  another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the
+  stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs 150
+  times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of
+  surface, &c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs about
+  10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface. The
+  pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice as much
+  surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the Australian crane,
+  and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now we compare the insects
+  and the birds, the gradation will become even much more striking. The
+  gnat, for example, weighs 97,000 times less than the pigeon, and has
+  40 times more surface; it weighs three millions of times less than the
+  crane of Australia, and possesses 140 times more of surface than this
+  latter, the weight of which is about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 lb.
+  5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 lb. 15 oz. 2¼ dr. avoirdupois).
+
+  "The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has
+  the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it
+  does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139
+  sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre.
+  But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent
+  birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest
+  and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted,
+  the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of
+  which is the longest maintained."[12]
+
+The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air, and
+reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very obvious
+bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body of the flying
+creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the wing ascends, and
+is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing descends. The wing and
+body are consequently always playing at cross purposes, the wing rising
+when the body is falling and vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of
+the body and wing of the bird are well seen when contemplating the
+flight of the gull from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is
+following in the wake of the vessel. The complementary movements
+referred to are indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line
+represents the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line
+that made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, _the wing
+advances both when it rises and when it falls_. It is a peculiarity of
+natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the principle of
+living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed, even in a
+strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward. If, for
+instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical direction, as at
+a b of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and forwards in a double
+curve (see continuous line of figure) to c, thus converting the vertical
+down stroke into a _down, oblique, forward stroke_. If, again, the wing
+be suddenly elevated in a strictly vertical direction, as at c d, the
+wing as certainly darts upwards and forwards in a double curve to e,
+thus converting the vertical up strokes into an _upward, oblique,
+forward stroke_. The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from
+e to f and elevated from g to h, the wing describing a _waved track_ as
+at e g, g i.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the
+body describe _waved tracks_,--the crests of the waves made by the wing
+(a, c, e, g, i) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by
+the body (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).]
+
+There are good reasons why the wings should always be in advance of the
+body. A bird when flying is a body in motion; but a body in motion tends
+to fall not vertically downwards, but _downwards and forwards_. The
+wings consequently must be made to strike _forwards_ and kept in advance
+of the body of the bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling
+_downwards and forwards_. If the wings were to strike backwards in
+aerial flight, the bird would turn a forward somersault.
+
+That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and up strokes
+in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and experiment. If any
+one watches a bird rising from the ground or the water, he cannot fail
+to perceive that the head and body are slightly tilted upwards, and that
+the wings are made to descend with great vigour in a downward and
+_forward_ direction. The dead natural wing and a properly constructed
+artificial wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet,
+just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator believes to
+be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of the wing, in spite
+of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.--the amount of forward
+movement being regulated by the rapidity of the down stroke. This is a
+very striking experiment. The same thing happens with a properly
+constructed artificial wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with
+the natural wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and
+forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its wings
+towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during the down stroke
+_pushed_ the body of the bird in an upward and forward direction; in
+reality the wings do not push but _pull_, and in order to pull they must
+always be in advance of the body to be flown. If the wings did not
+themselves fly _forward_, they could not possibly cause the body of the
+bird to fly forward. It is the wings which cause the bird to fly.
+
+It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite, during
+both the down and the up strokes, its under concave or biting surface,
+in virtue of the forward travel communicated to it by the body of the
+flying creature, being closely applied to the air, during both its
+ascent and its descent. This explains how the wing furnishes a
+persistent buoyancy alike when it rises and when it falls (fig. 30).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the
+down and up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon
+(_a, b_) vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades
+the superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air
+during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double
+dotted lines (c g, i b) represent the down strokes, the single dotted
+line (h, i) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and
+angles made by the wing with the horizon (a, b) during the down strokes
+are indicated at c d e f g, j k l m,--those made during the up strokes
+being indicated at g h i. As the down and up strokes run into each
+other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards and
+the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface of the
+wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under surface
+seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this figure how the
+wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent buoyancy.]
+
+The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial kite
+only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in all its
+parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the latter is
+comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of the kite formed
+by the natural wing are rendered necessary by the fact that the wing, as
+already stated, is practically hinged at its root and along its anterior
+margin, an arrangement which necessitates its several parts travelling
+at different degrees of speed, in proportion as they are removed from
+the axes of rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the
+root, and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a
+_twisting diagonal movement_ of the wing on its long axis, which, but
+for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments. The
+elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing, and
+ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the same
+instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would reverse at
+precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be characterized by
+pauses or dead points at the end of the down and up strokes which would
+be fatal to it as a flying organ. The elastic properties of the wing are
+absolutely essential, when the mechanism and movements of the pinion are
+taken into account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying
+instrument.
+
+The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those upon
+which the constructors of flying machines very properly ground their
+hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be conferred on artificial
+wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar structures; and these
+structures, if we may judge from what we find in nature, _should be of
+moderate size and elastic_. The power of the flying organs will be
+increased if they are driven at a comparatively high speed, and
+particularly if they are made to reverse and reciprocate, as in this
+case they will practically create the currents upon which they are
+destined to rise and advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces
+with the horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should be
+small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated, is true
+of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings and their
+analogues.
+
+_Artificial Flight_.--We are now in a position to enter upon a
+consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of artificial
+flight and flying machines.
+
+We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenticated account
+of an artificial wing was given by G.A. Borelli in 1670. This author,
+distinguished alike as a physiologist, mathematician and mechanician,
+describes and figures a bird with artificial wings, each of which
+consists of _a rigid rod in front and flexible feathers behind_. The
+wings are represented as striking _vertically downwards_, as the annexed
+duplicate of Borelli's figure shows (fig. 31).
+
+Borelli was of opinion that flight resulted from the application of an
+inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge action. He,
+in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges itself forward upon the
+air by the perpendicular vibration of its wings, the wings during their
+action forming a wedge, the base of which (c b e) is directed towards
+the head of the bird, the apex (a f) being directed towards the tail
+(d). In the 196th proposition of his work (_De motu animalium_, Leiden,
+1685) he states that--
+
+  "If the expanded wings of a bird suspended in the air shall strike the
+  undisturbed air beneath it with a motion _perpendicular to the
+  horizon_, the bird will fly with a _transverse motion_ in a plane
+  parallel with the horizon." "If," he adds, "the wings of the bird be
+  expanded, and the under surfaces of the wings be struck by the air
+  _ascending perpendicularly to the horizon_ with such a force as shall
+  prevent the bird gliding downwards (i.e. with a tendency to glide
+  downwards) from falling, it will be urged in a horizontal direction."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31. Borelli's bird with artificial wings.
+
+    r e, Anterior margin of the right wing, consisting of a rigid rod.
+
+    o a, Posterior margin of the right wing, consisting of flexible
+    feathers.
+
+    b c, Anterior; and
+
+    f, Posterior margins of the left wing same as the right.
+
+    d, Tail of the bird.
+
+    r g, d h, Vertical direction of the down stroke of the wing.]
+
+  The same argument is restated in different words as under:--"If the
+  air under the wings be struck by the flexible portions of the wings
+  (_flabella_, literally fly flaps or small fans) with a motion
+  perpendicular to the horizon, the sails (_vela_) and flexible portions
+  of the wings (_flabella_) will yield in an upward direction and form a
+  wedge, the point of which is directed towards the tail. Whether,
+  therefore, the air strikes the wings from below, or the wings strike
+  the air from above, the result is the same,--the posterior or flexible
+  margins of the wings _yield in an upward direction_, and in so doing
+  urge the bird in a _horizontal direction_."
+
+There are three points in Borelli's argument to which it is necessary to
+draw attention: (1) the direction of the down stroke: it is stated to be
+_vertically downwards_; (2) the construction of the anterior margin of
+the wing: it is stated to consist of _a rigid rod_; (3) the function
+delegated to the posterior margin of the wing: it is said _to yield in
+an upward direction_ during the down stroke.
+
+With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing strikes
+vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body of a flying
+bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion tends to fall
+downwards and forwards, the wing must strike downwards and forwards in
+order effectually to prevent its fall. Moreover, in point of fact, all
+natural wings, and all artificial wings constructed on the natural type,
+invariably strike downwards and forwards.
+
+With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity of the
+anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine the
+anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they are in every
+case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to properly constructed
+artificial wings. If the anterior margins of natural and artificial
+wings were rigid, it would be impossible to make them vibrate smoothly
+and continuously. This is a matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a
+wing with a rigid anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is
+characterized by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up
+strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady fanning
+movement peculiar to natural wings.
+
+As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior margin
+of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to remark that the
+statement is true if it means a slight upward bending, but that it is
+untrue if it means an extensive upward bending.
+
+Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one of his
+followers, E.J. Marey, maintains that during the down stroke the wing
+yields until its under surface makes a backward angle with the horizon
+of 45°. Marey further states that during the up stroke the wing yields
+to a corresponding extent in an opposite direction--the posterior margin
+of the wing, according to him, passing through an angle of 90°, plus or
+minus according to circumstances, every time the wing rises and falls.
+
+That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent during
+both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted, alike because of
+the very delicate and highly elastic properties of the posterior margins
+of the wing, and because of the comparatively great force employed in
+its propulsion; but that it does not yield to the extent stated by Marey
+is a matter of absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any
+one watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will
+observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never rises
+during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the under
+surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards. On the contrary,
+he will perceive that the under surface of the wing (during the down
+stroke) invariably looks forwards and forms a true kite with the
+horizon, the angles made by the kite varying at every part of the down
+stroke, as shown more particularly at c d e f g, i j k l m of fig. 30.
+
+The authors who have adopted Borelli's plan of artificial wing, and who
+have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing's action most fully, are
+J. Chabrier, H.E.G. Strauss-Dürckheim and Marey. Borelli's artificial
+wing, it will be remembered, consists of a rigid rod in front and a
+flexible sail behind. It is also made to strike vertically downwards.
+According to Chabrier, the wing has only one period of activity. He
+believes that if the wing be suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles,
+it is elevated solely by the reaction of the air. There is one
+unanswerable objection to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if
+not all the insects, have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate
+their wings at pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the
+reaction of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Dürckheim agrees with
+Borelli both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion
+that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined plane a
+component force (composant) which it employs to support and direct
+itself. In his theology of nature he describes a schematic wing as
+consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible sail behind. A
+membrane so constructed will, according to him, be fit for flight. It
+will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers itself successively. It
+will of its own accord dispose itself as an inclined plane, and
+receiving obliquely the reaction of the air, it transfers into tractile
+force a part of the vertical impulsion it has received. These two parts
+of the wing, moreover, are equally indispensable to each other.
+
+Marey repeats Borelli and Dürckheim with very trifling modifications, so
+late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings, the one composed of a
+rigid rod and sail--the rod representing the stiff anterior margin of
+the wing; the sail, which is made of paper bordered with cardboard, the
+flexible posterior margin. The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in
+front and behind of thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He
+states that if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, "the
+resistance of the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements.
+In effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power
+of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the extended
+nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and flexible. During the
+vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure has the power of remaining
+rigid, whereas the flexible portion, being pushed in an upward direction
+on account of the resistance it experiences from the air, assumes an
+oblique position which causes the upper surface of the wing to look
+forwards." The reverse of this, in Marey's opinion, takes place during
+the elevation of the wing--the resistance of the air from above causing
+the upper surface of the wing to look backwards.... "At first," he says,
+"the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the animal. It
+lowers itself--the front part of the wing strongly resists, the sail
+which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by the ribbing (the
+anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself, the sail or posterior
+margin of the wing being raised meanwhile by the air, which sets it
+straight again, the sail will take an intermediate position and incline
+itself about 45° plus or minus according to circumstances.... The wing
+continues its movements of depression inclined to the horizon; but the
+impulse of the air, which continues its effect, and naturally acts upon
+the surface which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself into two
+forces, a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices to raise
+the animal, the second to move it along."[13] Marey, it will be
+observed, reproduces Borelli's artificial wing, and even his text, at a
+distance of nearly two centuries.
+
+The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact imitation
+of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more or less
+triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin, and thin at the
+tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid. It is, on the
+contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout. It is furnished with
+springs at its root to contribute to its continued play, and is applied
+to the air by a direct piston action in such a way that it descends in a
+downward and forward direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an
+upward and forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and
+propels both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists
+during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in space,
+precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most marked at the
+tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of the posterior margin
+next the tip. The wing when in action may be divided into two portions
+by a line running diagonally between the tip of the wing anteriorly and
+the root of the wing posteriorly. The tip and posterior parts of the
+wing are more active than the root and anterior parts, from the fact
+that the tip and posterior parts (the wing is an eccentric) always
+travel through greater spaces, in a given time, than the root and
+anterior parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists
+during its action, to form _a mobile helix or screw_. This wing is made
+to vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be
+propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.
+
+  a b, Anterior margin of wing, to which the neurae or ribs are affixed.
+
+  c d, Posterior margin of wing crossing anterior one.
+
+  x, Ball-and-socket joint at root of wing, the wing being attached to
+  the side of the cylinder by the socket.
+
+  t, Cylinder.
+
+  r r, Piston, with cross heads (w, w) and piston head (s).
+
+  o o, Stuffing boxes.
+
+  e, f, Driving chains.
+
+  m, Superior elastic band, which assists in elevating the wing.
+
+  n, Inferior elastic band, which antagonizes m. The alternate
+  stretching of the superior and inferior elastic bands contributes to
+  the continuous play of the wing, by preventing dead points at the end
+  of the down and up strokes. The wing is free to move in a vertical and
+  horizontal direction and at any degree of obliquity.]
+
+The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields freely in a
+downward direction during the up stroke, while it yields comparatively
+little in an upward direction during the down stroke; and this is a
+distinguishing feature, as the wing is thus made to fold and elude the
+air more or less completely during the up stroke, whereas it is made to
+expand and seize the air with avidity during the down stroke. The
+oblique line referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually
+divides the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating
+and propelling, the latter sustaining.
+
+It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise function
+discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment tends to show that
+the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior margin propels, and the root
+sustains.
+
+The wing--and this is important--is driven by a direct piston action
+with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion having communicated
+to it a smart click at the beginning of every down stroke--the up stroke
+being more uniform. The following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the
+artificial wing here represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural
+wing as depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in
+the one which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to
+the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to be applied
+to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the head of the
+piston. This wing, like the single wing described, twists and untwists
+as it rises and falls, and possesses all the characteristics of the
+natural wing (fig. 34).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each
+wing forms a mobile helix or screw.
+
+  a b, Anterior margin of left wing.
+
+  c d, Posterior margin of ditto.
+
+  d g, Primary or rowing feathers of left wing.
+
+  g a, Secondary feathers ditto.
+
+  x,   Root of right wing with ball-and-socket joint.
+
+  l,   Elbow joint.
+
+  m,   Wrist joint,
+
+  n,o, Hand and finger joints.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston
+action. During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly
+convex on its upper surface (a b c d, A A'); its under surface (e f g h,
+A A') being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards.
+It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke.
+During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every
+direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form two
+screws, as seen at a' b' c' d', e' f' g' h', B, B'. The active area of
+the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during the up
+stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke; the wing
+seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than during the up
+stroke. _i, j, k_, elastic band to regulate the expansion of the wing;
+l, piston; m, piston head; n, cylinder.]
+
+He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two blades,
+which taper and become thinner towards the tips and posterior margins.
+When the screw is made to rotate, the blades, because of their
+elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the angles being least
+where the speed of the blades is greatest and vice versa. The pitch of
+the blades is thus regulated by the speed attained (fig. 35).
+
+The peculiarity of Pettigrew's wings and screws consists in their
+elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative length
+and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air when they are at
+rest, and when in motion the speed with which they are driven is such as
+to ensure that the comparatively large spaces through which they travel
+shall practically be converted into solid bases of support.
+
+After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw
+configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more
+especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings,
+and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construction of
+flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by D.S. Brown,[14]
+elastic aerial screws by J. Armour,[15] and elastic aeroplanes, wings
+and screws by Alphonse Pénaud.[16]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades
+resembling wings (a b c d, e f g h).
+
+  x, End of driving shaft.
+
+  v,w, Sockets in which the roots of the blades of the screw rotate, the
+  degree of rotation being limited by steel springs (z, s).
+
+  a b, e f, tapering elastic rods forming anterior or thick margins of
+  blades of screw.
+
+  d c, h g, Posterior or thin elastic margins of blades of screw. The
+  arrows m, n, o, p, q, r indicate the direction of travel.]
+
+Pénaud's experiments are alike interesting and instructive. He
+constructed models to fly by three different methods:--(a) by means of
+screws acting vertically upwards; (b) by aeroplanes propelled
+horizontally by screws; and (c) by wings which flapped in an upward and
+downward direction. An account of his helicoptère or screw model
+appeared in the _Aeronaut_ for January 1872, but before giving a
+description of it, it may be well to state very briefly what is known
+regarding the history of the screw as applied to the air.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cayley's Flying Model.]
+
+The first suggestion on this subject was given by A.J.P. Paucton in
+1768. This author, in his treatise on the _Théorie de la vis
+d'Archimède_, describes a machine provided with two screws which he
+calls a "ptérophores." In 1796 Sir George Cayley gave a practical
+illustration of the efficacy of the screw as applied to the air by
+constructing a small machine, consisting of two screws made of quill
+feathers, a representation of which we annex (fig. 36). Sir George
+writes as under:--
+
+  "As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a machine
+  rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my present
+  communication by describing an instrument of this kind, which any one
+  can construct at the expense of ten minutes' labour.
+
+  "a and b, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted four
+  wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like the
+  sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A round
+  shaft is fixed in the cork a, which ends in a sharp point. At the
+  upper part of the cork b is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small
+  pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is
+  then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the
+  shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by
+  turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may
+  unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the cork
+  with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on the
+  upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from unwinding,
+  and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the
+  ceiling."
+
+Cayley's screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were superimposed and
+rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that if the area of the
+screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and moved by a man, they would
+elevate him. His interesting experiment is described at length, and the
+apparatus figured in _Nicolson's Journal_, 1809, p. 172.
+
+Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris Sarti in 1823,
+followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing flying models on the
+vertical screw principle. In 1842 W.H. Phillips succeeded, it is stated,
+in elevating a steam model by the aid of revolving fans, which according
+to his account flew across two fields after having attained a great
+altitude; and in 1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be
+sustained by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by
+vertical screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave
+de Ponton d'Amécourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who exhibited
+models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended with graduated
+weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These models were so fragile
+that they usually broke in coming in contact with the ground in their
+descent. Their flight, moreover, was unsatisfactory, from the fact that
+it only lasted a few seconds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--De la Landelle's Flying-machine. m, n, o, p;
+q, r, s, t, Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards.
+The vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the
+machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an extensive
+aeroplane.]
+
+Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton d'Amécourt had a
+small steam model constructed. This model, which was shown at the
+exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain at the Crystal
+Palace in 1868, consisted of two superposed screws propelled by an
+engine, the steam for which was generated (for lightness) in an
+aluminium boiler. This steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only
+lifted a third of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle's
+ideas.
+
+All the models referred to (Cayley's excepted[17]) were provided with
+rigid screws. In 1872 Pénaud discarded the rigid screws in favour of
+elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Hélicoptère or Screw-Model, by Pénaud.]
+
+Pénaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the whalebone and
+clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam of the larger ones.
+His hélicoptère or screw-model is remarkable for its lightness,
+simplicity and power. The accompanying sketch will serve to illustrate
+its construction (fig. 38). It consists of two superposed elastic screws
+(a a, b b), the upper of which (a a) is fixed in a vertical frame (c),
+which is pivoted in the central part (d) of the under screw. From the
+centre of the under screw an axle provided with a hook (e), which
+performs the part of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between
+the hook or crank (e) and the centre of the upper screw (a a), the
+india-rubber in a state of torsion (f) extends. By fixing the lower
+screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times the
+requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The apparatus when
+liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height of 50 ft., and
+gyrates in large circles for a period varying from 15 to 30 seconds.
+
+Pénaud next directed his attention to the construction of a model, to be
+propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic aeroplane extending
+horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed such a machine in 1810, and
+W.S. Henson constructed and patented a similar machine in 1842. Several
+inventors succeeded in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and
+screws, as, e.g. J. Stringfellow in 1847,[18] and F. du Temple in 1857.
+These models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found
+exceedingly difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of
+stability fore and aft and laterally. Pénaud succeeded in overcoming the
+difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated an
+automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane placed aft
+or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic. The two elastic
+aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a slight upward angle with the
+horizon, the angle made by the smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being
+slightly in excess of that made by the larger. The motive power was
+india-rubber in the condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The
+reader will understand the arrangement by a reference to the
+accompanying drawing (fig. 39).
+
+Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two screws, one
+fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions; and in the event of
+only one screw being employed it may be placed in front of or behind the
+aeroplane.
+
+When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about 2 ft., after
+which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and flies in a forward
+direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from the ground for a
+distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this distance in from 10 to 11
+seconds, its mean speed being something like 12 ft. per second. From
+experiments made with this model, Pénaud calculates that one horse-power
+would elevate and support 85 lb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.
+
+  a a, Elastic aeroplane.
+
+  b b, Automatic rudder.
+
+  c c, Aerial screw centred at f.
+
+  d, Frame supporting aeroplane, rudder and screw.
+
+  e, India-rubber, in a state of torsion, attached to hook or crank at
+  f. By holding the aeroplane (a a) and turning the screw (c c) the
+  necessary power is obtained by torsion. (Pénaud.)]
+
+D.S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-biplanes. His
+experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes united by a central shaft
+or shafts, and separated by a wide interval, always produce increased
+stability. The production of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is
+in some respects the most difficult, but this also has been attempted
+and achieved. Pénaud and A.H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged
+models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to construct an
+artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli, Strauss-Dürckheim
+and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect never having been able to
+lift more than a third of its own weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pénaud's Artificial Flying Bird.
+
+  a b c d, a' b' c' d', Elastic wings, which twist and untwist when made
+  to vibrate.
+
+  a b, a' b', Anterior margins of wings.
+
+  c d, c' d', Posterior margins of wings.
+
+  c, c', Inner portions of wings attached to central shaft of model by
+  elastic bands at e.
+
+  f, India-rubber in a state of torsion, which provides the motive
+  power, by causing the crank situated between the vertical wing
+  supports (g) to rotate; as the crank revolves the wings are made to
+  vibrate by means of two rods which extend between the crank and the
+  roots of the wings.
+
+  h, Tail of artificial bird.]
+
+De Villeneuve and Pénaud constructed their winged models on different
+types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird. De Villeneuve
+made the wings of his artificial bat conical in shape and comparatively
+rigid. He controlled the movements of the wings, and made them strike
+downwards and forwards in imitation of natural wings. His model
+possessed great power of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with
+ease, and flew in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and
+at a velocity of 20 m. an hour. Pénaud's model differed from de
+Villeneuve's in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins
+of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the
+anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber springs were
+made to extend between the inner posterior parts of the wings and the
+frame, corresponding to the backbone of the bird.
+
+A vertical movement having been communicated by means of india-rubber in
+a state of torsion to the roots of the wings, the wings themselves, in
+virtue of their elasticity, and because of the resistance experienced
+from the air, twisted and untwisted and formed reciprocating screws,
+precisely analogous to those originally described and figured by
+Pettigrew in 1867. Pénaud's arrangement is shown in fig. 40.
+
+If the left wing of Pénaud's model (a b, c d of fig. 40) be compared
+with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew's artificial wing
+(fig. 32), the identity of principle and application is at once
+apparent.
+
+In Pénaud's artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the addition
+of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground, but on being
+liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when, having acquired
+initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance of 50 or more
+feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following are the
+measurements of the model in question:--length of wing from tip to tip,
+32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber, &c., 73 grammes
+(about 2½ ounces).     (J. B. P.)
+
+
+_Flying Machines_.--Henson's flying machine, designed in 1843, was the
+earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale. Henson was one of the
+first to combine aerial screws with extensive supporting structures
+occupying a nearly horizontal position. The accompanying illustration
+explains the combination (fig. 41).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Henson's Aerostat.]
+
+  "The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse of its
+  sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight it
+  had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced with its
+  front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present its
+  under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of
+  which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill,
+  prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining of
+  the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled
+  through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged on
+  the air in its front.... The machine, fully prepared for flight, was
+  started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it
+  attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress.
+  That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the
+  air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the
+  steam-engine and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of
+  velocity; it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight
+  necessary for that small effect." The editor of Newton's _Journal of
+  Arts and Sciences_ speaks of it thus:--"The apparatus consists of a
+  car containing the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &c., to which a
+  rectangular frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with
+  canvas or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side
+  of the car in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird;
+  but with this difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the
+  wings are two vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which
+  are intended to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like
+  circular wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of a
+  steamboat, and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill.
+  These wheels receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or
+  other engine contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car
+  a triangular frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which
+  is also covered with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or
+  contracted at pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of
+  causing the machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a rudder
+  for directing the course of the machine to the right or to the left;
+  and to facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts
+  which rise from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary
+  for buoying up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot
+  for each half pound of weight."
+
+F.H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented in 1866 what he
+designated his aeroplanes.[19] These were thin, light, long, narrow
+structures, arranged above each other in tiers like so many shelves.
+They were tied together at a slight upward angle, and combined strength
+and lightness. The idea was to obtain great sustaining area in
+comparatively small space with comparative ease of control. It was hoped
+that when the aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical
+screws, or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float
+upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the aeroplanes
+would give the same support as if spread out horizontally. The
+accompanying figures illustrate Wenham's views (figs. 42 and 43).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Wenham's system of Aeroplanes designed to carry
+a man.
+
+  a, a, Thin planks, tapering at each end, and attached to a triangle.
+
+  b, Similar plank for supporting the aeronaut.
+
+  c, c, Thin bands of iron with truss planks a, a, and
+
+  d, d, Vertical rods. Between these are stretched five bands of holland
+  15 in. broad and 16 ft. long, the total length of the web being 80 ft.
+  This apparatus when caught by a gust of wind, actually lifted the
+  aeronaut.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A similar system, planned by Wenham.
+
+  a, a, Main spar 16 ft. long;
+
+  b, b, Panels, with base board for aeronaut attached to main spar.
+
+  e, e, Thin tie-band of steel with struts starting from main spar. This
+  forms a strong light framework for the aeroplanes, consisting of six
+  webs of thin holland 15 in. broad. The aeroplanes are kept in parallel
+  plane by vertical divisions of holland 2 ft. wide.
+
+  c, c', Wing propellers driven by the feet.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Stringfellow's Flying Machine.]
+
+Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson, and built a
+successful flying model in 1847, made a second model in 1868, in which
+Wenham's aeroplanes were combined with aerial screws. This model was on
+view at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain,
+held at the Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact,
+elegant and light, and obtained the £100 prize of the exhibition for its
+engine, which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed. The
+illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a very good
+idea of the arrangement--a, b, c representing the superimposed
+aeroplanes, d the tail, e, f the screw propellers. The superimposed
+aeroplanes (a, b, c) in this machine contained a sustaining area of 28
+sq. ft., in addition to the tail (d). Its engine represented a third of
+a horse power, and the weight of the whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel,
+superimposed aeroplanes and propellers) was under 12 lb. Its sustaining
+area, if that of the tail (d) be included, was something like 36 sq.
+ft., i.e. 3 sq. ft. for every pound. The model was forced by its
+propellers along a wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer
+could determine, failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme
+lightness and the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow,
+however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sustained by
+its aeroplanes alone.
+
+The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874, consisted
+of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three wheels; a very
+effective light engine constructed on a new principle, which dispensed
+with the old-fashioned, cumbrous boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal
+aeroplanes; and two comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was
+to get up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This
+accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine would gradually
+be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way that the weight of certain
+birds--the eagle, e.g.--is thrown upon the wings after a few hops and
+leaps. Once in the air the aeroplanes, it was believed, would become
+effective in proportion to the speed attained. The machine, however, did
+not realize the high expectations formed of it, and like all its
+predecessors it was doomed to failure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Moy's Aerial Steamer.]
+
+Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the problem of
+artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those of Prof. S.P.
+Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began their aerial experiments about
+the same time (1889-1890). By 1893-1894 both had embodied their views in
+models and large flying machines.
+
+Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small flying models and one
+large one. These he designated "aerodromes." They were all constructed
+on a common principle, and were provided with extensive flying surfaces
+in the shape of rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the
+horizon, and more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The
+cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at their
+anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of powerful vertical
+screw propellers driven at high speed--the greater the horizontal speed
+provided by the propellers, the greater, by implication, the lifting
+capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies, frames and aeroplanes of the
+aerodromes were strengthened by vertical and other supports, to which
+were attached aluminium wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that
+was possible. Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in
+this he succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously
+shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface being
+directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of highly trained
+mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and great secrecy was observed
+as to his operations. He flew his smallest models in the great lecture
+room of the National Museum, and his larger ones on the Potomac river
+about 40 m. below Washington.
+
+While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in 1889, he did not
+construct and test his steam-driven flying models until 1893. These
+were made largely of steel and aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made
+the longest flight then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully
+half a mile on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to
+carry passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to the
+order and at the expense of the American government, which granted a sum
+of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Langley's Flying Machine. a, Large aeroplane;
+b, Small aeroplane; c, Propelling screws.]
+
+  Langley's machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not intended
+  to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion closely
+  resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very rigid tube of
+  aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than 2 in. in
+  diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the framework
+  corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed 60 oz. and
+  developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made of thin
+  hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 lb. each; these
+  occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was refined
+  gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was utilized for
+  a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were twin screw
+  propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in practice,
+  to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute. The
+  wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames of
+  tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front
+  were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at
+  different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height, or
+  a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could
+  be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast
+  extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the craft,
+  and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips of
+  the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this trussing
+  arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly stiff.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Langley's Aerodrome in flight.]
+
+  In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-convex,
+  narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities, the
+  two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed
+  amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th
+  of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked
+  violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared,
+  by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was
+  pulled into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the
+  aerodrome rose to the surface, it was found that while the front
+  sustaining surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water,
+  yet the rear ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last
+  attempt, on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to
+  the launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track.
+  This time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained,
+  was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear
+  sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support
+  and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had come
+  before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid in the
+  recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted apart, and
+  one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened a rope
+  to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what it
+  should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in two.
+  Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see _Annual
+  Report of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1904, p. 122).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Sir H. Maxim's Flying Machine.]
+
+  Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly skilled
+  workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on which stood
+  a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex aeroplanes
+  arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward angle with
+  the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and propelled
+  by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha, &c. The
+  boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained in about
+  2000 bent copper tubes, only 3/8 in. in external diameter, heated by
+  over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha or gasoline.
+  Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute. The
+  steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 lb. in all, were
+  placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was provided by a
+  pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about 8 ft. from the
+  ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was independently
+  governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in actual effect, an
+  amount which, considering that their total weight was only 600 lb.,
+  gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 horse-power for every 2
+  lb. weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders were 5 and 8 in.
+  in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in. When going at full
+  speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per minute on the two
+  gigantic propellers that drove the machine along. These were in
+  appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except that they were
+  square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad and thin. They
+  were built from overlapping strips of American pine, planed smooth and
+  covered with glued canvas. They weighed 135 lb. each, the length of
+  each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the width at the ends 5½ ft. The
+  pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully stayed by steel wires to their
+  shafts, or the first revolution would have snapped them off short. The
+  material of which the framework was built was thin steel tubing,
+  exceedingly light. All the wires and ties were of the best steel,
+  capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the square inch. The body
+  of the machine was oblong in shape, with the fore-part cut away like a
+  water-chute boat, and a long counter at the stern over which the
+  propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all over it. High
+  overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly concavo-convex main
+  aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an imperceptible angle, and
+  stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft., increased by side wings to
+  2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes arranged in tiers, and
+  large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted and served for vertical
+  steering. The machine was strengthened in every direction by vertical
+  and other supports and securely wired together at all points. It was
+  furnished with four strong flanged wheels and ran along a light
+  broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track, 1800 ft. long, in the hope that
+  when the speed reached a certain point it would leave the rails, but
+  it was prevented from rising more than an inch or so by four arms, or
+  outriggers, furnished with wheels, which projected from its sides and
+  ran under an inverted wooden upper or safety track outside the railway
+  track proper.
+
+  At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main
+  aeroplane, the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side
+  planes were in position. After everything had been got in readiness,
+  careful observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was
+  connected to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the pump
+  set so as to deliver over 5000 lb. of water per hour into the boiler.
+  The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted to
+  310 lb. per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more than
+  2100 lb. A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had been
+  adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 lb. and with a strong blast
+  at 320 lb. The signal being given to let go, the machine darted
+  forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More
+  gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced 300
+  ft., the steam had mounted to 320 lb. per sq. in., and the
+  safety-valve was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had
+  travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger
+  wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was lifting
+  at least 8000 lb. The speed rapidly increased until when the machine
+  had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were of 2 in.
+  steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine
+  completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft., the
+  left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety track, and
+  shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper track--3 in.
+  by 9 in. Georgia pine--and a plank became entangled in the framework
+  of the machine. Steam had already been shut off, and the machine
+  coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four of its wheels
+  sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other marks. Before
+  making this run the wheels which were to engage the upper track were
+  painted, and the paint left by them on the upper track indicated the
+  exact point where the machine lifted. The area of the aeroplanes was
+  very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting effect was fully 10,000
+  lb. The planes therefore lifted 2.5 lb. per sq. ft., and 5 lb. for
+  each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of the engines was lost in
+  the screw slip. This showed that the diameter of the screws was not
+  great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft.
+
+In 1897 M.C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent results, two
+full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus with funds furnished
+by the French government. This reproduced the structure of a bird with
+almost servile imitation, save that traction was obtained by two
+screw-propellers. The steam engine weighed about 7 lb. per horse-power,
+but the equilibrium of the apparatus was defective.
+
+Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining
+equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal, Percy
+Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight by means of
+aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They depended mainly on the
+utilization of natural air currents, trusting for stability and balance
+to movements in their own bodies, or in portions of their machines which
+they could control. They threw themselves from natural or artificial
+elevations, or, facing the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards
+against it until they got under way and the wind caught hold of their
+aeroplanes. To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of
+demonstrating the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of
+reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000 glides
+safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave, batlike wings,
+in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49). It was with a machine
+of the latter type that he was upset by a sudden gust of wind and killed
+in 1896. Pilcher in England improved somewhat on Lilienthal's apparatus,
+but used the same general method of restoring the balance, when
+endangered, by shifting the weight of the operator's body. He too made
+several hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust
+of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his endeavours
+to the production of automatic stability, and made the surfaces movable
+instead of the man. He used several different forms of apparatus,
+including one with five superposed pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50)
+and another with two continuous aeroplanes, one above the other (fig.
+51). He made over 1000 glides without accident.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Lilienthal's Gliding Machine.]
+
+Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur and Orville
+Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider developed into a
+successful flying machine. These investigators began their work in 1900,
+and at an early stage introduced two characteristic features--a
+horizontal rudder in front for steering in the vertical plane, and the
+flexing or bending of the ends of the main supporting aeroplanes as a
+means of maintaining the structure in proper balance. Their machines to
+begin with were merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a
+horizontal, position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight
+lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five flights,
+in the longest of which they remained in the air for half an hour and
+covered a distance of 24½ m. The utmost secrecy, however, was maintained
+concerning their experiments, and in consequence their achievements were
+regarded at the time with doubt and suspicion, and it was hardly
+realized that their success would reach the point later achieved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Chanute's Multiple Gliding Machine.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chanute's Biplane Gliding Machine.]
+
+Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great
+improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and, although
+the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still left something to
+be desired, it provided the designers of flying machines with what they
+had long been looking for--a motor very powerful in proportion to its
+weight. Largely in consequence of this progress, and partly no doubt
+owing to the stimulus given by the activity of builders of dirigible
+balloons, the construction of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a
+number of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont, after
+a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-shaped gas
+balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine. It consisted of the
+following parts:--(a) A system of aeroplanes arranged like the capital
+letter T at a certain upward angle to the horizon and bearing a general
+resemblance to box kites; (b) a pair of very light propellers driven at
+a high speed; and (c) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine.
+The driver occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which
+is shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels and
+vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts of the
+aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground on either side.
+With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th of November 1906 a distance
+of 220 metres in 21 seconds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Santos Dumont's Flying Machine.]
+
+About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights on a machine
+of the biplane type, consisting of two main supporting surfaces one
+above the other, with a box-shaped vertical rudder behind and two small
+balancing aeroplanes in front. The engine was an eight-cylinder
+Antoinette petrol motor, developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a
+minute, and driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th
+of October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at
+Issy-les-Molineaux, and on the 13th of January 1908 he made a circular
+flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of
+£2000. In March he remained in the air for 3½ minutes, covering a
+distance of 1¼ m.; but in the following month a rival, Leon Delagrange,
+using a machine of the same type and constructed by the same makers,
+Messrs Voisin, surpassed this performance by flying nearly 2½ m. in 6½
+minutes. In July Farman remained in the air for over 20 minutes; on the
+6th of September Delagrange increased the time to nearly 30 minutes, and
+on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front with a flight
+lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24½ m.
+
+But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers--Orville
+Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On the 9th of September
+1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia, made three notable flights; in
+the first he remained in the air 57½ minutes and in the second 1 hour 3
+minutes, while in the third he took with him a passenger and covered
+nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes. Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in
+1 hour 14-1/3 minutes, but on the 17th he had an accident, explained as
+being due to one of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by
+which his machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and
+Lieutenant Selfridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards
+Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records with a
+flight lasting 1 hour 31 minutes 25-4/5 seconds, in which he covered
+about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the 11th of October, he made a flight
+of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger. On the 31st of December
+he succeeded in remaining in the air for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.
+
+Wilbur Wright's machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother being
+essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched supporting
+surfaces, each 12½ metres long, arranged parallel one above the other at
+a distance of 1-4/5 metres apart. As they were each about 2 metres wide
+their total area was about 50 sq. metres. About 3 metres in front of
+them was arranged a pair of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped like a
+long narrow ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected changes of
+elevation, the driver being able by means of a lever to incline them up
+or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. The rudder for
+lateral steering was placed about 2½ metres behind the main surfaces and
+was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes. The lever by which they
+were turned was connected with the device by which the ends of the main
+aeroplanes could be flexed simultaneously though in opposite directions;
+i.e. if the ends of the aeroplanes on one side were bent downwards,
+those on the other were bent upwards. By the aid of this arrangement
+the natural cant of the machine when making a turn could be checked, if
+it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol engine was placed on the
+lower aeroplane a little to the right of the central line, being
+counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger if one was carried), who
+sat a little to the left of the same line. Making about 1200 revolutions
+a minute, it developed about 24 horse-power, and was connected by chain
+gearing to two wooden propellers, 2½ metres in diameter and 3½ metres
+apart, the speed of which was about 450 revolutions a minute. The whole
+machine, with aeronaut, weighed about 1100 lb., the weight of the motor
+being reputed to be 200 lb.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 1.--PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.
+
+  FIG. 2.--WRIGHT BIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 3.--BLERIOT MONOPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.
+
+  FIG. 4.--A.V. ROE'S TRIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch.
+
+  A, B, Main supporting surfaces.
+
+  C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder with fixed semilunar fin E.
+
+  F, Vertical rudder.
+
+  G, Motor.
+
+  H, Screws.]
+
+A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with monoplanes
+having only a single supporting surface, and it was on a machine of this
+type that the Frenchman Blériot on July 25th flew across the English
+Channel from Calais to Dover in 31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but
+performed the same feat on an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw
+considerable increases in the periods for which aviators were able to
+remain in the air, and Roger Sommer's flight of nearly 2½ hours on
+August 7th was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he
+covered a distance estimated at 137¼ m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec. In both
+these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation meetings were
+held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy, Doncaster and Blackpool; and
+at Blackpool a daring flight was made in a wind of 40 m. an hour by
+Latham. This aviator also proved the possibility of flying at
+considerable altitudes by attaining on December 1st a height of over
+1500 ft., but this record was far surpassed in the following January by
+L. Paulhan, who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los
+Angeles. In the course of the year three aviators were killed--Lefèvbre
+and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and four men perished
+in September by the destruction of the French airship "République," the
+gas-bag of which was ripped open by a broken propeller. In January 1910
+Delagrange was killed by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane
+on which he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully
+flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within 24 hours, for
+the _Daily Mail's_ £10,000 prize.
+
+The progress made by all these experiments at aviation had naturally
+created widespread interest, both as a matter of sport and also as
+indicating a new departure in the possibilities of machines of war. And
+in 1909 the British government appointed a scientific committee, with
+Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a consultative body for furthering the
+development of the science in England.
+
+The table below gives some details, approximately correct, of the
+principal experiments made with flying machines up to 1908.
+
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+  |       |                  | Tip  |         |         | Pounds | Speed | Maximum |          | Horse-|  Pounds   |
+  | Year. |   Experimenter.  | to   | Surface.| Weight. |  per   |  per  | Flight. |  Motor.  | power.| sustained |
+  |       |                  | Tip. |         |         | sq. ft.| hour. |         |          |       |  per h.p. |
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+  |       |                  |  Ft. | Sq. ft. |   lb.   |        |  Mls. |    Ft.  |          |       |           |
+  | 1879  | Tatin            |  6.2 |     7.5 |    3.85 |  0.51  | 18    |    100? |Compressed|  0.03 |    110?   |
+  |       |                  |      |         |         |        |       |         |   air    |       |           |
+  | 1885 \|                  |      |         |         |        |       |         |          |       |           |
+  | 1889 /| Hargrave (No. 16)|  5.5 |    26.0 |    5.00 |  0.19  | 10    |    343  |    "     |  0.06 |     79    |
+  | 1893  | Phillips         | 22.0 |   136.0 |  402.00 |  3.00  | 28    |    500? |  Steam   |  5.6  |     72?   |
+  | 1894  | Maxim*           | 50.0 |  4000.0 | 8000.00 |  2.5   | 36    |    300? |    "     |363.00 |     28    |
+  | 1896  | Langley          | 12.0 |    70.0 |   30.00 |  0.43  | 24    |  4,000  |    "     |  1.00 |     30    |
+  | 1897  | Tatin and Richet | 21.0 |    86.0 |   72.00 |  0.83  | 40    |    460  |    "     |  1.33 |     55    |
+  | 1897  | Ader*            | 49.0 |   270.0 | 1100.00 |  4.00  | 50?   |    100? |    "     | 40.00 |     27    |
+  | 1895  | Lilienthal*      | 23.0 |   151.0 |  220.00 |  1.46  | 23    |  1,200  | Gravity  |  2.00 |    110    |
+  | 1896  | Pilcher*         | 23.0 |   170.0 |  200.00 |  1.17  | 25    |    900  |    "     |  2.00 |    100    |
+  | 1896  | Chanute*         | 16.0 |   135.0 |  178.00 |  1.31  | 22    |    360  |    "     |  2.00 |     89    |
+  | 1906  | S. Dumont*       | 39   |   560   |  550    |  0.98  | 22.26 |  2,900  |  Petrol  | 50    |     23    |
+  | 1908  | W. Wright*       | 41   |   650   | 1100    |  1.7   | 37    |295,000  |  Petrol  | 24    |     46    |
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+    * The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Some of the books mentioned under AERONAUTICS contain
+  details of flying machines; see H.W.L. Moedebeck, _A Pocketbook of
+  Aeronautics_, trans. by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907); Sir Hiram
+  S. Maxim, _Artificial and Natural Flight_ (London, 1908); F.W.
+  Lanchester, _Aerodynamics_ and _Aerodonetics_ (London, 1907 and 1908);
+  C.C. Turner, _Aerial Navigation of To-day_ (London, 1909); also two
+  papers on "Aerial Navigation" read by Colonel G.O. Fullerton before
+  the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and 1906; papers read by
+  Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell and E.S. Bruce before the Society of Arts,
+  London, in April 1907 and December 1908 respectively; Cantor Lectures
+  by F.W. Lanchester (Society of Arts, 1909); and the _Proceedings_ of
+  the Aeronautical Society (founded 1865), &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds
+    of passage have no air in their bones.--_Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond_. part
+    xxv., 1857, p. 13.
+
+  [2] By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure
+    inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or
+    rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of
+    support to any body attached to it.
+
+  [3] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics," by
+    J. Bell Pettigrew, _Proc. Roy. Inst_., 1867; "On the Mechanical
+    Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," by the
+    same author, _Trans. Linn. Soc_., 1867.
+
+  [4] _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l'Étranger_,
+    1869.
+
+  [5] The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording
+    instrument. It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of
+    clock-work at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its
+    surface by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements
+    to be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more
+    levers, and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where
+    they appear as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the
+    wings the tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious
+    modification, employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the
+    different parts of the wings were made actually to record their own
+    movements. As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave
+    theory of stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject
+    of a rigorous _experimentum crucis_.
+
+  [6] This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse
+    is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in
+    the substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when
+    necessary, in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some
+    measure what may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are
+    especially useful in giving it continuous play.
+
+  [7] "The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form
+     cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated
+     with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the
+     wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their
+     nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is
+     equivalent--morphologically and physiologically--to one entire insect
+     wing. In the wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are
+     short, and in some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary
+     feathers are greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that
+     the wing as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by
+     the insect's wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones,
+     muscles and feathers have attained a maximum development. The
+     conformation of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance
+     in every direction--the waves running longitudinally, transversely
+     and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently be
+     removed without essentially altering either its form or its
+     functions. This is proved by making sections in various directions,
+     and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the
+     wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of
+     flight."--_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xxvi. pp. 325, 326.
+
+  [8] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,"
+    _Proc. Roy. Inst._, 1867; "On the Mechanical Appliances by which
+    Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1867,
+    26.
+
+  [9] "On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the movements
+    by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird," _Trans.
+    Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. 26.
+
+  [10] The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are--(a)
+    the elevator muscles of the wings, (b) the elastic properties of the
+    wings, and (c) the reaction of the compressed air on the under
+    surfaces of the wings.
+
+  [11] The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across
+    the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes
+    under a foot in width.
+
+  [12] _On the Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in reference to
+   the subject of Aerial Locomotion,_ by L. de Lucy (Paris).
+
+  [13] E.J. Marey, _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de
+    l'étranger_ (1869).
+
+  [14] "The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight," _Ninth Annual
+    Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874.
+
+  [15] "Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation," _Ninth
+    Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874.
+
+  [16] The _Aeronaut_ for January 1872 and February 1875.
+
+  [17] Cayley's screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and
+    consequently elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his
+    writings to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid
+    screws, it is to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for
+    convenience and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was
+    the first to advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial
+    purposes.
+
+  [18] Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and
+    figured further on (fig. 44).
+
+  [19] "On Aerial Locomotion," _Aeronautical Society's Report_ for
+    1867.
+
+
+
+
+FLINCK, GOVERT (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves in 1615, was
+apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but having secretly acquired
+a passion for drawing, was sent to Leuwarden, where he boarded in the
+house of Lambert Jacobszon, a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant
+preacher than as a painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and
+the companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist
+only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours of
+Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of Rombert Ulenburg,
+whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt in 1634. Other members of the
+same family lived at Amsterdam, cultivating the arts either
+professionally or as amateurs. The pupils of Lambert probably gained
+some knowledge of Rembrandt by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly
+J. von Sandrart, who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged
+as one of Rembrandt's best pupils, and living habitually in the house of
+the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years Flinck laboured
+on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master's style in all the
+works which he executed between 1636 and 1648; then he fell into
+peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling forms and grand action of
+Rubens's creations. Finally he sailed with unfortunate complacency into
+the Dead Sea of official and diplomatic painting. Flinck's relations
+with Cleves became in time very important. He was introduced to the
+court of the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who
+married in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John
+Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649. In 1652 a
+citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress, daughter of Ver
+Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India Company. He was already well
+known even then in the patrician circles over which the burgomasters De
+Graef and the Echevin Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the
+poet Vondel and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with
+antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often
+received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still
+preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.
+
+The earliest of Flinck's authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady, dated
+1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture is the
+"Blessing of Jacob," in the Amsterdam museum (1638). Both are thoroughly
+Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in vigour of touch and warmth of
+flesh tints. The four "civic guards" of 1642, and "the twelve
+musketeers" with their president in an arm-chair (1648), in the
+town-hall at Amsterdam, are fine specimens of composed portrait groups.
+But the best of Flinck's productions in this style is the peace of
+Münster in the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures
+full of animation in the faces, "radiant with Rembrandtesque colour,"
+and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his own likeness to the
+left in a doorway. The mannered period of Flinck is amply illustrated in
+the "Marcus Curius eating Turnips before the Samnite Envoys," and
+"Solomon receiving Wisdom," in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here
+it is that Flinck shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy
+in tint, flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh
+that looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge. The
+chronology of Flinck's works, so far as they are seen in public
+galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the "Grey Beard" of
+1639 at Dresden, the "Girl" of 1641 at the Louvre, a portrait group of a
+male and female (1646) at Rotterdam, a lady (1651) at Berlin. In
+November 1659 the burgomaster of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12
+canvases to represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus
+Curius and Horatius Cocles, and scenes from the wars of the Batavians
+and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than the sketches. In the
+same year he received a flattering acknowledgment from the town council
+of Cleves on the completion of a picture of Solomon which was a
+counterpart of the composition at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and
+portraits, such as the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg
+and John Maurice of Nassau, and the allegory of "Louisa of Orange
+attended by Victory and Fame" and other figures at the cradle of the
+first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several pictures
+which were painted for the Great Elector, none are preserved except the
+"Expulsion of Hagar" in the Berlin museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on
+the 22nd of February 1660.
+
+
+
+
+FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814), English navigator, explorer, and man of
+science, was born at Donington, near Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the
+16th of March 1774. Matthew was at first designed to follow his father's
+profession of surgeon, but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of
+adventure impelled him to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd
+of October 1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies,
+and after serving in the "Bellerophon" during Lord Howe's "glorious
+first of June" (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out in 1795 as
+midshipman in the "Reliance" to New South Wales. For the next few years
+he devoted himself to the task of accurately laying down the outline and
+bearings of the Australian coast, and he did his work so thoroughly that
+he left comparatively little for his successors to do. With his friend
+George Bass, the surgeon of the "Reliance," in the year of his arrival
+he explored George's river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again
+in March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the "Tom Thumb," only 8
+ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a stretch of coast
+to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope,
+when he was promoted to a lieutenancy, Flinders was engaged during
+February 1798 in a survey of the Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of
+Tasmania. His delight was great when, in September of the same year, he
+was commissioned along with Bass, who had already explored the sea
+between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and inferred that it
+was a strait, to proceed in the sloop "Norfolk" (25 tons) to prove
+conclusively that Van Diemen's Land was an island by circumnavigating
+it. In the same sloop, in the summer of next year, Flinders made an
+exploration to the north of Port Jackson, the object being mainly to
+survey Glasshouse Bay (Moreton Bay) and Hervey's Bay. Returning to
+England he was appointed to the command of an expedition for the
+thorough exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern
+continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been the
+first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of July 1801 the
+sloop "Investigator" (334 tons), in which the expedition sailed, left
+Spithead, Flinders being furnished with instructions and with a passport
+from the French government to all their officials in the Eastern seas.
+Among the scientific staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent
+English botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders's relative,
+John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-west coast of
+Australia, was reached on November 6, and King George's sound on the 9th
+of December. Flinders sailed round the Great Bight, examining the
+islands and indentations on the east side, noting the nature of the
+country, the people, products, &c., and paying special attention to the
+subject of the variation of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs
+were discovered and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after
+leaving Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders fell
+in with the French exploring ship, "Le Géographe," under Captain Nicolas
+Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter Bay. In the narrative of the
+French expedition published in 1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the
+Mauritius) by M. Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the
+land west of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered
+by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for the English
+ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when Flinders published his
+own narrative, that the real state of the case was fully exposed.
+Flinders continued his examination of the coast along Bass's Strait,
+carefully surveying Port Phillip. Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of
+May 1802.
+
+After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months, Flinders set
+out again on the 22nd of July to complete his circumnavigation of
+Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was examined with the greatest care in
+several places. The north-east entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was
+reached early in November; and the next three months were spent in an
+examination of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt
+them. An inspection of the "Investigator" showed that she was in so
+leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could the
+voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of Timor, the
+"Investigator" sailed round the west and south of Australia, and Port
+Jackson was reached on the 9th of June 1803. Much suffering was endured
+by nearly all the members of the expedition: a considerable proportion
+of the men succumbed to disease, and their leader was so reduced by
+scurvy that his health was greatly impaired.
+
+Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. "Porpoise" as a passenger,
+submit the results of his work to the Admiralty, and obtain, if
+possible, another vessel to complete his exploration of the Australian
+coast. The "Porpoise" left Port Jackson on the 10th of August,
+accompanied by the H.E.I.C.'s ship "Bridgewater" (750 tons) and the
+"Cato" (450 tons) of London. On the night of the 17th the "Porpoise" and
+"Cato" suddenly struck on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to
+wrecks. The officers and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4
+ft. above high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many
+of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks. The reef
+was in about 22° 11' S. and 155° E., and about 800 m. from Port Jackson.
+Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a six-oared cutter in order to
+obtain a vessel to rescue the party. The reef was again reached on the
+8th of October, and all the officers and men having been satisfactorily
+disposed of, Flinders on the 11th left for Jones Strait in an unsound
+schooner of 29 tons, the "Cumberland," with ten companions, and a
+valuable collection of papers, charts, geological specimens, &c. On the
+15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he discovered that France
+and England were at war. The passport he possessed from the French
+government was for the "Investigator"; still, though he was now on board
+another ship, his mission was essentially the same, and the work he was
+on was simply a continuation of that commenced in the unfortunate
+vessel. Nevertheless, on her arrival at Port Louis the "Cumberland" was
+seized by order of the governor-general de Caen. Flinders's papers were
+taken possession of, and he found himself virtually a prisoner. We need
+not dwell on the sad details of this unjustifiable captivity, which
+lasted to June 1810. But there can be no doubt that the hardships and
+inactivity Flinders was compelled to endure for upwards of six years
+told seriously on his health, and brought his life to a premature end.
+He reached England in October 1810, after an absence of upwards of nine
+years. The official red-tapeism of the day barred all promotion to the
+unfortunate explorer, who set himself to prepare an account of his
+explorations, though unfortunately an important part of his record had
+been retained by de Caen. The results of his labours were published in
+two large quarto volumes, entitled _A Voyage to Terra Australis_, with a
+folio volume of maps. The very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was
+published Flinders died, at the early age of forty. The great work is a
+model of its kind, containing as it does not only a narrative of his own
+and of previous voyages, but masterly statements of the scientific
+results, especially with regard to magnetism, meteorology, hydrography
+and navigation. Flinders paid great attention to the errors of the
+compass, especially to those caused by the presence of iron in ships. He
+is understood to have been the first to discover the source of such
+errors (which had scarcely been noticed before), and after investigating
+the laws of the variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an
+invention for which Professor Barlow got much credit many years
+afterwards. Numerous experiments on ships' magnetism were conducted at
+Portsmouth by Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812. Besides the
+_Voyage_, Flinders wrote _Observations on the Coast of Van Diemen's
+Land_, _Bass's Strait_, &c., and two papers in the _Phil. Trans._--one
+on the "Magnetic Needle" (1805), and the other, "Observations on the
+Marine Barometer" (1806).     (J. S. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FLINSBERG, a village and watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the Iserkamm, 1450 ft.
+above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the terminus station of the
+railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1900) 1957. It contains an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and has some manufactures of wooden wares.
+Flinsberg is celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of
+feminine disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also a
+climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors number about
+8500 annually.
+
+  See Adam, _Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort_ (Görlitz, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886), American physician, was born at Petersham,
+Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812, and graduated at the medical
+department of Harvard University in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was
+professor of the theory and practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical
+College, of which he was one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he
+filled the same chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886
+he was professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical
+medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He wrote many
+text-books on medical subjects, among these being _Diseases of the
+Heart_ (1859-1870); _Principles and Practice of Medicine_ (1866);
+_Clinical Medicine_ (1879); and _Physical Exploration of the Lungs by
+means of Auscultation and Percussion_ (1882). He died in New York on the
+13th of March 1886.
+
+His son, AUSTIN FLINT, junr., who was born at Northampton,
+Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at Harvard and
+at the university of Louisville, graduated at the Jefferson Medical
+College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became professor of physiology
+at the university of Buffalo (1858) and subsequently at other centres,
+his last connexion being with the Cornell University Medical College
+(1898-1906). He was better known as a teacher and writer on physiology
+than as a practitioner, and his _Text-book of Human Physiology_ (1876)
+was for many years a standard book in American medical colleges. He also
+published an extensive _Physiology of Man_ (5 vols., 1866-1874),
+_Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease_ (1870), _Effects of
+Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise_ (1871), _Source of Muscular
+Power_ (1878), and _Handbook of Physiology_ (1905). In 1896 he became a
+consulting physician to the New York State Hospital for the Insane.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, ROBERT (1838-   ), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born near
+Dumfries and educated at the university of Glasgow. After a few years of
+pastoral service, first in Aberdeen and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he
+was appointed professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St
+Andrews in 1864. From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at
+Edinburgh. He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_. His chief works are _Christ's Kingdom upon
+Earth_ (Sermons, 1865); _Philosophy of History in Europe_ (1874; partly
+rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland, 1894); _Theism_ and
+_Anti-theistic Theories_ (2 vols., being the Baird Lectures for
+1876-1877; often reprinted); _Socialism_ (1894); _Sermons and Addresses_
+(1899); _Agnosticism_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840), American clergyman and writer, was born in
+Reading, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July 1780. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as a Congregational minister in
+Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued scientific studies with interest; and
+his labours in his chemical laboratory seemed so strange to the people
+of that retired region, that some persons supposed and asserted that he
+was engaged in counterfeiting. This, together with political
+differences, led to disagreeable complications, which resulted in his
+resigning his charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the
+valley of the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and
+a farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the settlers
+of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a picturesque work
+called _Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed in the Valley of the
+Mississippi_ (1826; reprinted in England and translated into French),
+the first account of the western states which brought to light the real
+life and character of the people. The success which this work met with,
+together with the failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish
+his more active labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the
+_Western Review_ in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and _Knickerbocker's
+Magazine_ (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books, including
+_Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot_ (1826), his best novel; _A
+Condensed Geography and History of the Western States, or the
+Mississippi Valley_ (2 vols., 1828); _Arthur Clenning_ (1828), a novel;
+and _Indian Wars in the West_ (1833). His style is vivid, plain and
+forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on the western
+states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass., on the 16th of
+August 1840.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
+on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9803;
+(1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 38,550. It
+is served by the Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways, and by an
+electric line, the Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The
+city has a fine court-house (1904), a federal building (1908), a city
+hall (1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf,
+established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the
+treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has important
+manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being automobiles,
+wagons, carriages--Flint is called "the vehicle city,"--flour, woollen
+goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks and tiles; and its grain
+trade is of considerable importance. In 1904 the total value of the
+city's factory product was $6,177,170, an increase of 31.1% over that of
+1900. The settlement of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the
+Flint, began in 1820, but Flint's growth was very slow until 1831, when
+it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in 1855.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, or FLINTSHIRE (_sîr Gallestr_), a county of North Wales, the
+smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the Dee
+estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by Denbighshire.
+Area, 257 sq. m. Included in Flint is the detached hundred of Maelor,
+lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county, and shut in by Cheshire
+on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire on the S., and by Denbighshire on the
+W. and N.W. The Clwyd valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of
+the Alyn and Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee,
+entering the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the W.,
+passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N. The Clwyd enters
+Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near Rhuddlan, reaches the
+Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the county under Moel Fammau,
+passes Cilcen and Mold (_y Wyddgrug_), runs underground near Hesb-Alyn
+(Alyn's drying-up), bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and
+joins the Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief
+lake.
+
+  Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their
+  economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most
+  important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous
+  limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwen; it forms the
+  Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold to
+  beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series is cherty
+  in the north--the chert is quarried for use in the potteries of
+  Staffordshire--but traced southward it passes into sandstones and
+  grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the
+  equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire,
+  while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought to
+  correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may be a
+  representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the coal
+  measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays and
+  marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from Talacre
+  through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope. The
+  carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a fault,
+  in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of Wenlock
+  age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western border of
+  the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd valley and
+  appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead and zinc ores
+  have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in the north of the
+  county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer Gwyn and Ffynnon
+  Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene mammals along with
+  palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift obscures the older rocks
+  on the east and north and in the vale of Clwyd. Short stretches of
+  blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl and Talacre.
+
+The London & North-Western railway follows the coast-line. Other
+railways which cross the county are the Great Western, and the Wrexham,
+Mold & Connah's Quay, acquired by the Great Central company. For pasture
+the vale of Clwyd is well known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief
+crops. Stock and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed
+with Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and Southdowns,
+while in the thick mining population a ready market is found for meat,
+cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in 1901) nearly doubled in
+the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day is one of the most densely
+populated counties in North Wales. The area of the ancient county is
+164,744 acres, and that of the administrative county 163,025 acres. The
+collieries begin at Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint,
+Halkin (Halcyn), Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlâg). At
+Halkin, Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is
+sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc,
+formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and copper
+mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting works, oil,
+vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries around Buckley send
+their produce chiefly to Connah's Quay, whence a railway crosses the Dee
+to the Birkenhead (Cheshire) district. Iron seams are now thin, but
+limestone quarries yield building stone, lime for burning and small
+stone for chemical works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile
+manufactures small.
+
+The county returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary borough
+district (returning one member), consists of Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint,
+Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a
+small part of the Chester parliamentary borough. There is one municipal
+borough, Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley
+(5780), Connah's Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263), Prestatyn
+(1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales and Chester circuit,
+assizes being held at Mold. The Flint borough has a separate commission
+of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The ancient
+county, which is in the dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph,
+contains forty-six entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with
+parts of eleven others.
+
+Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the fragmentary
+ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:--Caerwys, near
+Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation. Bodfary (Bodfari) was
+traditionally occupied by the Romans. Moel y gaer (bald hill of the
+fortress), near Northop, is a remarkably perfect old British post. Maes y
+Garmon (perhaps for _Meusydd Garmon_, as y, the article, has no
+significance before a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields
+of Germanus). A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of _une victoire sans
+larmes, gagnée non par les armes, mais par la foi_ (E.H. Vollet). The
+Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and Saxons, at
+whose approach the _Alleluia_ of that Easter (A.D. 430) was sung. Panic
+duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St Germanus, confessor and
+bishop of Auxerre (A.D. 380-448), had to return to the charge in 446. He
+has, under the name Garmon, a great titular share in British topography.
+At Bangor Iscoed, "the great high choir in Maelor," was the monastery,
+destroyed with over 2000 monks, by Æthelfred of Northumberland in 607, as
+(by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland was sacked by
+the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (ii. 2) that Bangor monastery was
+in seven sections, with three hundred (working) monks. The supposed lines
+of direction of Watt's and Offa's dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope,
+Alyn valley, Oswestry (_Croes Oswallt_, "Oswald's cross"), for Watt's, and
+Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (_Hafren_, or Sabrina) for
+Offa's. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North Wales) defeated
+Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower) and at Coleshill (_Cynsyllt_).
+Near Pant Asa (_pant_ is a bottom) is the medieval Maen Achwynfan
+(_achwyn_, to complain, _maen_, stone), and tumuli, menhirs (_meini
+hirion_) and inscribed stones are frequent throughout the county. There is
+a 14th-century cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early
+Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county date from
+the early Edwards.
+
+  See H. Taylor, _Flint_ (London, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, a municipal borough and the county town of the above; a seaport
+and contributory parliamentary borough, on the south of the Dee estuary,
+192 m. from London by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
+4265. The seat of great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur
+and other chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The
+county gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle,
+was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with Cheshire.)
+
+Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by Edward I.
+Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward III. bestowed its
+constableship upon the earls of Chester, and here Richard II.
+surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice taken, after siege, by the
+parliamentarians, and finally dismantled in 1647. There remain a square
+court (with angle towers), round tower and drawbridge, all three
+entrusted to a constable, appointed by the crown under the Municipal
+Corporations Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was
+chartered by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of
+Chester.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages, possibly
+cognate with the Gr. [Greek: plinthos], a tile), in petrology, a dark
+grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance which has an almost
+vitreous lustre, and when pure appears structureless to the unaided eye.
+In the mass it is dark and opaque, but thin plates or the edges of
+splinters are pale yellow and translucent. Its hardness is greater than
+that of steel, so that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when
+drawn across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2.6 or only a little
+less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when hammered
+readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains. The fracture is
+perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer detach flakes which
+have convex, slightly undulating surfaces. At the point of impact a bulb
+of percussion, which is a somewhat elevated conical mark, is produced.
+This serves to distinguish flints which have been fashioned by human
+agencies from those which have been split merely by the action of frost
+and the weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably
+intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to archaeologists
+investigating Palaeolithic implements. With skill and experience a mass
+of flint can be worked to any simple shape by well directed strokes, and
+further trimming can be effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a
+direction slightly across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have
+the most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known to
+have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were specially
+suitable for his purposes.
+
+  Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and dolomite
+  may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also detected
+  minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic compounds, &c., to
+  which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities. These are
+  dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller in lustre.
+  Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystalline and
+  consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorphous
+  silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part of
+  the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms, such
+  as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur in
+  flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their
+  original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk which
+  encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure to the
+  weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints. At first
+  they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is
+  subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish
+  porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the
+  removal of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres
+  and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a very
+  slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material of
+  great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist
+  attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the
+  south-east of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their
+  surfaces often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the
+  edges of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one
+  pebble on another during storms or floods.
+
+  Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in the
+  white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see CHALK). It
+  is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses
+  which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules
+  often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not
+  deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands
+  cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right
+  angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as
+  bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some
+  extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of
+  radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into
+  solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again
+  precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is
+  consequently the result of "concretionary action." Where the flints
+  lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fact a kind of
+  metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly replaced
+  a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and the organisms
+  of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved in the
+  flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have their
+  cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the
+  shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind
+  are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.
+
+  Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the
+  same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and
+  commonly occurs in limestone (e.g. the Carboniferous Limestone) in the
+  same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of
+  radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian
+  oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some of
+  the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the
+  English Greensand; these often contain remains of sponges.
+
+The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrication of
+weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other materials have been
+employed where flint was not available, e.g. obsidian, chert,
+chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to prehistoric man (see FLINT
+IMPLEMENTS below) flint must have been of great value and served many of
+the uses to which steel is put at the present day. Flint gravels are
+widely employed for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in
+architecture. For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not regarded
+with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily; binds badly,
+yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy traffic and in bad
+weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do much damage to tires of
+motors and cycles. Seasoned flints from the land, having been long
+exposed to the atmosphere, are preferred to flints freshly dug from the
+chalk pits. Formerly flint and steel were everywhere employed for
+striking a light; and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special
+industry in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in
+Suffolk. In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade
+has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in
+semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable.
+Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass, and is
+still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties of pottery.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. The excavation of these remains of the
+prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift gravel-beds has marked a
+revolution in the study of Man's history (see ARCHAEOLOGY). Until almost
+the middle of the 19th century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of
+British and European archaeologists that the momentous results of the
+excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be dwarfed by
+discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous ideas of Man's
+antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes observed in some sand
+containing mammalian remains, at Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint,
+roughly worked into a cutting implement. This "find" was rapidly
+followed by others, and Boucher de Perthes published his first work on
+the subject, _Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes: mémoire sur
+l'industrie primitive et les arts à leur origin_ (1847), in which he
+proclaimed his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging
+to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French
+archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission then
+visited his collection and testified to the great importance of his
+discoveries. The "finds" at Abbeville were followed by others in many
+places in England, and in fact in every country where siliceous stones
+which are capable of being flaked and fashioned into implements are to
+be found. The implements occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the
+tumuli and ancient burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of
+prehistoric man in nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and
+lake-dwellings; but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of
+England and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long
+left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These gravels
+represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man shared Europe with
+the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros. The worked flints of this age
+are, however, unevenly distributed; for while the river-gravels of
+south-eastern England yield them abundantly, none has been found in
+Scotland or the northern English counties. On the continent the same
+partial distribution is observable: while they occur plentifully in the
+north-western area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway
+or Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by
+chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no longer
+indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier period of the
+Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint implements, which
+show signs of polishing and in many cases remarkably fine workmanship,
+and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs and lake-dwellings mixed with the
+bones of common domestic animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later
+Stone Age. The Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers,
+implements worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which
+resemble rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round,
+and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these is ground
+or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand, exhibit more
+variety of design, are carefully finished, and the particular use of
+each weapon can be easily detected. Man has reached the stage of culture
+when he could socket a stone into a wooden handle, and fix a flaked
+flint as a handled dagger or knife. The workmanship is superior to that
+shown in any of the stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic
+times. The manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all
+ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only kind of
+stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any shape, and thus
+forms the principal material of these earliest weapons. The blows must
+be carefully aimed or the flakes dislodged will be shattered: a
+gun-flint maker at Brandon, Suffolk, stated that it took him two years
+to acquire the art.
+
+  For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and detailed
+  descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans, _Ancient
+  Stone Implements_ (1897), Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (1865,
+  1900); also Thomas Wilson, "Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and Knives of
+  Prehistoric Times," in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1897; and W.K.
+  Moorehead, _Prehistoric Implements_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FLOAT (in O. Eng. _flot_ and _flota_, in the verbal form _fléotan_; the
+Teutonic root is _flut-_, another form of _flu-_, seen in "flow," cf.
+"fleet"; the root is seen in Gr. [Greek: pleein], to sail, Lat.
+_pluere_, to rain; the Lat. _fluere_ and _fluctus_, wave, is not
+connected), the action of moving on the surface of water, or through the
+air. The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river,
+backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as a mass of
+ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed boat, or a raft,
+or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support a baited line or
+fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or inflated organ by means
+of which certain animals, such as the "Portuguese man-of-war," swim, to
+a hollow metal ball or piece of whinstone, &c., used to regulate the
+level of water in a tank or boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the
+cistern of a barometer. "Float" is also the name of one of the boards of
+a paddle-wheel or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to
+denote the footlights. The word is also applied to something broad,
+level and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon for the
+purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a special kind of
+low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and to a platform on wheels
+used for shows in a procession. The term is applied also to various
+tools, especially to many kinds of trowels used in plastering. It is
+also used of a dock where vessels may float, as at Bristol, and of the
+trenches used in "floating" land. In geology and mining, loose rock or
+ore brought down by water is known as "float," and in tin-mining it is
+applied to a large trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word
+is used of the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without
+being woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United
+States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to bribery
+is called a "float" or "floater."
+
+
+
+
+FLOCK. 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian, from which
+come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in other Teutonic languages),
+originally a company of people, now mainly, except in figurative usages,
+of certain animals when gathered together for feeding or moving from
+place to place. For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other
+animals most generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular
+application of the word to sheep that "flock" is used of the Christian
+Church in its relation to the "Good Shepherd," and also of a
+congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual head.
+
+2. (Probably from the Lat. _floccus_, but many Teutonic languages have
+the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool, cotton or similar
+substance. The name "flock" is given to a material formed of wool or
+cotton refuse, or of shreds of old woollen or cotton rags, torn by a
+machine known as a "devil." This material is used for stuffing
+mattresses or pillows, and also in upholstery. The name is also applied
+to a special kind of wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like
+cloth, or, in the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting
+on a specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of
+cotton or silk. The word "flocculent" is used of many substances which
+have a fleecy or "flock"-like appearance, such as a precipitate of
+ferric hydrate.
+
+
+
+
+FLODDEN, or FLODDEN FIELD, near the village of Branxton, in
+Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene of a famous
+battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between the English and the
+Scots. On the 22nd of August a great Scottish army under King James IV.
+had crossed the border. For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King
+Henry VIII.'s absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no
+organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much precious
+time among the border castles, and when Surrey appeared at Wooler, with
+an army equal in strength to his own, which was now greatly weakened by
+privations and desertion, he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The
+English commander promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle,
+which the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors,
+accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and took up a
+strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey's reproaches for
+the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge to fight on
+Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The English commander, thus
+foiled, executed a daring and skilful march round the enemy's flank, and
+on the 9th drew up for battle in rear of the hostile army. It is evident
+that Surrey was confident of victory, for he placed his own army, not
+less than the enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter
+ruin. On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took post on
+Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 P.M. Surrey's archers
+and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the Scots, unable quietly to
+endure their losses, rushed to close quarters. Their left wing drove the
+English back, but Lord Dacre's reserve corps restored the fight on this
+side. In all other parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were
+personally opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king's
+corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward Stanley in
+flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre's force closed
+upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself, boldly neglecting an
+almost intact Scottish division in front of him, charged in upon the
+rear of King James's corps. Surrounded and attacked on all sides, this,
+the remnant of the invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen
+around the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of
+his nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to the
+last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all the leading men
+in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no family of importance that
+had not lost a member in this great disaster. The "King's Stone," said
+to mark the spot where James was killed, is at some distance from the
+actual battlefield. "Sybil's Well," in Scott's _Marmion_, is imaginary.
+
+
+
+
+FLODOARD (894-966), French chronicler, was born at Epernay, and educated
+at Reims in the cathedral school which had been established by
+Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As canon of Reims, and favourite of the
+archbishops Herivaeus (d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while
+still young an important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was
+twice deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on
+account of his steady opposition to the election of the count's infant
+son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of Archbishop Artold in
+947, Flodoard became for a time his chief adviser, but withdrew to a
+monastery in 952, and spent the remaining years of his life in literary
+and devotional work. His history of the cathedral church at Reims
+(_Historia Remensis Ecclesiae_) is one of the most remarkable
+productions of the 10th century. Flodoard had been given charge of the
+episcopal archives, and constructed his history out of the original
+texts, which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the
+period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The _Annales_ which
+Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly important, by
+reason of the author's honesty and the central position of Reims in
+European affairs in his time. Flodoard's poetical works are of hardly
+less historical interest. The long poem celebrating the triumph of
+Christ and His saints was called forth by the favour shown him by Pope
+Leo VII., during whose pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes
+fourteen books to the history of the popes.
+
+  Flodoard's works were published in full by J.P. Migne (_Patrologia
+  Latina_, vol. 135); a modern edition of the _Annales_ is the one
+  edited by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier,
+  _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (No. 932).
+
+
+
+
+FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse _flo_, layer, level plain), a
+sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of polar ice. It is of
+less extent than the field of "pack" ice, which is a compacted mass of
+greater depth drifting frequently under the influence of deep currents,
+while the floating floe is driven by the wind.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden Flood, chief
+justice of the king's bench in Ireland, was born in 1732, and was
+educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards at Christ Church,
+Oxford, where he became proficient in the classics. His father was a man
+of good birth and fortune, and he himself married a member of the
+influential Beresford family, who brought him a large fortune. In his
+early years he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant
+conversationalist. His judgment was sound, and he had a natural gift of
+eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by study of classical
+oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood therefore possessed every
+personal advantage when, in 1759, he entered the Irish parliament as
+member for Kilkenny in his twenty-seventh year. There was at that time
+no party in the Irish House of Commons that could truly be called
+national, and until a few years before there had been none that deserved
+even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still
+constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it had
+practically no powers of independent legislation, and none of
+controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated by the
+ministers in London (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Though the great majority of
+the people were Roman Catholics, no person of that faith could either
+enter parliament or exercise the franchise; the penal code, which made
+it almost impossible for a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a
+learned profession, or even to educate his children, and which in
+numerous particulars pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and
+subjected them to degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in
+practice largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were
+throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the economic
+theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade of Great
+Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison fully realized the
+necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only needed the ability and
+eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of Commons to raise up an
+independent party in parliament, and to create in the country a public
+opinion with definite intelligible aims.
+
+The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening of the
+duration of parliament--which had then no legal limit in Ireland except
+that of the reigning sovereign's life,--the reduction of the
+scandalously heavy pension list, the establishment of a national
+militia, and, above all, the complete legislative independence of the
+Irish parliament. For some years little was accomplished; but in 1768
+the English ministry, which had special reasons at the moment for
+avoiding unpopularity in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass,
+which was the first step towards making the Irish House of Commons in
+some measure representative of public opinion. It had become the
+practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by the
+owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their undertaking to
+manage the House in the government interest. But during the viceroyalty
+of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and more particularly these
+"undertakers" as they were called, were made to understand that for the
+future their privileges in this respect would be curtailed. When,
+therefore, an opportunity was taken by the government in 1768 for
+reasserting the constitutional subordination of the Irish parliament,
+these powerful classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood.
+In the following year, in accordance with the established procedure, a
+money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for acceptance
+by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it rejected, but contrary to
+custom a reason for this course was assigned, namely, that the bill had
+not originated in the Irish House. In consequence parliament was
+peremptorily prorogued, and a recess of fourteen months was employed by
+the government in securing a majority by the most extensive
+corruption.[1] Nevertheless when parliament met in February 1771 another
+money bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year Lord
+Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked this conflict,
+was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a publication, famous in
+its day, called _Baratariana_, to which Flood contributed a series of
+powerful letters after the manner of Junius, one of his collaborators
+being Henry Grattan.
+
+The success which had thus far attended Flood's efforts had placed him
+in a position such as no Irish politician had previously attained. He
+had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes, "proved himself beyond
+all comparison the greatest popular orator that his country had yet
+produced, and also a consummate master of parliamentary tactics. Under
+parliamentary conditions that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an
+atmosphere charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had
+created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and had
+inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine spirit of
+liberty and self-reliance."[2] Lord Harcourt, who succeeded Townsend as
+viceroy, saw that Flood must be conciliated at any price "rather than
+risk the opposition of so formidable a leader." Accordingly, in 1775,
+Flood was offered and accepted a seat in the privy council and the
+office of vice-treasurer with a salary of £3500 a year. For this step he
+has been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly in
+the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost influence
+from the moment he became a minister of the crown, Flood may reasonably
+have held that he had a better prospect of advancing his policy by the
+leverage of a ministerial position than by means of any opposition party
+he could hope to muster in an unreformed House of Commons.[3] The
+result, however, was that the leadership of the national party passed
+from Flood to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same
+session that Flood became a minister.
+
+Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this long
+period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the independence
+of the Irish parliament, and had to be content with advocating minor
+reforms as occasion offered. He was thus instrumental in obtaining
+bounties on the export of Irish corn to foreign countries and some other
+trifling commercial concessions. On the other hand he failed to procure
+the passing of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges
+irremovable, while his support of Lord North's American policy still
+more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But an important
+event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to some extent his former
+position in the country; this event was the alliance of France with the
+revolted American colonies. Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a
+French invasion, while the English government could provide no troops to
+defend the island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on
+foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000 men,
+disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by the country
+gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism of Lord Charlemont.
+This volunteer force, in which Flood was a colonel, while vigilant for
+the defence of the island, soon made itself felt in politics. A
+Volunteer Convention, formed with all the regular organization of a
+representative assembly, but wielding the power of an army, began
+menacingly to demand the removal of the commercial restrictions which
+were destroying Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government
+gave way; the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland
+for the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood, who
+had taken an active though not a leading part in this movement, now at
+last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He found to his
+chagrin that his former services had been to a great extent forgotten,
+and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When in a debate on the
+constitutional question in 1779 Flood complained of the small
+consideration shown him in relation to a subject which he had been the
+first to agitate, he was reminded that by the civil law "if a man should
+separate from his wife, and abandon her for seven years, another might
+then take her and give her his protection." But though Flood had lost
+control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament, the
+agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention and by
+increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in 1782 to the
+concession of the demand, together with a number of other important
+reforms (see GRATTAN, HENRY).
+
+No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a question
+arose--known as the Simple Repeal controversy--as to whether England, in
+addition to the repeal of the Acts on which the subordination of the
+Irish parliament had been based, should not be required expressly to
+renounce for the future all claim to control Irish legislation. The
+chief historical importance of this dispute is that it led to the
+memorable rupture of friendship between Flood and Grattan, each of whom
+assailed the other with unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective
+in the House of Commons. Flood's view prevailed--for a Renunciation Act
+such as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parliament
+in 1783--and for a time he regained popularity at the expense of his
+rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783) introduced a reform bill,
+after first submitting it to the Volunteer Convention. The bill, which
+contained no provision for giving the franchise to Roman Catholics--a
+proposal which Flood always opposed--was rejected, ostensibly on the
+ground that the attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of
+parliament. The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crown and the
+connexion with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by
+Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary reform
+might be imputed to nothing but "a sober and laudable desire to uphold
+the constitution ... and to perpetuate the cordial union of both
+kingdoms." The convention then dissolved, though Flood had desired, in
+opposition to Grattan, to continue it as a means of putting pressure on
+parliament for the purpose of obtaining reform.
+
+In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House of Commons.
+In 1783 he tried again, this time with success. He purchased a seat for
+Winchester from the duke of Chandos, and for the next seven years he was
+a member at the same time of both the English and Irish parliaments. He
+reintroduced, but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in
+1784; supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but
+short-sightedly opposed Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785. He
+remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation, even defending
+the penal laws on the ground that after the Revolution they "were not
+laws of persecution but of political necessity"; but after 1786 he does
+not appear to have attended the parliament in Dublin. In the House at
+Westminster, where he refused to enrol himself as a member of either
+political party, he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition
+to Fox's India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the
+expectations aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition to the
+commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however, most able; and in
+1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox declared to be the best
+scheme of reform that had yet been proposed, and which in Burke's
+opinion retrieved Flood's reputation. But at the dissolution in the same
+year he lost his seat in both parliaments, and he then retired to
+Farmley, his residence in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of
+December 1791.
+
+When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal friendship with
+Grattan, declared that Flood was "perhaps the ablest man Ireland ever
+produced, indisputably the ablest man of his own times," he expressed
+what was probably the general opinion of Flood's contemporaries. Lord
+Charlemont, who knew him intimately though not always in agreement with
+his policy, pronounced him to be "a man of consummate ability." He also
+declared that avarice made no part of Flood's character. Lord
+Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described him as a
+pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested flattery. Grattan, who
+even after the famous quarrel never lost his respect for Flood, said of
+him that he was the best tempered and the most sensible man in the
+world. In his youth he was genial, frank, sociable and witty; but in
+later years disappointment made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he
+was less polished, less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner
+and a greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition often
+governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually sound; and
+it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have succeeded in
+carrying a reform bill which might have preserved Irish parliamentary
+independence, if he had been supported by Grattan and the rest of his
+party in keeping alive the Volunteer Convention in 1783. Though he never
+wavered in loyalty to the British crown and empire, Ireland never
+produced a more sincere patriot than Henry Flood.
+
+  See Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838); Henry
+  Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_
+  (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of
+  Curran and some of his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); _The Irish
+  Parliament 1775_, from an official and contemporary manuscript, edited
+  by William Hunt (London, 1907); W.J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her
+  Agitators_; Lord Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2
+  vols., London, 1792); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols., London, 1878-1890); and _Leaders of
+  Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged edition, 2 vols., London, 1903);
+  J.A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_, vols. ii. and iii. (London,
+  1881); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish
+  Nation_ (London, 1833); Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the
+  State of Ireland_ (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish
+  Biography_ (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_
+  (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer movement, on which see
+  also _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon.
+  Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also _The Charlemont Papers_, and _Irish Parl.
+  Debates_, (vols. i.-iv.).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Walpole's _George III._, iv. 348.
+
+  [2] W.E.H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged
+    edition, 2 vols., 1903), i. 48.
+
+  [3] See Hardy's _Life of Charlemont_, i. 356.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD (in O. Eng. _flód_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
+_Flut_, Dutch _vloed_, from the same root as is seen in "flow,"
+"float"), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a
+deluge, hence "the flood," specifically, the Noachian deluge of Genesis,
+but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded in the mythology of
+other nations than the Hebrew (see DELUGE, THE). In the sense of
+"flowing water," the word is applied to the inflow of the tide, as
+opposed to "ebb."
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD PLAIN, the term in physical geography for a plain formed of
+sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down which a river runs has
+become very slight, it is unable to carry the sediment brought from
+higher regions nearer its source, and consequently the lower portion of
+the river valley becomes filled with alluvial deposits; and since in
+times of flood the rush of water in the high regions tears off and
+carries down a greater quantity of sediment than usual, the river
+spreads this also over the lower valley where the plain is flooded,
+because the rush of water is checked, and the stream in consequence
+drops its extra load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent.
+That of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m., and
+its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood plains may be
+the result of planation, with aggradation, that is, they may be due to a
+graded river working in meanders from side to side, widening its valley
+by this process and covering the widened valley with sediment. Or the
+stream by cutting into another stream (piracy), by cutting through a
+barrier near its head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer
+rock, and by glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling
+up its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river's
+course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind it,
+and indeed anything which checks a river's course and causes it to drop
+its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most commonly found
+near the mouth of a large river, such as the Rhine, the Nile, or the
+Mississippi, where there are occasional floods and the river usually
+carries a large amount of sediment. "Levees" are formed, inside which
+the river usually flows, gradually raising its bed above the surrounding
+plain. Occasional breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to
+spread in a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt
+covers the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain
+made by the United States geological survey show a great variety of
+material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured at one
+place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying
+swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel,
+sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any
+section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar
+character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by meandering,
+or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant
+pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the
+drainage system has ceased to act or is entirely diverted owing to any
+cause, the flood plain may become a level area of great fertility,
+similar in appearance to the floor of an old lake. The flood plain
+differs, however, inasmuch as it is not altogether flat. It has a gentle
+slope down-stream, and often for a distance from the sides towards the
+centre.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOR (from O. Eng. _flor_, a word common to many Teutonic languages,
+cf. Dutch _vloer_, and Ger. _Flur_, a field, in the feminine, and a
+floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of a room, but
+specially employed for one covered with boarding or parquetry. The
+various levels of rooms in a house are designated as "ground-floor,"
+"first-floor," "mezzanine-floor," &c. The principal floor is the storey
+which contains the chief apartments whether on the ground- or
+first-floor; in Italy they are always on the latter and known as the
+"piano nobile." The storey below the ground-floor is called the
+"basement-floor," even if only a little below the level of the pavement
+outside; the storey in a roof is known as the "attic-floor." The
+expressions one pair, two pair, &c., apply to the storeys above the
+first flight of stairs from the ground (see also CARPENTRY).
+
+
+
+
+FLOORCLOTH, a rough flannel cloth used for domestic cleaning; also a
+generic term applied to a variety of materials used in place of carpets
+for covering floors, and known by such trade names as kamptulicon,
+oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork-carpet, &c. Kamptulicon ([Greek:
+kamptos], flexible, [Greek: oulos], thick) was patented in 1844 by E.
+Galloway, but did not attract much attention till about 1862. It was
+essentially a preparation of india-rubber masticated up with ground
+cork, and rolled out into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers,
+sometimes over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has
+given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose. Oil-cloth is
+a coarse canvas which has received a number of coats of thick oil paint,
+each coat being rubbed smooth with pumice stone before the application
+of the next. Its surface is ornamented with patterns printed in oil
+colours by means of wooden blocks. Linoleum (_linum_, flax, _oleum_,
+oil), patented by F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized
+linseed oil and ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated
+with the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of pigments
+such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed on to a rough
+canvas backing between steam-heated rollers. Patterns may be printed on
+its surface with oil paint, or by an improved method may be inlaid with
+coloured composition so that the colours are continuous through the
+thickness of the linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and
+thus do not disappear with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material
+to linoleum, also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is
+stamped out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.
+
+
+
+
+FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS (1828-1896), French statesman, was born at St
+Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses-Pyrénées) on the 2nd of October 1828. He
+studied law in Paris, and was called to the bar in 1851. The _coup
+d'état_ of that year aroused the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who
+had, while yet a student, given proof of his republican sympathies by
+taking part in the fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant
+and fearless attacks on the government in a series of political trials,
+and at the same time contributed to the _Temps_ and other influential
+journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de Justice in
+1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with the cry "Vive la
+Pologne, monsieur!" He delivered a scathing indictment of the Empire at
+the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took
+a part in the revolution of the 4th of September, as well as in the
+subsequent defence of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National
+Assembly by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed
+the _Ligue d'union républicaine des droits de Paris_ to attempt a
+reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his efforts
+failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers, but soon
+released. He became editor of the _République Française_, was chosen
+president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was elected deputy for
+the eleventh arrondissement. He took a prominent place among the
+extreme radicals, and became president of the group of the "Union
+républicaine." In 1882 he held for a short time the post of prefect of
+the Seine. In 1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber.
+This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality that
+he was re-elected the two following years. Having approached the Russian
+ambassador in such a way as to remove the prejudice existing against him
+in Russia since the incident of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for
+office; and on the fall of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became
+president of the council and minister of the interior in a radical
+ministry, which pledged itself to the revision of the constitution, but
+was forced to combat the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates
+in the chamber culminated on the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet
+and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following February
+the government fell on the question of revision, and in the new chamber
+of November Floquet was re-elected to the presidential chair. The Panama
+scandals, in which he was compelled to admit his implication, dealt a
+fatal blow to his career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892,
+and his seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the
+senate. He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1896.
+
+  See _Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet_, edited by Albert
+  Faivre (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FLOR, ROGER DI, a military adventurer of the 13th-14th century, was the
+second son of a falconer in the service of the emperor Frederick II.,
+who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when eight years old was sent to sea
+in a galley belonging to the Knights Templars. He entered the order and
+became commander of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in
+1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and an
+apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa, where he began
+to play the pirate. The struggle between the kings of Aragon and the
+French kings of Naples for the possession of Sicily was at this time
+going on; and Roger entered the service of Frederick, king of Sicily,
+who gave him the rank of vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302,
+as Frederick was anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops
+(called _Almúgavares_), whom he had no longer the means of paying, Roger
+induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures in the East, in
+fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging the empire. The emperor
+Andronicus II. accepted his offer of service; and in September 1303
+Roger with his fleet and army arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted
+into the imperial family, was married to a grand-daughter of the
+emperor, and was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and
+the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and bloody
+quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after some
+successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter quarters at
+Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field, and rendered the
+important service of relieving Philadelphia, then invested and reduced
+to extremities by the Turks. But Roger, bent on advancing his own
+interests rather than those of the emperor, determined to found in the
+East a principality for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but
+the people slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed
+the siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was
+compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his troops in
+Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople to demand pay for
+the _Almúgavares_. Dissatisfied with the small sum granted by the
+emperor, he plundered the country and carried on intrigues both with and
+against the emperor, receiving reinforcements all the while from all
+parts of southern Europe. Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly
+afterwards the young emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack
+the fierce and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to
+Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the massacre of
+his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was avenged by his men in
+a fierce and prolonged war against the Greeks.
+
+  See Moncada, _Expedicion de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contre Turcos y
+  Griegos_ (Paris, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+FLORA, in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and flowers, later
+identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival at Rome, the Floralia,
+instituted 238 B.C. by order of the Sibylline books and at first held
+irregularly, became annual after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May
+3), the first day being the anniversary of the foundation of her temple.
+It included theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and
+vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings were
+characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness. According to
+the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus Tatius, and her priest,
+the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art Flora was represented as a
+beautiful maiden, bedecked with flowers (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 183 ff.;
+Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 49).
+
+The term "flora" is used in botany collectively for the plant-growth of
+a district; similarly "fauna" is used collectively for the animals.
+
+
+
+
+FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR, a 13th-century romance. This tale, generally
+supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the passionate devotion of
+two children, and their success in overcoming all the obstacles put in
+the way of their love. The romance appears in differing versions in
+French, English, German, Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and
+Hungarian. The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E.
+Hausknecht's version of the 13th-century Middle English poem of "Floris
+and Blauncheflur" (_Samml. eng. Denkmäler_, vol. v. Berlin, 1885).
+Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of the story, but France
+was in the 12th and 13th centuries the chief market of romance, and the
+French version of the tale, _Floire et Blanchefleur_, is the most
+widespread. Floire, the son of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in
+constant companionship with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian
+slave of noble birth. Floire's parents, hoping to destroy this
+attachment, send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to
+foreign slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is told
+that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill himself, his
+parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the tower of the maidens
+destined for the harem of the emir of Babylon, into which he penetrates
+concealed in a basket of flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their
+constancy touches the hearts of their judges. They are married, and
+Floire returns to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt
+Christianity. Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Édélestand du
+Méril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few additions,
+the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the usual battles, single
+combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes of the story are printed by
+Paulin Paris in his _Romancero français_ (Paris, 1883). The English poem
+renders the French version without amplifications, such as are found in
+other adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original, and
+less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms of the story
+must be noted the prose romance (c. 1340) of Boccaccio, _Il Filocolo_,
+and the 14th-century _Leggenda della reina Rosana e di Rosana sua
+figliuola_ (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The similarity between the story of
+Floire and Blanchefleur and _Chante-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete_[1]
+has been repeatedly pointed out, and they have even been credited with a
+common source.
+
+  See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht
+  (Berlin, 1885); also H. Sundmacher, _Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche
+  Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur_ (Göttingen, 1872); H.
+  Herzog, _Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur_ (Vienna,
+  1884); _Zeitschrift für deut. Altertum_ (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish
+  version; the Scandinavian _Flores Saga ok Blankiflùr_, ed. E. Kölbing
+  (Halle, 1896); the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, _Flore und
+  Blanscheflur_, ed. E. Sommer (Leipzig, 1846); the Swedish by G.E.
+  Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited by
+  Hartschorne (_English Metrical Tales_, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford
+  Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited G.H.
+  McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (_Floire et Blanchefleur_, Paris, 1906)
+  suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by
+  Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily imply a
+  connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with small
+  alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the book of
+  Esther.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French by
+    G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bédier (Tours, 1901); English by
+    Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and by
+    Laurence Housman (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (1831-1891), American actor, of Irish descent,
+whose real name was Bernard Conlin, was born on the 26th of July 1831 at
+Albany, N.Y., and first attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's
+Lyceum in 1851. Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (d.
+1906), in association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won
+all his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's _The Mighty Dollar_, said
+to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856 they had a
+successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of the first American
+actresses to appear on the English stage. In 1889 Florence entered into
+partnership with Joseph Jefferson, playing Sir Lucius O'Trigger to his
+Bob Acres and Mrs John Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour.
+His last appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891, as
+Ezekiel Homespun in _The Heir-at-law_, and he died on the 18th of
+November in Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118), English chronicler, was a monk of
+Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator, on the 7th of
+July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is known of his life. He compiled a
+chronicle called _Chronicon ex chronicis_ which begins with the creation
+and ends in 1117. The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by
+Marianus Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards
+at Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up to
+1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version of the English
+Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth comparing with the extant
+English Chronicles; and from 1106 he is an independent annalist, dry but
+accurate. Either Florence or a later editor of his work made
+considerable borrowings from the first four books of Eadmer's _Historia
+novorum_. Florence's work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of
+Worcester, who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years
+of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to Stephen,
+but not an indiscriminate partisan.
+
+  The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
+  Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc., 2
+  vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs
+  revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an
+  ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology
+  of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John Taxter
+  (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St Edmunds.
+  Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J. Stevenson in his
+  _Church Historians of England_, vol. ii. pt. i. (London, 1853); T.
+  Forester's translation in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1854)
+  gives the work of Taxter also.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama, U.S.A., on the
+N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of Muscle Shoals Canal, and
+about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900)
+6478 (1952 negroes); (1910) 6689. It is served by the Southern, the
+Northern Alabama (controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville &
+Nashville railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia,
+and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated in the
+fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on the edge of
+the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has various manufactures,
+including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons, stoves, fertilizers, staves
+and mercantile supplies. At Florence are the state Normal College, the
+Florence University for Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for
+negroes; founded in 1903 by the American Missionary Association).
+Florence was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president of
+the United States, and ex-president James Madison being among the early
+property holders. For several years Florence and Nashville, Tennessee,
+were commercial rivals, being situated respectively at the head of
+navigation on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of
+Alabama by Federal troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the
+Tennessee to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April
+1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels were
+repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th of May following,
+Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed cotton mills and public
+and private property; but they were driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy
+(1820-1897). On the 11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but
+the Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was chartered
+as a city in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE (Ital. _Firenze_, Lat. _Florentia_), formerly the capital of
+Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of Italy, and the
+sixth largest city in the country. It is situated 43° 46' N., 11° 14'
+E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at this point flows through a
+broad fertile valley enclosed between spurs of the Apennines. The city
+is 165 ft. above sea-level, and occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of
+the commune, 16½ sq. m.). The geological formation of the soil belongs
+to the Quaternary and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the
+Eocene and Cretaceous in the lower. _Pietra forte_ of the Cretaceous
+period is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for
+centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. _Pietra serena_ or
+_macigno_, a stone of a firm texture also used for building purposes, is
+quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil is very fertile; wheat,
+Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of many kinds cover both the
+plain and the surrounding hills; the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are
+the stone pine, the cypress, the ilex and the poplar, while many other
+varieties are represented. The gardens and fields produce an abundance
+of flowers, which justify the city's title of _la città dei fiori_.
+
+_Climate and Sanitary Conditions._--The climate of Florence is very
+variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high winds from the
+north in winter to great heat in the summer, while in spring-time sudden
+and rapid changes of temperature are frequent. At the same time the
+climate is usually very agreeable from the end of February to the
+beginning of July, and from the end of September to the middle of
+November. The average temperature throughout the year is about 57°
+Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8°, and the minimum 36.5°, sometimes
+sinking to 21°. The longest day is 15 hours and 33 minutes, the shortest
+8 hours and 50 minutes. The average rainfall is about 37½ inches.
+Epidemic diseases are rare and children's diseases mild; cholera has
+visited Florence several times, but the city has been free from it for
+many years. Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe
+epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare intervals
+and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles and
+scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses. The drainage
+system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water brought from the hills
+or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good, and the general sanitary
+conditions are satisfactory.
+
+
+  Churches.
+
+_Public Buildings._--Of the very numerous Florentine churches the Duomo
+(Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most important, founded in
+1298 on the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and
+consecrated in 1436; the façade, however, was not finished until the
+19th century--it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and
+unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous Campanile
+built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with exquisite bas-reliefs.
+Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th
+century on the site of an earlier church, and adorned with beautiful
+bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th century. The Badia, Santo Spirito,
+Santa Maria Novella, are a few among the many famous and beautiful
+churches of Florence. The existence of these works of art attracts
+students from all countries, and a German art school subsidized by the
+imperial government has been instituted.
+
+The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their splendid
+palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the residences of the
+noble families of Florence. Among others we may mention the Palazzo
+Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government of the Republic and now the
+town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, the residence of the Medici and now the
+prefecture, the palaces of the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most
+perfect specimens of Florentine _quattrocento_ architecture), Corsini,
+Davanzati, Pitti (the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della
+Lana or gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored,
+is the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence, which
+was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, was pulled down in
+1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care was not taken to avoid
+destroying certain buildings of historic and artistic value which might
+have been spared without impairing the work of sanitation, while the new
+structures erected in their place, especially those in the Piazza
+Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping
+with Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics at the
+time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was built, a society
+called the _Società per la difesa di Firenze antica_ was formed by many
+prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient buildings and prevent them
+from destruction, and a spirit of intelligent conservatism seems now to
+prevail in this connexion. The city is growing in all directions, and a
+number of new quarters have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary
+than in the older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much
+aesthetic feeling. The _viali_ or boulevards form pleasant residential
+streets with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for
+each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming more
+and more general.
+
+
+  Libraries.
+
+Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number of smaller
+collections. The _Biblioteca Nazionale_, originally founded by Antonio
+Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the right, shared by the _Vittorio
+Emanuele_ library of Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in
+Italy, since 1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with
+regard to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed
+volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings (including 284
+by Albert Dürer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000 letters. The number of
+readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately, however, the confusion
+engendered by a defective organization has long been a byword among the
+people; there is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in
+packing-cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very
+poor, hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself is
+quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new one has now
+been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, so that eventually the
+whole collection will be transferred to more suitable quarters. The
+_Biblioteca Marucelliana_, founded in 1752, contains 150,000 books,
+including 620 incunabula, 17,000 engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well
+managed and chiefly remarkable for its collection of illustrated works
+and art publications. The _Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana_, founded in
+1571, has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and
+was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the
+Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it with
+valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of which was the
+collection of _editiones principes_ given by Count d'Elci, in 1841, and
+the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by the Italian Government in
+1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS., including many magnificent
+illuminated missals and Bibles and a number of valuable Greek and Latin
+texts, 242 incunabula and 11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with
+palaeography; it is in some ways the most important of the Florentine
+libraries. The _Biblioteca Riccardiana_, founded in the 16th century by
+Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books and 650
+incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The state archives
+are among the most complete in Italy, and contain over 450,000 _filze_
+and _registri_ and 126,000 charters, covering the period from 726 to
+1856.
+
+
+  Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums.
+
+Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of artistic
+and historic interest, although the great majority of them belong to a
+comparatively limited period--from the 13th to the 16th century. The
+chief art galleries are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two
+former are among the finest in the world, and are filled with
+masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino, Ghirlandaio,
+Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine, Umbrian, Venetian,
+Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous admirable examples of
+antique, medieval and Renaissance sculpture. The Pitti collection is in
+the royal palace (formerly the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine
+new stairway and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence.
+In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological order.
+In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan masters, the Botticelli
+and Perugino rooms deserve special mention. Other pictures are scattered
+about in the churches, monasteries and private palaces. Of the
+monasteries, that of St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many
+works of Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the
+private collections the only one of importance is that of Prince
+Corsini. There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance
+antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podestà, itself
+one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many treasures are
+works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other sculptors, and large
+collections of ivory, enamel and bronze ware. The Opera del Duomo
+contains models and pieces of sculpture connected with the cathedral;
+the Etruscan and Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the
+Michelangelo museum, the museum of natural history and other collections
+are all important in different ways.
+
+
+  Population.
+
+The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners and a
+garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363; it increased
+largely when the capital of Italy was in Florence (1865-1872), but
+decreased or increased very slightly after the removal of the capital to
+Rome, and increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the
+rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration, as
+the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903, since
+when there has been a slight increase of the former and a decrease of
+the latter.
+
+
+  Administration.
+
+Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the central
+government is represented by a prefect (_prefetto_), while local
+government is carried on by a mayor (_sindaco_) and an elective town
+council (_consiglio comunale_). The city is the seat of a court of
+cassation (for civil cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor
+tribunals. It is the headquarters of an army corps, and an
+archiepiscopal see.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls
+  (education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 pupils,
+  and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary education is
+  provided by one higher and four lower technical schools with 1375
+  pupils, three _ginnasii_ or lower classical schools, and three _licei_
+  or higher classical schools, with 1000 pupils, and three training
+  colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher education is imparted at the
+  university (_Istituto di studii superiori e di perfezionamento_), with
+  600 to 650 students; although only comprising the faculties of
+  literature, medicine and natural science, it is, as regards the
+  first-named faculty, one of the most important institutions in Italy.
+  The original _Studio Fiorentino_ was founded in the 14th century, and
+  acquired considerable fame as a centre of learning under the Medici,
+  enhanced by the presence in Florence of many learned Greeks who had
+  fled from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks (1453).
+  Although in 1472 some of the faculties and several of the professors
+  were transferred to Pisa, it still retained importance, and in the
+  17th and 18th centuries it originated a number of learned academies.
+  In 1859 after the annexation of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was
+  revived and reorganized; since then it has become to some extent a
+  national centre of learning and culture, attracting students from
+  other parts of Italy, partly on account of the fact that it is in
+  Florence that the purest Italian is spoken. The revival of classical
+  studies on scientific principles in modern Italy may be said to have
+  begun in Florence, and great activity has also been displayed in
+  reviving the study of Dante; Dante lectures being given regularly by
+  scholars and men of letters from all parts of the country, above the
+  church of Or San Michele as in the middle ages, under the auspices of
+  the _Società Dantesca_. Palaeography, history and Romance languages
+  are among the other subjects to which especial importance is given.
+  Besides the _Istituto di studii superiori_ there is the _Istituto di
+  scienze sociali_ "_Cesare Alfieri_," founded by the marchese Alfieri
+  di Sostegno for the education of aspirants to the diplomatic and
+  consular services, and for students of economics and social sciences
+  (about 50 students); an academy of fine arts, a conservatoire of
+  music, a higher female training-college with 150 students, a number of
+  professional and trade schools, and an academy of recitation. There
+  are also many academies and learned societies of different kinds, of
+  which one of the most important is the _Accademia della Crusca_ for
+  the study of the Italian language, which undertook the publication of
+  a monumental dictionary.
+
+
+    Charities, etc.
+
+  Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most
+  important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco
+  Portinari, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been thoroughly
+  renovated according to modern scientific principles. There are
+  numerous other hospitals both general and special, a foundling
+  hospital dating from the 13th century (Santa Maria degli Innocenti),
+  an institute for the blind, one for the deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the
+  hospitals and other charitable institutions are endowed, but the
+  endowments are supplemented by private contributions.
+
+
+    Commerce and Industry.
+
+  Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district,
+  and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
+  the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There are no
+  important industries, except a few flour-mills, some glass works, iron
+  foundries, a motor car factory, straw hat factories, and power-houses
+  supplying electricity for lighting and for the numerous tramcars.
+  There are, however, some artistic industries in and around the city,
+  of which the most important is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and
+  the Cantagalli majolica works. There are many other smaller
+  establishments, and the Florentine artificer seems to possess an
+  exceptional skill in all kinds of work in which art is combined with
+  technical ability. Another very important source of revenue is the
+  so-called "tourist industry," which in late years has assumed immense
+  proportions; the city contains a large number of hotels and
+  boarding-houses which every year are filled to overflowing with
+  strangers from all parts of the world.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae (Fiesole), which
+lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built
+only in Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by
+C. Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later
+on formed part of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed
+the river Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears
+to have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, and in
+A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a colony) it
+successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the waters of the
+Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus mentions it, and Florus
+describes it as one of the _municipia splendidissima_. A bishop of
+Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313. A group of Italic cremation tombs _a
+pozzo_ of the Villanova period were found under the pavement of the
+medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio. This took its name from the
+_Capitolium_ of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the
+Piazza Luna; the three _cellae_ were clearly traceable. The capitals of
+the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it became
+clear that this temple had supplied building materials for S. Giovanni
+and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal altar, probably belonging
+to the temple, were found. Remains of baths have been found close by,
+while the ancient amphitheatre has been found near S. Croce outside the
+Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
+gates, the _Decumanus_ being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del
+Corso, and the _Cardo_ by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio
+occupied the site of the Forum.
+
+  See L.A. Milani, "Reliquie di Firenze antica," in _Monumenti dei
+  Lincei_, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.)
+
+
+  The countess Matilda.
+
+  Guelphs and Ghibellines.
+
+  Beginnings of the commune.
+
+  War with the nobles.
+
+  The potestas.
+
+The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city by the
+Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general Stilicho.
+Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial
+garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths. We find
+the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one
+_Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum_, which suggests that Florence
+was the capital of a duchy (one of the regular divisions of the
+Longobard empire). Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many
+favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its
+situation on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
+agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the head of
+the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of
+San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro Mezzabarba as bishop of
+Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with
+Rome, which ended in the triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk
+Petrus Igneus, champion of the popular reform movement; this event
+indicates the beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
+Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or margraviate, and
+the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire.
+Under the emperor Otto I. one Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor
+Conrad II. (elected in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of
+Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
+Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the
+margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous countess Matilda, who
+ruled for forty years and played a prominent part in the history of
+Italy in that period. In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever
+on the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor and the
+faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and she herself often led armies
+to battle. It is at this time that the people of Florence first began to
+acquire influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of
+justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great
+feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in
+Tuscany, the _boni homines_ or _sapientes_. As the countess was
+frequently absent these _boni homines_ gave judgment without her, thus
+paving the way for a free commune. The citizens found themselves in
+opposition to the nobility of the hills around the city, Teutonic
+feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their
+commerce. Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other
+cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the
+citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations which
+were the germs of the _arti_ or gilds. After the death of Countess
+Matilda in 1115 the _grandi_ or _boni homines_ continued to rule and
+administer justice, but in the name of the people--a change hardly
+noticed at first, but which marks the foundation of the commune. After
+1138 the _boni homines_ began to be called _consules_, while the
+population was divided into the _grandi_ or _delle torri_, i.e. the
+noble families who had towers, and the _arti_ or trade and merchant
+gilds. At first the _consules_, of whom there seem to have been twelve,
+two for each _sestiere_ or ward, were chosen by the men of the towers,
+and assisted by a council of 100 _boni homines_, in which the _arti_
+were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few
+powerful families. The republic now proceeded to extend its power. In
+1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the
+_contado_ (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves,
+were still powerful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines
+to wage war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
+The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his
+authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former
+state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful
+counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152,
+made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Welf of Bavaria as
+margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to supply troops to the
+emperor for his Lombard campaigns, and he began to establish a
+centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a _potestas_,
+who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of "San Miniato al
+Tedesco"), to represent him and exercise authority in the _contado_;
+this double authority of the _consoli_ in the town and the _potestas_ or
+_podestà_ outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines were
+masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and
+Fiesole; but civil commotion within the city broke out between the
+_consoli_ and the greater nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened
+by the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles
+and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, though not
+victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted to the
+consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief cities of
+Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the Alberti whose castle
+of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later we find a _potestas_ within the
+city, elected for a year and assisted by seven councillors and seven
+_rectores super capitibus artium_. This represented the triumph of the
+feudal party, which had gained the support of the _arti minori_ or
+minor gilds. The _potestates_ subsequently were foreigners, and in 1207
+the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto of Milan; a new council was
+formed, the _consiglio del comune_, while the older senate still
+survived. The Florentines now undertook to open the highways of commerce
+towards Rome, for their city was already an important industrial and
+banking centre.
+
+
+  Comune and popolo.
+
+  Battle of Montaperti (1260).
+
+Discord among the great families broke out again, and the attempt to put
+an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti and a
+daughter of the Amidei, only led to further strife (1215), although the
+causes of these broils were deeper and wider, being derived from the
+general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the
+work of crushing the nobles of the _contado_ and of asserting the city's
+position among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war
+successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years
+against the Sienese with varying results; although the emperor supported
+the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure for Germany in 1235 they
+were forced to accept peace on onerous terms. During the interregnum
+(1241-1243) following on the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline
+cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was re-established. The
+tumults against the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many
+Ghibelline nobles favoured by the _podestà_ Pace di Pesamigola, indicate
+a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., having defeated his
+enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two Sicilies, appointed his natural
+son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil
+war broke out, entered the city with 1600 German knights. The
+Ghibellines now triumphed completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders
+were driven into exile--the first of many instances in Florentine
+history of exile _en masse_ of a defeated party. The attempt to seize
+Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
+failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six _caporali di
+popolo_, who formed the basis of the _primo popolo_ or body of citizens
+independent of the nobles, headed by the _capitano del popolo_. The
+Ghibellines being unable to maintain their supremacy, the city came to
+be divided into two almost autonomous republics, the _comune_ headed by
+the _podestà_, and the _popolo_ headed by the _capitano_ and militarily
+organized into twenty companies; the central power was represented by
+twelve _anziani_ or elders. The _podestà_, who was always a foreigner,
+usually commanded the army, represented the city before foreign powers,
+and signed treaties. He was assisted by the _consiglio speciale_ of 90
+and the _consiglio generale e speciale_ of 300, composed of nobles,
+while the _capitano del popolo_ had also two councils composed of
+burghers, heads of the gilds, _gonfalonieri_ of the companies, &c. The
+_anziani_ had a council of 36 burghers, and then there was the
+_parlamento_ or general assembly of the people, which met only on great
+occasions. At this time the _podestà's_ palace (the Bargello) was built,
+and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be accepted as the
+standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, although greatly
+strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be called the democrats as
+opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were by no means wholly
+victorious, and in 1251 they had to defend themselves against a league
+of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine
+Ghibellines; the Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after
+their plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in its
+hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession of
+Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines declared
+war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs of other towns was
+cunningly induced to believe that Siena would surrender at the first
+summons; but it was met by a Sienese army reinforced by Florentine
+exiles, including Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by
+the cavalry of Manfred (q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the
+count of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were totally routed
+at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. Count Giordano entered
+Florence, appointed Count Guido Novello _podestà_, and began a series of
+persecutions against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze
+the walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the
+idea, saying that "he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
+fatherland."
+
+
+  New constitution.
+
+During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the old liberties
+were abolished, and the _popolo_ was deprived of all share in the
+administration. But when Charles I. (q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy
+as champion of the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed (1266),
+the _popolo_, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, was ready
+to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were
+expelled, but it was not the _popolo_ who triumphed; the pope and
+Charles were the real masters of the situation, and the Florentines
+found they had exchanged a foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who
+was foreign and Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
+the _podestà_ who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 _buoni
+uomini_, and by the council of the 100 _buoni uomini del popolo_,
+"without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, "no great matter nor
+expenditure could be undertaken." Other bodies and magistrates were
+maintained, and the _capitano del popolo_, now called _capitano della
+massa di parte Guelfa_, tended to become a very important person. The
+property of the Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six
+_capitani di parte Guelfa_ appointed to administer it and in general to
+expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole constitution
+of the republic, although of very democratic tendencies, seemed designed
+to promote civil strife and weaken the central power.
+
+
+  Florentine trade and the gilds.
+
+While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed to argue
+small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, the people
+had built up a wonderful commercial organization. Each of the seven
+_arti maggiori_ or greater gilds was organized like a small state with
+its councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and in times of
+trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine cloth especially was
+known and sold all over Europe, and the Florentines were regarded as the
+first merchants of the age. If the life of the city went on
+uninterruptedly even during the many changes of government and the
+almost endemic civil war, it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who
+could carry on the administration without a government.
+
+
+  Cardinal Latino.
+
+After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines defeated
+the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan territory. As
+Charles perpetually interfered in their affairs, always favouring the
+_grandi_ or Guelph nobles, some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a
+counterpoise, which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph
+of Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come to terms
+with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 to give up his
+title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the
+interregnum following on the death of Frederick II. In 1279 Pope
+Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher Latino Frangipani
+Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal bishop of Ostia the same year,
+to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino to some
+extent succeeded, and was granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He
+raised the 12 _buoni uomini_ to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be
+changed every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. A
+force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the _podestà_ and
+_capitano_ (now both elected by the people) to keep order and oblige the
+_grandi_ to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.) by weakening
+Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed at complete independence
+of emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the _signoria_ was composed of
+the 3 (afterwards 6) _priori_ of the gilds, who ended by ousting the
+_buoni uomini_, while a _defensor artificum et artium_ takes the place
+of the _capitano_; thus the republic became an essentially trading
+community, governed by the _popolani grassi_ or rich merchants.
+
+
+  Battle of Campaldino (1289).
+
+  Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).
+
+The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power of the
+Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini were
+completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a battle made
+famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. War against the Pisans,
+who had been defeated by the Genoese in the naval battle of La Meloria
+in 1284, was carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was
+made. But the _grandi_, who had largely contributed to the victory of
+Campaldino, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were
+becoming more powerful, and Charles had increased their number by
+creating a great many knights; but their attempts to interfere with the
+administration of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were
+passed to reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the
+abolition of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in
+the number of _arti_, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 _maggiori_ and 14
+_minori_) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for the
+Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing power and
+arrogance of the _grandi_, who in spite of their exclusion from many
+offices were still influential and constituted independent clans within
+the state. The law obliged each member of the clan (_consorteria_) to
+_sodare_ for all the other members, i.e. to give a pecuniary guarantee
+to ensure payment of fines for offences committed by any one of their
+number, a provision made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted
+collectively. But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe
+ones were enacted. These were the famous _Ordinamenti della Giustizia_
+of 1293, by which all who were not of the _arti_ were definitely
+excluded from the signory. The _priori_ were to remain in office two
+months and elected the _gonfaloniere_, also for two months; there were
+the _capitudini_ or councils of the gilds, and two _savi_ for each
+_sestiere_, with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the
+_grandi_ families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters
+concerning the _Ordinamenti_ was delivered in a summary fashion without
+appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano della Bella, a noble
+who by engaging in trade had become a _popolano_; the _grandi_ now tried
+to make him unpopular with the _popolani grassi_, hoping that without
+him the _Ordinamenti_ would not be executed, and opened negotiations
+with Pope Boniface VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his
+authority in Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
+was driven into exile in 1295. The _grandi_ regained some of their power
+by corrupting the _podestà_ and by the favour of the _popolo minuto_ or
+unorganized populace; but their quarrels among themselves prevented them
+from completely succeeding, while the _arti_ were solid.
+
+
+  The Bianchi and the Neri.
+
+In 1295 a signory favourable to the _grandi_ enacted a law attenuating
+the _Ordinamenti_, but now the _grandi_ split into two factions, one
+headed by the Donati, which hoped to abolish the _Ordinamenti_, and the
+other by the Cerchi, which had given up all hope of their abolition;
+afterwards these parties came to be called _Neri_ (Blacks) and _Bianchi_
+(Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their influence over
+Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having been discovered (May
+1300), serious riots broke out between the Neri and the Bianchi. The
+pope's attempt to unite the _grandi_ having failed, he summoned Charles
+of Valois to come to his assistance, promising him the imperial crown;
+in 1301 Charles entered Italy, and was created by the pope _paciaro_ or
+peacemaker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and the
+_popolo_ and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles reached
+Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted Corso Donati
+and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new _podestà_, Cante dei
+Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, punished many of that
+faction; among those whom he exiled was the poet Dante (1302). Corso
+Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made
+himself many enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the
+_popolo grasso_, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in
+which he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg was
+elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he came to Italy
+in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines of Italy regarded
+him as a saviour and regenerator of the country, while the Guelphs of
+Florence on the contrary opposed both him and the pope as dangerous to
+their own liberties and accepted the protection of King Robert of
+Naples, disregarding Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was
+crowned emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
+ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances
+into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate free Italian
+communes. He besieged Florence without success, and died of disease in
+1313.
+
+
+  Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.
+
+The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that Henry was
+dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della Fagginola, imperial
+vicar in Genoa. A brave general and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca
+and defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini
+in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to
+fly from Tuscany. A new danger now threatened Florence in the person of
+Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.v.), who made himself lord
+of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, and other
+Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he harried the
+Florentines and defeated them several times, captured Pistoia,
+devastated their territory up to the walls of the city in spite of
+assistance from Naples under Raymundo de Cardona and the duke of
+Calabria (King Robert's son); never before had Florence been so
+humiliated, but while Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he
+died in 1328. Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been
+appointed protector of the city in 1325, died, and further
+constitutional reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by
+the _consiglio del popolo_, consisting of 300 _popolani_ and presided
+over by the _capitano_, and the _consiglio del comune_ of 250 members,
+half of them nobles and half _popolani_, presided over by the _podestà_.
+The _priori_ and other officers were drawn by lot from among the Guelphs
+over thirty years old who were declared fit for public office by a
+special board of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first,
+but abuses soon crept in, and many persons were unjustly excluded from
+office; trouble being expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was
+created. But the first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio,
+used his dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
+office no successor was chosen.
+
+
+  Attempt to capture Lucca.
+
+  The duke of Athens (1342-43).
+
+The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they might have
+acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's death for 80,000
+florins, but failed to do so owing to differences of opinion in the
+signory; Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in
+1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not then very
+flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make war on him. They
+were successful at first, but Venice made a truce with the Scala
+independently of the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they only
+obtained a part of Lucchese territory. At the same time they purchased
+from the Tarlati the protectorate over Arezzo for ten years. But
+misfortunes fell on the city: Edward III. of England repudiated the
+heavy debts contracted for his wars in France with the Florentine
+banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to
+their failure and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine
+credit all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums from
+the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions by accusing them
+of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought terrible havoc in Florence,
+and riots again broke out between the _grandi_ and the _popolo_, partly
+on account of the late unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of
+the finances. To put an end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke
+of Athens, was elected "conservator" and captain of the guard in 1342.
+An astute, dissolute and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine,
+he began his government by a policy of conciliation and impartial
+justice which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought the
+ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed by the
+populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of September was
+carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. The _podestà_ and the
+_capitano_ assenting to this treachery, he dismissed the
+_gonfaloniere_, reduced the _priori_ to a position of impotence,
+disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted the lordship of
+Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his
+bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, who behaved with the greatest
+licence and brutality; by his oppressive taxes, and his ferocious
+cruelty towards all who opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he
+concluded with Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
+_grandi_ were disappointed because he had not crushed the _popolo_, and
+the latter because he had destroyed their liberties and interfered with
+the organization of the _arti_. Many unsuccessful plots against him were
+hatched, and having discovered one that was conducted by Antonio degli
+Adimari, the duke summoned the latter to the palace and detained him a
+prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of
+wishing to consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
+the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the duke's
+abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came to the Florentines
+from neighbouring cities, the _podestà_ was expelled, and a _balìa_ or
+provisional government of 14 was elected. The duke was forced to set
+Adimari and his other prisoners free, and several of his men-at-arms
+were killed by the populace; three of his chief henchmen, whom he was
+obliged to surrender, were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the
+1st of August he had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence
+under a strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
+his enactments.
+
+
+  New constitution.
+
+The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several measures to
+humble the _grandi_ still further, while the _popolo minuto_ or artisans
+began to show signs of discontent at the rule of the merchants, and the
+populace destroyed the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was
+restored a _balìa_ was appointed to reform the government, in which task
+it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian ambassadors and by Simone da
+Battifolle. The _priori_ were reduced to 8 (2 _popolani grassi_, 3
+_mediani_ and 3 _artifici minuti_), while the _gonfaloniere_ was to be
+chosen in turn from each of those classes; the _grandi_ were excluded
+from the administration, but they were still admitted to the _consiglio
+del comune_, the _cinque di mercanzia_, and other offices pertaining to
+the commune; the _Ordinamenti_ were maintained but in a somewhat
+attenuated form, and certain _grandi_ as a favour were declared to be of
+the _popolo_. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial
+republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by commercial
+considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an ambition to gain
+secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism was the outcome of its
+determination to secure the bank-business of the papacy; and its desire
+to extend its territory in Tuscany to the necessity for keeping open the
+land trade routes. Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the
+walls of the city, for no one of the _contado_ nor any citizen of the
+subject towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the
+inhabitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.
+
+
+  Statistics.
+
+Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 inhabitants, of
+whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 churches, 39 religious
+houses; the shops of the _arte della lana_ numbered over 200, producing
+cloth worth 1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were
+found all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
+service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, derived
+chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 florins, whereas
+its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military matters and public
+buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already a centre of art and
+letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that
+the _grandi_ were suppressed politically, the lowest classes came into
+prominence, "adventurers without sense or virtue and of no authority for
+the most part, who had usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest
+practices" (Matteo Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.
+
+
+  The Great Plague (1348).
+
+  War with Milan (1351).
+
+In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed the next year
+by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, which carried off
+three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Yet in spite of
+these disasters the republic was by no means crushed; it soon regained
+the suzerainty of many cities which had broken off all connexion with it
+after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, and purchased the
+overlordship of Prato from Queen Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it
+from the duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and
+archbishop of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
+sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to dominating Florence,
+the city made war on him, and in violation of its Guelph traditions
+placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for
+his lifetime. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled the
+_grandi_, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still dominated
+the _parte Guelfa_, to reassert themselves. They had in 1347 succeeded
+in enacting a very stringent law against all who were in any way tainted
+with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves being above suspicion in that
+connexion, enabled them to drive from office many members of the _popolo
+minuto_. In 1358 the _parte Guelfa_ made these enactments still more
+stringent, punishing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines
+held office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming
+condemnations might be passed for this offence without hearing the
+accused; even a non-proved charge or an _ammonizione_ (warning not to
+accept office) might entail disfranchisement. Thus the _parte_,
+represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, came to exercise a
+veritable reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation might fall
+on him. The leader of the _parte_ was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief
+rivals were the Ricci family.
+
+
+  The condottieri.
+
+Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers of fortune.
+The first of these bands with whom Florence came into contact was the
+Great Company, commanded by the count of Lando, which twice entered
+Tuscany but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
+(1358-1359).
+
+In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of commercial
+differences, and because the former had acquired the lordship of
+Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa enlisted Sir John
+Hawkwood's English company; the latter won several battles, but were at
+last defeated at Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side
+having gained much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
+1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban V., Queen
+Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots to humble the
+Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should join the league. This
+they refused to do and armed themselves for defence, but eventually
+satisfied the emperor with a money payment.
+
+
+  The parte Guelfa.
+
+The tyranny of the _parte Guelfa_ still continued unabated, and the
+_capitani_ carried an enactment by which no measure affecting the
+_parte_ should be even discussed by the signory unless previously
+approved of by them. This infamous law, however, aroused so much
+opposition that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in
+secret to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
+the Ricci having weakened the _parte_, a _balìa_ of 56 was agreed upon.
+Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from office for five
+years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was created to defend the
+laws and protect the weak against the strong. The _parte Guelfa_ and the
+Albizzi still remained very influential and the attempts to abolish
+admonitions failed.
+
+
+  War with the church (1375-78).
+
+In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed how the old party
+divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The papal legate at Bologna,
+Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet (d. 1394), although the church was then
+allied to Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to the
+Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines for grain from
+Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although
+a large part of the people disliked the idea of a conflict with the
+church, an alliance with Florence's old enemy Bernabò Visconti was made,
+war declared, and a _balìa_ of 8, the _Otto della guerra_ (afterwards
+called the "Eight Saints" on account of their good management) was
+created to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and
+Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, including
+Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. placed Florence
+under an interdict, ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from
+foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious company of Bretons to invade
+the republic's territory. The Eight levied heavy toll on church property
+and ordered the priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the
+tables on the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
+order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope Clement
+VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, their captains were
+bribed by the republic not to molest its territory. By 1378 peace was
+made, partly through the mediation of St Catherine of Siena, and the
+interdict was removed in consideration of the republic's paying a fine
+of 200,000 florins to the pope.
+
+
+  Salvestro de' Medici.
+
+  The riot of the ciompi (1378).
+
+During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the city, but
+now the _parte Guelfa_, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio and Piero degli
+Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself by illicit interference in the
+elections and by a liberal use of "admonitions" (_ammonizioni_).
+Salvestro de' Medici, who had always opposed the _parte_, having been
+elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for the
+abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed (June 18,
+1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired to break the power
+of the _parte_ for good. Rioting occurred on the 21st of June, and the
+houses of the Albizzi and other nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile
+created a _balìa_ of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the
+_parte_, and partly enfranchised the _ammoniti_. The people were still
+unsatisfied, the _arti minori_ demanded further privileges, and the
+workmen insisted that their grievances against the _arti maggiori_,
+especially the wool trade by whom they were employed, be redressed. A
+large body of _ciompi_ (wool carders) gathered outside the city and
+conspired to subvert the signory and establish a popular government.
+Although the plot, in which Salvestro does not seem to have played a
+part, was revealed, a good deal of mob violence occurred, and on the
+21st of July the populace seized the _podestà's_ palace, which they made
+their headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for the
+_popolo minuto_, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso Strozzi, as
+spokesman of the _ciompi_, obliged the signory to resign their powers to
+the Eight. Once the people were in possession of the palace, a _ciompo_
+named Michele di Lando took the lead and put a stop to disorder and
+pillage. He remained master of Florence for one day, during which he
+reformed the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de'
+Medici. Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
+from the _arti maggiori_, three from the _minori_, and three from the
+new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose the
+_gonfaloniere_ of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele di
+Lando. This did not satisfy the _ciompi_, and the disorders provoked by
+them resulted in a new government which reformed the two councils so as
+to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy the people several of the
+_grandi_, including Piero degli Albizzi, were put to death, on charges
+of conspiracy, and many others were exiled. There was perpetual rioting
+and anarchy, and interference in the affairs of the government by the
+working men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
+owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last in
+1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild companies.
+Again a new constitution was decreed by which the _gonfaloniere_ and
+half the _priori_ were to be chosen from the _arti maggiori_ and the
+other half from the _minori_; on several other boards the former were to
+be in the majority, and the three new gilds were abolished. The
+demagogues were executed or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with
+great ingratitude was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the
+_ciompi_, largely of an economic character, were put down, and the
+Guelph families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
+they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive the odious
+system of _ammonizioni_.
+
+
+  Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6).
+
+Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its position, and
+in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the lieutenant of Charles of
+Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, having made himself master of a
+large part of northern Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and
+Siena. Florence, alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an
+army of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord of
+Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic strengthened
+by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian states. In 1393 Maso
+degli Albizzi was made _gonfaloniere_, and for many years remained
+almost master of Florence owing to his influential position in the _Arte
+della Lana_. A severe persecution was initiated against the Alberti and
+other families, who were disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and
+conspiracies against the merchant oligarchy continued, and although they
+were unsuccessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles
+caused the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
+states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian Galeazzo
+Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany, acquired the
+lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood being dead, Florence
+purchased aid from the emperor Rupert. The Imperialists were beaten; but
+just as the Milanese were about to march on Florence, Visconti died. His
+territories were then divided between his sons and his _condottieri_,
+and Florence, ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
+Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished to regain
+Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and the allies were
+successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his ends he made peace,
+leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In 1404 their attempt to capture
+Pisa single-handed failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
+protection of the French king. The Florentines then made overtures to
+France, who had supported the anti-popes all through the great schism,
+and suggested that they too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict
+XIII., in exchange for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405
+the city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,[1]
+the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel, but a few
+days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured it from the
+mercenaries. There was great consternation in Florence at the news, and
+every man in the city "determined that he would go naked rather than not
+conquer Pisa" (G. Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by
+Giovanni Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
+mouth of the Arno. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered on terms
+(9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked, many of the
+citizens were exiled and others forced to live in Florence, a
+depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence now acquired a
+great seaport and was at last able to develop a direct maritime trade.
+
+
+  The council of Pisa (1408).
+
+Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic had taken no
+definite side in the great schism which had divided the church since
+1378, but in 1408 she appealed both to Pope Gregory XII. and the
+anti-pope Benedict XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in
+favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within her own
+territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee of
+theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council promoted by
+Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates met at Pisa. This nearly
+led to war with King Ladislas of Naples, because he had seized Rome,
+which he could only hold so long as the church was divided. The council
+deposed both popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of
+June). But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
+alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with Siena,
+Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan throne, to
+drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto, Viterbo and other cities
+were recovered for Alexander, and in January 1410 Rome itself was
+captured by the Florentines under Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander
+having died in May before entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was
+elected as John XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
+Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased Cortona of the
+pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal states once more, driving John
+from Rome, and threatened Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo
+Visconti, and other enemies of the republic, he too died most
+opportunely (6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after
+leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put an end to
+the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V. The new pope came to
+Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained Rome, which was held by
+Francesco Sforza for Queen Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there
+until the following year.
+
+No important changes in the constitution took place during this period
+except the appointment of two new councils in 1411 to decide on
+questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction headed by Maso
+degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had remained predominant,
+and at Maso's death in 1417 he was succeeded in the leadership of the
+party by Niccolò da Uzzano. In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected
+_gonfaloniere_ of justice, an event which marks the beginning of that
+wealthy family's power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn
+from the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of "Consuls
+of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Although 11,000,000 florins
+had been spent on recent wars Florence continued prosperous and its
+trade increased.
+
+
+  New war with the Visconti (1421-27).
+
+In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering most
+of Lombardy, seized Forlì; this induced the Florentines to declare war
+on him, as they regarded his approach as a menace to their territory in
+spite of the opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de' Medici.
+The campaign was anything but successful, and the Florentines were
+defeated several times, with the result that their credit was shaken and
+several important firms failed. The pope too was against them, but when
+they induced the Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and
+Visconti was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
+terms (1427).
+
+
+  Fiscal reforms (1427).
+
+The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded to the needs
+of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various loans made to the
+state were consolidated into one national debt (_monte_). Subsequently
+all extraordinary expenditure was met by forced loans (_prestanze_), but
+the method of distribution aroused discontent among the lower classes,
+and in 1427 a general _catasto_ or assessment of all the wealth of the
+citizens was formed, and measures were devised to distribute the
+obligations according to each man's capacity, so as to avoid pressing
+too hardly on the poor. The _catasto_ was largely the work of Giovanni
+de' Medici, who greatly increased his popularity thereby. He died in
+1429.
+
+
+  Exile and return of Cosimo de' Medici (1433-34).
+
+An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with Venice, into
+another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The mismanagement of the
+campaign brought about a quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by
+Rinaldo degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni de'
+Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both had agreed to the war
+before it began. Rinaldo was determined to break the Medici party, and
+succeeded in getting Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen
+their position by conferring exceptional powers on the _capitano del
+popolo_ and by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had
+a great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a _coup d'état_ met
+with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent the
+election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders of the
+party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of plotting against
+the state, to which he replied by collecting 800 armed followers. A
+revolution was only averted through the intervention of Pope Eugenius
+IV., who was then in Florence. A _parlamento_ was summoned, and the
+_balìa_ appointed decreed the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo
+degli Albizzi, Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolò Barbadori, and others, in spite
+of the feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of October
+1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next three centuries the
+history of the city is identified with that of the house of Medici.[2]
+
+
+  Cosimo's rule.
+
+Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining nominally a
+private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, and governed by means
+of the _balìe_, which, re-elected every five years, appointed all the
+magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and
+Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, Niccolò
+Piccinino (q.v.), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his
+train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the Florentines under
+Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the following year. The system
+of the _catasto_, which led to abuses, was abolished, and a progressive
+income-tax (_decima scalata_) was introduced with the object of
+lightening the burdens of the poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the
+expense of the rich; but as it was frequently increased the whole
+community came to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his
+own authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza to
+become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the war against
+Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick III. passed through
+Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome, and was received as a friend.
+During the last years of Cosimo's life, affairs were less under his
+control, and the _gonfaloniere_ Luca Pitti, a vain and ambitious man,
+introduced many changes, such as the abasement of the authority of the
+_podestà_ and of the _capitano_, which Cosimo desired but was glad to
+attribute to others.
+
+
+  Piero de' Medici (the Gouty).
+
+  Lorenzo the Magnificent.
+
+In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some opposition, by
+his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty. Various plots against him
+were hatched, the anti-Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio
+party because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill, while
+the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party because Piero's house was
+in the town below; the other opposition leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni
+and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes
+of his enemies. The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of
+Milan, and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
+Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements, in 1468,
+through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died in 1469, leaving
+two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at
+once assumed the reins of government and became ruler of Florence in a
+way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted; he established his
+domination by means of _balìe_ consisting of the signory, the
+_accoppiatori_, and 240 other members, all Mediceans, to be renewed
+every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having arisen with Volterra
+on account of a dispute concerning the alum mines, Lorenzo sent an
+expedition against the city, which was sacked and many of the
+inhabitants massacred. Owing to a variety of causes an enmity arose
+between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an
+accomplice, at all events had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against
+the Medici (1478). The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano
+was murdered, Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or
+exiled numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who,
+together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against him; no great
+successes were registered on either side at first, but eventually the
+Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale (near Poggibonsi) and the
+city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's position was critical, but by his
+boldness in going to Naples he succeeded in concluding a peace with the
+king, which led to a reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was
+received with enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute
+master of the situation. In April 1480 a _balìa_ was formed, and its
+most important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the Council
+of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became permanent,
+and all its members were Lorenzo's friends. From that time until his
+death the city was free from party strife under a _de facto_ despotism,
+but after the Rinuccini conspiracy of that year the Council of Seventy
+passed a law declaring attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason.
+Owing to his political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business
+interests of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
+seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, which was
+magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced loans necessary, and
+he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti, an insurance institution to
+provide dowries for girls.
+
+
+  Savonarola.
+
+An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general Italian
+war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile to Venice, and
+when peace was made in 1484 the republic gained some advantages. The
+following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand
+broke out, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained
+neutral at first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of
+power and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended by
+giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in Florence.
+Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms in 1486, and in
+1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa had taken from Florence nine
+years previously. The general disorders and ceaseless intrigues all over
+Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he succeeded in making
+Florence "the needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this time the
+Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.) was in Florence and aroused the
+whole city by his denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of
+that of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the source
+of the immorality of the people, and to some extent influenced public
+opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on Lorenzo, and Savonarola,
+whom he had summoned to his bedside, refused to give absolution to the
+destroyer of Florentine liberties. Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence
+had become one of the greatest centres of art and literature in Europe,
+died in 1492.
+
+
+  Piero de' Medici.
+
+  Expulsion of the Medici (1494).
+
+  Charles VIII. in Florence.
+
+  Piero Capponi.
+
+He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's capacity
+and made a number of political blunders. When Charles VIII. of France
+came to Italy to conquer Naples Piero decided to assist the latter
+kingdom, although the traditional sympathies of the people were for the
+French king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
+Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing him. The
+king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and other towns, which Piero
+granted, but on returning to Florence on the 8th of November 1494 he
+found the opposition greatly strengthened and his popularity forfeited,
+especially when the news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became
+known. He was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
+shout "Popolo e libertà!" in opposition to the Medicean cry of "Palle,
+Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort he fled from the
+city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. That same day Pisa
+rose in revolt against the Florentines, and was occupied by Charles. The
+expulsion of the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi (q.v.)
+and other prominent citizens succeeded in keeping the peace.
+Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola, were sent to treat with the
+French king, but no agreement was arrived at until Charles entered
+Florence on the 17th of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of
+their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at the seizure of
+Sarzana, and while they gave the king a splendid welcome, they did not
+like his attitude of conqueror. Charles was impressed with the wealth
+and refinement of the citizens, and above all with the solid
+fortress-like appearance of their palaces. The signory appointed Piero
+Capponi, a man of great ability and patriotism, and experienced in
+diplomacy, the _gonfaloniere_ Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
+Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi, syndics
+to conduct the negotiations with the French king. Charles's demands by
+no means pleased the citizens, and the arrogance and violence of his
+soldiers led to riots in which they were assailed with stones in the
+narrow streets. When the king began to hint at the recall of Piero de'
+Medici, whose envoys had gained his ear, the signory ordered the
+citizens to be ready to fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but
+Charles demanded an immense sum of money before he would leave the city;
+long discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
+ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in a
+threatening tone, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," whereupon Capponi
+tore up the document in his face and replied, "And we shall ring our
+bells." The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean,
+at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000 florins,
+agreeing to assume the title of "Protector and Restorer of the liberty
+of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had taken within two
+years, unless his expedition to Naples should be concluded sooner; the
+Medici were to remain banished, but the price on their heads was
+withdrawn. But Charles would not depart, a fact which caused perpetual
+disturbance in the city, and it was not until the 28th of November,
+after an exhortation by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he
+left Florence.
+
+
+  The revived republic.
+
+  Savonarola as a statesman.
+
+It was now intended to re-establish the government on the basis of the
+old republican institutions, but it was found that sixty years of Medici
+rule had reduced them to mere shadows, and the condition of the
+government, largely controlled by a _balìa_ of 20 _accoppiatori_ and
+frequently disturbed by the summoning of the _parlamento_, was utterly
+chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of changing the
+constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer an upper class
+accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class was thoroughly
+demoralized. Many proposals were made, none of them of practical value,
+until Savonarola, who had already made a reputation as a moral reformer,
+began his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing confusion
+the people turned to him as their only hope, and gradually a new
+government was evolved, each law being enacted as the result of his
+exhortations. A Greater Council empowered to appoint magistrates and pass
+laws was formed, to which all citizens _netti di specchio_ (who had paid
+their taxes) and _beneficiati_ (i.e. who had sat in one of the higher
+magistracies or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had
+done so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200 such
+citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. The Greater
+Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens over forty years old,
+also to be changed every six months; this body, which the signory must
+consult once a week, together with the colleges and the signory itself,
+was to appoint ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
+confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished and a 10%
+tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a law of amnesty for
+political offenders enacted. Savonarola also proposed a court of appeal
+for criminal and political crimes tried by the _Otto di guardia e balìa_;
+this too was agreed to, but the right of appeal was to be, not to a court
+as Savonarola suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to
+grave abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. The
+_parlamenti_ were abolished and a _monte di pietà_ to advance money at
+reasonable interest was created. But in spite of Savonarola's popularity
+there was a party called the _Bigi_ (greys) who intrigued secretly in
+favour of the return of the Medici, while the men of wealth, called the
+_Arrabbiati_, although they hated the Medici, were even more openly
+opposed to the actual régime and desired to set up an aristocratic
+oligarchy. The adherents of Savonarola were called the _Piagnoni_, or
+snivellers, while the _Neutrali_ changed sides frequently.
+
+
+  League against Charles VIII.
+
+  Alexander VI. against Florence.
+
+  Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498).
+
+A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain having been
+made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced to return to France.
+On his way back he passed through Florence, and; although the republic
+had refused to join the league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero
+de' Medici was in the king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the
+French camp, and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
+had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time Charles violated his
+promise by giving aid to the Pisans in their revolt against Florence,
+and did not restore the other fortresses. After the French had abandoned
+Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a number of
+mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the citizens, fired by
+Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and prepared for an energetic
+resistance; owing to Piero's incapacity and the exhaustion of his funds
+the expedition came to nothing. At the same time the conditions of the
+city were not prosperous; its resources were strained by the sums paid
+to Charles and by the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed,
+famine and plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was
+proceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of one of
+its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. The league
+now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was
+determined to destroy the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici
+temporarily and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians and
+Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was great misery in Florence.
+All this decreased Savonarola's popularity to some extent, but the enemy
+having been beaten at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the
+point of breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party
+was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were held,
+Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have
+temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival of 1497 remained
+famous for the burning of the "vanities" (i.e. indecent books and
+pictures and carnival masks and costumes). The friar's sermons against
+ecclesiastical corruption, and especially against the pope, resulted in
+his excommunication by the latter, in consequence of which he lost much
+of his influence and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero
+made another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots having
+been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent citizens were
+tried and put to death; but the party hostile to Savonarola gained
+ground and had the support of the Franciscans, who were hostile to the
+Dominican order. Pulpit warfare was waged between Savonarola and his
+opponents, and the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in
+a proposed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
+again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, but
+without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against the
+city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of Arrabbiati having
+been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's opponents attacked the
+convent of St Mark where he resided, and he himself was arrested and
+imprisoned. The commission appointed to try him on charges of heresy and
+treason was composed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had
+previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities were committed
+during the three trials, and the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The
+outgoing signory secured the election of another which was of their way
+of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola was condemned to
+death and executed the following day.
+
+
+  Piero Soderini.
+
+The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence was less
+critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was renewed, and in 1499
+the city might have been taken but for the dilatory tactics of the
+Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli, who was consequently arrested on a
+charge of treason and put to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent
+an army into Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
+Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in Romagna,
+suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the
+danger was only warded off by appointing him captain-general of the
+Florentine forces at a large salary (1501). The weakness of the
+government becoming every day more apparent, several constitutional
+changes were made, and many old institutions, such as that of the
+_podestà_ and _capitano del popolo_, were abolished; finally in 1502, in
+order to give more stability to the government, the office of
+_gonfaloniere_, with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was
+made a life appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini
+(1448-1522), an honest public-spirited man of no particular party, but
+lacking in strength of character. One useful measure which he took was
+the institution of a national militia at the suggestion of Niccolò
+Machiavelli (1505). In the meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without
+much headway being made. In 1503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI.
+had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who was at war
+with France over the partition of Naples, helped the Pisans as the
+enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504), but when the war was
+over the Florentines were able to lay siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509
+the city was driven by famine to surrender and became a dependency of
+Florence once more.
+
+
+  Schismatic council of Pisa (1510).
+
+  Return of the Medici (1512).
+
+  Second expulsion of the Medici (1527).
+
+  The siege of Florence.
+
+  Surrender of Florence (1530).
+
+Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai with France
+and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510, and raised the cry of
+"Fuori i Barbari" (out with the barbarians), with a view to expelling
+the French from Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
+council so as to create a schism in the Church, and demanded that it be
+held in Florentine territory. After some hesitation the republic agreed
+to the demand, and the council was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope
+immediately placed Florence under an interdict. At the request of the
+Florentines the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them
+from the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona and
+accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother Giuliano
+entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000 florins, the
+dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini
+offered to resign, but the Greater Council supported him and
+preparations for defence were made. In August the Spaniards took Prato
+by storm and committed hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence
+was in a panic, a group of the _Ottimati_, or nobles, forced Soderini to
+resign and leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz.
+the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an
+alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512 Giuliano and Giovanni
+de' Medici, and their nephew Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish
+troops; a _parlamento_ was summoned, and a packed _balìa_ formed which
+abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution similar to that
+of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano became _de facto_ head of the
+government, but he did not pursue the usual vindictive policy of his
+house, although he resorted to the Laurentian method of amusing the
+citizens with splendid festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II.,
+Giovanni de' Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly
+enhanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano died, and
+was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke of Urbino. At his
+death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son of the Giuliano murdered
+in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge of the government; he met with some
+opposition and had to play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he
+did not rule badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of
+freedom. In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his
+relatives Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
+under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was styled
+the _Magnifico_ and destined to be ruler of the republic, but Cardinal
+Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the city was soon
+seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini showed himself
+quite unequal to coping with the situation. The Ottimati were mostly
+anti-Medicean, and by 1527 the position was untenable. When Filippo
+Strozzi, and above all his wife, threw their influence in the scales
+against the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion
+from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (17th of
+May 1527). A _Consiglio degli Scelti_ was summoned, and a constitution
+similar to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater
+Council was revived and Niccolò Capponi created _gonfaloniere_ for a
+year. But Florence was torn by factions--the Ottimati who desired an
+oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally supported them, the
+Adirati who opposed Capponi for his moderation, the Arrabbiati who were
+strongly anti-Medicean, and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. "It
+is almost impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as
+Florence then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
+chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted, their
+dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they would be hunted
+from their country or die of grief" (Benedette Varchi). Capponi did his
+best to reform the city and save the situation, and while adopting
+Savonarola's tone in internal affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign
+situation, realizing that a reconciliation between the pope and the
+emperor Charles V. would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement
+would certainly seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power.
+Having been re-elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of much opposition in
+1528, Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence
+with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high treason,
+and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave the city for
+six months. Francesco Carducci was elected _gonfaloniere_ in his place,
+and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and the emperor concluded a treaty
+by which the latter agreed to re-establish the Medici in Florence.
+Carducci made preparations for a siege, but a large part of the people
+were against him, either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the
+Frateschi, as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported
+him strongly. A body called the _Nove della Milizia_, of whom
+Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the defence of
+the city, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended the
+strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the
+chief command of the army was the appointment of Malatesta Baglioni. In
+August an imperial army under Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on
+the city. In September Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities
+fell before the Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the
+pope were unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. Although
+alone against papacy and empire, the citizens showed the greatest spirit
+and devotion, and were successful in many sorties. The finest figure
+produced by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.); by his
+defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and was
+appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid marches and
+counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the enemy unexpectedly,
+and harassing them continually. But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and
+hindered the defence of the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had
+recaptured Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the
+Imperialists in the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of
+August, but in spite of Ferruccio's heroism he was defeated and killed;
+the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. Malatesta
+contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous attack by the
+besieged. The sufferings from famine within the city were now very
+great, and an increasingly large part of the people favoured surrender.
+The signory, at last realizing that Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed
+him; but it was too late, and he now behaved as though he were governor
+of Florence; when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he
+turned his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that all
+hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante Gonzaga,
+the new imperial commander. On the 12th the capitulation was signed:
+Florence was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici were to
+be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government, "it being
+understood that liberty is to be preserved." Baccio Valori, a Medicean
+who had been in the imperialist camp, now took charge, and the city was
+occupied by foreign troops. A _parlamento_ was summoned, the usual
+packed _balìa_ created, and all opposition silenced. The city was given
+over to Pope Clement, who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation,
+had Carducci and Girolami (the last _gonfaloniere_) hanged, and
+established Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of
+Urbino, as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year
+the signory was abolished, Alessandro created _gonfaloniere_ for life,
+and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial patent. Thus
+Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital of the duchy
+(afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see TUSCANY).
+
+
+  The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany.
+
+The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian Gastone in
+1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, duke of Lorraine.
+But it was governed by a regency until 1753, when it was conferred by
+the empress Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
+Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine was
+driven from the throne, and Tuscany was annexed to the French empire in
+1808. In 1809 Florence was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but
+after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in
+1833, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
+revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a constitution.
+But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke returned under
+an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the
+Austrians in Lombardy, by a bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was
+expelled and Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.
+
+In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, but after
+the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war, the
+capital was transferred to the Eternal City (1871).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Capponi's
+  _Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_ (2 vols., Florence, 1875), which
+  although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard work
+  based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, _Histoire de
+  Florence_ (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see
+  Pasquale Villari's _I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Eng.
+  ed., London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn's _Geschichte der Stadt Florenz_
+  (Berlin, 1896); P. Villari's _Savonarola_ (English ed., London, 1896)
+  is invaluable for the period during which the friar's personality
+  dominated Florence, and his _Machiavelli_ (English ed., London, 1892)
+  must be also consulted, especially for the development of political
+  theories. Among the English histories of Florence, Napier's
+  _Florentine History_ (6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope's
+  _History of the Commonwealth of Florence_ (4 vols., London, 1865) are
+  not without value although out of date. Francis Hyett's _Florence_
+  (London, 1903) is more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat
+  Medicean in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later
+  history, A. von Reumont's _Geschichte von Toscana_ (Gotha, 1876-1877)
+  is one of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises
+  and compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See
+  also the bibliographies in MEDICI, MACHIAVELLI, SAVONAROLA, TUSCANY,
+  &c.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian and
+    statesman of the same name (q.v.).
+
+  [2] The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in
+    greater detail in the article MEDICI, save for the periods from 1494
+    to 1512 and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was
+    restored. For the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under TUSCANY.
+
+
+
+
+FLORES, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, and
+forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 8137; area, 57 sq.
+m. Flores and the adjacent island of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.)
+constitute the westernmost group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly
+to belong to the archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely
+severed. They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to
+those who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good
+shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the cattle
+are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the abundance of the
+flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its capital is Santa Cruz
+das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the station of the English fleet
+before the famous sea fight between Sir R. Grenville's ship "Revenge"
+and a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels. See AZORES.
+
+
+
+
+FLORES, an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of the chain
+extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest breadth 37
+m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate, chalk, and
+sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights stretching west and
+east, indicates a similar structure to that of the other islands of the
+chain. Several volcanoes are active. Among the loftier summits are, on
+the south coast, Gunong Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the
+lesser but constantly active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the
+south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior is little
+explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive rounded gulfs, where
+are situated the principal villages (_kampongs_). On the north coast are
+Bari, Reo, Maumer and Geliting; on the east, Larantuka; and on the
+south, Sikka and Endeh. The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to
+be unnavigable. The mean temperature is 77° to 80° F., and the yearly
+rainfall 43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is divided
+into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government of Celebes, and
+Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and dependencies), attached to the
+residency of Timor. The population is estimated at 250,000. The people
+live by trade, fishing, salt-making, shipbuilding, and the cultivation
+of rice, maize, and palms in the plain, but there is little industry or
+commerce. Some edible birds' nests, rice, sandalwood and cinnamon are
+exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of the
+coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines, who occupy
+the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall and well-built, with
+dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly. They are pure savages; their
+only religion is a kind of nature-worship. They consider the earth holy
+and inviolable; thus in severe droughts they only dig the river-beds for
+water as a last resource. Portugal claimed certain portions of the
+island until 1859.
+
+
+
+
+FLOREZ, ENRIQUE (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was born at Valladolid
+on the 14th of February 1701. In his fifteenth year he entered the order
+of St Augustine, was afterwards professor of theology at the university
+of Alcala, and published a _Cursus theologiae_ in five volumes
+(1732-1738). He afterwards devoted himself to historical studies. Of
+these the first-fruit was his _Clave Historial_, a work of the same
+class as the French _Art de vérifier les dates_, and preceding it by
+several years. It appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In
+1747 was published the first volume of _España Sagrada, teatro
+geografico-historico de la Iglesia de España_, a vast compilation of
+Spanish ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation, and
+of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author's lifetime. It was
+continued after his death by Manuel Risco and others, and further
+additions have been made at the expense of the Spanish government. The
+whole work in fifty-one volumes was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its
+value is considerably increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles
+and documents not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good
+numismatist, and published _Medallas de las Colonias_ in 2 vols.
+(1757-1758), of which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was
+the _Memorias de las reynas Catolicas_, 2 vols. (1770). Florez led a
+retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid on the 20th
+of August 1773.
+
+  See F. Mendez, _Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez_
+  (Madrid, 1780).
+
+
+
+
+FLORIAN, SAINT, a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In the 8th century
+Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb, and on the site was built
+the celebrated monastery of canons regular, St Florian, which still
+exists. His _Acta_ are of considerable antiquity, but devoid of
+historical value. Their substance is borrowed from the _Acta_ of St
+Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult of St Florian was introduced into Poland,
+together with the relics of the saint, which were brought thither in
+1183 by Giles, bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a
+church at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially
+as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours out
+flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His day in the
+calendar is the 4th of May.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, _Scriptores rerum
+  Merovingicarum_, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, _Caractéristiques des saints_,
+  p. 490 (Paris, 1867).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE (1755-1794), French poet and romance
+writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at the château of Florian,
+near Sauve, in the department of Gard. His mother, a Spanish lady named
+Gilette de Salgues, died when he was quite a child. His uncle and
+guardian, the marquis of Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire,
+introduced him at Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the
+household of the duke of Penthièvre, who remained his friend throughout
+his life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at
+Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain's commission in a dragoon
+regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed a boisterous
+behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle, meditative character of his
+works. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he retired to Sceaux,
+but he was soon discovered and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment
+was short he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th
+of September 1794.
+
+Florian's first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle
+_Voltaire et le serf du Mont Jura_ and an eclogue _Ruth_ were crowned by
+the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In 1782 also he
+produced a one-act prose comedy, _Le Bon Ménage_, and in the next year
+_Galatée_, a romantic tale in imitation of the _Galatea_ of Cervantes.
+Other short tales and comedies followed, and in 1786 appeared _Numa
+Pompilius_, an undisguised imitation of Fénelon's _Télémaque_. In 1788
+he became a member of the French Academy, and published _Estelle_, a
+pastoral of the same class as _Galatée_. Another romance, _Gonzalve de
+Cordoue_, preceded by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in
+1791, and his famous collection of _Fables_ in 1792. Among his
+posthumous works are _La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Mémoires d'un jeune
+Espagnol_ (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of _Don Quixote_, which,
+though far from being a correct representation of the original, had
+great and merited success.
+
+Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his style has
+all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the Gessnerian school.
+Perhaps the nearest example of the class in English literature is
+afforded by John Wilson's (Christopher North's) _Lights and Shadows of
+Scottish Life_. Among the best of his fables are reckoned "The Monkey
+showing the Magic Lantern," "The Blind Man and the Paralytic," and "The
+Monkeys and the Leopard."
+
+  The best edition of Florian's _Oeuvres complètes_ appeared in Paris in
+  16 volumes, 1820; his _Oeuvres inédites_ in 4 volumes, 1824.
+
+  See "Vie de Florian," by L.F. Jauffret, prefixed to his _Oeuvres
+  posthumes_ (1802); A.J.N. de Rosny, _Vie de Florian_ (Paris, An V.);
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; A. de Montvaillant,
+  _Florian, sa vie, ses oeuvres_ (1879); and _Lettres de Florian à Mme
+  de la Briche_, published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in
+  _Mélanges_ published (1903) by the Société des bibliophiles français.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIANOPOLIS (formerly _Desterro_, _Nossa Senhora do Desterro_ and
+_Santa Catharina_, and still popularly known under the last
+designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of
+Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore of a large island of the
+same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, in 27° 30' S., 48° 30' W.
+Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many Germans; (1902, estimate) 16,000; of
+the municipality, including a large rural district and several villages
+(1890), 30,687. The harbour is formed by the widening of the strait
+separating the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 m. wide at
+this point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. and S.,
+which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous and wooded,
+and completely shelters the harbour from easterly storms. The
+surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical in character, but the
+town itself is poorly built and unattractive. Its public buildings
+include the president's official residence, arsenal, lyceum, hospital
+and some old churches. The climate is warm for the latitude, but the
+higher elevations of the vicinity are noted for their mild climate and
+healthfulness. There are some German colonies farther up the coast whose
+products find a market here, and a number of small settlements along the
+mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The more distant
+inland towns are partly supplied from this point, but difficult mountain
+roads tend to restrict the trade greatly. There is a considerable trade
+in market produce with Rio de Janeiro, but the exports are
+inconsiderable. Santa Catharina was formerly one of the well-known
+whaling stations of the South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military
+and naval station.
+
+The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the Spanish;
+Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched hence across country to
+Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish failed to establish a permanent colony,
+however, and the Portuguese took possession. The island was captured by
+a Spanish expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty
+of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa Catharina fell
+into the possession of revolutionists against the government of
+President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse of the revolution the city
+was occupied by the government forces, and its name was then changed to
+Florianopolis in honour of the president of the republic.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDA, the most southern of the United States of America, situated
+between 24° 30' and 31° N. lat. and 79° 48' and 87° 38' W. long. It is
+bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the Atlantic Ocean, S. by the
+Strait of Florida, which separates it from Cuba, and by the Gulf of
+Mexico, and W. by Alabama and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a chain of
+islands extending in a general south-westerly direction from Biscayne
+Bay, are included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key West, on
+an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe county. The
+total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which 3805 sq. m. are water
+surface. The coast line is greater than that of any other state,
+extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m. on the Gulf Coast.
+
+The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of "Peninsula State."
+The average elevation of the surface of the state above the sea-level is
+less than that of any other state except Louisiana, but there is not the
+monotony of unbroken level which descriptions and maps often suggest.
+The N.W. portion of the state is, topographically, similar to
+south-eastern Alabama, being a rolling, hilly country; the eastern
+section is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain; the western coast line
+is less regular than the eastern, being indented by a number of bays and
+harbours, the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and
+Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along nearly the
+whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand reefs and narrow
+islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies of water, such as Indian
+river and Lake Worth--called rivers, lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours.
+In the central part of the state there is a ridge, extending N. and S.
+and forming a divide, separating the streams of the east coast from
+those of the west. Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300
+ft. The central region is remarkable for its large number of lakes,
+approximately 30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake
+Okeechobee. They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused by
+solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes are connected
+by subterranean channels, and a change in the surface of one lake is
+often accompanied by a change in the surface of another. By far the
+largest of these lakes, nearly all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee,
+a body of water about 1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow,
+its depth seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing
+into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal outlet.
+Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George, Weir, Harris,
+Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and Istokpoga. The chief feature
+of the southern portion of the state is the Everglades (q.v.), the term
+"Everglade State" being popularly applied to Florida. Within the state
+there are many swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in
+the S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp,
+extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state.
+
+  A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number of
+  subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or less
+  extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size. Silver
+  Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and Orange City
+  Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near Marianna in
+  Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa in Hillsboro county,
+  Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee Springs in Suwanee county,
+  White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange
+  county, and Wakulla Spring, Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral
+  Spring in Wakulla county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs
+  have curative properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay
+  county, discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per
+  minute. Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea
+  itself with such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as
+  from a sunken reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake
+  systems are usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the
+  principal source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee,
+  while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one of
+  the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Florida.]
+
+Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which flows N. from
+about the middle of the peninsula, empties into the Atlantic a short
+distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable for about 250 m. from its
+mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing in a general north-westerly direction
+from its source in the N.E. part of Polk county, and forming near its
+entrance into the Gulf of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus
+counties, and four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the
+Apalachicola, and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and
+traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of its sand
+reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the west coast. The
+most important harbours are at Fernandina, St Augustine, and Miami on
+the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key West and Pensacola on the W. coast.
+
+  The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient.[1] They may be
+  divided into three classes: the pine lands, which often have a surface
+  of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam resting on a
+  substratum of clay, marl or limestone--areas of such soil are found
+  throughout the state; the "hammocks," which have soil of similar
+  ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands--large areas of
+  this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando, Pasco, Gadsden,
+  Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties; and the alluvial swamp
+  lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest class, which require
+  drainage to fit them for cultivation.
+
+As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more or less
+distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through Cedar Keys and
+Fernandina the climate is distinctly "southern," similar to that of the
+Gulf states; from this line to another extending from the mouth of the
+Caloosahatchee to Indian river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and
+is well suited to the cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is
+sub-tropical, well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the
+semi-tropical and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the Gulf
+Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their temperatures are more
+uniform than those of the zones of southern climate; indeed, the
+extremes of heat (103° F.) and cold (13° F.) are felt in the region of
+southern climate. The mean annual temperature of the state is 70.8° F.,
+greater in the sub-tropical than in the other climate zones, and the
+Atlantic coast is in general warmer than the Gulf Coast. The rainfall
+averages 52.09 in. per annum. On account of its warm climate, Florida
+has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are especially popular
+in the season from January to April; the more important are St
+Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach, Miami, Tampa, White Springs,
+Hampton Springs, Worthington Springs and Orange Springs.
+
+  No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal minerals
+  are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and river pebble
+  phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the "west coast"
+  about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to Lake Okeechobee.
+  The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in Marion county, and pebble
+  phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk, De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and
+  Hernando counties. Although the economic value of the phosphate
+  deposits was first realized about 1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida
+  produced, each year, more than half of all the phosphate rock produced
+  in the whole United States, the yield of Florida (1,357,365 long tons)
+  in 1907 being valued at $6,577,757; that of the whole country at
+  $10,653,558. Florida is also the principal source in the United States
+  for fuller's earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first
+  discovered in 1893; and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some
+  extent. Other minerals that have been discovered but have not been
+  industrially developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack
+  of a thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery of
+  other minerals--certainly it is responsible for a late recognition of
+  the economic value of the known mineral resources.
+
+  The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North
+  America; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation
+  of North America and that of South America and the West Indies, for
+  out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187 are
+  common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The forests cover
+  approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern part of the
+  state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine being
+  predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress, found
+  throughout the state, particularly abounds. About half of the
+  varieties of forest trees in the United States are found, and among
+  the peculiar species are the red bay or "Florida Mahogany," satinwood
+  and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both almost extinct. The
+  lumber industry is important: in 1905 the total factory product of
+  lumber and timber was valued at $10,901,650, and lumber and planing
+  mill products were valued at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most
+  valuable industry in the state; in 1905 it was second to the
+  manufacture of tobacco. The fauna is similar in general to that of the
+  southern United States. Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea
+  cow), alligator and crocodile, but the number of these has been
+  greatly diminished by hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild
+  cats (lynx) are found, but in decreasing numbers.
+
+  The fisheries are very valuable; the total number of species of fish
+  in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on one coast
+  are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are hunted for
+  sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout, sheepshead and
+  Spanish mackerel are of great economic value. The sponge and oyster
+  fisheries are also important. The total product of the fisheries in
+  1902 was valued at about $2,000,000.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--The principal occupation is agriculture, in
+which 44% of the labouring population was engaged in 1900, but only
+12.6% of the total land surface was enclosed in farms, of which only
+34.6% was improved, and the total agricultural product for 1899 was
+valued at $18,309,104. As the number of farms increased faster than the
+cultivated area from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined
+from 444 acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106.9 in 1900, the largest
+class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to 50 acres.
+Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were cultivated by their
+owners, but the cash tenantry system showed an increase of 100% since
+1890, being most extensively used in the cotton counties. One-third of
+the farms were operated by negroes, but one-half of these farms were
+rented, and the value of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of
+the entire farm property of the state. According to the state census of
+1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms, 31,233 were
+worked by whites.
+
+Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for 1907-8 of
+the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons, limes,
+grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes, figs, pecans, &c.)
+was $6,160,299, according to the report of the State Department of
+Agriculture. The discovery of Florida's adaptability to the culture of
+oranges about 1875 may be taken as the beginning of the state's modern
+industrial development. But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887,
+1894 and 1899 (the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures
+for this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of the
+orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-raising, and to
+various agricultural products. Orange culture has recovered much of its
+importance, but it is carried on in the more southern counties of the
+state. The cultivation of pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is
+proving successful, the product far surpassing that of California, the
+only other state in the Union in which pineapples are grown.
+Grape-fruit, guavas and lemons are also successfully produced in this
+part of the state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables
+(cabbage, cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers,
+water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard fruits,
+especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved successful. In
+1907-8, according to the State Department of Agriculture, the total
+value of vegetable and garden products was $3,928,657. In 1903,
+according to the statistics of the United States Department of
+Agriculture, Indian corn ranked next to fruits (as given in the state
+reports), but its product as compared with that of various other states
+is unimportant--in 1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is
+the only other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889,
+but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the
+Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product of rice in
+Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas, Louisiana, South
+Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally. Tobacco culture, which
+declined after 1860 on account of the competition of Cuba and Sumatra,
+has revived since 1885 through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran
+seed; the product of 1907 (6,937,500 lb.) was more than six times that
+of 1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 lb.) being more than twice that
+of 1889 (470,443 lb.), which in turn was more than twenty times that for
+1880 (21,182 lb.)--the smallest production recorded for many decades. In
+1907 the average farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per lb. higher than
+that of any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in
+Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also become very
+valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900 showed a decline in
+acreage and production of cotton. In 1907 the acreage (265,000 acres)
+was less than in any cotton-growing state except Missouri and Virginia;
+the crop for 1907-1908 was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high
+grade is grown in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the
+early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased. Pecan
+nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted after 1905. In
+1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of land in the state
+unoccupied. The low lands of the South are being drained partly by the
+state and partly by private companies. Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by
+the orange growers, has been adopted by other farmers, especially the
+tobacco-growers of Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the
+droughts, so common from February to June, are avoided. The value of
+farm property in the southern counties, which have been developed very
+recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county surpassing
+the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according to the state
+Department of Agriculture, the total value of all field crops (cotton,
+cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet potatoes, &c.) was
+$11,856,340, and the total value of all farm products (including live
+stock, $20,817,804, poultry and products, $1,688,433, and dairy
+products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320.
+
+  The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other states,
+  are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice the product
+  in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments under the
+  factory system only) was $50,298,290, i.e. 47.1% greater than in 1900.
+  The most important industries were those that depended upon the
+  forests, their product amounting to nearly 45% of the entire
+  manufactured product of the state. The lumber and timber products were
+  valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost twice their valuation in 1890,
+  and an increase of 1.2% over the product of 1900. The manufacture of
+  turpentine and rosin, material for which is obtained from the pine
+  forests, had increased greatly in importance between 1890 and 1900,
+  the product in 1890 being valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at
+  $6,469,605, and from the latter sum it increased in 1905 to
+  $9,901,905, an increase of more than one-half. In 1900 the state
+  ranked second and in 1905 first of all the states of the country in
+  the value of this product; in 1905 the state's product amounted to
+  41.4% of that of the entire country. The manufacture of cigars and
+  cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars, few cigarettes being
+  manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans at Key West and Tampa,
+  also increased in importance between 1890 and 1900, the products in
+  the latter year being valued at $10,735,826, or more than one-quarter
+  more than in 1890, and in 1905 there was a further increase of 56.2%,
+  the gross value being $16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total
+  factory product of the state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the
+  manufacture of tobacco among the states of the Union, being surpassed
+  by New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New
+  York and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from
+  Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has
+  greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the
+  raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida's
+  aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at
+  $1,590,371, an increase of 217.9% in five years.
+
+Florida's industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil War, for
+before that conflict a large part of the state was practically
+undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways. In 1880 the
+total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was 2489 m.; in 1900, 3255
+m., and in January 1909, 4,004.92 m. The largest system is the Atlantic
+Coast Line, the lines of which in Florida were built or consolidated by
+H.B. Plant (1819-1899) and once formed a part of the so-called "Plant
+System" of railways. The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product
+of one man's faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830).
+The Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Georgia
+Southern & Florida are the other important railways. The Southern
+railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville, over the tracks of
+the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway commission, whose members are
+elected by the people, has power to enforce its schedule of freight
+rates except when such rates would not pay the operating expenses of the
+railway. In 1882 the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation
+Co. was organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne
+Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and Halifax
+rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth, Hillsboro river, New
+river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this vast undertaking was completed. The
+development of marine commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours,
+but Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good. Since 1890
+much has been done by the national Government, aided in many cases by
+the local authorities and by private enterprise, to improve the harbours
+and to extend the limits of river navigation. With the increase of trade
+between the United States and the West Indies following the
+Spanish-American War (1898), the business of the principal ports,
+notably of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased.
+
+_Population._--The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493; in 1890,
+391,422, an increase of 45.2%; and in 1900, 528,542, or a further
+increase of 35%; and in 1905, by a state census, 614,845; and in 1910,
+752,619. In 1900, 95.5% were native born, 43.7% were coloured (including
+479 Chinese, Japanese and Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were
+little altered. The Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely
+known, live in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the
+basis of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16.6% of the
+total in 1900 and 22.7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida, as for
+other Southern States, being small as compared with the percentage for
+most of the other states of the Union. In 1900 there were 92, and, in
+1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and villages; but only 14 (in 1905,
+22) of these had a population of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a
+population of more than 5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville
+(28,429); Pensacola (17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The
+eight in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola
+(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City (6409),
+Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine (5121). Tallahassee is the capital
+of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest religious
+denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while the Roman Catholic,
+Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal churches were of relatively minor
+importance.
+
+_Government._--The present constitution was framed in 1885 and was
+ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important feature, when
+compared with the previous constitution of 1868, is its provision for
+the choice of state officials other than the governor (who was
+previously chosen by election) by elections instead of by the governor's
+appointment, but the governor, who serves for four years and is not
+eligible for the next succeeding term, still appoints the circuit
+judges, the state attorneys for each judicial circuit and the county
+commissioners; he may fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with
+the Senate remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a
+member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being the
+attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and the
+commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state,
+attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of public
+instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a Board of
+Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a member of the Board of
+Education. The office of lieutenant-governor was abolished by the
+present constitution. The legislature meets biennially, the senators
+being chosen for four, the representatives for two years. By an
+amendment of 1896 the Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House
+of Representatives of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of
+members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor's
+veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the circuit
+court serve for six years, those of the county courts for four years,
+and justices of the peace (one for each justice district, of which the
+county commissioners must form at least two in each county) hold office
+for four years. The constitutional qualifications for suffrage are: the
+age of twenty-one years, citizenship in the United States or
+presentation of naturalization certificates at registration centres,
+residence in the state one year and in the county six months, and
+registration. To these requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been
+added by legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized
+by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardianship are
+excluded by the constitution, and "all persons convicted of bribery,
+perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall make or become
+directly or indirectly interested in any bet or wager the result of
+which shall depend upon any election," or who shall participate as
+principal, second or challenger in any duel, are excluded by legislative
+enactment.
+
+Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths vote of
+each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote of the
+people. A revision of the Constitution may be made upon a two-thirds
+vote of all members of both Houses of the legislature, if ratified by a
+majority vote of the people; a Constitutional Convention is then to be
+provided for by the legislature, such convention to meet within six
+months of the passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number
+equal to the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned
+among the counties, as are the members of this House.
+
+A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an incorporated
+town or city, owned by the head of a family residing in the state, with
+personal property to the value of $1000 and the improvements on the real
+estate, is exempt from enforced sale except for delinquent taxes,
+purchase money, mortgage or improvements on the property. The wife holds
+in her own name property acquired before or after marriage; the
+intermarriage of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the
+fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional
+provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living in
+adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces may be
+secured only after two years' residence in the state and on the ground
+of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty, habitual indulgence
+in violent temper, habitual drunkenness, desertion for one year,
+previous marriage still existing, or such relationship of the parties as
+is within the degrees for which marriage is prohibited by law.
+Legitimacy of natural children can be established by subsequent marriage
+of the parents, and the age of consent is sixteen years.
+
+  The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period
+  (1865-1875). In 1871 7% 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000 were
+  issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the value of
+  $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the Educational Fund at
+  the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but $267,700 of the issue of
+  1871 had been retired and this amount was then refunded with 3% 50
+  year bonds which were taken by the Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800
+  of the 1873 issue was held by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by
+  individuals. The first part of this claim was refunded by a new bond
+  issue, also taken by the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an
+  Indian war claim of $692,946, received from the United States
+  government in 1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United
+  States government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus
+  reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt,
+  consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted to
+  $601,567.
+
+_Penal System._--There is no penitentiary; the convicts are hired to the
+one highest bidder who contracts for their labour, and who undertakes,
+moreover, to lease all other persons convicted during the term of the
+lease, and sub-leases the prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed
+under the care of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was
+amended so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will
+of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one state
+prison physician, and there are special laws designed to prevent abuses
+in the system. In 1908 the state received $208,148 from the lease of
+convicts. Decrepit prisoners were formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease
+excluded such as were thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women
+convicts were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convicts
+committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro males and
+75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and 27 were recaptured. The
+leased convicts are employed in the turpentine and lumber industries and
+in the phosphate works. The 1232 convicts "on hand" at the close of
+1908 were held in 38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum
+number, at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were
+maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are under the
+supervision of the governor and the supervisors of convicts. The state
+supervisors must inspect each state prison camp and each county prison
+camp every thirty days.
+
+_Education._--As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was made to form
+an adequate public school fund; the first real effort to establish a
+common school system for the territory was made after 1835; in 1840
+there were altogether 18 academies and 51 common schools, and in 1849
+the state legislature made an appropriation in the interest of the
+public instruction of white pupils, and this was supplemented by the
+proceeds of land granted by the United States government for the same
+purpose. In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860
+there were, according to a report of the United States census, 2032
+pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in "academies and
+other schools." The Civil War, however, interrupted the early progress,
+and the present system of common schools dates from the constitution of
+1868 and the school law of 1869. The school revenue derived from the
+interest of a permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and
+a poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita cost for
+each child of school age was $6.11 (white, $9.08; negro, $2.24), and the
+average school term was 108 days (112 for whites, 99 for negroes). The
+state constitution prescribes that "white and colored children shall not
+be taught in the same school, but impartial provision shall be made for
+both." The percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66;
+negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was 70%,--68%
+for white and 74% for negro schools. Before 1905 the state provided for
+higher education by the Florida State College, at Tallahassee, formerly
+the West Florida Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida,
+at Lake City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the
+Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida
+Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the normal school (for
+whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South Florida Military Institute
+at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature passed the Buckman bill
+abolishing all these state institutions for higher education and
+establishing in their place the university of the state of Florida and a
+state Agricultural Experiment Station, both now at Gainesville, and the
+Florida Female College at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for
+entrance and for graduation as the state university for men. Private
+educational institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De
+Land (Baptist); Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian),
+with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a school of
+expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and industrial
+arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901), at Sutherland
+(Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian College of Florida
+(1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute (1890), at Jasper, and the
+Florida Normal Institute at Madison. The negroes have facilities for
+advanced instruction in the Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman
+Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the
+Normal and Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park.
+There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St.
+Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a reform
+school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state, and a Confederate
+soldiers' and sailors' home at Tallahassee, which is partially supported
+by the state.
+
+_History._--The earliest explorations and attempts at colonization of
+Florida by Europeans were made by the Spanish. The Council of the Indies
+claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships had gone to Florida, and
+Florida is shown on the Cantino map of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon
+(c. 1460-1521), who had been with Christopher Columbus on his second
+voyage and had later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant
+authorizing him to discover and settle "Bimini,"--a fabulous island
+believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring whose waters would
+restore to old men their youth or at least had wonderful curative
+powers. Soon after Easter Day he came in sight of the coast of Florida,
+probably near the mouth of the St Johns river. From the name of the day
+in the calendar, _Pascua Florida_, or from the fact that many flowers
+were found on the coast, the country was named Florida. De León seems to
+have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the peninsula,
+and to have turned homeward fully convinced that he had discovered an
+immense island. He returned to Spain in 1514, and obtained from the king
+a grant to colonize "the island of Bimini and the island of Florida," of
+which he was appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another
+expedition, this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems
+to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account of the
+large number of turtles found there, and to have landed at several
+places, but many of his men succumbed to disease and he himself was
+wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in
+1516, another Spaniard, Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some
+distance along the west coast of the peninsula. The next important
+exploration of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed
+from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400), landed
+(early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola, and for six
+months remained in the country, he and his men suffering terribly from
+exposure, hunger and fierce Indian attacks. In September, his ships
+being lost and his force greatly reduced in number, he hastily
+constructed a crazy fleet, re-embarked probably at Apalachee Bay, and
+lost his life in a storm probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his
+men, including Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of
+Indian captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their way
+to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially explored by
+Ferdinando de Soto (q.v.) in 1539-1540. In the summer of 1559 another
+attempt at colonization was made by Tristan de Luna, who sailed from
+Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola Bay, and explored a part of Florida and
+(possibly) Southern Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make
+a permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his followers
+and gave up his attempt in 1561.
+
+In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band of French
+Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then at the mouth of the
+St Johns river, which he called the river of May, and on behalf of
+France claimed the country, which he described as "the fairest,
+fruitfullest and pleasantest of all the world"; but he made his
+settlement on an island near what is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In
+1564 René de Laudonnière (? -c. 1586), with another party of Huguenots,
+established Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony
+did not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonnière was about to return to France
+when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by Ribaut and about 300
+men from France. On the same day that Ribaut landed, a Spanish
+expedition arrived in the bay of St Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro
+Menéndez de Avilés (1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the
+Huguenot settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire
+garrison at Fort Caroline "not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans," on the
+20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon afterwards wrecked
+near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his followers surrendered to
+Menéndez and were executed. Menéndez then turned his attention to the
+founding of a settlement which he named St Augustine (q.v.); he also
+explored the Atlantic coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and
+established forts at San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St
+Helena. In 1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.
+
+The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution of
+Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at the French
+court; but Dominique de Gourgues (c. 1530-1593), a friend of Ribaut but
+probably a Catholic, organized an expedition of vengeance, not informing
+his men of his destination until his three ships were near the Florida
+coast. With the co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba
+he captured Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where
+the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged his Spanish
+prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words, "I do this not as
+unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers and murderers." Feeling
+unable to attack St Augustine, de Gourgues returned to France.
+
+The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes. The Indians were
+hostile and the missionary efforts among them failed. In 1586 St
+Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir Francis Drake and it also suffered
+severely by an attack of Captain John Davis in 1665. Not until the last
+decade of the 17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend
+the settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French
+explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their attention to
+the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When the English colonies
+of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded, there was constant friction
+with Florida. The Spanish were accused of inciting the Indians to make
+depredations on the English settlements and of interfering with English
+commerce and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of
+the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were contending in
+Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish Succession, a force
+from South Carolina captured St Augustine and laid siege to the fort,
+but being unable to reduce it for lack of necessary artillery, burned
+the town and withdrew at the approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706
+a Spanish and French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina,
+failed, and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in
+1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Oglethorpe,
+governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made an unsuccessful
+attack upon St Augustine; two years later a Spanish expedition against
+Savannah by way of St Simon's Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe
+again appeared before the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the
+other centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied
+(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful history.
+
+By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England in return
+for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and West Florida were now
+formed, the boundaries of West Florida being 31° N. lat. (when civil
+government was organized in 1767, the N. line was made 32° 28'), the
+Chattahoochee, and the Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico,
+Mississippi Sound, Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the
+Mississippi river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of
+military government was instituted; immigration began; and Andrew
+Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of about 1500 Minorcans
+(1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation of indigo at New Smyrna.
+Roads were laid out, some of which yet remain; and in the last three
+years of English occupation the government spent $580,000 on the two
+provinces. Consequently, the people of Florida were for the most part
+loyal to Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In 1776,
+the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the indigo
+plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine, where they were
+protected by the authorities. Several plans were made to invade South
+Carolina and Georgia, but none matured until 1778, when an expedition
+was organized which co-operated with British forces from New York in the
+siege of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having declared
+war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez (1756-1794), the
+Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most of the English forts in
+West Florida, and in 1781 captured Pensacola.
+
+By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and, no
+religious liberty being promised, many of the English inhabitants left
+East and West Florida. A dispute with the United States concerning the
+northern boundary was settled by the treaty of 1795, the line 31° N.
+lat. being established.
+
+The westward expansion of the United States made necessary American
+ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisition of West
+Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the aims of the
+negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. After the
+cession of Louisiana to the United States, the people of West Florida
+feared that that province would be seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore,
+through a convention at Buhler's Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated
+plans for a more effective government. When it was found that the
+Spanish governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another
+convention was held on the 26th of September which declared West Florida
+to be an independent state, organized a government and petitioned for
+admission to the American Union. On the 27th of October President James
+Madison, acting on a theory of Robert R. Livingston that West Florida
+was ceded by Spain to France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was
+therefore included by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United
+States in 1803, declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of
+the United States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the
+portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi rivers to
+Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of Louisiana), and that
+between the Pearl and the Perdido to the Mississippi Territory.
+
+In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United States was
+imminent. The American government asked the Spanish authorities of East
+Florida to permit an American occupation of the country in order that it
+might not be seized by Great Britain and made a base of military
+operations. When the request was refused, American forces seized
+Fernandina in the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the
+American government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized
+in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to organize a
+government at St Mary's was made by American sympathizers, and a petty
+civil war began between the Americans, who called themselves "Patriots,"
+and the Indians, who were encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British
+troops landed at Pensacola to begin operations against the United
+States. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but in
+a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then built a fort on the
+Apalachicola river, and there directed expeditions of Indians and
+runaway negroes against the American settlements, which continued long
+after peace was concluded in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing
+that the Spanish were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to
+attack the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of 1819
+Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United States; the
+treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States took formal
+possession, but civil government was not established until 1822.
+
+Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the new Territory
+of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have reached a stage of
+civilization somewhat similar to that of the Aztecs, were conquered and
+exterminated or absorbed by Creeks about the middle of the 18th century.
+There was a strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known
+as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne's Landing in 1832 and Fort Gibson
+in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their Florida lands for
+equal territory in the western part of the United States. But a strong
+sentiment against removal suddenly developed, and the efforts of the
+United States to enforce the treaty brought on the Seminole War
+(1836-42), which resulted in the removal of all but a few hundred
+Seminoles whose descendants still live in southern Florida.
+
+In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On the 10th of
+January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which declared Florida to be a
+"sovereign and independent nation," was adopted by a state convention,
+and Florida became one of the Confederate States of America. The
+important coast towns were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina,
+Pensacola and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an
+invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being repulsed
+in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864). In 1865 a
+provisional governor was appointed by President Andrew Johnson, and a
+new state government was organized. The legislature of 1866 rejected the
+Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards
+Florida was made a part of the Third Military District, according to the
+Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as voters by the
+military authorities, and another Constitutional Convention met in
+January and February 1868. A factional strife in the dominant party, the
+Republican, now began; fifteen delegates withdrew from the convention;
+the others framed a constitution, and then resolved themselves into a
+political convention. The seceding members with nine others then
+returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by General
+George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and was ratified by the
+electors, and Florida passed from under a quasi-military to a full civil
+government on the 4th of July 1868.
+
+The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a number of
+efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison Reed (1813-1899). The
+decisive year of the Reconstruction Period was 1876. The Canvassing
+Board, which published the election returns, cast out some votes, did
+not wait for the returns from Dade county, and declared the Republican
+ticket elected. George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for
+governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court restraining the
+board from going behind the face of the election returns; this was not
+obeyed and a similar mandamus was therefore obtained from the supreme
+court of Florida, which declared that the board had no right to
+determine the legality of a particular vote. According to the new count
+thus ordered, the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar
+process the board's decision in favour of the election of Republican
+presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors were
+declared the successful candidates; but the electoral commission,
+appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See ELECTORAL
+COMMISSION.)
+
+Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics.
+
+  American Governors of Florida.
+
+    Territorial Governors.
+
+  Andrew Jackson     1821-1822
+  William P. Duval   1822-1834
+  John H. Eaton      1834-1835
+  Richard K. Call    1835-1840
+  Robert R. Reid     1840-1841
+  Richard K. Call    1841-1844
+  John Branch        1844-1845
+
+    State Governors.
+
+  William D. Moseley   1845-1849 Democrat
+  Thomas Brown         1849-1853 Whig
+  James E. Broome      1853-1857 Democrat
+  Madison S. Perry     1857-1861    "
+  John Milton          1861-1865    "
+  William Marvin       1865      Provisional
+  David S. Walker      1865-1868 Democrat
+  Harrison Reed        1868-1872 Republican
+  Ossian B. Hart       1873-1874    "
+  Marcellus L. Stearns 1874-1877    "
+  George F. Drew       1877-1881 Democrat
+  William D. Bloxham   1881-1885    "
+  Edward A. Perry      1885-1889    "
+  Francis P. Fleming   1889-1893    "
+  Henry L. Mitchell    1893-1897    "
+  William D. Bloxham   1897-1901    "
+  William S. Jennings  1901-1905    "
+  Napoleon B. Broward  1905-1909    "
+  Albert W. Gilchrist  1909-        "
+
+  Bibliography.--Physical and economic conditions are discussed in a
+  pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of Agriculture,
+  _Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topography, Climate,
+  Soil, &c._ (Tallahassee, 1904); in _Climate, Soil and Resources of
+  Florida_ (United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1882);
+  _A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida_ (United States
+  Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin 13, 1898); C.L.
+  Norton's _Handbook of Florida_ (2nd edition, New York, 1892); the
+  volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United States (for 1900) which
+  treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and the Special Report on Mines
+  and Quarries for 1902. J.N. MacGonigle's "Geography of Florida"
+  (_National Geographic Magazine_, vol. 7), T.D.A. Cockerell's "West
+  Indian Fauna in Florida" (_Nature_, vol. 46), L.F. Pourtales's "Flora
+  and Fauna of the Florida Keys" (_American Naturalist_, vol. 11), and
+  C.F. Millspaugh's _Flora of the Sand Keys of Florida_ (Chicago, 1907),
+  a Field Columbian Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C.B.
+  Cory's _Hunting and Fishing in Florida_ (Boston, 1896) and A.W. and
+  J.A. Dimock's _Florida Enchantments_ (New York, 1908) are of
+  interest. For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum's _Civil Government
+  of Florida_ (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the _Revised Statutes of
+  Florida_ (1892). The standard history is that by G.R. Fairbanks,
+  _History of Florida_ (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supplemented
+  by D.G. Brinton's _Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its Literary
+  History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities_ (Philadelphia, 1859), which
+  has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early explorations;
+  Woodbury Lowery, _The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of
+  the United States_ (New York, vol. i., 1901; vol. ii., sub-title
+  _Florida_, 1905); R.L. Campbell's Historical Sketches of Colonial
+  Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the history of
+  Pensacola; H.E. Chambers's _West Florida and its Relation to the
+  Historical Cartography of the United States_ (Johns Hopkins Studies in
+  Historical and Political Science, Series 16, No. 5); and Herbert B.
+  Fuller's The _Purchase of Florida; its History and Diplomacy_
+  (Cleveland, O., 1906). The only published collections of documents
+  relating to the state are Buckingham Smith's _Colleccion de varios
+  documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes_
+  (London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French's _Historical Collections of
+  Louisiana_ (New York, 1846-1875).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous
+    sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried
+    the whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MOÑINO Y REDONDO, COUNT OF (1728-1808), Spanish
+statesman, was born at Murcia in 1728. He was the son of a retired army
+officer, and received a good education, which he completed at the
+university of Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of
+law. For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired
+a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him by the marquis
+of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who sent him ambassador to
+Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his mission, he was soon after appointed
+by Charles III. successor to his patron, and his administration was one
+of the most brilliant Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of
+Madrid, reformed many abuses, projected canals, established many
+societies of agriculture and economy and many philanthropical
+institutions, and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine
+arts. Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing
+disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were settled.
+He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with Portugal by a double
+marriage between the members of the royal houses, designing by this
+arrangement to place ultimately a Spanish prince on the throne of
+Portugal. But in this he failed. Floridablanca was the right-hand man of
+King Charles III. in his policy of domestic reform, and was much under
+the influence of French _philosophes_ and economic writers. Like other
+reformers of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal
+authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism. The French
+Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he advocated the support of
+the first coalition against France. He retained his office for three
+years under Charles IV.; but in 1792, through the influence of the
+favourite Godoy, he was dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of
+Pampeluna. Here he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of
+his brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates, and
+remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He was then
+called by his countrymen to take the presidency of the central junta.
+But his strength failed him, and he died at Seville on the 20th of
+November of the same year. He left several short treatises on
+jurisprudence.
+
+  See _Obras originales del Conde de Floridablanca_, edited, with
+  biographical introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the _Biblioteca de
+  Rivadeneyra_, vol. lix.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDOR [JOSIAS DE SOULAS, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. c. 1671), French
+actor, was born in Brie early in the 17th century, the son of a
+gentleman of German family who had moved to France, married there, and
+become a Roman Catholic. The son entered the French army, but after
+being promoted ensign, quitted the army for the theatre, where he took
+the name of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three
+years later he was called to the company at the Hôtel de Bourgogne,
+where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and comedy and became
+the head of his profession. He was a man of superb physique and
+excellent carriage, with a flexible and sonorous voice, and manners of
+rare distinction and elegance. He was much liked at court, and Louis
+XIV. held him in particular esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIN, the name applied to several coins of the continent of Europe and
+to two coins struck in England at different times. The word comes
+through the Fr. _florin_ from the Ital. _fiorino_, flower, Lat. _flos_,
+_florem_. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold coin issued at Florence
+in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains. This coin bore on the obverse
+a lily, from which it took its name of "the flower," on the reverse the
+Latin name of the city _Florentia_, from which it was also known as a
+"florence." "Florin" and "florence" seem to have been used in English
+indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin was
+held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and similar coins
+were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy, France, &c. The English
+gold florin was introduced by Edward III. in 1343, half and quarter
+florins being struck at the same time. This gold florin weighed 108
+grains and was to be current for six shillings. It was found, however,
+to be overvalued in proportion to the silver currency and was
+demonetized the following year. The florin did not again appear in the
+English coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having a
+nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were struck. When
+first issued the "Dei gratia" was omitted from the inscription, and they
+were frequently referred to as the "Godless" or "graceless" florins. The
+D.G. was added in 1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece
+was issued, but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of
+double florins issued during these years amounted to £533,125. (See also
+NUMISMATICS.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORIO, GIOVANNI (1553?-1625), English writer, was born in London about
+1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents being Waldenses who had fled
+from persecution in the Valtelline and taken refuge in England. His
+father, Michael Angelo Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant
+congregation in London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir
+William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He dedicated a
+book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert, and may have been a tutor
+in the family of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. Anthony à Wood says
+that the Florios left England on the accession of Queen Mary, but
+returned after her death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was
+appointed, about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of
+Durham, then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published a
+work entitled _First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry
+Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings_ (4to). This was
+accompanied by _A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English Tongues_.
+The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester. Three years later
+Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen College, and became a teacher
+of French and Italian in the university. In 1591 appeared his _Second
+Fruits, to be gathered of Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes
+to the Tongues of Italian and English men_; to which was annexed the
+_Garden of Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs_ (4to).
+These manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of
+dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer
+extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio had
+many patrons; he says that he "lived some years" with the earl of
+Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also befriended him. His Italian
+and English dictionary, entitled _A World of Words_, was published in
+folio in 1598. After the accession of James I., Florio was named French
+and Italian tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of
+the privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he also
+instructed in languages. His _magnum opus_ is the admirable translation
+of the _Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo.
+Michaell de Montaigne_, published in folio in 1603 in three books, each
+dedicated to two noble ladies. A second edition in 1613 was dedicated to
+the queen. Special interest attaches to the first edition from the
+circumstance that of the several copies in the British Museum library
+one bears the autograph of Shakespeare--long received as genuine but now
+supposed to be by an 18th-century hand--and another that of Ben Jonson.
+It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is satirized by Shakespeare
+under the character of Holofernes, the pompous pedant of _Love's
+Labour's Lost_, but it is much more likely, especially as he was one of
+the earl of Southampton's protégés, that he was among the personal
+friends of the dramatist, who may well have gained his knowledge of
+Italian and French from him. He had married the sister of the poet
+Daniel, and had friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben
+Jonson sent him a copy of _Volpone_ with the inscription, "To his loving
+father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson seals this
+testimony of his friendship and love." He is characterized by Wood, in
+_Athenae Oxonienses_, as a very useful man in his profession, zealous
+for his religion, and deeply attached to his adopted country. He died at
+Fulham, London, in the autumn of 1625.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIS, FRANS, or more correctly FRANS DE VRIENDT, called FLORIS
+(1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large family trained to the
+study of art in Flanders. Son of a stonecutter, Cornelis de Vriendt, who
+died at Antwerp in 1538, he began life as a student of sculpture, but
+afterwards gave up carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to
+Liége and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse, whose
+travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish into that of a
+mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps of Mabuse, Lambert
+Lombard had visited Florence, and caught the manner of Salviati and
+other pupils of Michelangelo and Del Sarto. It was about the time when
+Schoreel, Coxcie and Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating
+the masterpieces of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute
+Dutch-Italian works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula
+itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua. Fired by
+these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across the Alps, and
+appropriated without assimilation the various mannerisms of the schools
+of Lombardy, Florence and Rome. Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how
+easy it would be to earn a livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for
+engravers and painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He
+came home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a
+school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris
+painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish
+nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to have
+illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and the liberal
+arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of Antwerp, and adorned
+the duke of Arschot's palace of Beaumont with fourteen colossal panels.
+Comparatively few of his works have descended to us, partly because they
+came to be contemned for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to
+perish, partly because they were soon judged by a different standard
+from that of the Flemings of the 16th century. The earliest extant
+canvas by Floris is the "Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan" in the
+Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a "Last Judgment" (1566) in the
+Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate works at
+Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence, Léau, Madrid, St
+Petersburg and Vienna display any charm of originality in composition or
+in form. Whatever boldness and force they may possess, or whatever
+principles they may embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian
+models spoiled in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution
+reveals a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and
+Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which his works
+were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and Theodore de Galle. Whilst
+Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of
+equal size, for the grand prior of Spain, he was seized with illness,
+and died on the 1st of October 1570 at Antwerp.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.
+He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome
+from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by
+Augustus (25 B.C.). The work, which is called _Epitome de T. Livio
+Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo_, is written in a bombastic and
+rhetorical style, and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome,
+whose life is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood
+and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological
+details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the
+middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius Florus,
+Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From certain
+similarities of style he has been identified with Publius Annius Florus,
+poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author of a dialogue on the
+question whether Virgil was an orator or poet, of which the introduction
+has been preserved.
+
+  The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which contain
+  the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English
+  translation in Bohn's _Classical Library_.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, JULIUS, poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan age. His name
+has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated to him two of his
+_Epistles_ (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would appear that he composed
+lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The statement of Porphyrion, the old
+commentator on Horace, that Florus himself wrote satires, is probably
+erroneous, but he may have edited selections from the earlier satirists
+(Ennius, Lucilius, Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his
+personality, except that he was one of the young men who accompanied
+Tiberius on his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been
+variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and
+uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (_Instit_. x.
+3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus,
+_Ann_. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (_Odes_, ii. 14) and even
+with the historian Florus.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS, Roman poet and rhetorician, identified by some
+authorities with the historian Florus (q.v.). The introduction to a
+dialogue called _Virgilius orator an poëta_ is extant, in which the
+author (whose name is given as Publius Annius Florus) states that he was
+born in Africa, and at an early age took part in the literary contests
+on the Capitol instituted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing
+to the prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust,
+and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher of
+rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to return to Rome,
+for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the
+well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius
+Spartianus (_Hadrian_ 16). Twenty-six trochaic tetrameters, _De
+qualitate vitae_, and five graceful hexameters, _De rosis_, are also
+attributed to him. Florus is important as being the first in order of a
+number of 2nd-century African writers who exercised a considerable
+influence on Latin literature, and also the first of the _poëtae
+neoterici_ or _novelli_ (new-fashioned poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose
+special characteristic was the use of lighter and graceful metres
+(anapaestic and iambic dimeters), which had hitherto found little
+favour.
+
+  The little poems will be found in E. Bährens, _Poëtae Latini minores_
+  (1879-1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author
+  of the _Pervigilium Veneris_ (q.v.) see E.H.O. Müller, _De P. Annio
+  Floro poëta et de Pervigilio Veneris_ (1855), and, for the poet's
+  relations with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, _Hadrian und Florus_ (1882);
+  see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, i. pt. 2
+  (1894).
+
+
+
+
+FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON, FREIHERR (1812-1883), German
+composer, was born on his father's estate at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg,
+on the 27th of April 1812. Destined originally for the diplomatic
+profession, his passion for music induced his father to send him to
+Paris to study under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830
+caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-music
+and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There he produced
+_Pierre et Cathérine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise_, but made his first
+real success with Le _Naufrage de la Méduse_ at the Renaissance Théâtre
+in 1838. Greater, however, was the success which attended _Stradella_
+(1844) and _Martha_ (1847), which made the tour of the world. In 1848
+Flotow was again driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a
+few years he produced _Die Grossfürstin_ (1850), _Indra_ (1853),
+_Rübezahl_ (1854), _Hilda_ (1855) and _Albin_ (1856). From 1856 to 1863
+he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the latter
+year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced _L'Ombre_. From
+that time to the date of his death he lived in Paris or on his estate
+near Vienna. He died on the 24th of January 1883. Of his concert-music
+only the _Jubelouvertüre_ is now ever heard. His strength lay in the
+facility of his melodies.
+
+
+
+
+FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN, in English law, goods lost at sea, as
+distinguished from goods which come to land, which are technically
+designated _wreck_. Jetsam (the same word as _jettison_, from Lat.
+_jactare_, to throw) is when goods are cast into the sea, and there sink
+and remain under water; flotsam (_floatson_, from _float_, Lat.
+_flottare_) is where they continue floating on the surface of the waves;
+ligan (or _lagan_, from _lay_ or _lie_) is where they are sunk in the
+sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to be found again. Flotsam,
+jetsam and ligan belong to the sovereign in the absence only of the true
+owner. Wreck, on the other hand (i.e. goods cast on shore), was by the
+common law adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by
+the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original owner.
+This singular distinction which treated goods washed ashore as lost, and
+goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt to be explained by the
+primitive practice of plundering wrecked ships. (See WRECK.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOUNDER, a common term for flat-fish. The name is also more specially
+given to certain varieties, according to local usage. Thus the
+_Pleuronectes flesus_ is the common flounder of English terminology,
+found along the coasts of northern Europe from the Bristol Channel to
+Iceland. It is particularly partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine
+as far as Cologne. It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of
+1½ lb. In American terminology the principal fish of the name are the
+"summer flounders" or "deep-sea flounders," also known in America as
+"plaice" (_Paralichthys dentatus_), as long as 3 ft. and as heavy as 15
+lb.; the "four-spotted flounders" (_Paralichthys oblongus_); the
+"common" or "winter" flounder (_Pseudopleuronectes americanus_); the
+"diamond flounder" (_Hysopsetta guttulata_); and the "pole flounder"
+(_Glyptocephalus cynoglossus_).
+
+
+
+
+FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The term "flour" (Fr. _fleur_, flower, i.e.
+the best part) is usually applied to the triturated farinaceous
+constituents of the wheat berry (see WHEAT); it is, however, also used
+of other cereals and even of leguminoids when ground into a fine powder,
+and of many other substances in a pulverulent state, though in these
+cases it is usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c. The flour
+obtained from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten
+flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17th centuries as meal, and up
+to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps later, the term mealing
+trade was not infrequently used of the milling trade.
+
+
+  Primitive grinding.
+
+The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone about the
+size of a man's fist, with which grain or nuts were pounded and crushed
+into a rude meal. These stones are generally of hard sandstone and were
+evidently used against another stone, which by dint of continual
+hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher was used on the
+surface of rocks. St Bridget's stone, on the shore of Lough Macnean, is
+supposed to have been a primitive Irish mill; there are many depressions
+in the face of the table-like rock, and it is probable that round this
+stone several women (for in early civilization the preparation of flour
+was peculiarly the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather
+pound, meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in
+Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands, and it
+is on record that some of these stones have been used for flour-making
+within historic times. Richard Bennett in his _History of Corn Milling_
+remarks that the Seneca Indians to this day boil maize and crush it into
+a paste between loose stones. In the same way the Omahas pound this
+cereal in holes in the rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound
+the capsules of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by
+Herodotus in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the
+Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between a round
+stone or "muller," and a cuplike hollow in the surface of a rock.
+Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging from the primitive
+ball-like implement to an elongated shape resembling the pestle of a
+mortar. Mullers of the latter type are not infrequent among prehistoric
+remains in America, while Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of
+the globular form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also
+among the ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived
+in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are now
+altogether extinct.
+
+
+  Saddle-stone.
+
+The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive pounder,
+or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct ancestor of the
+millstones still used to some extent in the manufacture of flour. The
+saddle-stone, the first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone
+with a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and in
+and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into coarse meal.
+Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand caves of Italy, among the
+lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the dolmens of France, in the pit
+dwellings of the British Isles, and among the remains of primitive folk
+all the world over. The Romans of the classical period seem to have
+distinguished the saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the
+_mola trusatilis_, which may be translated "the thrusting mill"; this
+would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The _mola
+versatilis_ evidently referred to the revolving millstone or quern. In
+primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not yet extinct, as for
+instance in Mexico. It is known as the _metata_, and is used both for
+grinding maize and for making the maize cakes known as tortillas. The
+same implement is apparently still in use in some parts of South
+America, notably in Chile.
+
+
+  Quern.
+
+According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete milling
+machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability not older than
+the 2nd century B.C. This is, however, a controverted point. Querns are
+still used in most primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have
+altogether disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland.
+Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling. The rotary
+motion of millstones became the essential principle of the trituration
+of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the roller mill. The early
+quern appears to have differed from its descendants in that it was
+somewhat globular in shape, the lower stone being made conical, possibly
+with the idea that the ground flour should be provided with a downward
+flow to enable it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however,
+persist. Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the two
+stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone was a species
+of funnel, through which the grain passed as through a hopper, making
+its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the space between the
+running and the bed stone. The ground meal was discharged at the
+periphery. The runner, or upper stone, was provided with a wooden handle
+by which the stone was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan
+age may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have been a
+public _pistrinum_ or mill, were found four pairs of millstones. The
+circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. high, and
+upon it was fastened the _meta_, a blunt cone about 2 ft. high, on which
+fitted the upper millstone or _catillus_, also conical. These mills were
+evidently rotated by slave labour, as there was no room for the
+perambulation of a horse or donkey, while the side-lugs in which the
+handle-bars were inserted are plainly visible. Slave labour was
+generally used up to the introduction of Christianity, but was finally
+abolished by the emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills
+continued to be driven by criminals.
+
+
+  Use of power.
+
+The Romans are credited by some authorities with having first applied
+power to the driving of millstones, which they connected with
+water-wheels by a horizontal spindle through the intervention of bevel
+gearing. But long after millstones had been harnessed to water power
+slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The watermill of
+the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period into Britain.
+Domesday Book shows that England was covered by mills of a kind at the
+time of the Norman conquest, and mentions some 500 mills in the
+counties of Norfolk and Suffolk alone. No doubt the _mola_ of Domesday
+Book consisted of one pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a
+water-wheel. Windmills are said to have been introduced by the
+Crusaders, who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed to
+have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close of the
+18th century, when Boulton & Watt installed a steam engine in the Albion
+Flour Mills in London, erected under the care of John Rennie. Another
+great engineer, Sir William Fairbairn, in the early days of the 19th
+century, left the impress of his genius on the mill and all its
+accessories. He was followed by other clever engineers, and in the days
+immediately preceding the roller period many improvements were
+introduced as regards the balancing and driving of millstones. The
+introduction of the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a
+great step in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen
+or linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the 19th century, marked
+another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before the
+introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 4½ ft. in diameter by
+some 12 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous stone,
+known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry of La
+Ferté-sous-Jouarre, in France.
+
+
+  Roller milling.
+
+Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the flour
+consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is, mills in
+which the wheat is broken and floured by means of rollers, some grooved
+in varying degrees of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded
+and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All roller mills
+worthy of the name are completely automatic, that is to say, from the
+time the raw material enters the mill warehouse till it is sacked,
+either in the shape of finished flour or of offals, it is touched by no
+human hand.
+
+The history of roller milling extends back to the first half of the 19th
+century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines fitted with rolls set
+either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely, for the grinding of
+corn, are said to have been used as far back as the 17th century, but if
+this be so it is certain that they were only used in a tentative manner.
+Towards the middle of the 19th century the firm of E.R. & F. Turner, of
+Ipswich, began to build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary
+to the conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls
+were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges, which
+must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments of the berry.
+These mills were built to the design of a German engineer, of the name
+of G.A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at the London exhibition of 1862,
+but they never came into general use. It has also been stated that as
+early as 1823 a French engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a
+roller mill, while five years later a certain Malar took out another
+French patent, the specification of which speaks of grooves and
+differential speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the
+present day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th
+century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus was rather
+cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it was fitted consumed a
+large amount of power relatively to the work effected. But the Pester
+Walz-Mühle, founded in 1839 by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman,
+which took its name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by
+Sulzberger, was for many years a great success; some of its roller mills
+are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty years, and one
+at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.
+
+
+  Hungarian practice.
+
+It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and well adapted
+for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction, as now understood,
+was more or less practised in Hungary, even before the introduction of
+roller milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used, yet the
+wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical low or flat
+grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive operations. In
+the first break the stones would be placed just wide enough apart to
+"end" the wheat, and in each succeeding operation the stones were
+brought closer together. But Hungarian milling was not then automatic in
+the sense in which British millers understand the word. For a long time
+a great deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of
+Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to another for
+further treatment. This practice may have been partly due to the cheap
+labour available, but it was also the deliberate policy of Hungarian
+millers to handle in this way the middlings and fine "dunst," because it
+was maintained that only thus could certain products be delivered to the
+machine by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition.
+The results were good so far as the finished products were concerned,
+but in the light of modern automatic milling the system appears
+uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately large staff, but
+it further increased the labour bill by the demand it made on the number
+of sub-foremen who were occupied in classifying, largely by touch, the
+various products, and directing the labourers under them. Hungarian
+milling still differs widely from milling as practised in Great Britain
+in being a longer system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of
+products, a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour
+and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate varieties
+of middlings and "dunst" for which no corresponding terms are available
+in an English miller's vocabulary.
+
+
+  Semolina, middlings, dunst.
+
+It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three terms
+constantly used by millers, namely, _semolina_, _middlings_ and _dunst_.
+These three products of roller mills are practically identical in
+composition, but represent different stages in the process of reducing
+the endosperm of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered by several
+layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury kernel or
+endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to tear and break up.
+The largest of these more or less cubical particles are known as
+semolina, whilst the medium-sized are called middlings and the smallest
+sized termed dunst. The last is a German word, with several meanings,
+but is used in this particular sense by German and Austrian millers,
+from whom it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in
+England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour beside a
+sample of small dunst the two would be easy to distinguish, but place a
+magnifying glass over the flour and it would look very like the dunst.
+If we were to repeat this experiment on dunst and fine middlings, the
+former would under the glass present a strong resemblance to the
+middlings. The same effect would be produced by the putting side by side
+of large middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of
+semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are more apt to
+vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter is the product of the
+later stages of the milling process and represents small particles of
+the floury kernel tolerably free from such impurities as bran or fluff.
+The flour producing middlings must not be confounded with the variety of
+wheat offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings.
+This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with a
+certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only fit for
+feeding beasts.
+
+
+  Porcelain rolls.
+
+The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was undoubtedly
+accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls, by Friedrich Wegmann, a
+Swiss miller, which were brought into general use in the seventh decade
+of the 19th century, and are still widely employed. They are admirably
+fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and dunst into flour;
+and for reducing pure middlings, that is, middlings containing no bran
+or wheat husk, there is perhaps nothing that quite equals them. They
+were introduced into Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were
+used for several years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from
+British mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date
+they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep the rolls
+perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their inadaptability to
+over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and perhaps still more the
+American, miller is frequently obliged to resort. However, since the
+beginning of the 20th century some of the most advanced flour mills in
+England have again taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of
+their reduction process.
+
+
+  Roller milling in England.
+
+The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to date from
+1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer, erected a set of
+roller mills in the Tradeston Mills, in Glasgow. This was long before
+the introduction of automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the
+millstone system were not seriously disturbed till 1877, when a party of
+leading British and Irish millers visited Vienna and Budapest with the
+object of studying roller milling in its native home. In 1878 J.H.
+Carter installed in the mill of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably
+the first complete automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom,
+and in 1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
+London, showed the automatic roller system in complete operation. From
+that time the roller system made great progress. By 1885 many of the
+leading British millers had installed full roller plants, and in the
+succeeding ten years small roller plants were installed in many country
+mills. For a time there was a transition stage in which there was in
+operation a number of so-called "combined" plants, that is to say, mills
+in which the wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the
+middlings were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out
+of being.
+
+Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably the best
+fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear from comparison
+with their American competitors. It is true that American millers were
+rather quicker to copy Hungarian milling methods so far as gradual
+reduction was concerned. But from about 1880 the British miller was
+quite awake to his position and was straining every nerve to provide
+himself with a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has
+often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world. This is
+true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always command the exact
+kind of wheat he requires at the price required to meet foreign
+competition. Therein he is at a disadvantage. But engineers have done
+their best to meet this weak point, and by their assistance he is able
+to compete under almost all conditions with the millers of the whole
+world.
+
+_Processes of Milling._--Fully to appreciate the various processes of
+modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the wheat as
+delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and even more
+objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many light grains and
+seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient for the miller to
+be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most approved principles; he
+must also have at command the means of freeing it from foreign
+substances, and further of "conditioning" it, should it be damp or over
+dry and harsh. Again, his operations must be conducted with reference to
+the structure of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a
+seed, the actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body
+which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with the
+plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in roller milling
+easily separated from the rest of the berry, being flattened instead of
+crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted from the stock. The germ
+contains a good deal of fatty matter, which, if allowed to remain, would
+not increase the keeping qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish
+five skins on the berry--epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and
+embryous membrane--but for practical purposes the number of integuments
+may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the outer and
+second skins together, which are largely composed of woody fibre; it
+contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but although these are made up
+of a certain proportion of proteids, on account of the discolouring and
+diastasic action of the cerealin in flour they are best eliminated. The
+endosperm, or floury kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of
+starch granules which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a
+net. This network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes
+are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are usually finer
+and more dense near the husk than in the interior of the kernel. This
+glutinous portion is of great importance to the baker because on its
+quantity and quality depends the "strength" or rising power of the
+flour, and the aim of modern roller milling is to retain it as
+completely as possible, a matter of some difficulty owing to its close
+adherence to the husk, especially in the richest wheats. Another organ
+of the wheat berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the
+miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the berry
+with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the food which
+the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up the crease of the
+berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being protected on the outer
+side by the first and having the third or inner skin on its other side.
+A good deal of the matters filtered by the placenta are mineral in their
+nature, and such portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This
+is the matter which millers call "crease dirt." It is highly
+discolouring to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end
+of the berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs
+are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture. They
+have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See also WHEAT.)
+
+  In the old "flat" or "low" milling the object was to grind as
+  perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the
+  grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and
+  outer skins constituting the bran. In "high" milling, on the other
+  hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim
+  being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the
+  wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or
+  "breaking" part of the process. It is impossible altogether to avoid
+  the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and worked
+  break-rolls will make as little as 15% of "break-flour," which is of
+  less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and also because it
+  is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which adhere more
+  readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, sometimes called Graham
+  flour, consists of the entire grain ground up to a uniform mass.
+
+
+    Dry cleaning.
+
+  Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good
+  milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department of the
+  mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery almost equal in
+  range and variety to that in the mill itself. The wheat, drawn by an
+  elevator from the barge, or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a
+  machine known as a warehouse separator. This apparatus accomplishes
+  its work by means of flat sieves, some of which will be of much
+  coarser mesh than others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which
+  is a more delicate task than might appear. The warehouse separator
+  serves to free dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth,
+  stones, straws and sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize,
+  oats and barley. Great care has to be exercised in all operations of
+  the screen house lest wheat should pass away with the screenings.
+  Besides the warehouse separator, which is made in different types and
+  sizes, grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and
+  barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders
+  are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch seeds
+  which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or oats,
+  which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be followed by
+  machines known as scourers, the function of which is to free the wheat
+  from adherent impurities. These machines are of different types, but
+  all depend on percussive action. A vertical scourer consists of a
+  number of steel or iron beaters attached to a vertical spindle which
+  revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated casing, the whole being
+  fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers with horizontal spindles
+  are also in great favour. Not every wheat is suitable for scouring,
+  but some wheats are so mingled with impurities that a severe action
+  between the beaters and the perforated case is absolutely necessary.
+  The most efficient scourer is that which frees the wheat from the
+  greatest amount of impurity with a minimum of abrasion. The beaters
+  should be adjustable to suit different kinds of wheat. Scourers are
+  followed by brush machines which are similar to the last and are of
+  three distinct types: solid, divided and cone brushes. In the solid
+  variety the brush surface is continuous around the circumference of a
+  revolving cylinder; in divided brushes there is often a set of beaters
+  or bars covered with brush but leaving intermediate spaces; while the
+  cone brush consists of beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones
+  around a vertical spindle. The object of all these brushes, the
+  cylinder containing them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to
+  polish the wheat and remove adhering impurities which the percussive
+  action of the scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the
+  beard or fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the
+  miller must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and
+  unnecessarily abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his
+  flour, the triturated bran breaking under the rolls and producing
+  powder which will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic
+  fragments as nails, pieces of wire, &c., magnets are used. These may
+  either be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at
+  the head of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates
+  set at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to
+  place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they
+  should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might
+  otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves,
+  and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also be made
+  of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling value of
+  the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same, though
+  details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for a given
+  weight of grain. As soon as the receiving hopper has poured through a
+  valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at one end of a beam
+  scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the weight hung at the
+  other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is automatically cut off and
+  the skip is discharged, automatically returning to take another
+  charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded on a dial. In this way
+  a record can be kept of the gross weight of the uncleaned wheat
+  entering the warehouse and of the net weight of the cleaned wheat. The
+  difference between the two weighings will, of course, represent the
+  loss by cleaning. The percentage of flour obtained from a given wheat
+  can be ascertained in the mill itself. In practice the second weigher
+  is placed just before the first break.
+
+
+    Wet cleaning and conditioning.
+
+  The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the close
+  of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of England
+  some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said that certain wheats
+  are washed to free them from extraneous matters such as adherent earth
+  and similar impurities which could not be removed by dry cleaning
+  without undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and hard
+  Russians, and these require not only washing but also conditioning, by
+  which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With another
+  class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians, spring
+  Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Californians and the
+  harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by heat is also
+  desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the moisture
+  penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the kernel. In a
+  third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many kinds of
+  Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally admitted that
+  while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from the
+  application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class must
+  be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing machines is
+  to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign matters are
+  washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off in the waste
+  water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archimedean worm
+  conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizontally or
+  vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving in a tank
+  partly filled with water. Another function of washing machines is to
+  separate stones of the same size which are found in several varieties
+  of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing a current of water
+  as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not strong enough to
+  carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity than wheat. This
+  current may be led up an inclined worm or may flow horizontally over a
+  revolving tray. The washer is followed by a whizzer, which is an
+  apparatus intended to free the berry by purely mechanical means from
+  superfluous moisture. The typical whizzer is a vertical column fed at
+  the bottom and delivering at the top. The wet wheat ascends by
+  centrifugal force in a spiral direction round the column to the top,
+  and by the time it is discharged from the spout at the top it has
+  thrown off from its outer skin almost all its moisture, the water
+  escaping through the perforated cover of the machine. But there still
+  remains a certain amount of water which has penetrated the integuments
+  more or less deeply, and to condition the berry it is treated by a
+  combination of hot and cold air. The wheat is passed between
+  perforated metal plates and subjected to a draught first of hot and
+  then of cold air. The perforated plates are usually built in the shape
+  of a column, or leg as it is often called, and this is provided with
+  two air chambers, an upper one serving as a reservoir for hot, and the
+  lower for cold air. The air from both chambers is discharged by
+  pressure through the descending layers of wheat, which should not be
+  more than an inch thick; the air is drawn in by a steel-plate fan,
+  which is often provided with a divided casing, one side being used for
+  cold, and the other for hot air. Coupled with the hot air side is a
+  heater consisting of a series of circulating steam-heated pipes. The
+  temperature of the heated air can be regulated by the supply of steam
+  to the heater. This process of washing and conditioning, one of the
+  most important in a flour mill, is characteristically British; millers
+  have to deal with wheats of the most varied nature, and one object of
+  conditioning is to bring hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as
+  nearly as possible to a common standard of condition before being
+  milled. Wheat is sometimes washed to toughen the bran, an end which
+  can also be attained by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes
+  along an inclined worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass
+  wheat through a heated cylinder, while again another process known as
+  steaming consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a
+  metal hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to
+  warm and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but
+  these processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and
+  conditioning plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long
+  immersion in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and
+  drying are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard
+  wheats already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer
+  and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this
+  necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the
+  softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds is
+  desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately
+  and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters
+  the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing. It is
+  claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are
+  positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably
+  true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when
+  native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant and
+  cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be an
+  excellent substitute.
+
+
+    Effect of damp.
+
+  Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during harvest
+  do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a question of
+  the amount of moisture absorbed. But it must be remembered that it is
+  not so much the water itself which degrades the constituents of the
+  wheat (starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness
+  produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for damp
+  wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by kiln or
+  steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120° F., until the moisture has
+  been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from wheat so
+  treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound. The practice of
+  drying damp flour has also good results. Long before the roller
+  milling period it was found that only flour which had been dried (in a
+  kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially when the
+  vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted that in the
+  days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to produce good
+  keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up and triturated in one
+  operation, the flour necessarily contained a large proportion of
+  branny particles in which cerealin, an active diastasic constituent,
+  was present in very sensible proportions. Again, the elimination of
+  the germ by the roller process is favourable to the production of a
+  sounder flour, because the germ contains a large amount of oleaginous
+  matter and has a strong diastasic action on imperfectly matured
+  starches. The tendency of flours containing germ to become rancid is
+  well marked. During the South African War of 1899-1902 the British
+  army supply department had a practical proof of the diastasic action
+  of branny particles in flour. Soldiers' bread is not usually of white
+  colour, and the military authorities not unnaturally believed that
+  comparatively low-grade flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for
+  use in the field bakeries. But in the climate of South Africa flour of
+  this description soon developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the
+  supply department gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and
+  it is understood that the most suitable flour proved to be certain
+  patents milled in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not
+  only did they contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but
+  they were also the driest that could be found.
+
+
+    Break-rolls.
+
+  After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into
+  increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or "breaks." In the earlier
+  years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks than is now
+  the case. The first pair of break-rolls used to be called the
+  splitting rolls, because their function was supposed to be to split
+  the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as to give the miller an
+  opportunity of removing the dirt between the two lobes of the berry by
+  means of a brush machine. The dirt was in many cases no more than the
+  placenta already described, which shrivelling up took, like all
+  vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat split along the crease was not,
+  however, achieved in more than 10% of the berries so treated. Where
+  such rolls are still in use they are really serving as a sort of
+  adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system. Four or five breaks are now
+  thought sufficient, but three breaks are not recommended, except in
+  very short systems for small country mills. Rolls are now used up to
+  60 in. in length, though in one of the most approved systems they
+  never exceed 40 in.; they are made of chilled iron, and for the
+  breaking of wheat are provided with grooving cut at a slight twist,
+  the spiral averaging ¼ in. to the foot length, though for the last set
+  of break-rolls, which clean up the bran, the spiral is sometimes
+  increased to ½ in. per foot. The grooves should have sharp edges
+  because they do better work than when blunt, giving larger semolina
+  and middlings, with bran adherent in big flakes; small middlings, that
+  is, little pieces of the endosperm torn away by blunt grooves, and
+  comminuted bran, make the production of good class flour almost
+  impossible; cut bran, moreover, brings less money. The break-rolls
+  should never work by pressure, but nip the material fed between them
+  at a given point; to cut or shear, not to flatten and crush, is their
+  function. Rolls may be set either horizontally or vertically; an
+  oblique setting has also come into favour. The feed is of the utmost
+  importance to the correct working of a roller mill. The material
+  should be fed in an even stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of
+  the roll uncovered. The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal
+  speeds, 2½ to 1 being the usual ratio on the three first breaks, while
+  the last break is often speeded at 3 to 1 or 3½ to 1; in one of the
+  oblique mills the difference is obtained by making the diameter of one
+  roll 13 and of the other 10 in. and running them at equal speed. For
+  break-rolls up to 36 in. in length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for
+  longer rolls 10 in. is the standard. To do good work rolls must run in
+  perfect parallelism; otherwise some parts of the material will pass
+  untouched, while others will be treated too severely.
+
+
+    Scalpers.
+
+  The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known as
+  scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products for
+  further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving reels or flat
+  sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of scalper on account of its
+  gentle action. Scalping requires a separating and sifting, not a
+  scouring action. The break products are usually separated on a sieve
+  covered with wire or perforated zinc plates. Generally speaking, two
+  sieves are in one frame and are run at a slight incline. The throughs
+  of the top sieve fall on the sieve below, while the rejections or
+  overtails of the first sieve are fed to the next break. The
+  "throughs," or what has passed this sieve, are graded by the next
+  sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the throughs may be
+  freed from what flour adheres to them by a centrifugal dressing
+  machine and then treated by another purifier. A form of scalper which
+  has come into general use on the continent of Europe, and to a lesser
+  extent in Great Britain and America, is known as the plansifter. This
+  machine, of Hungarian origin, is simply a collection of superimposed
+  flat sieves in one box, and will scalp or sort out any kind of break
+  stock very efficiently. A system of grading the tailings, that is, the
+  rejections of the scalpers, introduced by James Harrison Carter
+  (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known as pneumatic sorting. Its object was
+  to supplement the work of the scalpers by classifying the tailings by
+  means of air-currents. To this end each scalper was followed by a
+  machine arranged somewhat like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a
+  current of air drawn through the casing of the sorter allowed the
+  heaviest and best material to drop down straight, while the lighter
+  stuff was deposited in one or other of further compartments formed by
+  obliquely placed adjustable cant boards. So searching was this
+  grading, that from the first sorter of a four-break plant four
+  separations would be obtained, the first going to the second break,
+  the second joining the first separation from the second sorter and
+  being fed to the third break, while the third went with the best
+  separation of the third sorter to the fourth break, and the last
+  separation from all the sorters went straight into the bran sack. The
+  work of the break-rolls was greatly simplified and reduced by this
+  sorting process, as each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that
+  pair of break-rollers for which it was suitable, instead of all the
+  material being run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and
+  thereby being cut up with the necessary result of increasing the
+  production of small bran.
+
+
+    Purifiers.
+
+  The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers have
+  lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the semolina and
+  middlings as much impure matter as possible, that those products may
+  be pure, as millers say, for reduction to flour by the smooth rolls.
+  The purifiers used in British mills take advantage of the fact that
+  the more valuable portions of the wheat berry are heavier than the
+  less valuable particles, such as bran and fibrous bodies, and a
+  current of air is employed to weigh these fragments of the wheat berry
+  as in a balance and to separate them while they pass over a
+  silk-covered sieve. To this end the semolina or middlings are fed on a
+  sieve vibrated by an eccentric and set at a slight downward angle.
+  This sieve is installed in an air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber
+  with glass windows on either side, through which the process of
+  purifying can be watched. Upwards through this sieve a fan constantly
+  draws a current of air, which, raising the stock upwards, allows the
+  heavier and better material to remain below while the lighter
+  particles are lifted off and fall on side platforms or channels,
+  whence they are carried forward and delivered separately. The good
+  material drops through the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a
+  worm. It is usual to clothe the sieve in sections with several
+  different meshes of silk so that stock of almost identical value, but
+  differing size, may be treated with uniform accuracy. In good
+  purifiers the strength of the current can be regulated at will in each
+  section. The tailings of a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of
+  the feed. The clothing of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to
+  the clothing of the preceding machines. Repurification and even
+  tertiary purification may be necessary under certain conditions. In
+  Hungary and other parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use.
+  Here the material is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle,
+  while an air-current is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve
+  may be arranged a series of inclined boards, the position of which can
+  be varied as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist
+  the current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried
+  off to further divisions.
+
+
+    Smooth rolls.
+
+  From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may require
+  other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made into
+  flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise great care and
+  discretion. Many of the remarks already made in regard to break-rolls
+  apply to smooth rolls, notably in respect of parallelism. But instead
+  of a cutting action, the smooth rolls press the material fed to them
+  into flour. This pressure, however, must be applied with great
+  discrimination, large semolina with impurities attached requiring
+  quite different treatment from that called for by small pure
+  middlings. The pressure on the stock must be just sufficient and no
+  more. Reduction rolls are usually run at a differential speed of about
+  2 to 3. The feed must be carefully graded, because to pass stock of
+  varying size through a pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good
+  work. Scratch rolls very finely grooved are used for cracking impure
+  semolina or for reducing the tailings of purifiers. The latter often
+  hold fragments of bran, which are best detached by rolls grooved about
+  36 to the inch and run at a differential of 3 to 1. The reduction
+  requires even more roll surface than the break system. To do
+  first-class work a mill should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the
+  breaks and 50 in. on the reduction for each sack of 280 lb. of flour
+  per hour. Many engineers consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch
+  and smooth rolls not too much.
+
+
+    Dressing.
+
+  The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth rolls
+  is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist of a
+  slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal shaft on which are
+  keyed a number of iron beaters that run at a speed of about 200
+  revolutions a minute, and fling the feed against the silk clothing of
+  the cylinder. What goes through the silk is collected by a worm
+  conveyor at the bottom of the machine. Most centrifugals have
+  so-called "cut-off" sheets, with internal divisions in the tail end;
+  these are intended to separate some intermediate products, which,
+  having been freed from floury particles, are treated on some other
+  machine, such as a pair of rolls either direct or after a purifier.
+  The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient flour separator, but the
+  plansifters already mentioned are also good flour-dressers, especially
+  in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have no centrifugals, except
+  one or two at the tail end where the material gets more sticky and
+  requires more severe treatment.
+
+  The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to
+  73% of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very
+  small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various
+  grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have been
+  found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In millstone milling
+  the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, but a certain
+  proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of the flour
+  yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of the
+  kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class patents may
+  be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight grade, i.e. a
+  flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance as can be won
+  from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale for rich offals,
+  that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another there may be
+  no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general principles of
+  roller milling as given above hold good all over the country, yet in
+  practice the work of each mill is varied more or less to suit the
+  peculiarities of the local trade.
+
+
+    Bleaching of flour.
+
+  Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J.J.E. Poutet, discovered
+  that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some fluid and
+  semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow tinge and converting
+  a considerable portion of their substance into a white solid. The
+  importance of this discovery, when the physical constitution of wheat
+  is considered, is obvious, but it was years before any attempt was
+  made to bleach flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have
+  been made on the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a
+  process was patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and
+  about 1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of
+  electrolysed sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating
+  grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was proposed
+  to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric currents.
+  In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour by means of
+  fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another inventor proposed
+  to employ the Röntgen rays for the same purpose. In 1898 Emile Frichot
+  took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized air for
+  flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by J. & S.
+  Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve greatly if
+  kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the invention it
+  covered was to bring about this improvement or conditioning not only
+  immediately after grinding, but also to a greater extent than can be
+  effected by keeping. The process consisted in subjecting the flour to
+  the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing medium; the inventors
+  preferred air carrying a minute quantity of nitric acid or peroxide of
+  nitrogen, but they did not confine themselves to those compounds,
+  having found that chlorine, bromine and other substances capable of
+  liberating oxygen were also more or less efficacious. They claimed
+  that while exercising no deleterious action their treatment made the
+  flour whiter, improved its baking qualities, and rendered it less
+  liable to be attacked by mites or other organisms. Under the patent,
+  No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J.N. Alsop of Kentucky the flour was
+  treated with atmospheric air which had been subjected to the action of
+  an arc or flaming discharge of electricity, with the purpose of
+  purifying it and improving its nutritious properties. The Andrews and
+  Alsop patents became the objects of extended litigation in the English
+  courts, and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was
+  substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though produced
+  electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the Alsop
+  process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various other
+  patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken out.
+       (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOURENS, GUSTAVE (1838-1871), French revolutionist and writer, a son of
+J.P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist, was born at Paris on the
+4th of August 1838. In 1863 he undertook for his father a course of
+lectures at the Collège de France, the subject of which was the history
+of mankind. His theories as to the manifold origin of the human race,
+however, gave offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from
+delivering a second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published
+his lectures under the title of _Histoire de l'homme_ (1863); he next
+visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan insurrection
+of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article of his in the
+_Popolo d'Italia_ caused his arrest and imprisonment, and finally,
+having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a duel with Paul de
+Cassagnac, editor of the _Pays_. In Paris he devoted his pen to the
+cause of republicanism, and at length, having failed in an attempt to
+organize a revolution at Belleville on the 7th of February 1870, found
+himself compelled to flee from France. Returning to Paris on the
+downfall of Napoleon, he soon placed himself at the head of a body of
+500 tirailleurs. On account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was
+taken prisoner at Créteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional
+government, and confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was
+released by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of March
+he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of the commune by the
+20th arrondissement, and was named colonel. He was one of the most
+active leaders of the insurrection, and in a sortie against the
+Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd of April was killed in a
+hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near Malmaison. Besides his _Science de
+l'homme_ (Paris, 1869), Gustave Flourens was the author of numerous
+fugitive pamphlets.
+
+  See C. Prolès, _Les Hommes de la révolution de 1871_ (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE (1794-1867), French physiologist, was born
+at Maureilhan, near Béziers, in the department of Hérault, on the 15th
+of April 1794. At the age of fifteen he began the study of medicine at
+Montpellier, where in 1823 he received the degree of doctor. In the
+following year he repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from
+A.P. de Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him
+kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens engaged
+in physiological research, occasionally contributing to literary
+publications; and in 1821, at the Athénée there, he gave a course of
+lectures on the physiological theory of the sensations, which attracted
+much attention amongst men of science. His paper entitled _Recherches
+expérimentales sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux
+dans les animaux vertébrés_, in which he, from experimental evidence,
+sought to assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora
+quadrigemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory
+report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences in 1822. He
+was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a course of lectures on
+natural history at the Collège de France, and in the same year became,
+in succession to L.A.G. Bosc, a member of the Institute, in the division
+"Économie rurale." In 1830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on
+human anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the post
+of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship of
+comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the Jardin the same
+year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the dying request of Cuvier,
+was appointed a perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences; and in
+1838 he was returned as a deputy for the arrondissement of Béziers. In
+1840 he was elected, in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J.F.
+Michaud at the French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of
+the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France. In March
+1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy of Sciences to the
+anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals. On the revolution of 1848
+he withdrew completely from political life; and in 1855 he accepted the
+professorship of natural history at the Collège de France. He died at
+Montgeron, near Paris, on the 6th of December 1867.
+
+  Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens
+  published--_Essai sur quelques points de la doctrine de la révulsion
+  et de la dérivation_ (Montpellier, 1813); _Expériences sur le système
+  nerveux_ (Paris, 1825); _Cours sur la génération, l'ovologie, et
+  l'embryologie_ (1836); _Analyse raisonnée des travaux de G. Cuvier_
+  (1841); _Recherches sur le développement des os et des dents_ (1842);
+  _Anatomie générale de la peau et des membranes muqueuses_ (1843);
+  _Buffon, histoire de ses travaux et de ses idées_ (1844); _Fontenelle,
+  ou de la philosophie moderne relativement aux sciences physiques_
+  (1847); _Théorie expérimentale de la formation des os_ (1847);
+  _Oeuvres complètes de Buffon_ (1853); _De la longévité humaine et de
+  la quantité de vie sur le globe_ (1854), numerous editions; _Histoire
+  de la découverte de la circulation du sang_ (1854); _Cours de
+  physiologie comparée_ (1856); _Recueil des éloges historiques_ (1856);
+  _De la vie et de l'intelligence_ (1858); _De la raison, du génie, et
+  de la folie_ (1861); _Ontologie naturelle_ (1861); _Examen du livre de
+  M. Darwin sur l'Origine des Espèces_ (1864). For a list of his papers
+  see the Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_.
+
+
+
+
+FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-1899), English biologist, was born at
+Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November 1831. Choosing medicine as his
+profession, he began his studies at University College, London, where he
+showed special aptitude for physiology and comparative anatomy and took
+his M.B. degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and
+went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal with
+four clasps. On his return to England he became a member of the surgical
+staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in 1861 succeeded J.T.
+Quekett as curator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons of England. In 1870 he also became Hunterian professor, and in
+1884, on the death of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the
+directorship of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died
+in London on the 1st of July 1899. He made valuable contributions to
+structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete and accurate
+measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls, and as a comparative
+anatomist he ranked high, devoting himself especially to the study of
+the mammalia. He was also a leading authority on the arrangement of
+museums. The greater part of his life was spent in their administration,
+and in consequence he held very decided views as to the principles upon
+which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the importance
+of distinguishing between collections intended for the use of
+specialists and those designed for the instruction of the general
+public, pointing out that it was as futile to present to the former a
+number of merely typical forms as to provide the latter with a long
+series of specimens differing only in the most minute details. His
+ideas, which were largely and successfully applied to the museums of
+which he had charge, gained wide approval, and their influence entitles
+him to be looked upon as a reformer who did much to improve the methods
+of museum arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original
+papers, he was the author of _An Introduction to the Osteology of the
+Mammalia_ (1870); _Fashion in Deformity_ (1881); _The Horse: a Study in
+Natural History_ (1890); _Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living
+and Extinct_ (1891); _Essays on Museums and other Subjects_ (1898). He
+also wrote many articles for the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+FLOWER (Lat. _flos_, _floris_; Fr. _fleur_), a term popularly used for
+the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the fairest,
+choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various technical
+senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical interest. It is
+impossible to give a rigid botanical definition of the term "flower."
+The flower is a characteristic feature of the highest group of the plant
+kingdom--the flowering plants (Phanerogams)--and is the name given to
+the association of organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are
+concerned with the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical
+works the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta). As
+the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized by the
+pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are two, viz. the
+pollen-bearer or _stamen_ and the ovule-bearer or _carpel_. These are
+with few exceptions foliar structures, known in comparative morphology
+as sporophylls, because they bear the spores, namely, the microspores or
+pollen-grains which are developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs,
+and the megaspore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.
+
+In Gymnosperms (q.v.), which represent the more primitive type of
+seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally associated,
+often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which the term "flower"
+has been applied. But there is considerable difference of opinion as to
+the relation between these cones and the more definite and elaborate
+structure known as the flower in the higher group of seed-plants--the
+Angiosperms (q.v.)--and it is to this more definite structure that we
+generally refer in using the term "flower."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Proliferous Rose.
+
+  s, Sepals transformed into leaves.
+
+  p, Petals multiplied at the expense of the stamens, which are reduced
+  in number.
+
+  c, Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels.
+
+  a, Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex.]
+
+Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots arise from
+leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance to each other as
+regards the arrangement and the development of their parts; and it
+sometimes happens, from injury and other causes, that the part of the
+axis which, in ordinary cases, would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to
+a flower-bud. A flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power
+of extension by the continuous development of its apex. In this respect
+it differs from a leaf-bud. In some cases, however, of monstrosity,
+especially seen in the rose (fig. 1), the central part is prolonged, and
+bears leaves or flowers. In such cases the flowers, so far as their
+functional capabilities are concerned, are usually abortive. This
+phenomenon is known as proliferation of the floral axis.
+
+Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil of leaves, which
+are called _bracts_.
+
+
+  Bracts.
+
+The term _bract_ is properly applied to the leaf from which the primary
+floral axis, whether simple or branched, arises, while the leaves which
+arise on the axis between the bract and the outer envelope of the flower
+are _bracteoles_ or _bractlets_. Bracts sometimes do not differ from the
+ordinary leaves, as in _Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca_, _Anagallis_ and
+_Ajuga_. In general as regards their form and appearance they differ
+from ordinary leaves, the difference being greater in the upper than in
+the lower branches of an inflorescence. They are distinguished by their
+position at the base of the flower or flower-stalk. Their arrangement is
+similar to that of the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are
+often applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with it,
+as in the order Malvaceae and species of _Dianthus_ and winter aconite
+(_Eranthis_), where they have received the name of _epicalyx_ or
+_calyculus_. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present, due to the
+formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In many cases bracts
+act as protective organs, within or beneath which the young flowers are
+concealed in their earliest stage of growth.
+
+When bracts become coloured, as in _Amherstia nobilis_, _Euphorbia
+splendens_, _Erica elegans_ and _Salvia splendens_, they may be mistaken
+for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes mere scales or threads, and
+at other times are undeveloped, giving rise to the _ebracteate_
+inflorescence of Cruciferae and some Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are
+empty, no flower-buds being produced in their axil. A series of empty
+coloured bracts terminates the inflorescence of _Salvia Horminum_. The
+smaller bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a
+branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus
+anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally
+persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the peduncles, but
+more usually they are deciduous, falling off early by an articulation.
+In some instances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorporated
+with other organs. Thus, the cones of firs and the stroboli of the hop
+are composed of a series of spirally arranged bracts covering fertile
+flowers; and the scales on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same
+nature. At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl
+of bracts often exists, called a _general involucre_, and at the base of
+the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl called
+an _involucel_ or _partial involucre_. In some instances, as in
+fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an involucel;
+while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15), neither involucre
+nor involucel is developed. In Compositae the name involucre is applied
+to the bracts surrounding the head of flowers (fig. 2, i), as in
+marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke. This involucre is frequently
+composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or of
+different forms and lengths, and often lie over each other in an
+imbricated manner. The leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and
+in teazel (_Dipsacus_), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or
+verticillate bracts generally remain separate (_polyphyllous_), but may
+be united by cohesion (_gamophyllous_), as in many species of
+_Bupleurum_ and in _Lavatera_. In Compositae besides the involucre there
+are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each flower, and
+in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each flower. These structures
+are of the nature of an epicalyx. In the acorn the _cupule_ or cup (fig.
+3) is formed by a growing upwards of the flower-stalk immediately
+beneath the flower, upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it
+is of the nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of
+the hazel-nut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head (capitulum) of Marigold (_Calendula_),
+showing a congeries of flowers, enclosed by rows of bracts, i, at the
+base, which are collectively called an involucre.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 3.--Cupule of _Quercus Aegilops_. cp, Cupule; gl, fruit. (After
+Duchartre.)]
+
+When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several rows, it
+often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, that is, are
+empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated scales or bracts
+are in this condition, and it is from the membranous white scales or
+bracts (_paleae_) forming the choke attached to the edible receptacle
+that the flowers are produced. The sterile bracts of the daisy
+occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to the hen-and-chickens
+daisy. In place of developing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain
+circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous plants, produce
+leaf-buds.
+
+A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called a _spathe_.
+It is common among Monocotyledons, as _Narcissus_ (fig. 4), snow-flake,
+_Arum_ and palms. In some palms it is 20 ft. long, and encloses 200,000
+flowers. It is often associated with that form of inflorescence termed
+the _spadix_, and may be coloured, as in _Anthurium_, or white, as in
+arum lily (_Richardia aethiopica_). When the spadix is compound or
+branching, as in palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate
+parts of the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their
+young state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down
+in a withered form, as in some palms, _Typha_ and _Pothos_. In grasses
+the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile bracts (fig. 5,
+gl); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs of reproduction. Bracts
+are frequently changed into complete leaves. This change is called
+_phyllody_ of bracts, and is seen in species of _Plantago_, especially
+in the variety of _Plantago media_, called the rose-plantain in gardens,
+where the bracts become leafy and form a rosette round the flowering
+axis. Similar changes occur in _Plantago major_, _P. lanceolata_, _Ajuga
+reptans_, dandelion, daisy, dahlia and in umbelliferous plants. The
+conversion of bracts into stamens (_staminody_ of bracts) has been
+observed in the case of _Abies excelsa_. A lengthening of the axis of
+the female strobilus of Coniferae is not of infrequent occurrence in
+_Cryptomeria japonica_, larch (_Larix europaea_), &c., and this is
+usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and
+sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of
+the scales.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Flowers of Narcissus (_Narcissus Tazetta_)
+bursting from a sheathing bract b.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of Oat (_Avena sativa_) laid open,
+showing the sterile bracts gl, gl, or empty glumes; g, the fertile or
+floral glume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; fs, an abortive flower.]
+
+The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of the
+floral axis, is called the _inflorescence_. The primary axis of the
+inflorescence is sometimes called the _rachis_; its branches, whether
+terminal or lateral, which form the stalks supporting flowers or
+clusters of flowers, are _peduncles_, and if small branches are given
+off by it, they are called _pedicels_. A flower having a stalk is called
+_pedunculate_ or _pedicellate_; one having no stalk is _sessile_. In
+describing a branching inflorescence, it is common to speak of the
+rachis as the _primary_ floral axis, its branches as the _secondary_
+floral axes, their divisions as the _tertiary_ floral axes, and so on;
+thus avoiding any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms
+_rachis_, _peduncle_ and _pedicel_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Peduncle of Fig (_Ficus Carica_), ending in a
+hollow receptacle, enclosing numerous male and female flowers.]
+
+The _peduncle_ is simple, bearing a single flower, as in primrose; or
+branched, as in London-pride. It is sometimes succulent, as in the
+cashew, in which it forms the large coloured expansion supporting the
+nut; spiral, as in _Cyclamen_ and _Vallisneria_; or spiny, as in
+_Alyssum spinosum_. When the peduncle proceeds from radical leaves, that
+is, from an axis which is so shortened as to bring the leaves close
+together in the form of a cluster, as in the primrose, auricula or
+hyacinth, it is termed a _scape_. The floral axis may be shortened,
+assuming a flattened, convex or concave form, and bearing numerous
+flowers, as in the artichoke, daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis
+sometimes appears as if formed by several peduncles united together,
+constituting a fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb, in which the flowers
+form a peculiar crest at the apex of the flattened peduncles. Adhesions
+occasionally take place between the peduncle and the bracts or leaves of
+the plant, as in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The adhesion of the peduncles
+to the stem accounts for the extra-axillary position of flowers, as in
+many Solanaceae. When this union extends for a considerable length along
+the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where the
+peduncle becomes free and the leaf whence it originated, and it may be
+difficult to trace the connexion. The peduncle occasionally becomes
+abortive, and in place of bearing a flower, is transformed into a
+tendril; at other times it is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently to
+form the lower part of the outer whorl of floral leaves as in
+_Eschscholtzia_. The termination of the peduncle, or the part on which
+the whorls of the flower are arranged, is called the _thalamus_, _torus_
+or _receptacle_.
+
+[Illustration: (From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by
+permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.)
+
+FIG. 7.--Inflorescence of the Lime (_Tilia platyphyllos_) (nat. size).
+
+  a, Branch.
+
+  b, Petiole with axillary bud. Attached to the peduncle is the bract
+  (h).
+
+  k, Calyx.
+
+  c, Corolla.
+
+  s, Stamens.
+
+  f, Ovary.
+
+  kn, Flower-bud.]
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 8.--Raceme of _Linaria striata_. d, bract.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Head of flowers (capitulum) of _Scabiosa
+atropurpurea_. The inflorescence is simple and indeterminate, and the
+expansion of the flowers centripetal, those at the circumference opening
+first.]
+
+
+  Inflorescence.
+
+There are two distinct types of inflorescence--one in which the flowers
+arise as lateral shoots from a primary axis, which goes on elongating,
+and the lateral shoots never exceed in their development the length of
+the primary axis beyond their point of origin. The flowers are thus
+always _axillary_. Exceptions, such as in cruciferous plants, are due to
+the non-appearance of the bracts. In the other type the primary axis
+terminates in a single flower, but lateral axes are given off from the
+axils of the bracts, which again repeat the primary axis; the
+development of each lateral axis is stronger than that of the primary
+axis beyond its point of origin. The flowers produced in this
+inflorescence are thus _terminal_. The first kind of inflorescence is
+_indeterminate_, _indefinite_ or _axillary_. Here the axis is either
+elongated, producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first
+(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers expand
+first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus _centripetal_, that
+is, from base to apex, or from circumference to centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing
+determinate inflorescence.]
+
+The second kind of inflorescence is _determinate_, _definite_ or
+_terminal_. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary
+flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are
+produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the
+axis is shortened and flattened, producing a number of separate floral
+axes, the central one expanding first, while the others are developed in
+succession farther from the centre. The expansion of the flowers is in
+this case _centrifugal_, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to
+circumference. It is illustrated in fig. 10, _Ranunculus bulbosus_; a'
+is the primary axis swollen at the base in a bulb-like manner b, and
+with roots proceeding from it. From the leaves which are radical
+proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal flower f'. About the
+middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from which a secondary
+floral axis a" is produced, ending in a single flower f", less advanced
+than the flower f'. This secondary axis bears a leaf also, from which a
+tertiary floral axis a"' is produced, bearing an unexpanded solitary
+flower f"'. From this tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of
+formation. Here f' is the termination of the primary axis, and this
+flower expands first, while the other flowers are developed
+centrifugally on separate axes.
+
+A third series of inflorescences, termed _mixed_, may be recognized. In
+them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging to the opposite type
+from that of the branches, or vice versa. According to the mode and
+degree of development of the lateral shoots and also of the bracts,
+various forms of both inflorescences result.
+
+Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral shoot
+produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant ends in
+a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, as in
+_Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca minor_ and _Lysimachia nemorum_. The
+flower in this case is _solitary_, and the ordinary leaves become bracts
+by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their number, like that
+of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, varying with the vigour
+of the plant. Usually, however, the floral axis, arising from a more or
+less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending in a solitary flower, is
+prolonged, and bears numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles
+are produced, and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar
+way. Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very
+complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary peduncle or
+floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off pedicels, ending
+in single flowers, a _raceme_ is produced, as in currant, hyacinth and
+barberry. If the secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the
+raceme is branching, and forms a _panicle_, as in _Yucca gloriosa_. If
+in a raceme the lower flower-stalks are developed more strongly than the
+upper, and thus all the flowers are nearly on a level, a _corymb_ is
+formed, which may be simple, as in fig. 11, where the primary axis a'
+gives off secondary axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or
+branching, where the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are
+very short or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a _spike_ is
+produced, as in _Plantago_ and vervain (_Verbena officinalis_) (fig.
+12). If the spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig.
+13), it is an _amentum_ or _catkin_, hence such trees are called
+_amentiferous_; at other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous
+flowers, surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it
+constitutes a _spadix_, which may be simple, as in _Arum maculatum_
+(fig. 14), or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers
+only, and covered with scales, is a _strobilus_, as in the hop. In
+grasses there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small
+spikes, called _locustae_ or _spikelets_, which are either set closely
+along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by the
+branching of the central one; to the latter form the term panicle is
+applied.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 11.--Corymb of _Cerasus Mahaleb_, terminating an abortive branch,
+at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales, e. a',
+Primary axis; a", secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract in the axils
+of which the secondary axes arise.
+
+FIG. 12.--Spike of Vervain (_Verbena officinalis_), showing sessile
+flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the spike
+have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full bloom, and
+those at the top are only in bud.
+
+FIG. 13.--Amentum or catkin of Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), consisting of
+an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales, each of
+which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting
+beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating from the
+branch by an articulation.]
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 14.--Spadix of _Arum maculatum_. (After Wossidlo.) a, Female
+flowers; b, male flowers; c, hairs representing sterile flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Compound umbel of Common Dill (_Anethum
+graveolens_), having a primary umbel a, and secondary umbels b, without
+either involucre or involucel.]
+
+If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, it
+gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the axis is
+so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common point, and
+spread out as _radii_ of nearly equal length, each ending in a single
+flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, an _umbel_ is
+produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral axis a the secondary
+axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like manner, and end in small
+umbels b, which are called _partial umbels_ or _umbellules_. This
+inflorescence is seen in hemlock and other allied plants, which are
+hence called umbelliferous. If there are numerous flowers on a
+flattened, convex or slightly concave receptacle, having either very
+short pedicels or none, a _capitulum_ (head) is formed, as in
+dandelion, daisy and other composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious
+(fig. 9) and teazel. In the American button-bush the heads are globular,
+in some species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite
+plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold, they
+are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly hollowed, or
+convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle be developed upwards,
+the centre not developing, a concave receptacle is formed, which may
+partially or completely enclose a number of flowers that are generally
+unisexual. This gives rise to the peculiar inflorescence of _Dorstenia_,
+or to that of the fig (fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the
+inner surface of the hollow receptacle, and are provided with
+bracteoles. This inflorescence has been called a _hypanthodium_.
+
+Lastly, we have what are called _compound indefinite_ inflorescences. In
+these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally upon the primary
+axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which floral shoots arise which may
+have a centripetal arrangement similar to that on the mother shoot, or
+it may be different. Thus we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a
+racemose manner on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or
+compound raceme, as in _Astilbe_. In the same way we may have compound
+umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound spike,
+as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound
+capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens daisy. Again, there may be a
+raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a racemose
+manner, as in _Petasites_, a raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all
+the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition. In
+_Eryngium_ the shortening of the pedicels changes an umbel into a
+capitulum.
+
+The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is seen in
+_Anemone nemorosa_ and in gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_), where the
+axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers being produced upon
+the plant. This is a _solitary terminal_ inflorescence. If other flowers
+were produced, they would arise as lateral shoots from the bracts below
+the first-formed flower. The general name of _cyme_ is applied to the
+arrangement of a group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A
+_cymose_ inflorescence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis
+before terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral
+axes which repeat the process--the development being only limited by the
+vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus centrifugally developed.
+The cyme, according to its development, has been characterized as
+_biparous_ or _uniparous_. In fig. 16 the biparous cyme is represented
+in the flowering branch of _Cerastium_. Here the primary axis t ends in
+a flower, which has passed into the state of fruit. At its base two
+leaves are produced, in each of which arise secondary axes t' t', ending
+in single flowers, and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite
+leaves is produced, giving rise to tertiary axes t" t", ending in single
+flowers, and so on. The term _dichasium_ has also been applied to this
+form of cyme.
+
+In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial form of
+inflorescence is very general. In some members of the order, as
+_Dianthus barbatus_, _D. carthusianorum_, &c., in which the peduncles
+are short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal
+expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a contracted dichasium, and
+receives the name of _fascicle_. When the axes become very much
+shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the
+nature of the inflorescence can only be recognized by the order of
+opening of the flowers. In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle
+(_Lamium_), the flowers are produced in the axil of each of the foliage
+leaves of the plant, and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of
+flowers. But on examination it is found that there is a central flower
+expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring bearing
+solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal. The inflorescence
+is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers being sessile, or
+nearly so, and the clusters are called _verticillasters_ (fig. 17).
+Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium, owing to the
+exhaustion of the growing power of the plant, only one of the bracts
+gives origin to a new axis, the other remaining empty; thus the
+inflorescence becomes unilateral, and further development is arrested.
+In addition to the dichasial form there are others where more than two
+lateral axes are produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in
+turn produces numerous axes. To this form the terms _trichasial_ and
+_polychasial cyme_ have been applied; but these are now usually
+designated _cymose umbels_. They are well seen in some species of
+_Euphorbia_. Another term, _anthela_, has been used to distinguish such
+forms as occur in several species of _Luzula_ and _Juncus_, where
+numerous lateral axes arising from the primary axis grow very strongly
+and develop in an irregular manner.
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 16.--Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of _Cerastium collinum_;
+t-t"", successive axes. (After Duchartre.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle
+(_Lamium album_). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant,
+and produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called
+verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a
+centrifugal manner.]
+
+In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively developed
+one from the other, but the axis of each successive generation, instead
+of producing a pair of bracts, produces only one. The basal portion of
+the consecutive axes may become much thickened and arranged more or less
+in a straight line, and thus collectively form an apparent or false
+axis or _sympodium_, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In
+the true raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in
+succession a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as
+lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the floral
+axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but in the
+uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal portions of
+which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the opposite side of
+the axis to the bract from which it apparently arises (fig. 18). The
+bract is not, however, the one from which the axis terminating in the
+flower arises, but is a bract produced upon it, and gives origin in its
+axil to a new axis, the basal portion of which, constituting the next
+part of the false axis, occupies the angle between this bract and its
+parent axis--the bract from which the axis really does arise being
+situated lower down upon the same side of the axis with itself. The
+uniparous cyme presents two forms, the _scorpioid_ or _cicinal_ and the
+_helicoid_ or _bostrychoid_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 18.--Helicoid cyme of a species of _Alstroemeria_. a1, a2, a3, a4,
+&c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the
+corresponding bracts b2, b3, b4, &c., and ending in a flower f2, f3, f4,
+&c. The whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the
+internodes.
+
+FIG. 19.--Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (_Myosotis
+palustris_).
+
+FIG. 20.--Diagram of definite floral axes a, b, c, d, e, &c.
+
+FIG. 21.--Flowering stalk of Ragwort (_Senecio_). The flowers are in
+heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an
+indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other hand,
+taken collectively, expand centrifugally--the central one a first.]
+
+In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a double
+row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts when
+developed forming a second double row on the opposite side; the whole
+inflorescence usually curves on itself like a scorpion's tail, hence its
+name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic sketch of this arrangement. The
+false axis, a b c d, is formed by successive generations of unifloral
+axes, the flowers being arranged along one side alternately and in a
+double row; had the bracts been developed they would have formed a
+similar double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole
+inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence in
+the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid cymes.
+
+In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal
+portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in a double
+row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix round the false
+axis. In _Alstroemeria_, as represented in fig. 18, the axis a1 ends in
+a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. From the axil of this
+leaf, that is, between it and the primary axis a1 arises a secondary
+axis a2, ending in a flower f2, and producing a leaf about the middle.
+From the axil of this leaf a tertiary floral axis a3, ending in a flower
+f3, takes origin. In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows
+along one side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals,
+so as to form an elongated spiral round it.
+
+Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, but in
+_Streptocarpus polyanthus_ and in several calceolarias we probably have
+examples. Here there are _scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers_, each
+pair consisting of an older and a younger flower.
+
+
+  Mixed inflorescence.
+
+Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite and indefinite
+types are represented--_mixed_ inflorescences. Thus in Composite plants,
+such as hawk weeds (_Hieracia_) and ragworts (_Senecio_, fig. 21), the
+_heads_ of flowers, taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the
+terminal head first, while the _florets_, or small flowers on the
+receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference first. So
+also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (_Lamium_), the different whorls
+of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while the florets of the
+verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed character presents
+difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where the leaves, in place of
+retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and thus might lead to the
+supposition of the whole series of flowers being one inflorescence. In
+such cases the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled,
+according to circumstances. In _Saxifraga umbrosa_ (London-pride) and in
+the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; in
+sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a
+glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of dichasial cymes; a
+scorpioid cyme of capitula in _Vernonia scorpioides_. The so-called
+catkins of the birch are, in reality, spikes of contracted dichasial
+cymes. In the bell-flower (_Campanula_) there is a racemose uniparous
+cyme. In the privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_) there are numerous racemes of
+dichasia arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole
+inflorescence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and
+has been called a _thyrsus_.
+
+  TABULAR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCES
+
+  A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.
+      I. Flowers solitary, axillary. _Vinca_, _Veronica hederifolia_.
+     II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.
+           1. Elongated form (Raceme), _Hyacinth_, _Laburnum_, _Currant_.
+                (Corymb), _Ornithogalum_.
+           2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), _Cowslip_,
+                _Astrantia_.
+    III. Flowers in groups, sessile.
+           1. Elongated form (Spike), _Plantago_.
+                    (Spikelet), _Grasses_.
+                    (Amentum, Catkin), _Willow_, _Hazel_.
+                    (Spadix) _Arum_, some _Palms_.
+                    (Strobilus), _Hop_.
+           2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), _Daisy_,
+                _Dandelion_, _Scabious_.
+     IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.
+           a. Compound Spike, _Rye-grass_.
+           b. Compound Spadix, _Palms_.
+           c. Compound Raceme, _Astilbe_.
+           d. Compound Umbel, _Hemlock_ and most _Umbelliferae_.
+           e. Raceme of Capitula, _Petasites_.
+           f. Raceme of Umbels, _Ivy_.
+  B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.
+      I. Flowers solitary, terminal. _Gentianella_, _Tulip_.
+     II. Flowers in Cymes.
+           1. Uniparous Cyme.
+                a. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).
+                    Elongated form, _Alstromeria_.
+                    Contracted form, _Witsenia corymbosa_.
+
+                b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows).
+                    Elongated form, _Forget-me-not_, _Symphytum_,
+                    _Henbane_.
+                   Contracted form, _Erodium_, _Alchemilla arvensis_.
+           2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5 chotomous
+                Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).
+                a. Elongated form, _Cerastium_, _Stellaria_.
+                b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), _Dead-nettle_,
+                     _Pelargonium_.
+           3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. _Streptocarpus
+                polyanthus_, many _Calceolarias_.
+  C. Mixed Inflorescence.
+              Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, _Horse-chestnut_.
+              Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, _Vernonia scorpioides_.
+              Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, _Laurustinus_.
+              Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus),
+                 _Sea-pink_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 22.--Flower of _Sedum rubens_. s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c,
+carpels.
+
+FIG. 23.--Diagram of a completely symmetrical flower, consisting of four
+whorls, each of five parts, s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c,
+carpels.
+
+FIG. 24.--Monochlamydeous (apetalous) flower of Goosefoot
+(_Chenopodium_), consisting of a single perianth (calyx) of five parts,
+enclosing five stamens, which are opposite the divisions of the
+perianth, owing to the absence of the petals.
+
+FIG. 25.--Stamen, consisting of a filament (stalk) f and an anther a,
+containing the pollen p, which is discharged through slits in the two
+lobes of the anther.
+
+FIG. 26.--The pistil of Tobacco (_Nicotiana Tabacum_), consisting of the
+ovary o, containing ovules, the style s, and the capitate stigma g. The
+pistil is placed on the receptacle r, at the extremity of the peduncle.]
+
+
+  The flower.
+
+The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls (stamens
+and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes. The axis is
+usually very much contracted, no internodes being developed, and the
+portion bearing the floral leaves, termed the _thalamus_ or _torus_,
+frequently expands into a conical, flattened or hollowed expansion; at
+other times, though rarely, the internodes are developed and it is
+elongated. Upon this torus the parts of the flower are arranged in a
+crowded manner, usually forming a series of verticils, the parts of
+which alternate; but they are sometimes arranged spirally especially if
+the floral axis be elongated. In a typical flower, as in fig. 22, we
+recognize four distinct whorls of leaves: an outer whorl, the _calyx_ of
+_sepals_; within it, another whorl, the parts alternating with those of
+the outer whorl, the _corolla_ of _petals_; next a whorl of parts
+alternating with the parts of the corolla, the _androecium_ of
+_stamens_; and in the centre the _gynoecium_ of _carpels_. Fig. 23 is a
+diagrammatic representation of the arrangement of the parts of such a
+flower; it is known as a _floral diagram_. The flower is supposed to be
+cut transversely, and the parts of each whorl are distinguished by a
+different symbol. Of these whorls the two internal, forming the
+sporophylls, constitute the _essential_ organs of reproduction; the two
+outer whorls are the protective coverings or floral _envelopes_. The
+sepals are generally of a greenish colour; their function is mainly
+protective, shielding the more delicate internal organs before the
+flower opens. The petals are usually showy, and normally alternate with
+the sepals. Sometimes, as usually in monocotyledons, the calyx and
+corolla are similar; in such cases the term _perianth_, or _perigone_,
+is applied. Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily, hyacinth, we speak of the
+parts of the perianth, in place of calyx and corolla, although in these
+plants there is an outer whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner
+(corolla), of a similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of
+the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be _petaloid_,
+as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the appearance of sepals,
+then they are _sepaloid_, as in Juncaceae. In plants, as _Nymphaea
+alba_, where a spiral arrangement of the floral leaves occurs, it is not
+easy to say where the calyx ends and the corolla begins, as these two
+whorls pass insensibly into each other. When both calyx and corolla are
+present, the plants are _dichlamydeous_; when one only is present, the
+flower is termed _monochlamydeous_ or _apetalous_, having no petals
+(fig. 24). Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is _achlamydeous_,
+or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential organs,
+collectively termed the _androecium_, is composed of the
+microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or _stamens_. In their
+most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the _filament_ (fig.
+25, f), supporting at its summit the anther (a), consisting of the
+pollen-sacs which contain the powdery _pollen_ (p), the microspores,
+which is ultimately discharged therefrom. The _gynoecium_ or _pistil_ is
+the central portion of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It
+consists of one or more _carpels_ (megasporophylls), either separate
+(fig. 22, c) or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the
+pistil are the _ovary_ (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion
+enclosing the _ovules_ destined to become seeds, and the _stigma_ (g), a
+portion of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the
+pollen is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary,
+as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion called
+the _style_ (s). The androecium and gynoecium are not present in all
+flowers. When both are present the flower is hermaphrodite; and in
+descriptive botany such a flower is indicated by the symbol
+[female/male]. When only one of those organs is present the flower is
+_unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and is either male (_staminate_), [male] or
+female (_pistillate_), [female]. A flower then normally consists of the
+four series of leaves--calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium--and
+when these are all present the flower is _complete_. These are usually
+densely crowded upon the thalamus, but in some instances, after apical
+growth has ceased in the axis, an elongation of portions of the
+receptacle by intercalary growth occurs, by which changes in the
+position of the parts may be brought about. Thus in _Lychnis_ an
+elongation of the axis betwixt the calyx and the corolla takes place,
+and in this way they are separated by an interval. Again, in the
+passion-flower (_Passiflora_) the stamens are separated from the corolla
+by an elongated portion of the axis, which has consequently been termed
+the _androphore_, and in _Passiflora_ also, fraxinella (fig. 27),
+Capparidaceae, and some other plants, the ovary is raised upon a
+distinct stalk termed the _gynophore_; it is thus separated from the
+stamens, and is said to be _stipitate_. Usually the successive whorls of
+the flower, disposed from below upwards or from without inwards upon the
+floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or are a multiple of the
+same number of parts, those of one whorl alternating with those of the
+whorls next it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Calyx and pistil of Fraxinella (_Dictamnus
+Fraxinella_). The pistil consists of several carpels, which are elevated
+on a stalk or _gynophore_ prolonged from the receptacle.]
+
+In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or less convex,
+and the series of organs follow in regular succession, culminating in
+the carpels, in the formation of which the growth of the axis is closed
+(fig. 28). This arrangement is known as hypogynous, the other series
+(calyx, corolla and stamens) being beneath (_hypo-_) the gynoecium. In
+other cases, the apex of the growing point ceases to develop, and the
+parts below form a cup around it, from the rim of which the outer
+members of the flower are developed around (_peri-_) the carpels, which
+are formed from the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup.
+This arrangement is known as _perigynous_ (fig. 29). In many cases this
+is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over by the
+carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring from the edge of
+the receptacle which is immediately above the ovary (epigynous), hence
+the term epigyny (fig. 30).
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 28, 29 and 30.--Diagrams illustrating hypogyny,
+perigyny and epigyny of the flower. a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals;
+s, sepals.]
+
+
+  Symmetry of the flower.
+
+When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said to be
+_cyclic_, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts and are
+alternate it is _eucyclic_ (figs. 22, 23). In contrast to the cyclic
+flowers are those, as in Magnoliaceae, where the parts are in spirals
+(_acyclic_). Flowers which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at
+another, as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed _hemicyclic_. In spiral
+flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually
+there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to staminal
+parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs. 31, 32),
+although in some plants there is no such distinction, the parts being
+all petaloid, as in _Trollius_. Normally, the parts of successive whorls
+alternate; but in some cases we find the parts of one whorl opposite or
+_superposed_ to those of the next whorl. In some cases, as in the
+vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems to be the ordinary mode of
+development, but the superposition of the stamens on the sepals in many
+plants, as in the pink family, Caryophyllaceae, is due to the
+suppression or abortion of the whorl of petals, and this idea is borne
+out by the development, in some plants of the order, of the suppressed
+whorl. As a rule, whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on
+those of another we may suspect some abnormality.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission
+of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+FIGS. 31 and 32.--White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32, successive
+stages, a-f, in the transition from petals to stamens. (After
+Wossidlo.)]
+
+A flower is said to be _symmetrical_ when each of its whorls consists of
+an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any one whorl are
+multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical flower may have five
+sepals, five petals, five stamens and five carpels, or the number of any
+of these parts may be ten, twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a
+diagram of a symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl,
+alternating with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical
+flower of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten
+stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the staminal
+whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case the additional
+five parts form a second row alternating with the others. In the
+staminal whorl especially it is common to find additional rows. Fig. 34
+shows a symmetrical flower, with five parts in the three outer rows, and
+ten divisions in the inner. In this case it is the gynoecium which has
+an additional number of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with
+four divisions of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and
+four divisions of the pistil. In fig. 36 there are three parts in each
+whorl; and in fig. 37 there are three divisions of the calyx, corolla
+and pistil, and six stamens in two rows. In all these cases the flower
+is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons it is usual for the staminal whorl to
+be double, it rarely having more than two rows, whilst amongst
+dicotyledons there are often very numerous rows of stamens. The floral
+envelopes are rarely multiplied. Flowers in which the number of parts in
+each whorl is the same, are _isomerous_ (of equal number); when the
+number in some of the whorls is different, the flower is _anisomerous_
+(of unequal number). The pistillate whorl is very liable to changes. It
+frequently happens that when it is fully formed, the number of its parts
+is not in conformity with that of the other whorls. In such
+circumstances, however, a flower has been called symmetrical, provided
+the parts of the other whorls are normal,--the permanent state of the
+pistil not being taken into account in determining symmetry. Thus fig.
+38 shows a pentamerous symmetrical flower, with dimerous pistil.
+Symmetry, then, in botanical language, has reference to a certain
+definite numerical relation of parts. A flower in which the parts are
+arranged in twos is called _dimerous_; when the parts of the whorls are
+three, four or five, the flower is _trimerous_, _tetramerous_ or
+_pentamerous_, respectively. The symmetry which is most commonly met
+with is trimerous and pentamerous--the former occurring generally among
+monocotyledons, the latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous
+symmetry occur also among dicotyledons.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 33.--Diagrammatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of
+Stone-crop (_Sedum_), consisting of five sepals (s), five petals (p)
+alternating with the sepals, ten stamens (a) in two rows, and five
+carpels (c) containing ovules. The dark lines (d) on the outside of the
+carpels are glands.
+
+FIG. 34.--Diagram of the flower of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five
+sepals (s), five petals (p), five stamens (a), and five carpels (c),
+each of which is partially divided into two. The dots represent a whorl
+of stamens which has disappeared. It is pentamerous, complete,
+symmetrical and regular.
+
+FIG. 35.--Diagram of the flower of Heath (_Erica_), a regular
+tetramerous flower.
+
+FIG. 36.--Diagram of the trimerous symmetrical flower of Iris.
+
+FIG. 37.--Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary
+(_Fritillaria_).
+
+FIG. 38.--Diagram of the flower of Saxifrage (_Saxifraga
+tridactylites_). The calyx and corolla consist of five parts, the
+stamens are ten in two rows, while the pistil has only two parts
+developed.]
+
+The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation to the
+axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one sepal is next
+the axis, and is called _superior_ or _posterior_; another is next the
+bract, and is _inferior_ or _anterior_, and the other two are _lateral_;
+and certain terms are used to indicate that position. A plane passing
+through the anterior and posterior sepal and through the floral axis is
+termed the _median plane_ of the flower; a plane cutting it at right
+angles, and passing through the lateral sepals, is the _lateral plane_;
+whilst the planes which bisect the angles formed by the lateral and
+median planes are the _diagonal planes_, and in these flowers the petals
+which alternate with the sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Diagram of flower of Sweet-pea (_Lathyrus_),
+showing five sepals (s), two superior, one inferior, and two lateral;
+five petals (p), one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; ten
+stamens in two rows (a); and one carpel (c).
+
+FIG. 40.--Flower of Pea (_Pisum sativum_), showing a papilionaceous
+corolla, with one petal superior (st) called the standard (vexillum),
+two inferior (car) called the keel (carina), and two lateral (a) called
+wings (alae). The calyx is marked c.]
+
+In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the calyx of
+Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in the calyx of
+Leguminosae (fig. 39)--the reverse, by the law of alternation, being the
+case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom of the pea (figs. 39, 40),
+the odd petal (vexillum) st is superior, while the odd sepal is
+inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae one of the two carpels is
+posterior and the other anterior, whilst in Convolvulaceae the carpels
+are arranged laterally. Sometimes the twisting of a part makes a change
+in the position of other parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the
+ovary changes the position of the labellum.
+
+When the different members of each whorl are like in size and shape, the
+flower is said to be _regular_; while differences in the size and shape
+of the parts of a whorl make the flower _irregular_, as in the
+papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a flower can be
+divided by a single plane into two exactly similar parts; then it is
+said to be _zygomorphic_. Such flowers as Papilionaceae, Labiatae, are
+examples. In contrast with this are _polysymmetrical_ or actinomorphic
+flowers, which have a radial symmetry and can be divided by several
+planes into several exactly similar portions; such are all regular,
+symmetrical flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or
+some multiple of the others, then the flower is _asymmetrical_. This
+want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways. Alteration in the
+symmetrical arrangement as well as in the completeness and regularity of
+flowers has been traced to _suppression_ or the _non-development_ of
+parts, _degeneration_ or imperfect formation, _cohesion_ or union of
+parts of the same whorl, _adhesion_ or union of the parts of different
+whorls, _multiplication_ of parts, and _deduplication_ (sometimes called
+_chorisis_) or splitting of parts.
+
+By _suppression_ or non-appearance of a part at the place where it ought
+to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry or completeness of
+the flower is disturbed. This suppression when confined to the parts of
+certain verticils makes the flower asymmetrical. Thus, in many
+Caryophyllaceae, as _Polycarpon_ and _Holosteum_, while the calyx and
+corolla are pentamerous, there are only three or four stamens and three
+carpels; in _Impatiens Noli-me-tangere_ the calyx is composed of three
+parts, while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are
+five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and in
+_Tropaeolum pentaphyllum_ there are five sepals, two petals, eight
+stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of symmetry is
+traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the last-mentioned plant
+the normal number is five, hence it is said that there are three petals
+suppressed, as shown by the position of the two remaining ones; there
+are two rows of stamens, in each of which one is wanting; and there are
+two carpels suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards
+suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally
+some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower. By the
+suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the carpels, flowers
+become _unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and by the suppression of one or both
+of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous and achlamydeous flowers are
+produced. The suppression of parts of the flower may be carried so far
+that at last a flower consists of only one part of one whorl. In the
+Euphorbiaceae we have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of
+parts, where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to
+one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms where two
+of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which the calyx is
+suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or three bracts (so that
+the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), and only one or two
+stamens are produced. And finally, we find flowers consisting of a
+single stamen with a bract. There is thus traced a _degradation_, as it
+is called, from a flower with three stamens and three divisions of the
+calyx, to one with a single bract and a single stamen.
+
+_Degeneration_, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise either
+to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in form. In unisexual
+flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges of the undeveloped stamens
+in the form of filiform bodies or scales. In double flowers
+transformations of the stamens and pistils take place, so that they
+appear as petals. In _Canna_, what are called petals are in reality
+metamorphosed stamens. In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find
+the florets converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may
+appear as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae
+and _Valeriana_. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears as a
+scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in _Pentstemon_, it
+assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place of an
+anther.
+
+_Cohesion_, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and _adhesion_, or
+the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes of change
+both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in _Cucurbita_ the stamens are
+originally five in number, but subsequently some cohere, so that three
+stamens only are seen in the mature flower. Adhesion is well seen in the
+_gynostemium_ of orchids, where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In
+Capparidaceae the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the
+axis is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens are
+united.
+
+_Multiplication_, or an increase of the number of parts, gives rise to
+changes. We have already alluded to the interposition of new members in
+a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the staminal whorl, but usually the
+additional parts produced form a symmetrical whorl with the others. In
+some instances, however, this is not the case. Thus in the
+horse-chestnut there is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven
+stamens are formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.
+
+Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of _deduplication_,
+or _chorisis_, i.e. the splitting of a part so that two or more parts
+are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous plants
+the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens and two short ones
+(_tetradynamous_). The symmetry in the flower is evidently dimerous, and
+the abnormality in the androecium, where the four long stamens are
+opposite the posterior sepals, takes place by a splitting, at a very
+early stage of development, of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases
+of what was considered chorisis are in reality due to the development of
+stipules from the staminal leaf. Thus in _Dicentra_ and _Corydalis_
+there are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle
+alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther, and
+are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching of stamens
+also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus, in the so-called
+polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there are really only five stamens
+which give off numerous branches, but the basal portion remaining short,
+the branches have the appearance of separate stamens, and the flower
+thus seems asymmetrical.
+
+_Cultivation_ has a great effect in causing changes in the various parts
+of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and adhesion of parts
+are due to the art of the horticulturist. The changes in the colour and
+forms of flowers thus produced are endless. In the dahlia the florets
+are rendered quilled, and are made to assume many glowing colours. In
+pelargonium the flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and
+such is also the case with the _Ranunculus_, the auricula and the
+carnation. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state, as
+columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and others, as
+_Linaria_, in which one petal only is usually spurred, are altered so as
+to have all the petals spurred, and to present what are called
+_pelorian_ varieties.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 41.--Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the Nettle
+(_Urtica_).
+
+FIG. 42.--Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in
+which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.
+
+FIG. 43.--Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned
+inwards at the edges.]
+
+As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the parts of the
+flower, _floral formulae_ have been devised. Several modes of expression
+are employed. The following is a very simple mode which has been
+proposed:--The several whorls are represented by the letters S (sepals),
+P (petals), St (stamens), C (carpels), and a figure marked after each
+indicates the number of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S5P5St5C5
+means that the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the
+whorls being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would
+be represented by the formula S5P5St_(5+5)C5, where St_(5+5) indicates
+that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each. A
+flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be
+expressed S4P0St4C0. When no other mark is appended the whorls are
+supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark the position of
+the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus, to express the
+superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is drawn between them,
+e.g. the symbol S5P5 | St5C5 is the formula of the flower of
+Primulaceae.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 44.--Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned
+outwards at the edges.
+
+FIG. 45.--Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in
+which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, and
+are twisted on their axis.
+
+FIG. 46.--Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in which
+the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that 1 and 2
+are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly external and
+partly overlapped by 1.]
+
+The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud with
+respect to each other before opening is the _aestivation_ or
+_praefloration_. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud in the
+same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive names have
+been given to the different arrangements exhibited, both by the leaves
+individually and in their relations to each other. As regards each leaf
+of the flower, it is either spread out, as the sepals in the bud of the
+lime-tree, or folded upon itself (conduplicate), as in the petals of
+some species of _Lysimachia_, or slightly folded inwards or outwards at
+the edges, as in the calyx of some species of clematis and of some
+herbaceous plants, or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or
+folded transversely, becoming _crumpled_ or _corrugated_, as in the
+poppy. When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are
+applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping or being
+folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel, the aestivation is
+_valvate_ (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts may be turned either
+inwards or outwards; in the former case the aestivation is _induplicate_
+(fig. 43), in the latter case _reduplicate_ (fig. 44). When the parts of
+a single whorl are placed in a circle, each of them exhibiting a torsion
+of its axis, so that by one of its sides it overlaps its neighbour,
+whilst its side is overlapped in like manner by that standing next to
+it, the aestivation is _twisted_ or _contorted_ (fig. 45). This
+arrangement is characteristic of the flower-buds of Malvaceae and
+Apocynaceae, and it is also seen in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae.
+When the flower expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but
+sometimes, as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation
+are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under
+_circular_ aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different
+arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of _Camellia japonica_ cover
+each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation is
+_imbricate_. At other times, as in the petals of _Camellia_, the parts
+envelop each other completely, so as to become _convolute_. This is also
+seen in a transverse section of the calyx of _Magnolia grandiflora_,
+where each of the three leaves embraces that within it. When the parts
+of a whorl are five, as occurs in many dicotyledons, and the imbrication
+is such that there are two parts external, two internal, and a fifth
+which partially covers one of the internal parts by its margin, and is
+in its turn partially covered by one of the external parts, the
+aestivation is _quincuncial_ (fig. 46). This quincunx is common in the
+corolla of Rosaceae. In fig. 47 a section is given of the bud of
+_Antirrhinum majus_, showing the imbricate spiral arrangement. In this
+case it will be seen that the part marked 5 has, by a slight change in
+position, become overlapped by 1. This variety of imbricate aestivation
+has been termed _cochlear_. In flowers such as those of the pea (fig.
+40), one of the parts, the vexillum, is often large and folded over the
+others, giving rise to _vexillary_ aestivation (fig. 48), or the carina
+may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is _carinal_, as
+in the Judas-tree (_Cercis Siliquastrum_). The parts of the several
+verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation. Thus, in Malvaceae
+the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate, or reduplicate; in St
+John's-wort the calyx is imbricate, and the corolla contorted. In
+Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is twisted, and has its parts arranged
+in a circle, the calyx is imbricate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement.
+In _Guazuma_ the calyx is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The
+circular aestivation is generally associated with a regular calyx and
+corolla, while the spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as
+well as with regular forms.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 47.--Diagram to illustrate imbricated aestivation, in which the
+parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, following the order indicated by
+the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
+
+FIG. 48.--Diagram of a papilionaceous flower, showing vexillary
+aestivation.
+
+  1 and 2, The alae or wings.
+
+  3, A part of the carina or keel.
+
+  4, The vexillum or standard, which, in place of being internal, as
+  marked by the dotted line, becomes external.
+
+  5, The remaining part of the keel.
+
+  The order of the cycle is indicated by the figures.]
+
+
+  Calyx.
+
+The _sepals_ are sometimes _free_ or separate from each other, at other
+times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the former case,
+the calyx is _polysepalous_, in the latter _gamosepalous_ or
+_monosepalous_. The divisions of the calyx present usually the
+characters of leaves, and in some cases of monstrosity they are
+converted into leaf-like organs, as not infrequently happens in
+primulas. They are usually entire, but occasionally they are cut in
+various ways, as in the rose; they are rarely stalked. Sepals are
+generally of a more or less oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their
+apices either blunt or acute. In their direction they are erect or
+reflexed (with their apices downwards), spreading outwards (_divergent_
+or _patulous_), or arched inwards (_connivent_). They are usually of a
+greenish colour (_herbaceous_); but sometimes they are coloured or
+_petaloid_, as in the fuchsia, tropaeolum, globe-flower and pomegranate.
+Whatever be its colour, the external envelope of the flower is
+considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles sometimes form a prominent
+rib, which indicates the middle of the sepal; at other times they form
+several ribs. The venation is useful as pointing out the number of
+leaves which constitute a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx
+the number of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus, a
+calyx which has three sepals is _trisepalous_; one with five sepals is
+_pentasepalous_. The sepals occasionally are of different forms and
+sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet (_galeate_). In a
+gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in various ways, sometimes very
+slightly, and their number is marked by the divisions at the apex. These
+divisions either are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse
+teeth (fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about
+half-way, the calyx being _trifid_ (three-cleft), _quinquefid_
+(five-cleft), &c., according to their number; or they reach to near the
+base in the form of partitions, the calyx being _tripartite_,
+_quadripartite_, _quinquepartite_, &c. The union of the parts may be
+complete, and the calyx may be quite entire or _truncate_, as in some
+Correas, the venation being the chief indication of the different parts.
+The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a greater
+extent than others; thus a two-lipped or _labiate_ calyx is formed. The
+upper lip is often composed of three parts, which are thus posterior or
+next the axis, while the lower has two, which are anterior. The part
+formed by the union of the sepals is called the _tube_ of the calyx; the
+portion where the sepals are free is the _limb_.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 49.--Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (_Lychnis_).
+
+FIG. 50.--Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (_Rubia_) adherent to the pistil,
+in the form of a rim.
+
+FIG. 51.--Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel (_Senecio
+vulgaris_).
+
+FIG. 52.--Caducous calyx (c) of Poppy. There are two sepals which fall
+off before the petals expand.
+
+FIG. 53.--Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent
+calyx (s), surrounding the berry (fr), derived from the ovary. (After
+Duchartre.)]
+
+Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked enlargement. In
+the violet the calycine segments are prolonged downwards beyond their
+insertions, and in the Indian cress (_Tropaeolum_) this prolongation is
+in the form of a spur (_calcar_), formed by three sepals; in Delphinium
+it is formed by one. In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is
+adherent to the flower-stalk. In _Potentilla_ and allied genera an
+_epicalyx_ is formed by the development of stipules from the sepals,
+which form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with
+the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the bracteoles.
+Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it becomes dry, scaly and
+glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), as in the rushes (Juncaceae);
+hairy, as in Compositae; or a mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and
+Acanthaceae, and in Madder (_Rubia tinctorum_, fig. 50), when it is
+called _obsolete_ or _marginate_. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and
+Valerianaceae the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is
+developed in the form of hairs called _pappus_ (fig. 51). This pappus is
+either simple (_pilose_) or feathery (_plumose_). In _Valeriana_ the
+superior calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it
+is shown to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft
+the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower expands, as
+in poppies, and is _caducous_ (fig. 52); or along with the corolla, as
+in _Ranunculus_, and is _deciduous_; or it remains after flowering
+(_persistent_) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, and Boraginaceae; or
+its base only is persistent, as in _Datura Stramonium_. In
+_Eschscholtzia_ and _Eucalyptus_ the sepals remain united at the upper
+part, and become disarticulated at the base or middle, so as to come off
+in the form of a lid or funnel. Such a calyx is _operculate_ or
+_calyptrate_. The existence or non-existence of an articulation
+determines the deciduous or persistent nature of the calyx.
+
+The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the pistil, and
+enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the apple, pear, &c.
+In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at the apex. Sometimes a
+persistent calyx increases much after flowering, and encloses the fruit
+without being incorporated with it, becoming _accrescent_, as in various
+species of _Physalis_ (fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered
+or _marcescent_ form, as in _Erica_; sometimes it becomes _inflated_ or
+_vesicular_, as in sea campion (_Silene maritima_).
+
+
+  Corolla.
+
+The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral
+envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present in the
+greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ more from ordinary leaves
+than sepals do, and are much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl.
+In some cases, however, they are transformed into leaves, like the
+calyx, and occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil They are
+seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as in some
+species of _Cobaea_, _Hoya viridiflora_, _Gonolobus viridiflorus_ and
+_Pentatropis spiralis_. As a rule they are highly coloured, the
+colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue or red
+flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow flowers,
+or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish flowers. The
+attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or in part to surface
+markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a pelargonium, when viewed
+with a ½ or ¼-in. object-glass, shows beautiful hexagons, the boundaries
+of which are ornamented with several inflected loops in the sides of the
+cells.
+
+Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some instances, hairs
+are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs, though sparse and
+scattered, present occasionally the same arrangement as those which
+occur on the leaves; thus, in Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured
+hairs are seen on the petals of _Menyanthes_, and on the segments of the
+perianth of _Iris_. They serve various purposes in the economy of the
+flower, often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower
+to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of
+pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate in their
+texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy, as in _Stapelia_ and
+_Rafflesia_; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and stiff, as in _Xylopia_. A
+petal often consists of two portions--the lower narrow, resembling the
+petiole of a leaf, and called the _unguis_ or _claw_; the upper broader,
+like the blade of a leaf, and called the _lamina_ or _limb_. These parts
+are seen in the petals of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often
+wanting, as in the crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are
+then _sessile_. According to the development of veins and the growth of
+cellular tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves.
+Thus the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These
+teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the petal
+becomes _fimbriated_, as in the pink; or _laciniated_, as in _Lychnis
+Flos-cuculi_; or _crested_, as in _Polygala_. Sometimes the petal
+becomes pinnatifid, as in _Schizopetalum_. The median vein is
+occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in the form of a
+long process, as in _Strophanthus hispidus_, where it extends for 7 in.;
+or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards or inflexed, as in
+Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches the base. The limb of the
+petal may be flat or concave, or hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the
+petals become folded in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in
+aconite (fig. 58) some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn,
+supported on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57),
+snapdragon and _Centranthus_, one or all of them are prolonged in the
+form of a spur, and are _calcarate_. In _Valeriana_, _Antirrhinum_ and
+_Corydalis_, the spur is very short, and the corolla or petal is said to
+be _gibbous_, or _saccate_, at the base. These spurs, tubes and sacs
+serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing of nectar.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 54.--Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus
+Cheiri_). c, The claw or unguis; l, the blade or lamina.
+
+FIG. 55.--Petal of Crowfoot (_Ranunculus_), without a claw, and thus
+resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous
+scale is seen.
+
+FIG. 56.--Tubular petal of Hellebore (_Helleborus_).
+
+FIG. 57.--Pansy (_Viola tricolor_). Longitudinal section of flower; v,
+bracteole on the peduncle; l, sepals; ls, appendage of sepal; c, petals;
+cs, spur of the lower petals; fs, glandular appendage of the lower
+stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.)
+
+(From Vines' Students' _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan
+Sonnenschein & Co.)
+
+FIG. 58.--Part of the flower of Aconite (_Aconitum Napellus_), showing
+two irregular horn-like petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o).
+These serve as nectaries, s, the whorl of stamens inserted on the
+thalamus and surrounding the pistil.]
+
+A corolla is _dipetalous_, _tripetalous_, _tetrapetalous_ or
+_pentapetalous_ according as it has two, three, four or five separate
+petals. The general name of _polypetalous_ is given to corollas having
+separate petals, while _monopetalous_, _gamopetalous_ or _sympetalous_
+is applied to those in which the petals are united. This union generally
+takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the apex; in
+_Phyteuma_ the petals are united at their apices also. In some
+polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are separate at
+the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals are equal as regards
+their development and size, the corolla is _regular_; when unequal, it
+is _irregular_. When a corolla is gamopetalous it usually happens that
+the lower portion forms a tube, while the upper parts are either free or
+partially united, so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the
+two portions being the _throat_, which often exhibits a distinct
+constriction or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla
+can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth,
+crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the
+corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal among the
+parts, or some may unite more than others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Rosaceous corolla (c) of the Strawberry
+(_Fragaria vesca_), composed of five petals without claws.]
+
+Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the _rosaceous_
+corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading petals, having no
+claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry and _Potentilla_; the
+_caryophyllaceous_ corolla, in which there are five petals with long,
+narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the pink tribe; the _cruciform_,
+having four petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite in the form of a
+cross, as seen in wallflower, and in other plants called _cruciferous_.
+Of irregular polypetalous corollas the most marked is the
+_papilionaceous_ (fig. 40), in which there are five petals:--one
+superior (posterior), st, placed next to the axis, usually larger than
+the rest, called the _vexillum_ or _standard_; two lateral, a, the
+_alae_ or wings; two inferior (anterior), partially or completely
+covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their lower margins,
+so as to form a single keel-like piece, _car_, called _carina_, or keel,
+which embraces the essential organs. This form of corolla is
+characteristic of British leguminous plants.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 60.--Flower of _Campanula medium_; d, bract; v, bracteoles.]
+
+Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes _campanulate_ or
+_bell-shaped_, as in (_Campanula_) (fig. 60); _infundibuliform_ or
+_funnel-shaped_, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the limb
+becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; _hypocrateriform_ or
+_salver-shaped_, when there is a straight tube surmounted by a flat
+spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); _tubular_, having a long
+cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the limb, as in _Spigelia_
+and comfrey; _rotate_ or _wheel-shaped_, when the tube is very short,
+and the limb flat and spreading, as in forget-me-not, _Myosotis_ (when
+the divisions of the rotate corolla are very acute, as in _Galium_, it
+is sometimes called _stellate_ or _star-like_); _urceolate_ or
+_urn-shaped_, when there is scarcely any limb, and the tube is narrow at
+both ends, and expanded in the middle, as in bell-heath (_Erica
+cinerea_). Some of these forms may become irregular in consequence of
+certain parts being more developed than others. Thus, in _Veronica_, the
+rotate corolla has one division much smaller than the rest, and in
+foxglove (_Digitalis_) there is a slightly irregular companulate
+corolla. Of irregular gamopetalous corollas there may be mentioned the
+_labiate_ or _lipped_ (fig. 62), having two divisions of the limb in the
+form of lips (the upper one, u, composed usually of two united petals,
+and the lower, l, of three), separated by a gap. In such cases the tube
+varies in length, and the parts in their union follow the reverse order
+of what occurs in the calyx, where two sepals are united in the lower
+lip and three in the upper. When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is
+much arched, and the lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called
+_ringent_ (fig. 62). The labiate corolla characterizes the natural order
+Labiatae. When the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to
+leave only a chink between them, the corolla is said to be _personate_,
+as in snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas the
+two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in calceolaria,
+assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what occurs in the
+labellum of some orchids, as _Cypripedium_. When a tubular corolla is
+split in such a way as to form a strap-like process on one side with
+several tooth-like projections at its apex, it becomes _ligulate_ or
+_strap-shaped_ (fig. 63). This corolla occurs in many composite plants,
+as in the florets of dandelion, daisy and chicory. The number of
+divisions at the apex indicates the number of united petals, some of
+which, however, may be abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become
+more united than others, and then the corolla assumes a _bilabiate_ or
+_two-lipped_ form, as seen in the division of Compositae called
+Labiatiflorae.
+
+Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole corolla is
+absent. In _Amorpha_ and _Afzelia_ the corolla is reduced to a single
+petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely wanting. In
+the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such as _Ranunculus_,
+globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and corolla, while others, such
+as clematis, anemone and _Caltha_, have only a coloured calyx. Flowers
+become double by the multiplication of the parts of the corolline whorl;
+this arises in general from a metamorphosis of the stamens.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 61.--Flower of cowslip (_Primula veris_) cut vertically. s, Sepals
+joined to form a gamosepalous calyx; c, corolla consisting of tube and
+spreading limb; a, stamens springing from the mouth of the tube; p,
+pistil.
+
+FIG. 62.--Irregular gamopetalous labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle
+(_Lamium album_). The upper lip u is composed of two petals united, the
+lower lip (l) of three. Between the two lips there is a gap. The throat
+is the part where the tube and the labiate limb join. From the arching
+of the upper lip this corolla is called ringent.
+
+FIG. 63.--Irregular gamopetalous ligulate flower of Ragwort (_Senecio_).
+It is a tubular floret, split down on one side, with the united petals
+forming a straplike projection. The lines on the flat portion indicate
+the divisions of the five petals. From the tubular portion below, the
+bifid style projects slightly.]
+
+Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which received
+in former days the name of _nectaries_. The term nectary was very
+vaguely applied by Linnaeus to any part of the flower which presented an
+unusual aspect, as the crown (_corona_) of narcissus, the fringes of the
+Passion-flower, &c. If the name is retained it ought properly to include
+only those parts which secrete a honey-like substance, as the glandular
+depression at the base of the perianth of the fritillary, or on the
+petal of _Ranunculus_ (fig. 55), or on the stamens of Rutaceae. The
+honey secreted by flowers attracts insects, which, by conveying the
+pollen to the stigma, effect fertilization. The horn-like nectaries
+under the galeate sepal of aconite (fig. 58) are modified petals, so
+also are the tubular nectaries of hellebore (fig. 56). Other
+modifications of some part of the flower, especially of the corolla and
+stamens, are produced either by degeneration or outgrowth, or by
+_chorisis_, or _deduplication_. Of this nature are the scales on the
+petals in _Lychnis_, _Silene_ and _Cynoglossum_, which are formed in the
+same way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus, the
+scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered stamens.
+In _Narcissus_ the appendages are united to form a crown, consisting of
+a membrane similar to that which unites the stamens in _Pancratium_. It
+is sometimes difficult to say whether these structures are to be
+referred to the corolline or to the staminal row.
+
+Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base. When this
+attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals fall off either
+immediately after expansion (_caducous_) or after fertilization
+(_deciduous_). A corolla which is continuous with the axis and not
+articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths, may be persistent, and
+remain in a withered or marcescent state while the fruit is ripening. A
+gamopetalous corolla falls off in one piece; but sometimes the base of
+the corolla remains persistent, as in _Rhinanthus_ and _Orobanche_.
+
+The _stamens_ and the _pistil_ are sometimes spoken of as the essential
+organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required in order that
+perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions the stamen
+represents a leaf which has been specially developed to bear the pollen
+or microspores, it is spoken of in comparative morphology as a
+microsporophyll; similarly the carpels which make up the pistil are the
+megasporophylls (see ANGIOSPERMS). _Hermaphrodite_ or _bisexual_ flowers
+are those in which both these organs are found; _unisexual_ or
+_diclinous_ are those in which only one of these organs appears,--those
+bearing stamens only, being _staminiferous_ or "male"; those having the
+pistil only, _pistilliferous_ or "female." But even in plants with
+hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided against by
+the structure of the parts or by the period of ripening of the organs.
+For instance, in _Primula_ and _Linum_ some flowers have long stamens
+and a pistil with a short style, the others having short stamens and a
+pistil with a long style. The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed
+primroses (fig. 61), the latter in the "pin-eyed." Such plants are
+called _dimorphic_. Other plants are _trimorphic_, as species of
+_Lythrum_, and proper fertilization is only effected by combination of
+parts of equal length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before
+the pistil; these are called _proterandrous_, as in _Ranunculus repens_,
+_Silene maritima_, _Zea Mays_. In other plants, but more rarely, the
+pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in _Potentilla argentea_,
+_Plantago major_, _Coix Lachryma_, and they are termed _proterogynous_.
+Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs are called
+_dichogamous_. When in the same plant there are unisexual flowers, both
+male and female, the plant is said to be _monoecious_, as in the hazel
+and castor-oil plant. When the male and female flowers of a species are
+found on separate plants, the term _dioecious_ is applied, as in
+_Mercurialis_ and hemp; and when a species has male, female and
+hermaphrodite flowers on the same or different plants, as in
+_Parietaria_, it is _polygamous_.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 64.--Flower of _Paeonia peregrina_, in longitudinal section. k,
+Sepal; c, petal; a, stamens; g, pistil. (½ nat. size.)]
+
+
+  Stamens.
+
+The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the petals, with
+which they generally alternate, forming one or more whorls, which
+collectively constitute the _androecium_. Their normal position is below
+the pistil, and when they are so placed (fig. 64, a) upon the thalamus
+they are hypogynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or
+are _epipetalous_, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar,
+so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent of the
+calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous or epigynous
+(fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur, especially amongst
+Saxifragaceae, where the parts are _half superior_ or _half inferior_.
+Where the stamens become adherent to the pistil so as to form a column,
+the flowers are said to be _gynandrous_, as in _Aristolochia_ (fig. 66).
+These arrangements of parts are of great importance in classification.
+The stamens vary in number from one to many hundreds. In acyclic flowers
+there is often a gradual transition from petals to stamens, as in the
+white water-lily (fig. 31). When flowers become double by cultivation,
+the stamens are converted into petals, as in the paeony, camellia, rose,
+&c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are usually equal in number
+to the sepals or petals, and are arranged opposite to the former, and
+alternate with the latter. The flower is then _isostemonous_. When the
+stamens are not equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is
+_anisostemonous_. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the
+parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl
+preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication of parts
+than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of stamens is
+_haplostemonous_. If the stamens are double the sepals or petals as
+regards number, the flower is _diplostemonous_; if more than double,
+_polystemonous_. The additional rows of stamens may be developed in the
+usual centripetal (acropetal) order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be
+interposed between the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e.
+develop centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the
+flower is said to be _obdiplostemonous_. When the stamens are fewer than
+twenty they are said to be _definite_; when above twenty they are
+_indefinite_, and are represented by the symbol [infinity]. The number
+of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the term
+_androus_; thus a flower with one stamen is _monandrous_, with two,
+three, four, five, six or many stamens, di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or
+polyandrous, respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Flower of Aralia in vertical section. c, Calyx;
+p, petal; e, stamen; s, stigmas. The calyx, petals and stamens spring
+from above the ovary (o) in which two chambers are shown each with a
+pendulous ovule; d, disc between the stamens and stigmas.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 66.--Flowers of _Aristolochia Clematitis_ cut through
+longitudinally. I. Young flower in which the stigma (N) is receptive and
+the stamens (S) have not yet opened; II. Older flower with the stamens
+(S) opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs on the corolla dried up.]
+
+The function of the stamen is the development and distribution of the
+pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted portion,
+often thread-like, termed the _filament_ (fig. 25 f), and a broader
+portion, usually of two lobes, termed the _anther_ (a), containing the
+powdery _pollen_ (p), and supported upon the end of the filament. That
+portion of the filament in contact with the anther-lobes is termed the
+_connective_. If the anther is absent the stamen is abortive, and cannot
+perform its functions. The anther is developed before the filament, and
+when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in the
+mistletoe.
+
+The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-like,
+and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit. It is often,
+however, thickened, compressed and flattened in various ways, becoming
+_petaloid_ in _Canna_, _Marania_, water-lily (fig. 32); _subulate_ or
+slightly broadened at the base and drawn out into a point like an awl,
+as in _Butomus umbellatus_; or clavate, that is, narrow below and broad
+above, as in _Thalictrum_. In some instances, as in _Tamarix gallica_,
+_Peganum Harmala_, and _Campanula_, the base of the filament is much
+dilated, and ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these
+cases the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in _Allium_
+and _Alyssum calycinum_. The filament varies much in length and in
+firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that of the pistil,
+and to the position of the flower, whether erect or drooping. The
+filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support the anther in an
+erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses, and other wind-pollinated
+flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like, so that the anther is
+pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is generally continuous from one end
+to the other, but in some cases it is bent or jointed, becoming
+_geniculate_; at other times, as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is
+colourless, or of different colours. Thus in fuchsia and _Poinciana_, it
+is red; in _Adamia_ and _Tradescantia virginica_, blue; in _Oenothera_
+and _Ranunculus acris_, yellow.
+
+Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are sometimes
+times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (_Tradescantia
+virginica_) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or
+necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation of the
+protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the thalamus or torus,
+and the stamens fall off after fertilization; but in _Campanula_ and
+some other plants they are continuous with the torus, and the stamens
+remain persistent, although in a withered state. Changes are produced in
+the whorl of stamens by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less
+extent, while the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the
+androecium may unite, forming a tube round the pistil, or a central
+bundle when the pistil is abortive, the stamens becoming _monadelphous_,
+as occurs in plants of the Mallow tribe; or they may be arranged in two
+bundles, the stamens being _diadelphous_, as in _Polygala_, _Fumaria_
+and Pea; in this case the bundles may be equal or unequal. It frequently
+happens, especially in Papilionaceous flowers, that out of ten stamens
+nine are united by their filaments, while one (the posterior one) is
+free (fig. 68). When there are three or more bundles the stamens are
+_triadelphous_, as in _Hypericum aegyptiacum_, or _polyadelphous_, as in
+_Ricinus communis_ (castor-oil). In some cases, as in papilionaceous
+flowers, the stamens cohere, having been originally separate, but in
+most cases each bundle is produced by the branching of a single stamen.
+When there are three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral
+ones as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect stamens,
+each having at the base of the filament two abortive stamens or
+staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules. Filaments sometimes are
+adherent to the pistil, forming a column (_gynostemium_), as in
+_Stylidium_, Asclepiadaceae, _Rafflesia_, and Aristolochiaceae (fig.
+66); the flowers are then termed _gynandrous_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened
+out. a, b, Barren glumes; c, fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower
+with its pale, d; the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bears long silky hairs.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 68.--Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_). The stamens are
+diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments (f), while one
+of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx.
+
+FIG. 69.--Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus_). ce,
+Exothecium; cf, endothecium; highly magnified.
+
+FIG. 70.--Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering Rush
+(_Butomus umbellatus_). The anther entire (a) with its filament; section
+of anther (b) showing the four loculi.]
+
+
+  The anther.
+
+The _anther_ consists of lobes containing the minute powdery pollen
+grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure or opening of
+some sort. There is a double covering of the anther--the outer, or
+_exothecium_, resembles the epidermis, and often presents stomata and
+projections of different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or _endothecium_,
+is formed by a layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the
+cells of which have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the
+wall. The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner
+towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears entirely.
+The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that when the anther
+attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and these by their
+elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The anther is developed
+before the filament, and is always sessile in the first instance, and
+sometimes continues so. It appears at first as a simple cellular papilla
+of meristem, upon which an indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon
+these projections the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen,
+usually four in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation
+takes place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer
+of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells. Those
+central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the
+small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium,
+the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.
+
+In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for each
+anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete it is a
+_quadrilocular_ or _tetrathecal_ anther (fig. 70). Sometimes, however,
+only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of the sacs in each
+lobe, in which case the anther is said to be _bilocular_ or _dithecal_.
+Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and becomes _unilocular_, or
+_monothecal_, or _dimidiate_, either by the disappearance of the
+partition between the two lobes, or by the abortion of one of its lobes,
+as in _Styphelia laeta_ and _Althaea officinalis_ (hollyhock).
+Occasionally there are numerous cavities in the anther, as in _Viscum_
+and _Rafflesia_. The form of the anther-lobes varies. They are generally
+of a more or less oval or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as
+in _Mercurialis annua_; at other times linear or clavate: curved,
+flexuose, or sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of
+union of the lobes and the unequal development of different parts of
+their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced. That part of the
+anther to which the filament is attached is the _back_, the opposite
+being the _face_. The division between the lobes is marked on the face
+of the anther by a groove or _furrow_, and there is usually on the face
+a _suture_, indicating the line of dehiscence. The suture is often
+towards one side in consequence of the valves being unequal. The stamens
+may cohere by their anthers, and become _syngenesious_, as in composite
+flowers, and in lobelia, jasione, &c.
+
+
+  The connective.
+
+The anther-lobes are united to the _connective_, which is either
+continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the filament
+is continuous with the connective, and is prolonged so that the
+anther-lobes appear to be united to it throughout their whole length,
+and lie in apposition to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said
+to be _adnate_ or _adherent_; when the filament ends at the base of the
+anther, then the latter is _innate_ or _erect_. In these cases the
+anther is to a greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the
+attachment is very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are
+movable (_versatile_) and are easily turned by the wind, as in
+_Tritonia_, grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only
+to the middle of the connective. The connective may unite the
+anther-lobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short
+and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or free.
+At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes, assuming
+various forms, as in _Acalypha_ and oleander; or it is extended
+backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71), forming a
+nectar-secreting spur. In _Salvia officinalis_ the connective is
+attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as to separate the
+two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which contains pollen, the other
+being imperfectly developed and sterile. The connective is joined to the
+filament by a movable joint forming a lever which plays an important
+part in the pollination-mechanism. In _Stachys_ the connective is
+expanded laterally, so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and
+bring them into a horizontal line.
+
+
+  Antherdehiscence.
+
+The opening or _dehiscence_ of the anthers to discharge their contents
+takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores. When the
+anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the line of the
+suture--_longitudinal dehiscence_ (fig. 25). At other times the slit is
+horizontal, from the connective to the side, as in _Alchemilla arvensis_
+(fig. 73) and in _Lemna_; the dehiscence is then _transverse_. When the
+anther-lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the
+connective, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear to be
+transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole length of the
+anther-lobe at once, but often for a time it extends only partially. In
+other instances the opening is confined to the base or apex, each
+loculament opening by a single pore, as in _Pyrola_, _Tetratheca
+juncea_, Rhododendron, _Vaccinium_ and _Solanum_ (fig. 74), where there
+are two, and _Poranthera_, where there are four; whilst in the mistletoe
+the anther has numerous pores for the discharge of the pollen. Another
+mode of dehiscence is the valvular, as in the barberry (fig. 75), where
+each lobe opens by a valve on the outer side of the suture, separately
+rolling up from base to apex; in some of the laurel tribe there are two
+such valves for each lobe, or four in all. In some Guttiferae, as
+_Hebradendron cambogioides_ (the Ceylon gamboge plant), the anther opens
+by a lid separating from the apex (_circumscissile_ dehiscence).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 71.--Two stamens of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), with their two
+anther-lobes and the connectives (p) extending beyond them. One of the
+stamens has been deprived of its spur, the other shows its spur c.
+
+FIG. 72.--Anther of _Salvia officinalis_. lf, fertile lobe full of
+pollen; ls, barren lobe without pollen; e, connective; f, filament.
+
+FIG. 73.--Stamen of Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla_), with the anther
+opening transversely.
+
+FIG. 74.--Stamen of a species of Nightshade (_Solanum_), showing the
+divergence of the anther-lobes at the base, and the dehiscence by pores
+at the apex.
+
+FIG. 75.--The stamen of the Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), showing one
+of the valves of the anther (v) curved upwards, bearing the pollen on
+its inner surface.]
+
+The anthers dehisce at different periods during the process of
+flowering; sometimes in the bud, but more commonly when the pistil is
+fully developed and the flower is expanded. They either dehisce
+simultaneously or in succession. In the latter case individual stamens
+may move in succession towards the pistil and discharge their contents,
+as in _Parnassia palustris_, or the outer or the inner stamens may first
+dehisce, following thus a centripetal or centrifugal order. These
+variations are intimately connected with the arrangements for
+transference of pollen. The anthers are called _introrse_ when they
+dehisce by the surface next to the centre of the flower; they are
+_extrorse_ when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they dehisce by
+the sides, as in _Iris_ and some grasses, they are _laterally_
+dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature, anthers originally
+introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower and _Oxalis_.
+
+The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great variety
+in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in the poppy and
+tulip, orange in _Eschscholtzia_, &c. The colour and appearance of the
+anthers often change after they have discharged their functions.
+
+Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or
+non-development of the anthers, when they are known as _staminodia_, or
+rudimentary stamens. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears in the
+form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons it is reduced to a filament
+with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at the apex. In other cases, as in
+double flowers, the stamens are converted into petals; this is also
+probably the case with such plants as _Mesembryanthemum_, where there
+is a multiplication of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in _Canna_,
+one of the anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is
+produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. Some are
+enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in _Cinchona_ (_included_);
+others are _exserted_, or extend beyond the flower, as in _Littorella_
+or _Plantago_. Sometimes the stamens in the early state of the flower
+project beyond the petals, and in the progress of growth become
+included, as in _Geranium striatum_. Stamens also vary in their relative
+lengths. When there is more than one row or whorl in a flower, those on
+the outside are sometimes longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times
+those in the interior are longest, as in _Luhea_. When the stamens are
+in two rows, those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those
+which alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single
+stamen is longer than all the rest. A definite relation, as regards
+number, sometimes exists between the long and the short stamens. Thus,
+in some flowers the stamens are _didynamous_, having only four out of
+five stamens developed, and the two corresponding to the upper part of
+the flower longer than the two lateral ones. This occurs in Labiatae and
+Scrophulariaceae (fig. 76). Again, in other cases there are six stamens,
+whereof four long ones are arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and
+alternate with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to
+_tetradynamous_ flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their
+direction, may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In
+the last-mentioned case they are called _declinate_, as in amaryllis,
+horse-chestnut and fraxinella.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Corolla of foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), cut
+in order to show the didynamous stamens (two long and two short) which
+are attached to it.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 77.--Tetradynamous stamens (four long and two short) of wallflower
+(_Cheiranthus Cheiri_).]
+
+The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist of
+small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled mother-cells
+formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia) of the young
+anther. These mother-cells are either separated from one another and
+float in the granular fluid which fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac,
+or are not so isolated. A division takes place, by which four cells are
+formed in each, the exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and
+monocotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase in size
+and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into an outer
+cuticular layer, or _extine_, and an inner layer, or _intine_. Then the
+walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-grains float
+freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually disappears, and
+the mature grains form a powdery mass within the anther. They then
+either remain united in fours, or multiples of four, as in some acacias,
+_Periploca graeca_ and _Inga anomala_, or separate into individual
+grains, which by degrees become mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane
+of the mother-cell is not completely absorbed, and traces of it are
+detected in a viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in
+Onagraceae. In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into
+masses, or _pollinia_ (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids
+each of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (_caudicle_) which
+adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (_rostellum_) by
+means of a viscid gland (_retinaculum_) which is either naked or
+covered. The term _clinandrium_ is sometimes applied to the part of the
+column in orchids where the stamens are situated. In some orchids, as
+_Cypripedium_, the pollen has its ordinary character of separate grains.
+The number of pollinia varies; thus, in _Orchis_ there are usually two,
+in _Cattleya_ four, and in _Laelia_ eight. The two pollinia in _Orchis
+Morio_ contain each about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small
+masses, when bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In
+Asclepiadaceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79),
+belonging to two contiguous anther-lobes--each pollen-mass having a
+caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of which they
+are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia are also provided
+with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80). The exine is a firm
+membrane, which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour
+to it. It is either smooth, or covered with numerous projections (fig.
+81), granules, points or crested reticulations. The colour is generally
+yellow, and the surface is often covered with a viscid or oily matter.
+The intine is uniform in different kinds of pollen, thin and
+transparent, and possesses great power of extension. In some aquatics,
+as _Zostera_, _Zannichellia_, _Naias_, &c., only one covering exists.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 78.--Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (g) or
+viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (p) are
+supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily detached
+by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.
+
+FIG. 79.--Pistil of _Asclepias_ (a) with pollen-masses (p) adhering to
+the stigma (s). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united by a
+gland-like body. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 80.--Stamen of _Asclepias_, showing filament f, anther a, and
+appendages p. Enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pollen of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_), highly
+magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: _From Vines' Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by
+permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
+
+FIG. 82.--Germinating pollen-grain of Epilobium (highly mag.) bearing a
+pollen-tube s; e, exine; i, intine; abc, the three spots where the exine
+is thicker in anticipation of the formation of the pollen-tube developed
+in this case at a.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Male flower of Pellitory (_Parietaria
+officinalis_), having four stamens with in-curved elastic filaments, and
+an abortive pistil in the centre. When the perianth (p) expands, the
+filaments are thrown out with force as at a, so as to scatter the
+pollen.]
+
+Pollen-grains vary from 1/300 to 1/700 of an inch or less in diameter.
+Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is ellipsoidal,
+more or less narrow at the extremities, which are called its _poles_, in
+contradistinction to a line equidistant from the extremities, which is
+its equator. Pollen-grains are also spherical; cylindrical and curved,
+as in _Tradescantia virginica_; polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and
+Compositae; nearly triangular in section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae
+(fig. 82). The surface of the pollen-grain is either uniform and
+homogeneous, or it is marked by folds formed by thinnings of the
+membrane. There are also rounded portions of the membrane or pores
+visible in the pollen-grain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and
+through one or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination
+of the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only one,
+while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards; when numerous, the
+pores are either scattered irregularly, or in a regular order,
+frequently forming a circle round the equatorial surface. Sometimes at
+the place where they exist, the outer membrane, in place of being thin
+and transparent, is separated in the form of a lid, thus becoming
+_operculate_, as in the passion-flower and gourd. Within the
+pollen-grain is the granular protoplasm with some oily particles, and
+occasionally starch. Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes
+place in the pollen-grain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which
+the tube is developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides
+to form the male cells (see ANGIOSPERMS and GYMNOSPERMS).
+
+
+  Pollination.
+
+When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the pollen is
+shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the pollen must be
+conveyed to the stigma of the pistil. This process, termed _pollination_
+(see POLLINATION), is promoted in various ways,--the whole form and
+structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some plants,
+as _Kalmia_ and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity of the
+filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants pollination is
+effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees, grasses, &c., and
+in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are produced. These plants
+are _anemophilous_. But the common agents for pollination are insects.
+To allure and attract them to visit the flower the odoriferous
+secretions and gay colours are developed, and the position and
+complicated structure of the parts of the flower are adapted to the
+perfect performance of the process. It is comparatively rare in
+hermaphrodite flowers for self-fertilization to occur, and the various
+forms of dichogamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent
+this.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Flower of Tree Paeony (_Paeonia Moutan_),
+deprived of its corolla, and showing the disk in the form of a fleshy
+expansion (d) covering the ovary.]
+
+
+  Disk.
+
+Under the term _disk_ is included every structure intervening between
+the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures that the name of
+_nectary_ was applied by old authors. It presents great varieties of
+form, such as a ring, scales, glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c.,
+and in the progress of growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus
+becoming truly nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by
+degeneration or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of
+processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens, and thus
+representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be opposite to the
+stamens. In some flowers, as _Jatropha Curcas_, in which the stamens are
+not developed, their place is occupied by glandular bodies forming the
+disk. In Gesneraceae and Cruciferae the disk consists of tooth-like
+scales at the base of the stamens. The parts composing the disk
+sometimes unite and form a glandular ring, as in the orange; or they
+form a dark-red lamina covering the pistil, as in _Paeonia Moutan_ (fig.
+84); or a waxy lining of the hollow receptacle, as in the rose; or a
+swelling at the top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae, in which the disk
+is said to be epigynous. The enlarged torus covering the ovary in
+_Nymphaea_ (_Castalia_) and _Nelumbium_ may be regarded as a form of
+disk.
+
+
+  The pistil.
+
+The pistil or _gynoecium_ occupies the centre or apex of the flower, and
+is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes when these are
+present. It constitutes the innermost whorl, which after flowering is
+changed into the fruit and contains the seeds. It consists essentially
+of two parts, a basal portion forming a chamber, the _ovary_, containing
+the ovules attached to a part called the _placenta_, and an upper
+receptive portion, the _stigma_, which is either seated on the ovary
+(_sessile_), as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called
+the _style_, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil
+consists of one or more modified leaves, the _carpels_ (or
+_megasporophylls_). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is
+_simple_ or monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several
+carpels, more or less united, it is _compound_ or _polycarpellary_ (fig.
+86). In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are
+synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when present), and
+stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded leaf, the upper
+surface of which is turned inwards towards the axis, and the lower
+outwards, while from its margins are developed one or more _ovules_.
+This comparison is borne out by an examination of the flower of the
+double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit is produced, and the pistil
+consists merely of sessile leaves, the limb of each being green and
+folded, with a narrow prolongation upwards, as if from the midrib, and
+ending in a thickened portion. In _Cycas_ the carpels are ordinary
+leaves, with ovules upon their margin.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 85.--Pistil of Broom (_Cytisus_) consisting of ovary o, style s,
+and stigma t. It is formed by a single carpel.
+
+FIG. 86.--Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (_Helleborus
+niger_). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct
+carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite,
+and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).
+
+FIG. 87.--Fruit of the Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), consisting of an
+enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry
+seed-like fruits (achenes).
+
+FIG. 88.--Fruit of _Rosa alba_, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis
+s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels fr. The stamens (c) have
+withered. (After Duchartre.)
+
+FIG. 89.--Pistil of _Ranunculus_. x, Receptacle with the points of
+insertion of the stamens a, most of which have been removed.
+
+FIG. 90.--Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five
+carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are
+separate.]
+
+A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels may be
+arranged either at the same or nearly the same height in a verticil, or
+at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they remain separate and
+distinct, thus showing at once the composition of the pistil, as in
+_Caltha, Ranunculus_, hellebore (fig. 86), and _Spiraea_, the term
+_apocarpous_ is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 22) the pistil consists of
+five verticillate carpels o, alternating with the stamens e. In magnolia
+and _Ranunculus_ (fig. 89) the separate carpels are numerous and are
+arranged in a spiral cycle upon an elongated axis or receptacle. In the
+raspberry the carpels are on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on
+a swollen succulent one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a
+hollow one. When the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and
+chickweed, the pistil becomes _syncarpous_. The number of carpels in a
+pistil is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple pistil
+is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three carpels,
+trigynous, &c.
+
+The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete; it may take
+place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and stigmas remain free
+(fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries form apparently a single
+body, the organ receives the name of _compound_ ovary; or the union may
+take place by the ovaries and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or
+by the stigmas and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate
+states exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where
+they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as in
+Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base; but in
+Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and in
+Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When the union is
+incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound pistil may be
+determined by the number of styles and stigmas; when complete, the
+external venation, the grooves on the surface, and the internal
+divisions of the ovary indicate the number.
+
+
+  The placenta.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Pistil of Pea after fertilization of the
+ovules, developing to form the fruit. f, Funicle or stalk of ovule (ov);
+pl, placenta; s, withered style and stigma; c, persistent calyx.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 92.--Trilocular ovary of the Lily (_Lilium_), cut transversely. s,
+Septum; o, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle of each
+chamber. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 93.--Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed of
+five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet in the
+centre forming the septa, s. The ovules (o) are attached to a central
+placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures. Dorsal
+suture, l.
+
+FIG. 94.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which the
+edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules o, are not folded
+inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules appear sessile on
+the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 95.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which
+the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the
+placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the
+placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, l.
+
+FIG. 96.--Pistil of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), enlarged. 1, Vertical;
+2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p,
+placenta; s, stigma.
+
+FIG. 97.--Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (_Cucumis
+Melo_), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The three
+carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From the centre,
+processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas bearing the
+ovules.
+
+FIG. 98.--Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary, in
+which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (o) are
+attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with the
+walls of the ovary.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 99.--Pistil of _Cerastium hirsutum_ cut vertically. o, Ovary; p,
+free central placenta; g, ovules; s, styles.
+
+FIG. 100.--The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as
+to show the interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central
+placenta p, covered with ovules g.]
+
+The ovules are attached to the _placenta_, which consists of a mass of
+cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels pass to the ovule.
+The placenta is usually formed on the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig.
+91)--_marginal_. In many cases, however, the placentas are formations
+from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary leaves.
+In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing the placenta is
+the _inner_ or _ventral suture_, corresponding to the margin of the
+folded carpellary leaf, while the _outer_ or _dorsal suture_ corresponds
+to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. As the placenta is formed on each
+margin of the carpel it is essentially double. This is seen in cases
+where the margins of the carpel do not unite, but remain separate, and
+consequently two placentas are formed in place of one. When the pistil
+is formed by one carpel the inner margins unite and form usually a
+common marginal placenta, which may extend along the whole margin of the
+ovary as far as the base of the style (fig. 91), or may be confined to
+the base or apex only. When the pistil consists of several separate
+carpels, or is apocarpous, there are generally separate placentas at
+each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil, on the other hand, the
+carpels are so united that the edges of each of the contiguous ones, by
+their union, form a _septum_ or _dissepiment_, and the number of these
+septa consequently indicates the number of carpels in the compound
+pistil (fig. 92). When the dissepiments extend to the centre or axis,
+the ovary is divided into cavities or _cells_, and it may be
+_bilocular_, _triloculur_ (fig. 92), _quadrilocular_, _quinquelocular_,
+or _multilocular_, according as it is formed by two, three, four, five
+or many carpels, each carpel corresponding to a single cell. In these
+cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a
+single _central_ one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the
+central angle of the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do
+not fold inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the
+walls of the ovary, then the ovary is _unilocular_ (fig. 95) and the
+placentas are _parietal_, as in _Viola_ (fig. 96). In these instances
+the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous
+leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be united, each
+developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of the carpels, which fold
+in to the centre, split there into two lamellae, each of which is curved
+outwards and projects into the loculament, dilating at the end into a
+placenta. This is well seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), _Pyrola_, &c.
+The carpellary leaves may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be
+applied in a valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the
+placentas then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or
+thickenings along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the
+placentas are not connected with the walls of the ovary, and form what
+is called a _free central placenta_ (fig. 98). This is seen in many of
+the Caryophyllaceae and Primulaceae (figs. 99, 100). In Caryophyllaceae,
+however, while the placenta is free in the centre, there are often
+traces found at the base of the ovary of the remains of septa, as if
+rupture had taken place, and, in rare instances, ovules are found on the
+margins of the carpels. But in Primulaceae no vestiges of septa or
+marginal ovules can be perceived at any period of growth; the placenta
+is always free, and rises in the centre of the ovary. Free central
+placentation, therefore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by
+supposing that the placentas in the early state were formed on the
+margins of carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development
+these leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules free
+in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not _marginal_ but
+_axile_ formations, produced by an elongation of the axis, and the
+carpels verticillate leaves, united together around the axis. The first
+of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae, the second to Primulaceae.
+
+Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not formed by
+the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called _spurious
+dissepiments_. They are often horizontal, as in _Cathartocarpus
+Fistula_, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations from
+the walls of the ovary, only developed after fertilization, and
+therefore more properly noticed under fruit. At other times they are
+vertical, as in _Datura_, where the ovary, in place of being two-celled,
+becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae, where the prolongation of the
+placentas forms a vertical partition; in _Astragalus_ and _Thespesia_,
+where the dorsal suture is folded inwards; and in _Oxytropis_, where the
+ventral suture is folded inwards.
+
+The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form,
+sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times hairy and
+grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions between the carpels
+and correspond to the dissepiments. The dorsal suture may be marked by a
+slight projection or by a superficial groove. When the ovary is situated
+on the centre of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its
+base is above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed _superior_, as
+in _Lychnis_, _Primula_ (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig.
+28). When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying
+with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion of
+the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary leaves
+alone closing in the apex, the ovary is _inferior_, as in pomegranate,
+aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see fig. 30). In some plants,
+as many Saxifragaceae, there are intermediate forms, in which the term
+_half-inferior_ is applied to the ovary, whilst the floral whorls are
+_half-superior_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 101.--Carpel of Lady's-mantle (_Alchemilla_) with lateral style s;
+o, ovary, _st_, stigma. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 102.--Pistil of Primrose (_Primula_) composed of five carpels which
+are completely united; o, ovary; s, style; st, stigma. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 103.--Gynoecium of the Flower-de-Luce (_Iris_), consisting of an
+inferior ovary (o) and a style which divides into three petaloid
+segments (s), each bearing a stigma (st).
+
+FIG. 104.--Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores (p), under the radiating
+peltate stigma (s).]
+
+
+  The style.
+
+The _style_ proceeds from the summit of the carpel (fig. 102), and is
+traversed by a narrow canal, in which there are some loose projecting
+cells, a continuation of the placenta, constituting what is called
+conducting tissue, which ends in the stigma. This is particularly
+abundant when the pistil is ready for fertilization. In some cases,
+owing to more rapid growth of the dorsal side of the ovary, the style
+becomes _lateral_ (fig. 101); this may so increase that the style
+appears to arise from near the base, as in the strawberry, or from the
+base, as in _Chrysobalanus Icaco_, when it is called _basilar_. In all
+these cases the style still indicates the organic apex of the ovary,
+although it may not be the apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the
+style of each carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were
+depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression in the
+midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus. Such a style is
+_gynobasic_, and is well seen in Boraginaceae. The form of the style is
+usually cylindrical, more or less filiform and simple; sometimes it is
+grooved on one side, at other times it is flat, thick, angular,
+compressed and even petaloid, as in _Iris_ (fig. 103) and _Canna_. In
+Goodeniaceae it ends in a cuplike expansion, enclosing the stigma. It
+sometimes bears hairs, which aid in the application of the pollen to the
+stigma, and are called _collecting hairs_, as in _Campanula_, and also
+in _Aster_ and other Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth
+of the style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and
+carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the
+mature stigma of other flowers. In _Vicia_ and _Lobelia_ the hairs
+frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous
+pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they alternate with
+the septa; when united completely, the style is said to be _simple_
+(fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of each carpel of a
+compound pistil, may also be divided. Each division of the tricarpellary
+ovary of _Jatropha Curcas_ has a _bifurcate_ or forked style, and the
+ovary of _Emblica officinalis_ has three styles, each of which is twice
+forked. The length of the style is determined by the relation which
+should subsist between the position of the stigma and that of the
+anthers, so as to allow the proper application of the pollen. The style
+is deciduous or persists after fertilization.
+
+
+  The stigma.
+
+The _stigma_ is the termination of the conducting tissue of the style,
+and is usually in direct communication with the placenta. It consists of
+loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter which detains the
+pollen, and causes it to germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly
+speaking, the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the
+divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated. The
+stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous pistil, or, in
+other words, corresponds with the back of the loculaments; but in some
+cases it would appear that half the stigma of one carpel unites with
+half that of the contiguous carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the
+dissepiments, that is, alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Flower of a grass with glumes removed, showing
+three stamens and two feathery styles. p, Pale; l, lodicules. Enlarged.]
+
+The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which compose the
+pistil. Thus in _Campanula_ a five-cleft stigma indicates five carpels;
+in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or
+bilamellar stigma indicates a bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in
+Gramineae, the stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be
+terminal or lateral. In _Iris_ it is situated on a cleft on the back of
+the petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as those
+of _Mimulus_, present sensitive flattened laminae, which close when
+touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may be globular, as in
+_Mirabilis Jalapa_; orbicular, as in _Arbutus Andrachne_; umbrella-like,
+as in _Sarracenia_, where, however, the proper stigmatic surface is
+beneath the angles of the large expansion of the apex of the style;
+ovoid, as in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral; radiating, as in the
+poppy (fig. 104), where the true stigmatic rays are attached to a sort
+of _peltate_ or shield-like body, which may represent depressed or
+flattened styles; _cucullate_, i.e. covered by a hood, in calabar bean.
+The lobes of a stigma are flat and pointed as in _Mimulus_ and
+_Bignonia_, fleshy and blunt, smooth or granular, or they are feathery,
+as in many grasses (fig. 105) and other wind-pollinated flowers. In
+Orchidaceae the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column
+beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are united to the face
+of the anthers, and along with them form a solid mass.
+
+
+  The ovule.
+
+The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become the seed.
+Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of the carpellary
+leaves, but are also formed over the whole surface of the leaf, as in
+_Butomus_. In other instances they rise from the floral axis itself,
+either terminal, as in Polygonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in
+Primulaceae and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary,
+and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed
+_angiospermous_; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no proper
+ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being denominated
+_gymnospermous_. In _Cycas_ the altered leaf, upon the margin of which
+the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales, from which they are
+pendulous in _Zamia_, are regarded by all botanists as carpellary
+leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion has arisen regarding the
+morphology of parts in many genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes
+united in such a way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil,
+so that the ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In _Leontice
+thalictroides_ (Blue Cohosh), species of _Ophiopogon_, _Peliosanthes_
+and _Stateria_, the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the
+ovules are exposed; and in species of _Cuphea_ the placenta ultimately
+bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing the
+exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either directly,
+when it is _sessile_, or by means of a prolongation _funicle_ (fig. 110,
+f). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after fertilization. The
+part by which the ovule is attached to the placenta or cord is its
+_base_ or _hilum_, the opposite extremity being its _apex_. The latter
+is frequently turned round in such a way as to approach the base. The
+ovule is sometimes embedded in the placenta, as in _Hydnora_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIGS. 106 and 107.--Successive stages in the development of an ovule. n,
+Nucellus; i, inner; o, outer integument in section; m, micropyle.
+
+FIG. 108.--Orthotropous ovule of _Polygonum_ in section, showing the
+embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular coverings, the
+base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with its
+micropyle m.
+
+FIG. 109.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine (_Pinus
+austriaca_), showing the nucellus a, consisting of delicate cellular
+tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b. The micropyle m
+is very wide.]
+
+The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from the
+placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or less enlarged
+ovate form constituting what has been called the _nucellus_ (fig. 106,
+n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This nucellus may remain
+naked, and alone form the ovule, as in some orders of parasitic plants
+such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae, &c.; but in most plants it becomes
+surrounded by certain coverings or integuments during its development.
+These appear first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the
+nucellus, which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In
+some cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous
+dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also in walnut, &c. But
+usually besides the single covering another is developed subsequently
+(fig. 106, o), which gradually extends over that first formed, and
+ultimately covers it completely, except at the apex. There are thus two
+integuments to the nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do
+not completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed
+the _micropyle_ is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex of the
+ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to form the
+_embryo-sac_ or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac increases in
+size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the nucellus until it
+is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it may actually extend at
+the apex beyond it, as in _Phaseolus_ and _Alsine media_; or it may pass
+into the micropyle, as in _Santalum_. In Gymnosperms it usually remains
+deep in the nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue
+(fig. 109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore,
+and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization is
+formed the embryo, see GYMNOSPERMS and ANGIOSPERMS.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 110.--Campylotropous ovule of wall-flower (_Cheiranthus_), showing
+the funicle f, which attaches the ovule to the placenta; p, the outer,
+s, the inner coat, n, the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The ovule is curved
+upon itself, so that the micropyle is near the funicle.
+
+FIG. 111.--Anatropous ovule of Dandelion (_Taraxacum_), n, nucellus,
+which is inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is removed from the base or
+hilum h, while the micropyle f is near the base. The connexion between
+the base of the ovule and the base of the nucellus is kept up by means
+of the raphe r.]
+
+The point where the integuments are united to the base of the nucellus
+is called the _chalaza_ (figs. 111, 112). This is often coloured, is of
+a denser texture than the surrounding tissue, and is traversed by
+fibro-vascular bundles, which pass from the placenta to nourish the
+ovule.
+
+When the ovule is so developed that the chalaza is at the hilum (next
+the placenta), and the micropyle is at the opposite extremity, there
+being a short funicle, the ovule is _orthotropous_. This form is well
+seen in Polygonaceae (fig. 112), Cistaceae, and most gymnosperms. In
+such an ovule a straight line drawn from the hilum to the micropyle
+passes along the axis of the ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one
+side than on the other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is
+curved upon itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and
+ultimately is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the
+ovule is _campylotropous_ (fig. 110). Curved ovules are found in
+Cruciferae, and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or _anatropous_ ovule
+(fig. 111) is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the
+apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment of the
+funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated at the opposite
+extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the side usually next the
+placenta, coalesces with the ovule and constitutes the _raphe_ (r),
+which often forms a ridge. The anatropous ovule arises from the placenta
+as a straight or only slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows,
+gradually becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the
+integuments (cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round
+it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes adherent
+to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument be formed it
+covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not form on the side to
+which the raphe is adherent. These may be taken as the three types of
+ovule; but there are various intermediate forms, such as
+_semi-anatropous_ and others.
+
+The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When there is a
+single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached to the placenta
+at the base of the ovary (_basal placenta_), and is then _erect_, as in
+Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be inserted a little above the
+base, on a parietal placenta, with its apex upwards, and then is
+_ascending_, as in _Parietaria_. It may hang from an apicilar placenta
+at the summit of the ovary, its apex being directed downwards, and is
+_inverted_ or _pendulous_, as in _Hippuris vulgaris_; or from a parietal
+placenta near the summit, and then is _suspended_, as in _Daphne
+Mezereum_, Polygalaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle
+arises from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and there
+bending over suspends the ovule, as in _Armeria_ (sea-pink); at other
+times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the ovule becomes
+_horizontal_. When there are two ovules in the same cell, they may be
+either _collateral_, that is, placed side by side (fig. 92), or the one
+may be erect and the other inverted, as in some species of _Spiraea_ and
+_Aesculus_; or they may be placed one above another, each directed
+similarly, as is the case in ovaries containing a moderate or definite
+number of ovules. Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the
+ovules, o, are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the
+other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each margin of
+the carpel. When the ovules are _definite_ (i.e. are uniform, and can be
+counted), it is usual to find their attachment so constant as to afford
+good characters for classification. When the ovules are very numerous
+(_indefinite_), while at the same time the placenta is not much
+developed, their position exhibits great variation, some being directed
+upwards, others downwards, others transversely; and their form is
+altered by pressure into various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it
+frequently happens that some of the ovules are arrested in their
+development and become abortive.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 112.--Ovary of _Polygonum Convolvulus_ in longitudinal section
+during fertilization. (× 48.)
+
+  fs, Stalk-like base of ovary,
+  fu, Funicle.
+  cha, Chalaza.
+  nu, Nucellus.
+  mi, Micropyle.
+  ii, inner, ie, outer integument,
+  e, Embryo-sac.
+  ek, Nucleus of embryo-sac.
+  ei, Egg-apparatus.
+  an, Antipodal cells.
+  g, Style.
+  n, Stigma.
+  p, Pollen-grains.
+  ps, Pollen-tubes.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Scotch
+Fir (_Pinus sylvestris_) in May of the second year, showing the enlarged
+embryo-sac b, full of endosperm cells, and pollen-tubes c, penetrating
+the summit of the nucellus after the pollen has entered the large
+micropyle.]
+
+
+  Fertilization.
+
+When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes ready
+for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and the
+pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angiosperms, or the summit of
+the nucellus in gymnosperms, it is detained there, and the viscid
+secretion from the glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the
+nucellus in the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a
+pollen-tube through the pores of the grain. The pollen-tube or tubes
+pass down the canal (fig. 112), through the conducting tissue of the
+style when present, and reach the interior of the ovary in angiosperms,
+and then pass to the micropyle of the ovule, one pollen-tube going to
+each ovule. Sometimes the micropyle lies close to the base of the style,
+and then the pollen-tube enters it at once, but frequently it has to
+pass some distance into the ovary, being guided in its direction by
+various contrivances, as hairs, grooves, &c. In gymnosperms the
+pollen-grain resting on the apex of the nucellus sends out its
+pollen-tubes, which at once penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113). In
+angiosperms when the pollen-tube reaches the micropyle it passes down
+into the canal, and this portion of it increases considerably in size.
+Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in contact with the tip of the
+embryo-sac and perforates it. The male cells in the end of the
+pollen-tube are then transmitted to the embryo-sac and fertilization is
+effected. Consequent upon this, after a longer or shorter period, those
+changes commence in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the
+embryo plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into
+the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of nutriment
+for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization confined to the
+ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant. The ovary enlarges, and,
+with the seeds enclosed, constitutes the fruit, frequently incorporated
+with which are other parts of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In
+gymnosperms the pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down
+the tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer
+or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are discussed
+in a separate article--FRUIT.     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Imitations of natural flowers are sometimes made
+for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass flowers at Harvard
+University, which illustrates the flora of the United States), but more
+often as articles of decoration and ornament. A large variety of
+materials have been used in their manufacture by different peoples at
+different times--painted linen and shavings of stained horn by the
+Egyptians, gold and silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese,
+silkworm cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South
+America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the 18th
+century the French, who originally learnt the art from the Italians,
+made great advances in the accuracy of their reproductions, and towards
+the end of that century the Paris manufacturers enjoyed a world-wide
+reputation. About the same time the art was introduced into England by
+French refugees, and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The
+industry is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of
+operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes may be
+distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various fabrics and
+materials employed into shapes suitable for forming the leaves, petals,
+&c.; this may be done by scissors, but more often stamps are employed
+which will cut through a dozen or more thicknesses at one blow. The
+veins of the leaves are next impressed by means of a die, and the petals
+are given their natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various
+shapes. The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the
+flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the fourth is to
+mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron wire wrapped round
+with suitably coloured material, and to fasten on the leaves required to
+complete the spray.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYD, JOHN (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in Cambridgeshire in
+1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when at Rome in 1592 and is also
+known as Daniel à Jesu, Hermannus Loemelius, and George White, the names
+under which he published a score of controversial treatises. He had
+considerable fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently
+arrested in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died at
+St Omer on the 15th of September 1649. His brother Edward Floyd was
+impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for speaking
+disparagingly of the elector palatine.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (1807-1863), American politician, was born at
+Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He was the son of John
+Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in Congress from 1817 to 1829 and
+governor of Virginia from 1830 to 1834. After graduating at South
+Carolina College in 1826, the son practised law in his native state and
+at Helena, Arkansas, and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia,
+which in 1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state
+legislature. Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governor of Virginia,
+in which position he recommended to the legislature the enactment of a
+law laying an import tax on the products of such states as refused to
+surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters. In March 1857 he
+became secretary of war in President Buchanan's cabinet, where his lack
+of administrative ability was soon apparent. In December 1860, on
+ascertaining that Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government
+contractors in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested
+his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for malversation
+in office, but the indictment was overruled on technical grounds. There
+is no proof that he profited by these irregular transactions; in fact he
+went out of the office financially embarrassed. Though he had openly
+opposed secession before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that
+event, especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion,
+and he was accused of having sent large stores of government arms to
+Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In the last days of
+his term he apparently had such an intention, but during the year 1860
+the Southern States actually received less than their full quota of
+arms. After the secession of Virginia he was commissioned a
+brigadier-general in the Confederate service. He was first employed in
+some unsuccessful operations in western Virginia, and in February 1862
+became commander of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which
+he fled with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the
+night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to surrender to
+General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis relieved him of his
+command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 26th of August 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYER, SIR JOHN (1649-1734), English physician and author, was born at
+Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated at Oxford. He practised in
+Lichfield, and it was by his advice that Dr Johnson, when a child, was
+taken by his mother to be touched by Queen Anne for the king's evil on
+the 30th of March 1714. He died on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was
+an advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the
+rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the pathological
+changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.
+
+  His writings include:--[Greek: Pharmako-Basanos]: _or the Touchstone
+  of Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and
+  Animals, by their Tastes and Smells_ (2 vols., 1687); _The
+  praeternatural State of animal Humours described by their sensible
+  Qualities_ (1696); _An Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the
+  hot, cold and temperate Baths in England_ (1697); _A Treatise of the
+  Asthma_ (1st ed., 1698); _The ancient_ [Greek: Psychrolousia]
+  _revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing both safe and useful_
+  (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged, Manchester, 1844,
+  12mo); _The Physician's Pulse-watch_ (1707-1710); _The Sibylline
+  Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and compared with the
+  sacred Prophecies_ (1st ed., 1713); _Two Essays: the first Essay
+  concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of good and bad
+  Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System of the World_
+  (Nottingham, 1717); _An Exposition of the Revelations_ (1719); _An
+  Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism_ (1722);
+  _Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old Men's
+  Healths_ (1st ed., 1724); _A Comment on forty-two Histories described
+  by Hippocrates_ (1726).
+
+
+
+
+FLUDD, or FLUD, ROBERT [ROBERTUS DE FLUCTIBUS] (1574-1637), English
+physician and mystical philosopher, the son of Sir Thomas Fludd,
+treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France and the Low Countries, was
+born at Milgate, Kent. After studying at St John's College, Oxford, he
+travelled in Europe for six years, and became acquainted with the
+writings of Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a
+member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ultimately became
+a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised in London with
+success, though it is said that he combined with purely medical
+treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following Paracelsus, he
+endeavoured to form a system of philosophy founded on the identity of
+physical and spiritual truth. The universe and all created things
+proceed from God, who is the beginning, the end and the sum of all
+things, and to him they will return. The act of creation is the
+separation of the active principle (light) from the passive (darkness)
+in the bosom of the divine unity (God). The universe consists of three
+worlds; the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm
+(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both
+sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is possible for
+man (and even for the mineral and the plant) to undergo transformation
+and to win immortality. Fludd's system may be described as a
+materialistic pantheism, which, allegorically interpreted, he put
+forward as containing the real meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam
+by God himself, handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs,
+and revealed a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the
+honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne. Though rapt in
+mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied attainments. He did not
+disdain scientific experiments, and is thought by some to be the
+original inventor of the barometer. He was an ardent defender of the
+Rosicrucians, and De Quincey considers him to have been the immediate,
+as J.V. Andreä was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the
+8th of September 1637.
+
+  See J.B. Craven, _Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian_ (1902), where
+  a list of his works is given; A.E. Waite, _The Real History of the
+  Rosicrucians_ (1887); De Quincey, _The Rosicrucians and Freemasons_;
+  J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (1870), i. 240 seq. His works
+  were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.
+
+
+
+
+FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT (1802-1870), German orientalist, was born at
+Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802. He received his early education at
+the gymnasium of his native town, and studied theology and philology at
+Leipzig. Gradually he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental
+languages, which he studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became
+professor at the _Fürstenschule_ of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health
+compelled him to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to
+Vienna, where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and
+Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden on the 5th
+of July 1870.
+
+  Flügel's chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and
+  encyclopaedic lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols.,
+  London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition of the
+  Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed _Concordantiae
+  Corani arabicae_ (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); _Mani, seine Lehren
+  und seine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1862); _Die grammatischen Schulen der
+  Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862); and _Ibn Kutlûbugas Krone der
+  Lebensbeschreibungen_ (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of
+  _Kitâb-al-Fihrist_, prepared by him, was published after his death.
+
+
+
+
+FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1788-1855), German lexicographer, was born at
+Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of November 1788. He was originally a
+merchant's clerk, but emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a
+special study of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819,
+was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the university
+of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and subsequently
+representative and correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution at
+Washington and several other leading American literary and scientific
+institutions. He died at Leipzig on the 24th of June 1855.
+
+  The fame of Flügel rests chiefly on the _Vollständige
+  englisch-deutsche und deutsch-englische Wörterbuch_, first published
+  in 2 vols. (Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation
+  not only in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was
+  assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition, edited by
+  his son Felix Flügel (1820-1904), was published at Brunswick
+  (1890-1892). Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel
+  Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London & New York) in 1906.
+  Among his other works are--_Vollständige engl. Sprachlehre_
+  (1824-1826); _Triglotte, oder kaufmännisches Wörterbuch in drei
+  Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Französisch_ (1836-1840); _Kleines
+  Kaufmännisches Handwörterbuch in drei Sprachen_ (1840); and
+  _Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz_ (1827, 9th ed.
+  1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition,
+  Flügel also published in the English language: _A series of Commercial
+  Letters_ (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in 1874
+  under the title _Practical Mercantile Correspondence_ and a _Practical
+  Dictionary of the English and German Languages_ (2 vols., Hamburg and
+  Leipzig, 1847-1852; 15th ed., Leipzig, 1891). The last was continued
+  and re-edited by his son Felix.
+
+
+
+
+FLUKE (probably connected with the Ger. _flach_, flat), a name given to
+several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the common flounder;
+also the name of a trematoid worm, resembling a flounder in shape, which
+as a parasite infects the liver and neighbouring organs of certain
+animals, especially sheep, and causes liver-rot. The most common is the
+_Fasciola hepatica_ (see TREMATODES). It is also the name of a species
+of kidney potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish,
+"fluke" is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in shape, at
+the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular extremities of
+the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang expression for a
+lucky accident appears to have been first applied in billiards to an
+unintentional scoring shot.
+
+
+
+
+FLUME (through an O. Fr. word _flum_, from the Lat. _flumen_, a river),
+a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly for the tail of a
+mill-race. It is used in America for a very narrow gorge running between
+precipitous rocks, with a stream at the bottom, but more frequently is
+applied to an artificial channel of wood or other material for the
+diversion of a stream of water from a river for purposes of irrigation,
+for running a sawmill, or for various processes in the hydraulic method
+of gold-mining (see AQUEDUCT).
+
+
+
+
+FLUMINI MAGGIORE, a town of the province of Cagliari, Sardinia, 10 m. by
+road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast. Pop. (1901) town 3908;
+commune 9647. It is the centre of a considerable lead and zinc mining
+district. Three miles to the S. are the ruins of a temple erected
+probably in the time of Commodus (_Corpus inscr. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883,
+No. 7539). They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on
+the coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining
+district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found two
+ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian's name.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORANTHENE, C15H10, also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon occurring with
+phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other substances in "Stupp" fat (the
+fat obtained in working up the mercury ores in Idria), and also in the
+higher boiling fractions of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered
+by R. Fittig in 1878, who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its
+constitution (see _Ann._, 1879, 200, p. 1). The hydrocarbons are
+separated from the "Stupp" by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on
+distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene and
+fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be fractionally
+precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated from most of the
+pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial vacuum. In either case
+the two hydrocarbons are finally separated by fractional crystallization
+of their picrates, which are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene
+crystallizes in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at
+109-110° C. and boiling at 250-251° C. (60 mm.). It is easily soluble in
+hot alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with chromic acid
+it forms a quinone, C15H8O2, and an [alpha]-diphenylene ketocarboxylic
+acid
+
+  C6H4 \
+  ·     >   CO
+  C6H3 / -- CO2H.
+
+The picrate melts at 182-183° C.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORENE ([alpha]-diphenylene methane), C13H10 or (C6H4)2CH2, a
+hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher boiling
+fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene, by fractional
+distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340° C. being taken. The
+fluorene is separated from this by placing it in a freezing mixture, and
+is then redistilled or crystallized from glacial acetic acid, or
+purified by means of its picrate. It may be prepared by distilling
+diphenylene ketone over zinc dust, or by heating it with hydriodic acid
+and phosphorus to 150-160° C.; and also by passing the vapour of
+diphenyl methane through a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless
+plates, possessing a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113° and
+boiling at 293-295° C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic
+acid solution, it is converted into diphenylene ketone (C6H4)2·CO;
+whilst on heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 250-260° C. it
+gives a hydro derivative of composition C18H22.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORESCEIN, or RESORCIN-PHTHALEIN, C20H12O5, in chemistry, a compound
+discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by the condensation of phthalic
+anhydride with resorcin at 195-200° C. (_Ann._, 1876, 183, p. 1). The two
+reacting substances are either heated alone or with zinc chloride for
+some hours, and the melt obtained is boiled out with water, washed by
+dilute alcohol, extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so
+obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well washed with
+water and then dried. By repeating this process two or three times, the
+fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure condition. It forms a yellow
+amorphous powder, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, and
+crystallizing from the alcoholic solution in small dark red nodules. It
+is readily soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, the solution
+being of a dark red colour and showing (especially when largely diluted
+with water) a brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of
+this last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid
+solution, _eosin_ (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same compound
+being formed by heating 3.5-dibrom-2.4-dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid above its
+melting point (R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes
+from alcohol in yellowish red needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted
+cotton a fine pink colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields
+dibromresorcin and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding iodo
+compound is known as _erythrosin_. Fluorescein is readily nitrated,
+yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to conditions. The
+entrance of the negative nitro group into the molecule weakens the
+central pyrone ring in the fluorescein nucleus and the di-and tetra-nitro
+compounds readily yield hydrates (see J.T. Hewitt and B.W. Perkins,
+_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines
+the di-nitro fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F.
+Reverdin, _Ber_., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from
+fluorescein are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and
+rose Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein).
+
+  On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin, C6H4(OH)2,
+  and monoresorcin phthalein (dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid), (HO)2C6H3·CO·C
+  H4·COOH. With zinc dust and caustic soda it yields fluorescin. By
+  warming fluorescein with excess of phosphorus pentachloride it yields
+  fluorescein chloride, C20H10O3Cl2 (A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from
+  alcohol in small prisms, melting at 252° C. When heated with aniline
+  and aniline hydrochloride, fluorescein yields a colourless anilide (O.
+  Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ber_., 1893, 26, p. 2236), which is readily
+  methylated by methyl iodide and potash to a fluoresceinanilidedimethyl
+  ether, which when heated for six hours to 150° C. with acetic and
+  hydrochloric acids, is hydrolysed and yields a colourless
+  fluoresceindimethyl ether, which melts at 198° C. On the other hand,
+  by heating fluorescein with caustic potash, methyl iodide and methyl
+  alcohol, a coloured (yellow) dimethyl ether, melting at 208° C. is
+  obtained (Fischer and Hepp). By heating the coloured dimethyl ether
+  with caustic soda, the monomethyl ether is obtained (O. Fischer and E.
+  Hepp, _Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 397); this crystallizes in triclinic
+  tables, and melts at 262° C. It is to be noted that the colourless
+  monomethyl ether fluoresces strongly in alkaline solution, the
+  dimethyl ether of melting point 208° fluoresces only in neutral
+  solution (e.g., in alcoholic solution), and the dimethyl ether of
+  melting point 198° C. only in concentrated hydrochloric or sulphuric
+  acid solution (Fischer and Hepp). Considerable discussion has taken
+  place as to the position held by the hydroxyl groups in the
+  fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (_Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 28) asserting
+  that they were in the ortho position to the linking carbon atom of the
+  phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller (_Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 312),
+  however, showed that monoresorcin-phthalein when brominated in glacial
+  acetic acid gives a dibrom derivative which, with fuming sulphuric
+  acid, yields dibromxanthopurpurin (1.3-dioxy-2.4-dibromanthraquinone),
+  a reaction which is only possible if the fluorescein (from which the
+  monoresorcin-phthalein is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in
+  the para position to the linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride
+  residue.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORESCENCE. In a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable phenomenon he had
+discovered to which he gave the name of "internal dispersion." On
+admitting a beam of sunlight, condensed by a lens, into a solution of
+chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of leaves (see fig. 1), he was
+surprised to find that the path of the rays within the fluid was marked
+by a bright light of a blood-red colour, strangely contrasting with the
+beautiful green of the fluid when seen in moderate thickness. Brewster
+afterwards observed the same phenomenon in various vegetable solutions
+and essential oils, and in some solids, amongst which was fluor-spar. He
+believed this effect to be due to coloured particles held in suspension.
+A few years later, Sir John Herschel independently discovered that if a
+solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted light,
+appears colourless and transparent like water, were illuminated by a
+beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue colour was seen in a thin
+stratum of the fluid adjacent to the surface by which the light entered.
+The blue light was unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of
+the fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the stratum
+from which the blue light came, was not sensibly enfeebled or coloured,
+but yet it had lost the power of producing the characteristic blue
+colour when admitted into a second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam
+of light modified in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel
+"epipolized." Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case
+of internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays
+capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken up by Sir G.G.
+Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present knowledge of the subject
+is due. Stokes's first paper "On the Change of the Refrangibility of
+Light" appeared in 1852. He repeated the experiments of Brewster and
+Herschel, and considerably extended them. These experiments soon led him
+to the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had
+imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but that
+the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from the light
+which excited it. He therefore termed it "true internal dispersion" to
+distinguish it from the scattering of light, which he called "false
+internal dispersion." As this name, however, is apt to suggest
+Brewster's view of the phenomenon, he afterwards abandoned it as
+unsatisfactory, and substituted the word "fluorescence." This term,
+derived from fluor-spar after the analogy of opalescence from opal, does
+not presuppose any theory. To examine the nature of the fluorescence
+produced by quinine, Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun's rays in
+the usual manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine
+sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum and then
+gradually moved along the spectrum to the other extremity. No
+fluorescence was observed as long as the tube remained in the more
+luminous portion, but as soon as the violet was reached, a ghost-like
+gleam of blue light shot right across the tube. On continuing to move
+the tube, the blue light at first increased in intensity and afterwards
+died away, but not until the tube had been moved a considerable distance
+into the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first
+appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before disappearing
+it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side at which the exciting
+rays entered. Stokes varied this experiment by placing a vessel filled
+with the dilute solution in a spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The
+appearance is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part
+of the light passed freely as if through water, but from about half-way
+between the Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond the extreme violet,
+the incident rays gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour, which
+emanated in all directions from the portion of the fluid (represented
+white in fig. 2) which was under the influence of the incident rays. The
+anterior surface of the blue space coincided, of course, with the inner
+surface of the glass vessel. The posterior surface marked the distance
+to which the incident rays were able to penetrate before they were
+absorbed. This distance was at first considerable, greater than the
+diameter of the vessel, but decreased with great rapidity as the
+refrangibility of the incident light increased, so that from a little
+beyond the extreme violet to the end, the blue space was reduced to an
+excessively thin stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to
+the ultra-violet rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part
+of the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather planes,
+intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the fluorescent light is
+not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident rays to a narrow band of
+homogeneous light, and examining the dispersed beam through a prism, he
+found that the blue light consisted of rays extending over a wide range
+of refrangibility, but not into the ultra-violet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in examining
+different substances for fluorescence, was as follows. Two coloured
+media were prepared, one of which transmitted the upper portion of the
+spectrum and was opaque to the lower portion, while the second was
+opaque to the upper and transparent to the lower part of the spectrum.
+These were called by Stokes "complementary absorbents." No pair could be
+found which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition was
+approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses or
+solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue solution of
+ammioniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass coloured with silver. The
+two media together were almost opaque. The light of the sun being
+admitted through a hole in the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet
+was laid on a shelf fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel
+containing the blue solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the
+tablet was viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered
+the eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid on
+the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs of
+complementary absorbents were required according to the colour of the
+fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly that the light which
+passed through the first absorbent and which would have been stopped by
+the second gave rise in the fluorescent substance to rays of a different
+wave-length which were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered
+light, with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was
+eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second absorbent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Spectrum of Chlorophyll.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Spectrum of Aesculin.]
+
+Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton's method of crossed
+prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light. A spectrum
+was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit being horizontal
+instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow spectrum was projected on
+a white paper moistened with a fluorescent solution, and viewed through
+a second prism with its refracting edge perpendicular to that of the
+first prism. In addition to the sloping spectrum seen under ordinary
+circumstances, another spectrum due to the fluorescent light alone, made
+its appearance, as seen in figs. 3 and 4. In this spectrum the colours
+do not run from left to right, but in horizontal lines. Thus the dark
+lines of the solar spectrum lie across the colours. The spectra in figs.
+3 and 4 were obtained by V. Pierre with an improved arrangement of
+Stokes's method. It will be seen that, in the case of chlorophyll, the
+whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet, gives rise to a short range
+of red fluorescent light, while the effective part of the exciting light
+in the case of aesculin (a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark)
+begins a little above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers
+a wide range extending from orange to blue.
+
+Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number of vegetable
+extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly fluorescent. Stokes
+found that most organic substances show signs of fluorescence. Green
+fluor-spar from Alston Moor exhibits a violet, uranium glass a
+yellowish-green fluorescence. Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a
+greenish light, and the extract of seeds of _Datura stramonium_ a pale
+green light. Ordinary paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium
+platinocyanide, which is much used in the fluorescent screens employed
+in work with the Röntgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with
+ordinary light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the
+remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light, the
+colour and plane of polarization depending on the position of the
+crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized light is
+used, on the plane of polarization of the latter.
+
+_Stokes's Law._--In all the substances examined by Stokes, the
+fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the light
+which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this lowering of
+the refrangibility of the light was a general law which held for all
+substances. This is known as Stokes's law. It has been shown, however,
+by E. Lommel and others, that this law does not hold generally. Lommel
+distinguishes two kinds of fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the
+first kind are those which possess strong absorption bands, of which
+only one remains appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are
+always strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids)
+surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the
+fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption. Stokes's
+law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be produced by means
+of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility than a great part of the
+fluorescent light. The second kind of fluorescence is the most common,
+and is exhibited by bodies which show absorption only in the upper part
+of the spectrum, i.e. they are usually yellow or brown or (if the
+absorption is in the ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also
+are different from those of substances of the first kind, for they
+readily disappear on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by
+those substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.
+
+_Nature of Fluorescence._--No complete theory of fluorescence has yet
+been given, though various attempts have been made to explain the
+phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to phosphorescence (q.v.),
+the difference consisting in the duration of the effect after the
+exciting cause is removed. Liquids which fluoresce only do so while the
+exciting light is falling on them, ceasing immediately the exciting
+light is cut off. In the case of solids, on the other hand, such as
+fluor-spar or uranium glass, the effect, though very brief, does not die
+away quite instantaneously, so that it is really a very brief
+phosphorescence. The property of phosphorescence has been generally
+attributed to some molecular change taking place in the bodies
+possessing it. That some such change takes place during fluorescence is
+rendered probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state
+of the sensitive substance; some bodies, such as barium platinocyanide,
+fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while others, such
+as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluorescence is always
+associated with absorption, but many bodies are absorbent without
+showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory would have to account for
+these facts as well as for the production of waves of one period by
+those of another, and the non-homogeneous character of the fluorescent
+light. Quite recently W. Voigt has sought to give a theory of
+fluorescence depending on the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory
+assumes that the electrons which constitute the molecule of the
+sensitive body can exist in two or more different configurations
+simultaneously, and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the
+molecule in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different
+periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would
+happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with that of
+the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter, and if they
+then underwent a transformation into a different configuration with a
+different period, this absorbed energy would be given out in waves of a
+period corresponding to that of the new configuration.
+
+_Applications of Fluorescence._--The phenomenon of fluorescence can be
+utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of reflection and
+refraction in lecture experiments since the path of a ray of light
+through a very dilute solution of a sensitive substance is rendered
+visible. The existence of the dark lines in the ultra-violet portion of
+the solar spectrum can also be demonstrated in a simple manner. In
+addition to the foregoing applications, Stokes made use of this property
+for studying the character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different
+sources of illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property
+would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a small
+quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture. Fluorescent
+screens are largely used in work with Röntgen rays. There appears to be
+some prospect of light being thrown on the question of molecular
+structure by experiments on the fluorescence of vapours. Some very
+interesting experiments in this direction have been performed by R.W.
+Wood on the fluorescence of sodium vapour.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Sir G.G. Stokes, _Mathematical and Physical Papers_,
+  vols. iii. and iv.; Müller-Pouillet, _Lehrbuch der Physik_, Bd. ii.
+  (1897); A. Wullner, _Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik_, Bd. iv. (1899);
+  A.A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch der Physik_, Bd. vi. (1906); R.W. Wood,
+  _Physical Optics_ (1905).     (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FLUORINE (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element of the halogen
+group. It is never found in the uncombined condition, but in combination
+with calcium as fluor-spar CaF2 it is widely distributed; it is also
+found in cryolite Na3AlF6, in fluor-apatite, CaF2·3Ca3P2O8, and in
+minute traces in sea-water, in some mineral springs, and as a
+constituent of the enamel of the teeth. It was first isolated by H.
+Moissan in 1886 by the electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid
+containing dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic
+vessel and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium, the
+limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar, and
+fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases evolved.
+Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus is kept at a
+constant temperature of -23° C. by means of liquid methyl chloride. The
+fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at the anode, is passed through a
+well cooled platinum vessel, in order to free it from any acid fumes
+that may be carried over, and finally through two platinum tubes
+containing sodium fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric
+acid; it is then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar
+plates. B. Brauner (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained
+fluorine by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF·HF·PbF4. At 200° C. this
+salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between 230-250° C.
+fluorine is liberated.
+
+Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell; its
+specific gravity is 1.265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied, the
+liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at -187° C. It is the
+most active of all the chemical elements; in contact with hydrogen
+combination takes place between the two gases with explosive violence,
+even in the dark, and at as low a temperature as -210° C; finely divided
+carbon burns in the gas, forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is
+decomposed even at ordinary temperatures, with the formation of
+hydrofluoric acid and "ozonised" oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus
+melt and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides,
+and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides; it does
+not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds are rapidly
+attacked by the gas.
+
+Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known, namely
+_hydrofluoric acid_, HF or H2F2, which was first obtained by C. Scheele
+in 1771 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated sulphuric acid, a
+method still used for the commercial preparation of the aqueous solution
+of the acid, the mixture being distilled from leaden retorts and the
+acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha bottles. The perfectly anhydrous
+acid is a very volatile colourless liquid and is best obtained,
+according to G. Gore (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the
+double fluoride of hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum
+retort fitted with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing
+mixture, and having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be
+prepared in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen
+over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most
+dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly diluted with
+air having an exceedingly injurious action on the respiratory organs,
+whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is followed by death. The anhydrous
+acid boils at 19°.5 C. (H. Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid
+mass at -102°.5 C, which melts at -92°.3 C. (K. Olszewski, _Monats. für
+Chemie_, 1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in the
+anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation of fluorides.
+The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and dissolves most
+metals directly. Its most important property is that it rapidly attacks
+glass, reacting with the silica of the glass to form gaseous silicon
+fluoride, and consequently it is used for etching. T.E. Thorpe (_Jour.
+Chem. Soc._, 1889, 55, p. 163) determined the vapour density of
+hydrofluoric acid at different temperatures, and showed that there is no
+approach to a definite value below about 88° C. where it reaches the
+value 10.29 corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at temperatures
+below 88° C. the value increases rapidly, showing that the molecule is
+more complex in its structure. (For references see J.N. Friend, _The
+Theory of Valency_ (1909), p. 111.) The aqueous solution behaves on
+concentration similarly to the other halogen acids; E. Deussen (_Zeit.
+anorg. Chem._, 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408; 1906, 49, p. 297) found the
+solution of constant boiling point to contain 43.2% HF and to boil at
+110° (750 mm.).
+
+  The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as _fluorides_ and are easily
+  obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides,
+  hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of
+  silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those of
+  the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of the
+  alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of
+  hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative
+  elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other
+  metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power of
+  etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid; or by warming them in a
+  glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a moistened
+  glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently gelatinizes
+  owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed. The atomic
+  weight of fluorine has been determined by the conversion of calcium,
+  sodium and potassium fluorides into the corresponding sulphates. J.
+  Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride into silver chloride,
+  obtained the value 19.44, and by analysing calcium fluoride the value
+  19.16; the more recent work of H. Moissan gives the value 19.05.
+
+  See H. Moissan, _Le Fluor et ses composes_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+FLUOR-SPAR, native calcium fluoride (CaF2), known also as FLUORITE or
+simply FLUOR. In France it is called fluorine, whilst the term fluor is
+applied to the element (F). All these terms, from the Lat. _fluere_, "to
+flow," recall the fact that the spar is useful as a flux in certain
+metallurgical operations. (Cf. its Ger. name _Flussspat_ or _Fluss_.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in cubes, either
+alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, four-faced
+cube, &c. The four-faced cube has been called the fluoroid. In fig. 1, a
+is the cube (100), d the rhombic dodecahedron (110), and f the
+four-faced cube (310). Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of
+interpenetrant cubes. The crystals are sometimes polysynthetic, a large
+octahedron, e.g., being built up of small cubes. The faces are often
+etched or corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the
+octahedron.
+
+Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife,
+though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3.2. The
+colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral is too
+soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome material for
+vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed in bands, regularly
+following the contour of the crystal. As the colour is usually expelled,
+or much altered, by heat, it is believed to be due to an organic
+pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons has been detected in many
+specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and other observers. H.W. Morse (_Proc. Amer.
+Acad._, 1906, p. 587) obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen
+and nitrogen and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by
+heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decomposition of an
+organic colouring matter, which has, however, no connexion with the
+fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of the mineral. Certain crystals
+from Cumberland are beautifully fluorescent, appearing purple with a
+bluish internal haziness by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted
+light. Fluor-spar, though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double
+refraction, probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar
+are thermo-luminescent, i.e. they glow on exposure to a moderate heat,
+and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety which exhibits a
+green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces under the Röntgen rays.
+Cavities containing liquid occasionally occur in crystals of fluor-spar,
+notably in the greasy green cubes of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet
+fluor-spar from Wölsendorf in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when
+struck, and has been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a
+violet fluor-spar from Quincié, dep. Rhône, France. In both cases the
+spar evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.
+
+Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially in
+lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and
+ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries, and has
+been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in the reduction
+of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric acid, which it
+evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The mineral is also used in the
+production of opal glass and enamel ware. In consequence of its low
+refractive and dispersive power, colourless pellucid fluor-spar is
+valuable in the construction of apochromatic lenses, but this variety is
+rare. The dark violet fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as "Blue
+John," is prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively
+at Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the
+workmen "bull beef," may be changed, by heat, to a rich amethystine
+tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult to work on the
+lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin. F. Corsi, the eminent
+Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was the material of the famous
+murrhine vases.
+
+Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the finest
+crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous Limestone series
+in the north of England, especially at Weardale, Allendale and Alston
+Moor. It is also found in the lead and copper-mines of Cornwall and S.
+Devon, notably near Liskeard, where fine crystals have been found, with
+faces of the six-faced octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In
+Cornwall fluor-spar is known to the miners as "cann." Fine yellow
+fluor-spar occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red
+octahedra are found in the Alps, near Göschenen. Many localities in the
+United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked commercially in a few
+places, notably at Rosiclare in southern Illinois.
+
+
+
+
+FLUSHING, formerly a township and a village of Queens county, New York,
+U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing Bay, since the 1st of
+January 1898 a part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Flushing is
+served by the Long Island railroad and by electric lines. It was settled
+in 1644 by a company of English non-conformists who had probably been
+residents of Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its
+name. Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in 1672
+George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the War of
+Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich New Yorkers and
+colonial officials.
+
+
+
+
+FLUSHING (Dutch _Vlissingen_), a fortified seaport in the province of
+Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of Walcheren, at the
+mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt, 4 m. by rail S. by W. of
+Middelburg, with which it is also connected by steam tramway and by a
+ship canal. There is a steam ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the
+coast of Zeeland-Flandres. Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval
+station and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the
+care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial port. In 1872
+the railway was opened which, in conjunction with the regular day and
+night service of steamers to Queenborough in the county of Kent, forms
+one of the main routes between England and the east of Europe. In 1873
+the great harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the
+navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or Antwerp,
+the tonnage being in 1899 about 7.9% of that of the kingdom. As a summer
+resort, however, Flushing has acquired considerable popularity,
+sea-baths and a large modern hotel being situated on the fine beach
+about three-quarters of a mile north-west of the town. It possesses a
+town hall, containing a collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an
+exchange, an academy of sciences and a school of navigation. The
+Jakobskerk, or Jacob's church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to
+Admiral de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786),
+who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town are
+connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery, the state
+railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron and steel works'
+depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture. The chief imports are
+colonial produce and wine, wood and coal. The exports include
+agricultural produce (wheat and beans), shrimps and meat.
+
+
+
+
+FLUTE, a word adapted from O. Fr. _fleüte_, modern _flûte_; from O. Fr.
+have come the Span. _flauta_, Ital. _flauto_ and Ger. _Flöte_. The _New
+English Dictionary_ dismisses the derivations suggested from Lat.
+_flatuare_ or _flavitare_; ultimately the word must be referred to the
+root seen in "blow," Lat. _flare_, Ger. _blasen_, &c.
+
+1. In music "flute" is a general term applied to wood-wind instruments
+consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and blown directly
+through the mouthpiece without the intervention of a reed. The flute
+family is classified according to the mouthpiece used to set in
+vibration the column of air within the tube: i.e. (1) the simple lateral
+mouth-hole or embouchure which necessitates holding the instrument in a
+transverse position; (2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows
+the performer to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There
+is a third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no
+mouthpiece of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration
+by blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the ancient
+Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (q.v.). The transverse flute
+has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which has survived only in
+the so-called penny whistle, in the "flute-work" of the organ (q.v.),
+and in the French flageolet.
+
+_The Transverse Flute_ or _German Flute_ (Fr. _flûte traversière_,
+_flûte allemande_: Ger. _Flöte_, _Querflöte_, _Zwerchpfeiff_,
+_Schweitzerpfeiff_; Ital. _flauto traverso_) includes the _concert
+flute_ known both as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (q.v.) or
+octave flute, and the fife (q.v.). The modern flute consists of a tube
+open at one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug or
+cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one giving the
+consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a stretched string.
+The primitive flute was made in one piece, but the modern instrument is
+composed of three adjustable joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the
+upper end and containing at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole
+or embouchure. This embouchure, always open when the instrument is being
+played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an acoustical
+sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys necessary to produce
+the scale which gave the flute its original designation of D flute, the
+head and body together, when the holes are closed, giving the
+fundamental note D. Before the invention of keys, this fundamental note
+and the notes obtained by the successive opening of the six holes
+produced the diatonic scale of D major. All other semitones were
+obtained by what is known as cross fingering (Fr. _doigté fourchu_; Ger.
+_Gabelgriffe_). It became usual to consider this the typical fingering
+nomenclature, whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute, and
+to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the six lateral
+holes are covered by the fingers. The result is that the tonality is
+always a tone lower than the name of the instrument indicates. Thus the
+D flute is really in C, the F flute is E[flat], &c. (3) The foot-joint
+or tail-joint containing the two additional keys for C[sharp] and C
+which extend the compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C
+in the fundamental octave.
+
+The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with chromatic
+semitones from [notes] to [notes]. The sound is produced by holding the
+flute transversely with the embouchure turned slightly outwards, the
+lower lip resting on the nearer edge of the embouchure, and blowing
+obliquely across, not into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the
+lips, known as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the
+embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces in the
+stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsations or
+vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rarefaction of the
+air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional to the length of the
+stationary column, which is practically somewhat longer than the length
+of the tube.[1] The length of this column is varied by opening the
+lateral finger-holes. The current or air-reed thus acts upon the air
+column within the flute, without passing through the tube, as a plectrum
+upon a string, setting it in vibration. The air column of the flute is
+the sound-producer, whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the
+vibrating reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air
+column, acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed
+by vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle[2] at which the current
+of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure be made less
+acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same time increased, the
+frequency of the alternate pulses of compression and rarefaction within
+the tube will be increased two, three or fourfold, forming a
+corresponding number of nodes and loops which results in harmonics or
+upper partials, respectively the octave, the twelfth, the double octave.
+By this means sounds of higher pitch are produced without actually
+shortening the length of the column of air by means of lateral holes.
+The acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which
+there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be
+treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult the works of
+Rockstro,[3] Helmholtz,[4] and others.[5] The effect of boring lateral
+holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of the air column,
+which may be regarded as being effective only between the hole in
+question and the mouthpiece. In order to obtain this result the diameter
+of the hole should be equal to that of the bore; as long as the holes
+were covered by the fingers, this was obviously impossible. The holes,
+therefore, being smaller than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be
+placed proportionally nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening
+the pitch and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by
+wind-instrument makers of classic Greece (see AULOS and CLARINET), and
+has been explained by Chladni[6] and Gottfried Weber.[7]
+
+The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably
+cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century a
+modification took place, the head joint alone remaining cylindrical
+while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone having its
+smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The conoidal bore
+greatly improved the quality of tone and the production of the higher
+harmonics of the third octave. Once the conical bore had been adopted,
+the term flute was exclusively applied to the new instruments, the
+smaller flutes, then cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife
+(q.v.). At the present day in England, France and America, the favourite
+mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm, and known as
+the "cylinder flute with the parabolic head," of which more will be said
+further on. The successive opening of the holes and keys on the flute
+produces the chromatic scale of the first or fundamental octave. By
+increasing the pressure of the breath and slightly altering the position
+of the lips over the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes
+of the fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave of
+the compass is obtained by the production of the higher harmonics (Fr.
+_sons harmoniques_; Ger. _Flageolettöne_), of the fundamental scale,
+facilitated by the opening of certain of the finger-holes as "vent
+holes." The quality of tone depends somewhat on the material of which
+the flute is made; silver and gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite
+delicacy suitable for solo music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow
+tone of considerable power suitable for orchestral music. The tone
+differs further in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough,
+the medium sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The
+proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air chamber
+situated between it and the embouchure are mainly influential in giving
+the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre, due to the paucity of the
+upper partials of which according to Helmholtz[8] only the octave and
+twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley[9] states, however, that when the
+fundamental D is played, he can discern the seventh partial. The
+technical capabilities of the flute are practically unlimited to a good
+player who can obtain sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic
+and chromatic scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps,
+turns, shakes, &c. By the articulation with the tongue of the syllables
+_te-ke_ or _ti-ke_ repeated quickly for groups of double notes, or of
+_te-ke-ti_ for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced, known
+respectively as _double_ or _triple tonguing_, a device understood early
+in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin Agricola,[10] who gives the
+syllables as _de_ for sustained notes, di-ri for shorter notes, and
+_tel-lel-lel_ for staccato passages in quick tempo.[11]
+
+[Illustration: From Captain Day's _Catalogue, &c._, by permission of
+Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode.
+
+FIG. 1.--Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.]
+
+[Illustration: Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co.
+
+FIG. 2.--Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model.]
+
+  Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is set
+  in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air
+  directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice
+  serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The
+  Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of blowing
+  from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long pipe held
+  obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its upper
+  extremity; it was known as _Saïb-it_[12] and was frequently figured on
+  the monuments. The same instrument, called "nay," is still used in
+  Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the Greeks,
+  plagiaulos,[13] was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first blown
+  from the end as described above,[14] since we know that the Greeks
+  were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx or pan-pipe.
+  The instruments preserved at the British Museum[15] having lateral
+  embouchures show, however, that they were also acquainted--probably
+  through the Hindus--with the transverse flute, although in the case of
+  these specimens a reed must have been inserted into the mouth-hole or
+  no sound would have been obtained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century A.D. From
+  the Tope at Amarabati, British Museum.]
+
+  The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe is generally
+  admitted; the flute evidently penetrated from the East at some period
+  not yet determined. A transverse flute is seen on Indian sculptures of
+  the Gandhara school showing Greek influence, and dating from the
+  beginning of our era (fig. 3). But although the transverse flute was
+  evidently known to the Greeks and Romans, it did not find the same
+  favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no evidence of
+  the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the Roman
+  empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources during the
+  early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a group of
+  caskets[16] of Italo-Byzantine work of the 9th or 10th century, while
+  of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek
+  MSS.[17] preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere.
+  There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev[18] an
+  orchestra depicted on frescoes said to date from the 11th century;
+  among the musicians is a flautist.
+
+  The first essentially western European trace of the transverse flute
+  occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated _Hortus
+  deliciarum_ of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg.[19] Fol. 221 shows a
+  syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad explains in a
+  legend as _tibia_; in the vocabulary the latter is translated swegel.
+  In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of the fifty-one
+  musicians in the beautiful MS. _Las Cantigas de Santa Maria_ in the
+  Escorial, Madrid.[20] Eustache Deschamps, a French poet of the 14th
+  century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the "flute
+  traversaine," and we are justified in supposing that he refers to the
+  transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in the 15th
+  century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Virdung's
+  celebrated work,[21] where it is called "Zwerchpfeiff," and, with the
+  drums, it already constituted the principal element of the military
+  music. Agricola (op. cit.) alludes to it as the "Querchpfeiff" or
+  "Schweizerpfeiff," the latter designation dating, it is said, from the
+  battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops used it for the first
+  time in war.
+
+  From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family, said
+  to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass--[notes] or
+  [notes] respectively. Praetorius[22] designates the transverse flute
+  as "Flauta traversa' Querpfeiff" and "Querflöt," and gives the pitch
+  of the bass in [notes] the tenor and alto in [notes] and the discant
+  in [notes] as varieties then in use. A flute concert at that time
+  included two discants, four altos or tenors, and two basses. The same
+  author distinguishes between the "Traversa" and the "Schweizerpfeiff"
+  or fife (which he also calls "Feldpfeiff," i.e. military flute),
+  although the construction was the same. There were two kinds of
+  "Feldpfeiff," in [notes] and [notes] respectively; they were employed
+  exclusively with the military drum.
+
+  Mersenne's[23] account of the transverse flute, then designated "flûte
+  d'Allemagne" or "flûte allemande" in France, and an "Air de Cour" for
+  four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in use
+  in France the soprano flute in [notes] the tenor or alto flute in
+  [notes] and the bass flute descending to [notes]. The museum of the
+  Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses specimens of all these
+  varieties except the last. All of them are laterally pierced with six
+  finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore, and are fashioned out of a
+  single piece of wood. Their compass consists of two octaves and a
+  fifth. Mersenne's tablature for fingering the flute differs but little
+  from those of Hotteterre-le-Romain[24] and Eisel[25] for the diatonic
+  scale; he does not give the chromatic semitones and the flute had as
+  yet no keys.
+
+  The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in [notes] at the
+  French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per second. It measures
+  0.95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to the lower extremity of
+  the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes is such that it is
+  impossible to cover them with the fingers if the flute is held in the
+  ordinary way. The instrument must be placed against the mouth in an
+  almost vertical direction, inclining the extremity of the tube either
+  to the right or the left. This inconvenient position makes it
+  necessary that the instrument should be divided into two parts,
+  enabling the player to turn the head joint that the embouchure may be
+  most commodiously approached by the lips, which is not at all easy.
+  The first and fourth of the six lateral holes are double in order to
+  accommodate both right- and left-handed players, the holes not in use
+  being stopped up with wax. The bass flute shown in fig. 4 is the
+  facsimile of an instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona. The
+  original, unfortunately no longer fit for use, is nevertheless
+  sufficiently well preserved to allow of all its proportionate
+  measurements being given. The lowest note, E[flat], is obtained with a
+  remarkable amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very prevalent opinion
+  that it is impossible to produce by lateral insufflation sounds which
+  go a little lower than the ordinary limit downwards of the modern
+  orchestral flute.[26]
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  FIG. 4.--Bass Flute. From Museo Civico, Verona (facsimile).
+
+  FIG. 5.--Bass Flute. Brussels Museum.]
+
+  The bass flute cited by Mersenne should not differ much from that of
+  the Museo Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have been in [notes], and
+  that it was furnished with an open key like that which was applied to
+  the recorders (_flûtes douces_) of the same epoch, the function of the
+  key being to augment by another note the compass of the instrument in
+  the lower part. A bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5 is
+  figured and described in Diderot and D'Alembert's encyclopaedia [27]
+  (1751). According to Quantz,[28] it was in France and about the middle
+  of the 17th century that the first modifications were introduced in
+  the manufacture of the flute. The improvements at this period
+  consisted of the abandonment of the cylindrical bore in favour of a
+  conical one, with the base of the cone forming the head of the
+  instrument. At the same time the flute was made of three separate
+  pieces called head, body, and tail or foot, which were ultimately
+  further subdivided. The body or middle joint was divided into two
+  pieces, so that the instrument could be tuned to the different pitches
+  then in use by a replacement with longer or shorter pieces. It was
+  probably about 1677, when Lully introduced the German flute into the
+  opera, that recourse was had for the first time to keys, and that the
+  key of D# was applied to the lower part of the instrument.[29] The
+  engraving of B. Picart, dated 1707, given in Hotteterre's book,
+  represents the flute as having reached the stage of improvement of
+  which we have just spoken. In 1726 Quantz,[30] finding himself in
+  Paris, had a second key applied to the flute, placed nearly at the
+  same height as the first, that of the [notes], intended to
+  differentiate the D# and the E[flat].[31] This innovation was
+  generally well received in Germany, but does not appear to have met
+  with corresponding success in other countries. In France and England
+  manufacturers adopted it but rarely; in Italy it was declared
+  useless.[32] About the same time flutes were constructed with the
+  lower extremity lengthened sufficiently to produce the fundamental C,
+  and furnished with a supplementary key to produce the C[sharp]. This
+  innovation, spoken of by Quantz,[33] did not meet with a very
+  favourable reception, and was shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing
+  mention may be made of the drawing of a flute with a C key in the
+  _Music-Saal_ of J.F.B. Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45.
+
+  The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected by
+  changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or shorter
+  upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences in the
+  pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion of it
+  were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the different
+  parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications in the
+  length, it was conceived that the just relation could be
+  re-established by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key.
+  These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was
+  asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened
+  proportionately to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus
+  improved took the name of "flûtes à registre." The register system
+  was, about 1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint[34] and, the
+  embouchure section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable
+  to the performer, according to the opinion of this professor, to lower
+  the pitch of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other
+  lengthening pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.
+
+  The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice, is
+  closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork
+  depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is
+  in its right place when the accompanying octaves [notes] are true.
+  Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions the use of a nut-screw
+  to give the required position to the cork.[35] He does not name the
+  inventor of this appliance, but, according to Tromlitz,[36] the
+  improvement was due to Quantz himself. The invention goes back to
+  1726.
+
+  When the _Method_ of Quantz appeared there were still in use, besides
+  the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the low
+  fourth flute in A, and the flûte d'amour a note higher; in France they
+  had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave). A bass flute in
+  D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When Ribock published his
+  _Bemerkungen über die Flöte_[37] the flute had already the five keys
+  here shown. [notes] This author states that the inventor of these new
+  keys is not known to him, but that either Kusder, a musical
+  instrument-maker in London, or Johann Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was
+  the originator, since he has not been able to trace those keys on the
+  flutes of any other maker. Although Tromlitz does not claim for
+  himself the invention of the keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], he
+  states that "he had occupied himself for several years in applying
+  these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing, but on the
+  contrary to render the handling of them as easy as possible."[38] In
+  the later work published in 1800,[39] however, he seems to attribute
+  the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of London; he says that
+  he has never yet been fortunate enough to come across a good flute by
+  that maker--"the flute has certainly gained by the addition of the
+  keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], but this is not everything, for on
+  such a flute much must perforce be left unattempted.... Only a flute
+  with eight keys according to my invention is capable of everything."
+  It would seem, moreover, from circumstantial evidence stated clearly
+  and on good authority by Rockstro[40] that the keys for F, G[sharp]
+  and B[flat] must have been used first in England and made by Richard
+  Potter before 1774. The higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz,
+  we believe to have been first recommended by Ribock (1782).[41]
+  Tromlitz in _Über Flöten_ describes at length what may be termed the
+  first systematic effort to overcome the difficulties created by the
+  combination of open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the
+  question by determining the positions of the holes according to the
+  exigencies of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more
+  arbitrary theories connected with the musical scale.
+
+  In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz's slide applied to the head
+  joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system of
+  tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document[42]
+  describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the
+  holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the
+  keys. Potter's patent conical valves were an adaptation of the
+  contrivance first invented by J.F. Boie or Boye of Göttingen,[43] who
+  used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The keys
+  mentioned in the patent were four--D[sharp], F, G[sharp], A[sharp].
+  The idea of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up
+  again about the same time by two players of the flute in London named
+  Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C and C#,
+  and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In Dr
+  Arnold's _New Instructions for the German Flute_ occurs a tablature,
+  the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century, and
+  bears the following title, "A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale and
+  Description of Tacet and Florio's new invented German Flute, with all
+  the additional keys explained." It explains the use of six keys--C,
+  C#, D#, F, G#, A#--that are not always figured, because the employment
+  of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz himself, who, however,
+  made flutes with nine keys--adding E[flat], another F, and C[natural],
+  declared that he was not in favour of so great a complication, and
+  that he preferred the flute with only two keys, D[sharp] and E[flat],
+  with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the head joint.
+  This instrument met all requirements. He was always much opposed to
+  the use of the old keys for C[natural] and C[sharp], because they
+  altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When
+  Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become
+  modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flûte
+  d'amour a minor third lower, a "third" flute a minor third higher,
+  and, finally, the little octave flute.
+
+  While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of augmenting
+  the compass of the flute downwards by employing open keys for
+  C[natural] and C[sharp], an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi,[44]
+  increased the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of
+  five new keys, viz. B, B[flat], A, A[flat], and G. At the same time
+  that he produced this invention [45] he conceived the plugging of the
+  lateral holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But
+  it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral
+  holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there
+  were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of
+  Orazi proved a failure.
+
+  In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan,[46] of Stratford, near London,
+  conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring,
+  permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was
+  being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the embryo
+  of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the system of
+  the flute. Two years later Macgregor,[47] a musical-instrument maker
+  in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower than the ordinary
+  flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the existence of the bass
+  flute mentioned above. The difference between the two instruments lies
+  in the mechanism of the keys. That employed by Macgregor consisted of
+  a double lever, a contrivance dating from before the middle of the
+  18th century, of which the application is seen in an oboe of large
+  dimensions preserved in the National Museum at Munich.[48]
+
+  In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra D[natural] hole and
+  key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern
+  construction.[49]
+
+  About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more keys,
+  those of F[sharp] and C[sharp], and a key, called "de cadence," to
+  facilitate the accompanying shakes.
+
+  To increase the number of keys, to improve their system of plugging,
+  and to extend the [notes] scale of the instrument in the lower
+  region,--these had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in
+  the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose labours
+  we have called attention, had as yet devoted his attention to the
+  rational division of the column of air by means of the lateral holes.
+  In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to be in London, was
+  struck with the power of tone the celebrated English performer Charles
+  Nicholson drew from his instrument. Boehm learned, and not without
+  astonishment, that his English colleague obtained this result by
+  giving the lateral holes a much greater diameter than was then usually
+  admitted. About the same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an
+  amateur player named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he
+  had bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a
+  key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These
+  innovations set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the
+  instrument.[50] He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832
+  he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument is
+  distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger holes
+  disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.
+
+  Boehm's system had preserved the key of G[sharp] open; Coche,[51] a
+  professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet the
+  younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified Boehm's
+  flute by closing the G[sharp] with a key, wishing thus to render the
+  new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a key,
+  facilitating the shake upon C[sharp] with D[sharp], and brought about
+  some other changes in the instrument of less importance.
+
+  Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had been
+  conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however, he made
+  further experiments, and the results obtained were put in practice by
+  the construction of a new instrument, of which the body was given a
+  cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was modified at the
+  embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic (see fig. 2). The
+  inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in the tones of the lower
+  octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect accuracy of intonation,
+  by establishing the more exact proportions which a column of air of
+  cylindrical form permitted.
+
+  The priority of Boehm's invention was long contested, his detractors
+  maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the flute was due
+  to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindicates the claim of the
+  former to the invention of the large lateral holes.[52] His greatest
+  title to fame is the invention of the mechanism which allows the
+  production of the eleven chromatic semitones intermediate between the
+  fundamental note and its first harmonic by means of eleven holes so
+  disposed that in opening them successively they shorten the column of
+  air in exact proportional quantities.[53] Boehm (_Essays_, &c.)
+  published a diagram or scheme to be adopted in determining the
+  position of the note-holes of wind instruments for every given pitch.
+  This diagram gives the position of the intermediate holes which he had
+  been enabled to establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of
+  the lengths of strings.
+
+  The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection it has
+  reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there are players
+  who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering required for
+  some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derangement of the
+  mechanism, have something to do with this. In England especially, the
+  ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to the improvements
+  introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in 1845 (Patent No.
+  10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A lower, and covered them
+  with open keys. He added some keys, and made a better disposition of
+  the other lateral holes, of which he increased the diameter, producing
+  thus a sonorousness almost equal to that of the Boehm flute, while yet
+  preserving the old fingering for the notes of the first two octaves.
+  But in spite of these improvements the old flute will not bear an
+  impartial comparison with that of Boehm.
+
+  A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signor Carlo Tommaso
+  Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of the instrument
+  on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal features of this
+  flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper extremity of the
+  tube instead of at the side, which allows the instrument to be held in
+  a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is required. There are eleven
+  holes mathematically placed in the tube which give the semitones of
+  the scale; there are no keys. The eleven holes are fingered by the
+  fingers and thumbs, the C[sharp] hole being closed by the side of the
+  left fore-finger. All the notes are obtained by means of simple
+  fingering as far as G[sharp] of the third octave, the remaining notes
+  of which are produced by cross-fingering. For the convenience of
+  players with short fingers keys can be added, and the head of the
+  Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute. The compass of the
+  Georgi flute [notes] is almost the same as that of the concert flute;
+  viz. If the lower C and C[sharp] are required, extra holes and keys
+  can be added. Everything that is possible on the Boehm flute is
+  possible on the Georgi and more, owing to the simplicity of the
+  fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform, all trills are
+  equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant and
+  sympathetic.[54]
+
+  The old English _fipple flute_, or _flûte à bec_, is described under
+  the headings RECORDER and FLAGEOLET.     (V. M.; K. S.)
+
+2. In architecture the name "flute" is given to the vertical channels
+(segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal section) employed
+on the shafts of columns in the classic styles. The flutes are separated
+one from the other by an "arris" in the Doric order and by a "fillet" in
+the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The earliest fluted columns are those
+in Egypt, at first with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at
+Karnac (1400 B.C.) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about
+one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one of the
+"beehive" tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and are the earliest
+Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric temples at Metapontum and
+Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the flutes are also segmental, but in later
+examples in order to emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs
+and are known as "false ellipses," and this applies to nearly all the
+fluting in Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or
+Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52 in the
+archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52 flutes in the
+Persian columns according to the diameter of the column. In the Greek
+Doric column 20 is the usual number, but there are 16 only in the
+temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and the temple of Apollo at Syracuse;
+18 in one of the temples of Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse,
+and 24 in the temple of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also
+varies; in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of
+the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius of the
+central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the smaller
+arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar accentuation
+is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where the flutes are
+separated by fillets, and their section is always elliptical in Greek
+work, the depth of the flute, however, being always greater than in the
+Doric order. Thus, in the temple of Ilissus and the Ionic column in the
+cella of the temple at Bassae, the depth is about one-quarter of the
+width, in the Propylaea at Priene it is about one-third, and in the
+Erechtheum and other examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more
+than one-half. The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one
+quarter of the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek
+Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, the
+flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth being about one
+third of the width in the Doric column, and in all Ionic, Corinthian and
+Composite columns half the width of the flute. The fillet also is much
+broader in Roman examples, being about one-third of the width of the
+flute. In Roman columns sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the
+shaft, about one-third of the height, are partly filled with a convex
+moulding, "cabling" being the usual term applied to this treatment. The
+French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this decorative
+feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the Louvre carved a
+series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian buildings, instead of
+the fluting of the column being vertical, it twines round the column and
+is known as spiral fluting; a fine example is found in the Bevilacqua
+palace at Verona by San Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into
+capitals, as in the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at
+Cnidos, the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one of
+the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which are
+sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many of the Roman
+temples were carved with flutes. In medieval buildings, fluting was
+occasionally introduced in imitation of Roman work, as in the churches
+of central Syria and of Autun and Langres in France, but in the south of
+Italy and Sicily it would seem to have been brought in as a variety of
+treatment, in the decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of
+cloisters, as at Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and
+St Paul-outside-the-Walls at Rome.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See E.F.F. Chladni, _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.
+
+  [2] See Sonreck, "Über die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung der
+    Luftsäule in offenen und gedeckten Röhren," _Pogg. Ann._, 1876, vol.
+    158.
+
+  [3] _The Flute_ (London, 1890), § 90-105, pp. 34-40.
+
+  [4] _Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Röhren mit offenen Enden_
+    (Berlin, 1896). Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No.
+    80.
+
+  [5] V.C. Mahillon, _Experimental Studies on the Resonance of
+    Trunco-Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns_, translated by F.A. Mahan
+    (London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, _Acoustics in Relation to Wind
+    Instruments_ (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die
+    musikalischen Instrumente, &c._ (Giessen, 1855); _idem._ "Sur le
+    mouvement vibratoire de l'air dans les tuyaux," _Comptes rendus_,
+    1855, vol. 41, &c.
+
+  [6] _Op. cit._, § 73, pp. 87-88, note 1.
+
+  [7] "Akustik der Blasinstrumente," _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig,
+    1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, _Zur
+    Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_. Inaugural
+    Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität. (Berlin, 15th of March
+    1899), p. 9.
+
+  [8] _Lehre von der Tonempfindung_ (Braunschweig, 1877).
+
+  [9] See additions by D. J. B. to article "Flute" in Grove's
+    _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ (London, 1904).
+
+  [10] _Musica instrumentalis deutsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528).
+
+  [11] See also L'Artusi, _Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna_
+    (Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cäcilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.
+
+  [12] See "Les Anciennes Flûtes égyptiennes," by Victor Loret in
+    _Journal asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two
+    careful articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still
+    extant. See also Lauth, "Über die ägyptische Instrumente," _Sitzungs.
+    der philos., philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu
+    München_ (1873).
+
+  [13] See Albert A. Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_,
+    iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.
+
+  [14] Representations of flutes blown as here described have been
+    found in Europe. See _Comptes rendus de la commission impériale
+    archéologique_ (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same
+    date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, _Wandgemälde_, No.
+    7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18;
+    Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, _Les Figurines_, p. 136.
+
+  [15] There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9
+     and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood
+     encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head of
+     a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube. This
+     hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The pipe is
+     stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern flute.
+     There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus in
+     the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in _History of
+     Discoveries at Halicarnassus_ (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre
+     has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing satyrs
+     playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles have been
+     restored, especially in the details affecting our present subject,
+     and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another statue
+     representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum. The
+     instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but
+     erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which
+     the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the
+     intervention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column
+     of air.
+
+  [16] Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze,
+    _Catalogo_ (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in
+    _Gallerie nazionali italiane_, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263,
+    L'Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, "Antike Vorlagen
+    byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs," in _Jahrb. d. K. Preuss.
+    Kunst-Sammlungen_ (Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven,
+    "Ein Reliquienkästchen aus Pirano," id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl.
+    iii.
+
+  [17] Greek MS. 510, Grégoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliothèque
+    Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, _L'Épopée
+    byzantine à la fin du dizième siècle_ (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i.
+    p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b.
+    written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A
+    cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being
+    uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol. 72a,
+    A.D. 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, "Der Bilderkreis des
+    griechischen Physiologus," in _Byzantinisches Archiv_ (Leipzig,
+    1899), Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, _Histoire de l'art byzantin_
+    (Paris, 1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; "Kuseyr' Amra," issued by _K.
+    Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv.
+
+  [18] A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes has
+    been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue,
+    sect. "Academies," St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab. 1325a).
+
+  [19] This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century,
+    was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
+    during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in
+    facsimile published by the _Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
+    historiques d'Alsace_. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller
+    (Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, _Herrad von
+    Landsperg und ihr Werk_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1818), twelve
+    plates.
+
+  [20] MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in _Critical and Bibliographical Notes
+    on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887), p. 119.
+
+  [21] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [22] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbüttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.
+
+  [23] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), _Livre_ v. p. 241.
+
+  [24] Principes de la flûte traversière ou flûte d'Allemagne, de la
+   flûte à bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38.
+
+  [25] _Musicus [Greek: autodidaktos] oder der sich selbst informirende
+    Musicus_ (Erfurt, 1738), p. 85.
+
+  [26] Fétis, _Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique à
+    l'Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855_.
+
+  [27] See _Recueil de planches_, vol. iv., and article "Basse de flûte
+    traversière," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also _The Flute_, by R.S.
+    Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced
+    together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the
+    Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted
+    French maker Delusse.
+
+  [28] _Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen_
+    (Berlin, 1752).
+
+  [29] Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in
+    describing the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute
+    in D, which is considered to be typical of the family.
+
+  [30] "Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
+    entworfen," in the _Historisch-Kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der
+    Musik_, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor of
+    the flute to Frederick the Great.
+
+  [31] See Johann Georg Tromlitz, _Ausführlicher und gründlicher
+    Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen_ (Leipzig, 1791), 1, § 7, and _Über
+    Flöten mit mehrern Klappen_ (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. § 21.
+
+  [32] Antonio Lorenzoni, _Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso_
+    (Vicenza, 1779).
+
+  [33] See _Anweisung_, i. § 15.
+
+  [34] See _Lebenslauf_, _loc. cit._ p. 248, where Quantz states that
+    he invented the adjustable head for the flute.
+
+  [35] See _Anweisung_, i. §§ 10-13 and iv. § 26.
+
+  [36] _Ausführlicher und gründlicher Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen_
+    (Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. § 20. Compare Schilling, _Univ.-Lexikon_
+    (Leipzig, 1835).
+
+  [37] Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R.,
+    see p. 2).
+
+  [38] _Kurze Abhandlung von Flötenspielen_ (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.
+
+  [39] _Über Flöten_, &c., pp. 133 and 134.
+
+  [40] See _The Flute_, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.
+
+  [41] See op. cit. pp. 51 and 62.
+
+  [42] English patent, No. 1499.
+
+  [43] See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197.
+
+  [44] _Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico
+    che ha i suoni bassi del violino_ (Rome, 1797).
+
+  [45] The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by
+    Trexler of Vienna, who called it the "panaulon."
+
+  [46] Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
+    diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
+
+  [47] Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
+    diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
+
+  [48] Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775, and
+    called "Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the Paris
+    Conservatoire.
+
+  [49] See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber in
+    _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation
+    of which is given by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 279 and 280.
+
+  [50] See _Über den Flötenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen
+    desselben_ (Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, _An Essay on the
+    Construction of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm,
+    published with the addition of Correspondence and other Documents_
+    (London, 1882).
+
+  [51] _Examen critique de la flûte ordinaire comparée à la flûte
+    Boehm_ (Paris, 1838).
+
+  [52] They existed long before, however, in the Chinese _Ty_ and the
+    Japanese _Fuye_.
+
+  [53] The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's _History of
+    the Boehm Flute_ (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating
+    to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
+    impartiality.
+
+  [54] For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments
+    of the Orchestra_, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is
+    given, and Paul Wetzger, _Die Flöte_ (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24,
+    and Tafel iv. No. 20.
+
+
+
+
+FLUX (Lat. _fluxus_, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the
+English term in medicine, &c.), in metallurgy, a substance introduced in
+the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to remove objectionable
+impurities in the form of a slag. The substances in commonest use
+are:--lime or limestone, to slag off silica and silicates, fluor-spar
+for lead, calcium and barium sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica
+for removing basic substances such as limestone. Other substances are
+also used, but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium and
+potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica; mixed with
+potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable oxidizing fusion
+mixture; "black flux" is a reducing flux composed of finely divided
+carbon and potassium carbonate, and formed by deflagrating a mixture of
+argol with ¼ to ½ its weight of nitre. Borax is very frequently
+employed; it melts to a clear liquid and dissolves silica and many
+metallic oxides. Potassium bisulphate is useful in the preliminary
+treatment of refractory aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used
+in silver and gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any
+metallic oxides present.
+
+
+
+
+FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. _fleugan_, to
+fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of many
+insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see LEPIDOPTERA),
+dragon-fly (q.v.), may-fly (q.v.), caddis-fly (q.v.), &c.; also
+specially employed by entomologists to mean any species of the
+two-winged flies, or Diptera (q.v.). In ordinary parlance _fly_ is often
+used in the sense of the common house-fly (_Musca domestica_); and by
+English colonists and sportsmen in South Africa in that of a species of
+tsetse-fly (_Glossina_), or a tract of country ("belt") in which these
+insects abound (see TSETSE-FLY).
+
+Apart from the house-fly proper (_Musca domestica_), which in England is
+the usual one, several species of flies are commonly found in houses;
+e.g. the _Stomoxys calcitrans_, or stable-fly; _Pollenia rudis_, or
+cluster-fly; _Muscina stabulans_, another stable-fly; _Calliphora
+erythrocephala_, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly, with smaller
+sorts of blue-bottle, _Phormia terraenovae_ and _Lucilia caesar_;
+_Homalomyia canicularis_ and _brevis_, the small house-fly; _Scenopinus
+fenestralis_, the black window-fly, &c. But _Musca domestica_ is far the
+most numerous, and in many places, especially in hot weather and in hot
+climates, is a regular pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau
+of Entomology U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in
+1900 he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different
+parts of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808
+were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is of the
+widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard filth, so
+great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially cholera and
+typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent source of danger;
+and various sanitary regulations have been made, or precautions
+suggested, for getting rid of it. These are discussed by Mr Howard in
+the paper referred to, but in brief they all amount to measures of
+general hygiene, and the isolation, prompt removal, or proper
+sterilization of the animal or human excrement in which these flies
+breed.
+
+
+
+
+FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray, being a translation
+of the _Muscicapa_ of older authors, and applied by Pennant to an
+extremely common English bird, the _M. grisola_ of Linnaeus. It has
+since been used in a general and very vague way for a great many small
+birds from all parts of the world, which have the habit of catching
+flies on the wing. Ornithologists who have trusted too much to this
+characteristic and to certain merely superficial correlations of
+structure, especially those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill
+and a gape beset by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the
+title of _Muscicapidae_ an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of forms
+much reduced in number by later systematists. Great advance has been
+made in establishing as independent families the _Todidae_ and
+_Eurylaemidae_, as well as in excluding from it various members of the
+_Ampelidae_, _Cotingidae_, _Tyrannidae_, _Vireonidae_, _Mniotiltidae_,
+and perhaps others, which had been placed within its limits. These steps
+have left the _Muscicapidae_ a purely Old-World family of the order
+_Passeres_, and the chief difficulty now seems to lie in separating it
+from the _Campephagidae_ and the _Laniidae_. Only a very few of the
+forms of flycatchers (which, after all the deductions above mentioned,
+may be reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps 250
+species) can here be even named.[1]
+
+The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens to be the
+type of the Linnaean genus _Muscicapa_--the spotted or grey flycatcher
+(_M. grisola_). It is a common summer visitant to nearly the whole of
+Europe, and is found throughout Great Britain, though less abundant in
+Scotland than in England, as well as in many parts of Ireland, where,
+however, it seems to be but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one
+of the latest migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands
+till the latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
+bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever and
+anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap of its bill
+some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot it has
+quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as before. It
+has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note, uttered from
+time to time with a jerking gesture of the wings and tail. It makes a
+neat nest, built among the small twigs which sprout from the bole of a
+large tree, fixed in the branches of some plant trained against a wall,
+or placed in any hole of the wall itself that may be left by the falling
+of a brick or stone. The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale
+greenish-blue, closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and
+inconspicuous as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the
+closest vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost
+everybody. A second British species is the pied flycatcher (_M.
+atricapilla_), a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except
+in the hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to
+Cumberland, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere. It is
+not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed in Ireland. More
+of a woodland bird than the former, the brightly-contrasted black and
+white plumage of the cock, together with his agreeable song, readily
+attracts attention where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all
+western Europe, but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly
+allied species (_M. collaris_) in which the white of the throat and
+breast extends like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species
+(_M. parva_), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
+also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west of
+England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range, which has
+received generic recognition under the name of _Erythrosterna_, and it
+has several relations in Asia and particularly in India, while the
+allies of the pied flycatchers (_Ficedula_ of Brisson) are chiefly of
+African origin, and those of the grey or spotted flycatcher (_Muscicapa_
+proper[2]) are common to the two continents.
+
+One of the most remarkable groups of _Muscicapidae_ is that known as the
+paradise flycatchers, forming the genus _Tchitrea_ of Lesson. In nearly
+all the species the males are distinguished by the growth of exceedingly
+long feathers in their tail, and by their putting on, for some part of
+the year at least, a plumage generally white, but almost always quite
+different from that worn by the females, which is of a more or less deep
+chestnut or bay colour, though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy
+steel-blue. They are found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical
+Asia to Japan, and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than
+the open country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian _T.
+paradisi_; but the Chinese _T. incii_, and the Japanese _T. princeps_,
+from being very commonly represented by the artists of those nations on
+screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the cock of the last
+named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and eyes surrounded by
+bare skin of the same colour--though these are characters possessed in
+some degree by all the species--seems to be the most beautiful of the
+genus. _T. bourbonnensis_, which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius
+and Réunion, appears to be the only species in which the outward
+difference of the sexes is but slight. In _T. corvina_ of the
+Seychelles, the adult male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers
+are not only very long but very broad. In _T. mutata_ of Madagascar,
+some of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
+elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates
+over the whole body; but whether this sex is here actually dimorphic, or
+whether the one dress is a passing phase of the other, is at present
+undetermined. Some of the African species, of which many have been
+described, seem always to retain the rufous plumage, but the long
+tail-feathers serve to mark the males.
+
+A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they exhibit,
+as _Myiagra azurea_, and others as _Monarcha_ (or _Arses_) _chrysomela_
+by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned to the
+_Muscicapidae_ are very varied. _Sisura inquieta_ has some of the habits
+of a water-wagtail (_Motacilla_), and hence has received the name of
+"dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of England on its analogue; and the
+many species of _Rhipidura_ or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in
+various parts of the Australian Region, have manners still more
+singular--turning over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as
+they catch their prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority
+of the _Muscicapidae_, and especially of the numerous African forms,
+hardly anything is known.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his
+    _Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers_
+    (published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the _Muscicapidae_
+    at all, and one of them, _Todus_, not even to the order _Passeres_.
+    It is perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose
+    substance so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson
+    wrote it filled with faith in the so-called "Quinary System"--that
+    fanciful theory, invented by W.S. Macleay, which misled and kept back
+    so many of the best English zoologists of his generation from the
+    truth,--and, unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was
+    warped to fit his hypothesis.
+
+  [2] By some writers this section is distinguished as _Butalis_ of
+    Boie, but to do so seems contrary to rule.
+
+
+
+
+FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE (1807-1892), Swedish novelist, was born in
+Strömstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father, Rutger Smith, was a
+retired sea-captain who had settled down as a small merchant, and she
+often accompanied him on the voyages he made along the coast. She
+married in 1827 a doctor named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live
+in the province of Småland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her
+old home and published in 1838 her first novel, _Waldemar Klein_. In the
+next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the jurist and
+poet, Johan Gabriel Carlén (1814-1875). Her house became a meeting-place
+for Stockholm men of letters, and for the next twelve years she produced
+one or two novels annually. The premature death of her son Edvard
+Flygare (1829-1853), who had already published three books, showing
+great promise, was followed by six years of silence, after which she
+resumed her writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are _Rosen
+på Tistelön_ (1842; Eng. trans. _The Rose of Tistelön_, 1842);
+_Enslingen på Johannesskäret_ (1846; Eng. trans. _The Hermit_, 4 vols.,
+1853); and _Ett Köpemanshus i skärgården_ (1859; _The Merchant's House
+on the Cliffs_). Fru Carlén published in 1878 _Minnen af svenskt
+författarlif_ 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888 three volumes of _Efterskörd
+från en 80- årings författarbana_, containing her last tales. She died
+at Stockholm on the 5th of February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlén
+(1836-1883), was also a popular novelist.
+
+  Emilie Flygare-Carlén's novels were collected in thirty-one volumes
+  (Stockholm, 1869-1875).
+
+
+
+
+FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture, the term given to a structural feature
+employed to transmit the thrust of a vault across an intervening space,
+such as an aisle, chapel or cloister, to a buttress built outside the
+latter. This was done by throwing a semi-arch across to the vertical
+buttress. Though employed by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it
+was generally masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but
+in the 12th century it was recognized as rational construction and
+emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in the
+cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims, &c. Sometimes,
+owing to the great height of the vaults, two semi-arches were thrown one
+above the other, and there are cases where the thrust was transmitted to
+two or even three buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical
+buttress, placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to
+thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical
+buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built outside the
+chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical buttresses are, as a
+rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to give them greater power of
+resistance.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING COLUMN, in military organization, an independent corps of troops
+usually composed of all arms, to which a particular task is assigned. It
+is almost always composed in the course of operations, out of the troops
+immediately available. Mobility being its _raison d'être_, a flying
+column is when possible composed of picked men and horses accompanied
+with the barest minimum of baggage. The term is usually, though not
+necessarily, applied to forces under the strength of a brigade. The
+"mobile columns" employed by the British in the South African War of
+1899-1902, were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a
+battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry--almost exactly half
+that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in savage or
+guerrilla warfare.
+
+
+
+
+"FLYING DUTCHMAN," a spectre-ship popularly believed to haunt the waters
+around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend has several variants, but the
+commonest is that which declares that the captain of the vessel,
+Vanderdecken, was condemned for his blasphemy to sail round the cape for
+ever, unable to "make" a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the
+ghost of the Dutch seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the "Flying
+Dutchman" is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German
+legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that he is
+condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship without helm
+or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with the devil. Sir Walter
+Scott says the "Flying Dutchman" was originally a vessel laden with
+bullion. A murder was committed on board, and thereafter the plague
+broke out among the crew, which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft.
+The legend has been used by Wagner in his opera _Der fliegende
+Holländer_.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-FISH, the name given to two different kinds of fish. The one
+(_Dactylopterus_) belongs to the gurnard family (_Triglidae_), and is
+more properly called flying gurnard; the other (_Exocoetus_) has been
+called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the gar-pike than to
+the herring. Some other fishes with long pectoral fins (_Pterois_) have
+been stated to be able to fly, but this has been proved to be incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Dactylopterus volitans._]
+
+The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the _Exocoeti_ with
+regard to individuals as well as species, there being only three or four
+species known of the former, whilst more than fifty have been described
+of the latter, which, besides, are found in numerous shoals of
+thousands. The _Dactylopteri_ may be readily distinguished by a large
+bony head armed with spines, hard keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c.
+The _Exocoeti_ have thin, deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the
+ventrals placed far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have
+long barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly
+prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in many
+species of _Exocoetus_ the ventral fins are similarly enlarged, and
+evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes. Flying-fishes
+are found in the tropical and sub-tropical seas only, and it is a
+singular fact that the geographical distribution of the two kinds is
+nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently observed in rough
+weather and in a disturbed sea than during calms; they dart out of the
+water when pursued by their enemies or frightened by an approaching
+vessel, but frequently also without any apparent cause, as is also
+observed in many other fishes; and they rise without regard to the
+direction of the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended,
+without any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air
+whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of the
+wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship going 10
+m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not extending
+beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer when the fishes fly
+against, than with or at an angle to, the wind. Any vertical or
+horizontal deviation from a straight line is not caused at the will of
+the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they retain a horizontally
+straight course when flying with or against the wind, but are carried
+towards the right or left whenever the direction of the wind is at an
+angle with that of their flight. However, it sometimes happens that the
+fish during its flight immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a
+stroke of its tail turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line
+of their flight is always also vertically straight or rather parabolic,
+like the course of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough
+sea, when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then
+frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the pressure of
+the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of vessels, but this
+never happens during a calm or from the lee side, but during a breeze
+only and from the weather side. In day time they avoid a ship, flying
+away from it, but during the night when they are unable to see, they
+frequently fly against the weather board, where they are caught by the
+current of the air, and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the
+surface of the water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep
+close to it. All these observations point clearly to the fact that any
+deflection from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and
+not to voluntary action on the part of the fish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Exocoetus callopterus._]
+
+A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been
+discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water
+flying-fish. It has been named _Pantodon buchholzi_. It has very large
+pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached to the inner
+ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the Congo region, and
+has been caught in its flight above the water in a butterfly-net.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-FOX, or, more correctly, FOX-BAT. The first name is applied by
+Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the genus _Pteropus_,
+which contains more than half the family (_Pteropidae_). This genus is
+confined to the tropical regions of the Eastern hemisphere and
+Australia. It comprises numerous species, a considerable proportion of
+which occur in the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes
+are the largest of the bats, the kalong of Java (_Pteropus edulis_)
+measuring about a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane
+measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal bats,
+suspending themselves during the day head-downwards by thousands from
+the branches of trees, where with their wings gathered about them, they
+bear some resemblance to huge shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of
+some peculiar fruit. In Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend
+themselves chiefly from the branches of dead trees, where they are
+easily caught or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home
+in basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices, and "are
+really very good eating, something like hare." Towards evening these
+bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies to the village
+plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit, and so numerous and
+voracious are they that no garden crop has much chance of being gathered
+which is not specially protected from their attacks. The flying-fox of
+India (_Pteropus medius_) is a smaller species, but is found in great
+numbers wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-SQUIRREL, properly the name of such members of the squirrel-group
+of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like expansion of the skin of the
+flanks, with attachments to the limbs, by means of which they are able
+to take long flying-leaps from tree to tree. The parachute is supported
+by a cartilage attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the
+lateral membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front
+of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third
+(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long tail.
+Of the two widely distributed genera, _Pteromys_ includes the larger and
+_Sciuropterus_ the smaller species. The two differ in certain details of
+dentition, and in the greater development in the former of the
+parachute, especially the interfemoral portion, which in the latter is
+almost absent. In _Pteromys_ the tail is cylindrical and comparatively
+thin, while in _Sciuropterus_ it is broad, flat and laterally expanded,
+so as to compensate for the absence of the interfemoral membrane by
+acting as a supplementary parachute.
+
+[Illustration: Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel (_Idiurus zenkeri_).]
+
+In general appearance flying-squirrels resemble ordinary squirrels,
+although they are even more beautifully coloured. Their habits, food,
+&c., are also very similar to those of the true squirrels, except that
+they are more nocturnal, and are therefore less often seen. The Indian
+flying-squirrel (_P. oral_) leaps with its parachute extended from the
+higher branches of a tree, and descends first directly and then more and
+more obliquely, until the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a
+horizontal direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch
+or trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these
+rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. _Sciuropterus_
+is represented by _S. velucella_ in eastern Europe and northern Asia,
+and by a second species in North America, but the other species of this
+genus and all those of _Pteromys_ are Indo-Malayan. A third genus,
+_Eupetaurus_, typified by a very large, long-haired, dark-grey species
+from the mountains to the north-west of Kashmir (_Eu. cinereus_),
+differs from all other members of the squirrel-family by its
+tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a total length of 37 in., of which 22
+are taken up by the tail.
+
+In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members of a
+very different family of rodents, the _Anomaluridae_, which are provided
+with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is absent in some
+members of the family, the most distinctive character is the presence of
+a double row of spiny scales on the under surface of the tail, which
+apparently aid in climbing. The flying species are also distinguished
+from ordinary flying-squirrels by the circumstance that the additional
+bone serving for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane
+rises from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is
+represented by two flying genera, _Anomalurus_ and _Idiurus_; the latter
+containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut) characterized
+by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the species are West
+African. In habits these rodents appear to be very similar to the true
+flying-squirrels. The species without a parachute constitutes the genus
+_Zenkerella_, and looks very like an ordinary squirrel (see RODENTIA).
+
+In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied to such
+marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals which naturalists
+prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see MARSUPIALIA) (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+FLYSCH, in geology, a remarkable formation, composed mainly of
+sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending from S.W.
+Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone to the Vienna basin,
+whence it may be followed round the northern flanks of the Carpathians
+into the Balkan peninsula. It is represented in the Pyrenees, the
+Apennines, the Caucasus and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like
+deposits are related to the Himalayas as the European formations are to
+the Alps. The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the
+western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong to the
+Eocene period, but the principal development is of Oligocene age; as it
+is traced eastward we find in the east Alps that it descends into the
+upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna region and the Carpathians it
+contains intercalations which clearly indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon
+for the lower parts. It appears indeed that this type of formation was in
+progress of deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated
+above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of fossils from
+enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation with other
+formations difficult; often the only indications of organisms are the
+abundant markings supposed to represent Algae (Chondrites, &c.), which
+have given rise to the term "Hieroglyphic-sandstone." The most noteworthy
+exceptions are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene
+nummulitic beds in Calabria, and the _Aptychus_ beds of Waidhofen. Local
+phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is the "Vienna" or
+"Carpathian" sandstone of those regions; the "macigno" (a soft sandstone
+with calcareous cement) of the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the
+"scagliose" (scaly clays) and "alberese" (limestones) of the same places
+are portions of this formation. The _gris de Menton_, the _gris d'Annot_
+of the Basses Alps, and the _gris d'Embrun_ of Chaillot appear in
+Switzerland as the _gris de Taveyannaz_. At several places the upper
+layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Léman and at
+the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the "Red-Flysch."
+Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &c., occur in the Flysch in
+Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of granite, gneiss and
+other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates are found near Vienna,
+near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near Lake Thun (Wild Flysch) and at other
+points, which have been variously regarded as indications of glaciation
+or of coastal conditions.
+
+
+
+
+FOCA (pronounced _Fáwtcha_), a town of Bosnia, situated at the
+confluence of the Drina and Cehotina rivers, and encircled by wooded
+mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the headquarters of a thriving
+industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid weapons, for which it was
+famous. With its territories enclosed by the frontiers of Montenegro and
+Novi Bazar, Foca, then known as _Chocha_, was the scene of almost
+incessant border warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this
+period are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful
+mosques, which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining towns
+of Foca, Gorazda and Ustikolina were trading-stations of the Ragusans in
+the 14th century, if not earlier. In the 16th century, Benedetto
+Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the Porte, described the town, in
+his _Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi_, as _Cozza_, "a large settlement,
+with good houses in Turkish style, and many shops and merchants. Here
+dwells the governor of Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the
+whole of Servia. Through this place all goods must pass, both going and
+returning, between Ragusa and Constantinople."
+
+
+
+
+FOCHABERS, a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the Spey, about 9 m. E. by S.
+of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway connecting at
+Orbliston Junction with the main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was
+rebuilt in its present situation at the end of the 18th century, when
+its earlier site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon
+Castle, in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead
+at right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are held.
+The public buildings include a library and reading-room, the court-house
+and the Milne school, named after Alexander Milne, who endowed it with a
+legacy of £20,000. Adjoining the town, surrounded by a park containing
+many magnificent old trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the
+duke of Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The antiquary
+George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William Marshall
+(1748-1833) were natives of the burgh.
+
+
+
+
+FOCSHANI (Rumanian _Focsani_, sometimes incorrectly written _Fokshani_
+or _Fokshan_), the capital of the department of Putna, Rumania; on the
+river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier of the former
+principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop. (1900) 23,783; of whom
+6000 were Jews. The chief buildings are the prefecture, schools,
+synagogues, and many churches, including those of the Armenians and
+Protestants. Focshani is a commercial centre of some importance, the
+chief industries being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large
+wine trade is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to
+Galatz. The annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government
+explorations in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in
+minerals, such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line
+Focshani-Galatz is covered by a very strong line of fortifications,
+known as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish
+diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbourhood the
+Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and Russians in 1789.
+
+
+
+
+FOCUS (Latin for "hearth" or "fireplace"), a point at which converging
+rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from which diverging rays
+are directed; in the latter case called the virtual focus (see
+MICROSCOPE; TELESCOPE; LENS). In geometry the word is used to denote
+certain points (see GEOMETRY; CONIC SECTION; and PERSPECTIVE).
+
+
+
+
+FOG, the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid particles in
+the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders surrounding objects
+notably indistinct or altogether invisible according to their distance.
+In its more intense forms it hinders and delays travellers of all kinds,
+by sea or land, by railway, road or river, or by the mountain path. It
+is sometimes so thick as to paralyse traffic altogether. According to
+the _New English Dictionary_ the word "appears to be" a back formation
+from the adjective "foggy," a derivative of "fog" used with its old
+meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain, of
+"moss." Such a formation would be reasonable, because wreaths of fog in
+the atmospheric sense are specially characteristic of meadows and
+marshes where fog, in the more ancient sense, grows.
+
+Two other words, _mist_ and _haze_, are also in common use with
+reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface layers of
+the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and in ordinary
+literature the three words are used almost according to the fancy of the
+writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction between mist and haze
+that would be fairly well supported by usage. Mist may be defined as a
+cloud of water particles at the surface of land or sea, and would only
+occur when the air is nearly or actually saturated, that is, when there
+is little or no difference between the readings of the dry and wet
+bulbs; the word haze, on the other hand, may be reserved for the
+obscuration of the surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.
+
+It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this
+distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic code of
+the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for mist and
+haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had no separate letter
+for haze (now indicated by z), though it distinguished between f, fog,
+and m, mist. It is possible, however, that these practices may arise,
+not from confusion of idea, but from economy of symbols, when the
+meaning can be made out from a knowledge of the associated observations.
+
+As regards the distinction between mist and fog, careful consideration
+of a number of examples leads to the conclusion that the word "fog" is
+used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological nature of the
+obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers whether on land or
+sea. It is, generally speaking, "in a fog" that a traveller loses
+himself, and indeed the phrase has become proverbial in that sense. A
+"fog-bell" or "fog-horn" is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that
+the aid of sound is required for navigation. A vessel is "fog-logged" or
+"fog-bound" when it is stopped or detained on account of thick
+atmosphere. A "fog-signal" is employed on railways when the ordinary
+signals are obliterated within working distances. A "fog-bow" is the
+accompaniment of conditions when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his
+way.
+
+These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the cloud which
+interferes with effective vision and necessitates the special provision;
+the word "mist" is seldom used in similar connexion. We may thus define
+a fog as a surface cloud sufficiently thick to cause hindrance to
+traffic. It will be a _thick mist_ if the cloud consists of water
+particles, a _thick haze_ if it consists of smoke or dust particles
+which would be persistent even in a dry atmosphere.
+
+It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use of the
+word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm weather, and
+that the obscurity of the atmosphere when it is blowing hard and perhaps
+raining hard as well should be indicated by the terms "thick weather" or
+"very thick weather" and not by "fog"; but the term "fog" would be quite
+correctly used on such occasions from the point of view of cautious
+navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or heavy rain cause such obscurity
+that passing ships are not visible within working distances the sounding
+of a fog-horn becomes a duty.
+
+The number of occasions upon which fog and mist may be noted as
+occurring with winds of different strengths may be exemplified by the
+following results of thirty years for St Mary's, Scilly Isles, where the
+observations have always been made by men of nautical experience.
+
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+  |        Wind Force.         |0 & 1| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7  |8-12|  All  |
+  |                            |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    | Winds.|
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+  |Number of occasions of fog  |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |       |
+  |  per 1000 observations     |  8  | 7 | 9 |14 | 6 | 3 | <1 | <1 |  47   |
+  |Number of occasions of mist |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |       |
+  |  per 1000 observations     |  5  | 6 |11 |22 |20 |12 |  6 |  2 |  84   |
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+
+The use of the word "fog" in the connexion "high fog," to describe the
+almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally noted in London and
+other large cities due to the persistent opaque cloud in the upper air
+without serious obscuration of the surface layers, is convenient but
+incorrect.
+
+Regarding "fog" as a word used to indicate the state of the atmosphere
+as regards transparency considered with reference to its effect upon
+traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced for use on land or
+at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is indicated by the numbers 1
+to 5 in the table following. At sea or in the country a fog, as a rule,
+is white and consists of a cloud of minute water globules, of no great
+vertical thickness, which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection
+but is fully translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or
+coloured fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the
+Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns the fog
+cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some cases may be
+regarded as due entirely to the smoke.
+
+_Description of Effects._
+
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+  |       Name.      | No. |         On Land.         |           On Sea.           |        On River.       |
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+  |                  |  1  | Objects indistinct, but  |   Horizon invisible, but    | Objects indistinct, but|
+  |Slight Fog or Mist|     |   traffic by rail or road|     lights and landmarks    |   navigation unimpeded |
+  |                  |     |   unimpeded              |     visible at working      |                        |
+  |                  |     |                          |     distances               |                        |
+  |                  | / 2 | Traffic by rail requires | / Lights, passing vessels   | Navigation impeded,    |
+  |Moderate Fog      |<    |   additional caution     |<    and landmarks generally |   additional caution   |
+  |                  | | 3 | Traffic by rail or road  | |   indistinct under a mile.|   required             |
+  |                  | \   |   impeded                | \   Fog signals are sounded |                        |
+  |                  | / 4 | Traffic by rail or road  | / Ships' lights and vessels | Navigation suspended   |
+  |Thick Fog         |<    |   impeded                |<    invisible at ¼ mile or  |                        |
+  |                  | | 5 | Traffic by rail or road  | |   less                    |                        |
+  |                  | \   |   totally disorganized   | \                           |                        |
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+
+The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles are
+complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account for the
+formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth's surface; and the
+process of cloud-formation which is probably most usual in nature,
+namely, the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the reduction of
+pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the case of the fogs
+forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps not fairly included.
+We have to fall back upon the only other process hitherto recognized as
+causing cloudy condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the
+mixing of masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is
+brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow motion is
+probably essential to the phenomenon.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia,
+  round by the Azores._
+
+  +------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+------+
+  | Successive Temperatures of sea     |  68°  |  68°  |  67°  |   59°  | 54°F.|
+  |     "            "      "  air     |  68°  |  70°  |  67°  |   60°  | 56°F.|
+  |     "     States of the atmosphere | clear | clear | clear | shower | mist |
+  +------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+------+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland._
+
+  +-------------------------------+------+--------+-----------------+
+  |Successive Temperatures of sea |  67° |   63°  |      54° F.     |
+  |    "           "       "  air |  66° |   64°  |      53° F.     |
+  |    "      State of atmosphere | fair | shower | mist with shower|
+  +-------------------------------+------+--------+-----------------+
+
+Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a surface
+layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The amount of motion of
+the air must be sufficient to prevent the condensation taking place at
+the sea surface without showing itself as a cloud. In a research on the
+Life History of Surface Air Currents the changes incidental to the
+movement of the air over the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great
+care, and the above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72 of the
+work referred to are typical of the formation of sea fog by the cooling
+of a relatively warm current passing over cold water.
+
+In conformity with this suggestion we find that fog is most liable to
+occur over the open ocean in those regions where, as off the
+Newfoundland banks, cold-water currents underlie warm air, and that it
+is most frequent at the season of the year when the air temperature is
+increasing faster than the water temperature. But it is difficult to
+bring this hypothesis always to bear upon actual practice, because the
+fog is representative of a temperature difference which has ceased to
+exist. One cannot therefore observe under ordinary circumstances both
+the temperature difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only
+the initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which
+favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and
+consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog, the
+characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From the
+conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the
+mast-head than it is on deck.
+
+One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm sea surface
+would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air and hence cause
+cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers rather than surface fog, but
+one cannot resist the conclusion that sea fog is sometimes formed by
+slow transference of cold air over relatively warm water, giving rise to
+what may be called a "steaming-pot" fog. In such a case the actual
+surface layer in contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog
+would be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour is
+more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in comparison with
+the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold current over warm water
+were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current of warm air over cold water
+appears to be, the geographical distribution of notable fog would be
+much more widespread than it actually is, and the seasonal distribution
+of fog would also be other than it is.
+
+The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more complicated
+process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases mistiness amounting
+to fog arises from the replacement of cold surface air which has chilled
+the earth and the objects thereon by a warm current. But this process
+can hardly give rise to detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary
+land or valley fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the
+combination of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of
+air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more
+particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow (in the
+absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower levels following
+roughly the course of the natural water drainage of the land, and
+thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation from warm moist soil or
+from the relatively warm water surface of river or lake. In this way
+steaming-pot fog gradually forms and is carried downward by the natural
+though slow descent of the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and
+banks in the lowest parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled
+with a cloud of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is
+minutely described by J.B. Cohen (_Q.J. Roy. Met. Soc._ vol. 30, p. 211,
+1904).
+
+It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances
+favourable for fog formation are (1) a site near the bottom level of the
+drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an evening or night
+of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant moisture in the
+surface-soil. These conditions define with reasonable accuracy the
+circumstances in which fog is actually observed.
+
+The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable when one
+considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however small they may be,
+must be continually sinking through the air which holds them, and that
+unless some upward motion of the air keeps at least a balance against
+this downward fall, the particles of the cloud must reach the earth or
+water and to that extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys
+it is easy to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and
+colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers
+displaced from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the result of
+the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface cloud gets
+thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and persistence of land
+fog seems too great to be accounted for by persistent radiation cooling.
+For example, in the week before Christmas of 1904 the whole of England
+south of the Humber was covered with fog for several days. It is of
+course possible that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the
+sides of mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the
+fog, as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but
+without more particulars such a statement seems almost incredible.
+Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems capricious and
+unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-formation, so that one is
+tempted to invoke the aid of electrification of the particles or some
+other abnormal condition to account for the persistence of fog. The
+observations at Kew observatory show that the electrical potential is
+abnormally high during fog, but whether that is the cause or the result
+of the presence of the water particles, we are not yet in a position to
+say. It must be remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as
+being, generally speaking, _in process of formation_ by mixing.
+Observations upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show
+that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still for
+only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear. The
+apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due to the fact that
+mixing is still going on in the persistent ones, but is completed in the
+disappearing ones.
+
+One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness of the
+foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun's rays falling
+upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable example may be quoted
+from the case of London, which was under fog all day on 28th January
+1909. The maximum temperature only reached 31° F., whereas at Warlingham
+in Surrey from which the fog lifted it was as high as 46° F.
+
+_A priori_ we might suppose that the formation of fog would arrest
+cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a protection of
+plants against frost. The condensation of water evaporated from wet
+ground, which affords the material for making fog, does apparently act
+as a protection, and heavy watering is sometimes used to protect plants
+from frost, but the same cannot be said of fog itself--cooling appears
+to go on in spite of the formation of fog.
+
+A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a cloud from
+above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls for remark. In
+so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules of clouds and rain
+and are therefore independent of surface conditions.
+
+These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with advantage in
+relation to the geographical distribution of fog. Statistics on this
+subject are not very satisfactory on account of the uncertainty of the
+distinction between fog and mist, but a good deal may be learned from
+the distribution of fog over the north Atlantic Ocean and its various
+coasts as shown in the Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north
+Atlantic issued by the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of
+the North Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog,
+which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent in
+the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most extensive and
+frequent in the spring and summer. By June the fog area has extended
+from the Great Banks over the ocean to the British Isles, in July it is
+most intense, and by August it has notably diminished, while in
+November, which is proverbially a foggy month on land, there is hardly
+any fog shown over the ocean.
+
+The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in London
+were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council by Captain A.
+Carpenter and Mr R.G.K. Lempfert, based upon special observations made
+in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1902-1903 in order to examine the
+possibility of more precise forecasts of fog.
+
+The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially important
+for large towns in consequence of the economic and hygienic results
+which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The fogs of London in
+particular have long been a subject of inquiry. It is difficult to get
+trustworthy statistics on the subject in consequence of the vagueness of
+the practice as regards the classification of fog. For large towns there
+is great advantage in using a fog scale such as that given above, in
+which one deals only with the practical range of vision irrespective of
+the meteorological cause.
+
+Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog and haze or
+mist, but not between the two latter terms, as equivalent to specifying
+fog when the thickness amounts to the figure 2 or more on the fog scale,
+we are enabled to compare the frequency of fog in London by the
+comparison of the results at the London observing stations. The
+comparison was made by Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal
+Meteorological Society (_Quarterly Journal_, vol. 31, p. 15), and it
+appears therefrom that in recent years there has been a notable
+diminution of fog frequency, as indicated in the following table of the
+total number of days of fog in the years from 1871:--
+
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | 1871.| 1872.| 1873.| 1874.| 1875.| 1876.| 1877.| 1878.| 1879.| 1880.| 1881.| 1882.| 1883.| 1884.| 1885.| 1886.| 1887.| 1888.| 1889.|
+  +-------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |  42  |  35  |  75  |  53  |  49  |  40  |  46  |  63  |  69  |  74  |  59  |  69  |  61  |  53  |  69  |  86  |  83  |  62  |  75  |
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | 1890.| 1891.| 1892.| 1893.| 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| 1900.| 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.| 1907.| 1908.|
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |  65  |  69  |  68  |  31  |  51  |  48  |  43  |  48  |  47  |  56  |  13  |  45  |  42  |  26  |  44  |  19  |  16  |  37  |  19  |
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog it must not
+be understood that the atmosphere of London is approaching that of the
+surrounding districts as regards transparency. Judged by the autographic
+records it is still almost opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the
+card of the recorder during the winter months.
+
+  The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to
+  fog, mist and haze in the _Bibliography of Meteorology_ (part ii.) of
+  the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among more
+  recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in the text,
+  may be mentioned:--Köppen, "Bodennebel," _Met. Zeit._ (1885); Trabert,
+  _Met. Zeit._ (1901), p. 522; Elias in _Ergebnisse des aëronautischen
+  Observatoriums bei Berlin_, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott, _Q.J.R. Met.
+  Soc._ xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, "Fog Studies," _Amer. Inv._ ix.
+  (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, "Fogs on the Coasts of
+  Scotland," _Journ. Scot. Met. Soc._ xii. p. 3.     (W. N. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842-   ), Italian novelist and poet, was born at
+Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate Zanella, one of the best of
+the modern Italian poets, whose tender, thoughtful and deeply religious
+spirit continued to animate his literary productions. He began his
+literary career with _Miranda_, a poetical romance (1874), followed in
+1876 by _Valsolda_, which, republished in 1886 with considerable
+additions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which is
+not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and D'Annunzio's
+impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes a Wordsworthian simplicity
+and pathos, contributing to modern Italian literature wholesome elements
+of which it would otherwise be nearly destitute. His novels, _Malombra_
+(1882), _Daniele Cortis_ (1887), _Misterio del Poeta_ (1888), obtained
+considerable literary success upon their first publication, but did not
+gain universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by
+French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious, and a new
+work, _Piccolo Mondo antico_ (1896), which critics far from friendly to
+Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas pronounced the best
+Italian novel since _I Promessi Sposi_, went through numerous editions.
+Even greater sensation was caused by his novel _Il Santo_ (_The Saint_,
+1906), on account of its being treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and
+Fogazzaro's sympathy with the Liberal Catholic movement--his own
+Catholicism being well known--made this novel a centre of discussion in
+the Roman Catholic world.
+
+  See the biography by Molmenti (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or BENGT) ERLAND (1786-1854), Swedish sculptor, was
+born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August 1786. His father, a
+copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited taste for design, sent
+him in 1801 to Stockholm, where he studied at the school of art. There
+he came much under the influence of the sculptor Sergell, who
+communicated to him his own enthusiasm for antique art and natural
+grace. Fogelberg worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his
+instinct for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality
+of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a government
+pension enabled him to travel. He studied from one to two years in
+Paris, first under Pierre Guérin, and afterwards under the sculptor
+Bosio, for the technical practice of sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg
+realized a dream of his life in visiting Rome, where the greater part of
+his remaining years were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and
+the careful study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his
+native country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great
+enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence of those
+remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural beauty to which he
+had been so long accustomed. Returning to Italy, he died suddenly of
+apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd of December 1854. The subjects of
+Fogelberg's earlier works are mostly taken from classic mythology. Of
+these, "Cupid and Psyche," "Venus entering the Bath," "A Bather" (1838),
+"Apollo Citharede," "Venus and Cupid" (1839) and "Psyche" (1854) may be
+mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian mythology Fogelberg
+showed, perhaps for the first time, that he had powers above those of
+intelligent assimilation and imitation. His "Odin" (1831), "Thor"
+(1842), and "Balder" (1842), though influenced by Greek art, display
+considerable power of independent imagination. His portraits and
+historical figures, as those of Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles
+XII. (1851), of Charles XIII. (1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of
+Stockholm (1853), are faithful and dignified works.
+
+  See Casimir Leconte, _L'Oeuvre de Fogelberg_ (Paris, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+FOGGIA, a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level, in
+the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E. of Ancona and
+123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 49,031; commune, 53,134.
+The name is probably derived from the pits or cellars (_foveae_) in
+which the inhabitants store their grain. The town is the medieval
+successor of the ancient Arpi, 3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after
+conquering the district from the Eastern empire, gave it its first
+importance. The date of the erection of the cathedral is probably about
+1179; it retains some traces of Norman architecture, and the façade has
+a fine figured cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals
+of the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much altered
+after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace of the emperor
+Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia) is also preserved. Here
+died his third wife, Isabella, daughter of King John of England. Charles
+of Anjou died here in 1284. After his son's death, it was a prey to
+internal dissensions and finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who
+converted the pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445,
+and made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be paid
+and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town are modern.
+Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance for the produce of the
+surrounding country, and is also a considerable railway centre, being
+situated on the main line from Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where
+this is joined by the line from Benevento and Caserta. There are also
+branches to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino,
+Potenza, or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.
+
+
+
+
+FÖHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch _favongn_, _favoign_, from
+Lat. _favonius_), a warm dry wind blowing down the valleys of the Alps
+from high central regions, most frequently in winter. The Föhn wind
+often blows with great violence. It is caused by the indraft of air from
+the elevated region to areas of low barometric pressure in the
+neighbourhood, and the warmth and dryness are due to dynamical
+compression of the air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local
+winds occur in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes
+of the Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Föhn wind is
+often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different from the
+true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes from the Sahara
+dies hard; and still finds expression in some textbooks.
+
+  For a full account of these winds see Hann, _Lehrbuch der
+  Meteorologie_, p. 594.
+
+
+
+
+FÖHR, a German island in the North Sea, belonging to the province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast. Pop. 4500. It comprises
+an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by a regular steamboat service from
+Husum and Dagebüll on the mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort
+on the E. coast of the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the
+Sandwall, a promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach.
+Föhr, the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally
+marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous
+pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of which the
+most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum. The inhabitants are
+mainly engaged in the fishing industry, and are known as excellent
+sailors.
+
+
+
+
+FOIL. 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. _folium_, a leaf, modern Fr.
+_feuille_), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names, such as
+the "trefoil" clover; and hence applied to anything resembling a leaf.
+In architecture, the word appears for the small leaf-like spaces formed
+by the cusps of tracery in windows or panels, and known, according to
+the number of such spaces, as "quatrefoil," "cinquefoil," &c. The word
+is also found in "counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book,
+containing memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the
+receiver or drawer as a "counter" or check. "Foil" is particularly used
+of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape as much as in
+thinness. In thickness foil comes between "leaf" and "sheet" metal. In
+jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper, sometimes known as Dutch foil,
+is used as a backing for paste gems, or stones of inferior lustre or
+colour. This is coated with a mixture of isinglass and translucent
+colour, varying with the stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is
+required, left uncoloured, but highly polished. From this use of "foil,"
+the word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by
+contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive
+qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The commonest
+"foil" is that generally known as "tinfoil." The ordinary commercial
+"tinfoil" usually consists chiefly of lead, and is used for the wrapping
+of chocolate or other sweetmeats, tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese
+variegated foil gives the effect of "damaskeening." A large number of
+thin plates of various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with
+alloys of different metals are soldered together in a particular order,
+a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is hammered
+or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then appearing in the
+order in which the various metals were placed.
+
+2. (From an O. Fr. _fuler_ or _foler_, modern _fouler_, to tread or
+trample, to "full" cloth, Lat. _fullo_, a fuller), an old hunting term,
+used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks, to confuse
+the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in wrestling, of a
+"throw." Thus comes the common use of the word, in a figurative sense,
+with reference to both these meanings, of baffling or defeating an
+adversary, or of parrying an attack.
+
+3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see FOIL-FENCING) the word
+is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based on a supposed similar use
+of Fr. _fleuret_, literally a "little flower," for the weapon, is that
+foil means a leaf, and must be referred in origin to Lat. _folium_. A
+second suggestion is that it means "blunted," and is the same as (2). A
+third is that it is an adaptation of an expression "at foils," i.e.
+"parrying." Of these suggestions, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, the first has nothing to support it, the second is not
+supported by any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to
+blunt. The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that the
+word is an alteration of an old word "foin," meaning a thrust with a
+pointed weapon. The origin of this word is probably an O. Fr. _foisne_,
+from the Lat. _fuscina_, a three-pronged fork.
+
+
+
+
+FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil. The
+word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the English
+writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in the sense of a
+weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of a real weapon. Blunt
+swords for practice in fencing have been used in all ages. For the most
+part these were of wood and flat in general form, but when, towards the
+close of the 17th century, all cutting action with the small-sword was
+discarded (see FENCING), foil-blades were usually made of steel, and
+either round, three-cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button
+covering the point. The foil is called in French _fleuret_, and in
+Italian _fioretto_ (literally "bud") from this button. The classic
+small-sword play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the
+present time by fencing with the _épée de combat_ (fighting-rapier),
+which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a button (see
+ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing is a conventional
+art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule that no hits except
+those on the body shall be considered good, and not even those unless
+they be given in strict accordance with certain standard precepts. In
+épée-fencing on the contrary, a touch on any part of the person, however
+given, is valid. Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as
+practice is concerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, épée or
+sabre.
+
+There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and the
+Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted everywhere
+except in Italy, is described in this article, reference being made to
+the important differences between the two schools.
+
+_The Foil._--The foil consists of the "blade" and the "handle." The
+blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section, consists of two
+parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard to the button, and the
+"tongue," which runs through the handle and is joined to the pommel. The
+blade proper is divided into the "forte," or thicker half (next the
+handle), and the "foible" or thinner half. Some authorities divide the
+blade proper into three parts, the "forte," "middle" and "foible." The
+handle is comprised of the "guard," the "grip" and the "pommel." The
+guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr.
+_lunettes_, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of the
+same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a hollow piece of
+wood, usually wound with twine, through which the tongue of the blade
+passes. The pommel is a piece of metal, usually pear-shaped, to which
+the end of the tongue is joined and which forms the extremity of the
+handle. The blade from guard to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5),
+though a somewhat shorter and lighter blade is generally used by ladies.
+The handle is about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.
+
+The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the blade a
+trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the handle, which
+consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from 4 to 5 in. in
+diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining the grip with
+the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends slightly on each side. Of
+late years many Italian masters use French blades and even discard the
+cross-bar, retaining, however, the bell-guard.
+
+In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex surface of
+the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than the top and
+bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other three sides. This is
+the position of "supination," or thumb-up. "Pronation" is the reverse
+position, with the knuckles up. The French lay stress upon holding the
+foil lightly, the necessary pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb
+and forefinger, the other fingers being used more to guide the direction
+of the executed movements. This is in order to give free scope to the
+_doigté_ (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil
+by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility of
+changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying, the
+end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even less, of the
+guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near the pommel as
+possible, in order to gain additional length. It will be seen that
+_doigté_ is impossible with the Italian foil, in holding which the
+forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar, preventing any
+movement of the hand. The lightness of grasp inculcated by the French is
+illustrated by the rule of the celebrated master Lafaugère: "Hold your
+sword as if you had a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent
+its escape, yet not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a
+consequence that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the
+French school.
+
+_To Come on Guard._--The position of "on guard" is that in which the
+fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence. It is taken from
+the position of "attention"; the feet together and at right angles with
+each other, head and body erect, facing forward in the same direction as
+the right foot, left arm and hand hanging in touch with the body, and
+the right arm and foil forming a straight line so that the button is
+about 1 yd. in front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this
+position the movements to come "on guard" are seven in number:--
+
+  1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary (or
+  master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.
+
+  2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from the
+  floor.
+
+  3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally
+  backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers
+  of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and
+  along the blade.
+
+  4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above
+  the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept
+  horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.
+
+  5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position,
+  the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring
+  the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from it;
+  keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed towards
+  the opponent's eye.
+
+  6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without moving
+  the feet.
+
+  7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the
+  right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the
+  height of the fencer).
+
+In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right arm
+fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder thrown
+farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At the present time,
+however, many of the best Italian fencers have adopted the guard with
+crooked sword-arm, owing to their abandonment of the old long-foil
+blade.
+
+_The Recover_ (at the close of the lesson or assault).--To recover "in
+advance": extend the right arm at right angles with the body, drop the
+left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the rear foot up to the one
+in advance. To recover "to the rear": extend the right arm and drop the
+left as before, and straighten the legs by drawing the forward foot back
+to that in the rear.
+
+_The Salute_ always follows the recover, the two really forming one
+manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a position just in
+front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical with point upwards;
+then lower and extend the arm with nails up until the point is 4 in.
+from the floor and slightly to the right.
+
+_To Advance._--Being on guard, take a short step forward with the right
+foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same distance, the
+position of the body not being changed. However the step, or series of
+steps, is made, the right foot should always move first.
+
+_To Retreat._--This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot always
+moving first.
+
+_The Calls_ (_deux appels_).--Being on guard, tap the floor twice with
+the right foot without altering the position of any other part of the
+person. The object of the calls is to test the equilibrium of the body,
+and they are usually executed as a preliminary to the recover.
+
+_The Lunge_ is the chief means of attack. It is immediately preceded by
+the movement of "extension," in fact the two really form one combined
+movement. Extension is executed by quickly extending the right arm, so
+that point, hand and shoulder shall have the same elevation; no other
+part of the person is moved. The "lunge" is then carried out by
+straightening the left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that
+it shall be planted as far forward as possible without losing the
+equilibrium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard. The
+left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is
+advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand open and
+thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the position of guard is
+accomplished by smartly throwing the body back by the exertion of the
+right leg, until its weight rests again on the left leg, the right foot
+and arms resuming their on-guard positions. The point upon which the
+French school lays most stress is, that the movement of extension shall,
+if only by a fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the
+right foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge,
+i.e. the direction of the point.
+
+_The Gain._--This consists in bringing up the left foot towards the
+right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In this
+manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can be made
+without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common stratagem of
+fencers whose reach is short.
+
+_Defence._--For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the fencer's
+jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters, the two upper
+ones being called the "high lines," and the two lower ones the "low
+lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upper part of the breast is called
+an attack in the high lines. In like manner the parries are named from
+the different quarters they are designed to protect. There are four
+traditional parries executed with the hand in supination, and four
+others, practically identical in execution, made with the hand held in
+pronation. Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of
+the jacket are "sixte" (sixth; with the hand in supination) and "tierce"
+(third; hand in pronation). Those defending the upper left-hand quarter
+are "quarte" (fourth; in supination) and "quinte" (fifth; in pronation).
+Those defending the lower right-hand quarter are "octave" (eighth; in
+supination) and "seconde" (second; in pronation). Those defending the
+lower left-hand quarter are "septime" (seventh; in supination), more
+generally called "demicircle," or "half-circle"; and "prime" (first; in
+pronation).
+
+_The Parries._--The tendency of the French school has always been
+towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present day the
+parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although recognized and
+taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong adversary in
+foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in turning the hand.
+The theory of parrying is to turn aside the opponent's foil with the
+least possible expenditure of time and exertion, using the arm as little
+as possible while letting the hand and wrist do the work, and opposing
+the "forte" of the foil to the "foible" of the adversary's. The foil is
+kept pointed as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the
+parries are made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade.
+The slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is the
+most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, "simple," in which
+the attack is warded off by a single movement, and "counter," in which a
+narrow circle is described by the point of the foil round that of the
+opponent, which is thus enveloped and thrown aside. There are also
+complex parries, composed of combinations of two or more parries, which
+are used to meet complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into
+simple parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.
+
+_Simple Parries._--The origin of the numerical nomenclature of the
+parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that they
+received their names from the positions assumed in the process of
+drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position of the hand
+and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard on the left side, is
+practically that of the first, or "prime," parry. To go from "prime" to
+"seconde" it is only necessary to drop the hand and carry it across the
+body to the left side; thence to "tierce" is only a matter of raising
+the point of the sword, &c.
+
+_Parry of Prime_ (to ward off attacks on the--usually lower--left-hand
+side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite the left eye and
+the point directed towards the opponent's knee. This parry is now
+regarded more as an elegant evolution than a sound means of defence, and
+is little employed.
+
+_Parry of Seconde_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side). This
+is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand downwards and
+slightly to the right, knuckles up.
+
+_Parry of Tierce_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). A
+quick, dry beat on the adversary's "foible" is given, forcing it to the
+right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the middle of the
+right breast. This parry has been practically discarded in favour of
+"sixte."
+
+_Parry of Quarte_ (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side). This
+parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing the
+adversary's blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in
+supination, opposite the left breast.
+
+_Parry of Quinte_ (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like
+"quarte"). This is practically a low "quarte," and is little used.
+
+_Parry of Sixte_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). This
+parry is, together with "quarte," the most important of all. It is
+executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right breast, a
+quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's blade to the right.
+
+_Parry of Septime or Half-Circle_ (against thrusts at the lower
+left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the foil a
+small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand moving a few
+inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.
+
+_Parry of Octave_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side) is
+executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle
+downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few inches in the same
+direction, but kept thumb up.
+
+_Counter Parries_ (Fr. _contre_).--Although the simple parries are
+theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived by
+feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in which the blade
+describes narrow circles, following that of the adversary and meeting
+and turning it aside; thus the point describes a complete circle while
+the hand remains practically stationary. Each simple parry has its
+counter, made with the hand in the same position and on the same side as
+in the simple parry. The two most important are the "counter of quarte"
+and the "counter of sixte," while the counters of "septime" and "octave"
+are less used, and the other four at the present time practically never.
+
+_Counter of Quarte._--Being on guard in quarte (with your adversary's
+blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under and thrusts in
+sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe a narrow circle
+with your point round his blade, downward to the right and then up over
+to the left, bringing hand and foil back to their previous positions and
+catching and turning aside his blade on the way. The "Counter of Sixte"
+is executed in a similar manner, but the circle is described in the
+opposite direction, throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The
+"Counters of Septime and Octave" are similar to the other two but are
+executed in the low lines.
+
+_Complex or Combined Parries_ are such as are composed of two or more
+parries executed in immediate succession, and are made in answer to
+feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g. being on guard in
+quarte, should the adversary drop his point under and feint at the right
+breast but deflect the point again and really thrust on the left, it is
+evident that the simple parry of sixte would cover the right breast but
+would leave the real point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The
+sixte parry is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by
+the parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are
+numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.
+
+_Engagement_ is the junction of the blades, the different engagements
+being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in the position
+of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte. To engage in another
+line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from quarte to sixte, the point is
+lowered and passed under the adversary's blade, which is pressed
+slightly outward, so as to be well covered (called "opposition").
+"Double Engagement" is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in
+succession in the high lines, the last with opposition.
+
+_Attack._--The attack in fencing comprises all movements the object of
+which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's breast,
+body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space upon which hits
+count is called the "target" and differs according to the rules
+prevailing in the several countries, but is usually as above stated. In
+Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones count, while in America the
+target is only the left breast between the median line and a line
+running from the armpit to the belt. The reason for this limitation is
+to encourage accuracy.
+
+Attacks are either "primary" or "secondary." _Primary Attacks_ are those
+initiated by a fencer before his adversary has made any offensive
+movement, and are divided into "Simple," "Feint" and "Force" attacks.
+
+_Simple Attacks_, the characteristic of which is pace, are those made
+with one simple movement only and are four in number, viz. the "Straight
+Lunge," the "Disengagement," the "Counter-disengagement" and the
+"Cut-over." The Straight-Lunge (_coup droit_), used when the adversary
+is not properly covered when on guard, is described above under "Lunge."
+The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil under the
+opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the other side. It is
+often used to take an opponent unawares or when he presses unduly hard
+on your blade. The Counter-disengagement is used when the adversary
+moves his blade, i.e. changes the line of engagement, upon which you
+execute a narrow circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original
+line. The Cut-over (_coupé_) is a disengagement executed by passing the
+point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the opposite
+line. The preliminary movement of raising the point is made by the
+action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn back.
+
+_Feint Attacks_, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded by
+one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the adversary into
+thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple extension, often with a
+slight movement of the body, threatening the adversary in a certain
+line, for the purpose of inducing him to parry on that side and thus
+leave the other open for the real thrust. At the same time any movement
+of the blade or any part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in
+regard to the nature of the attack about to follow, must also be
+considered a species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the
+"One-Two," the "One-Two-Three" and the "Double."
+
+The "One-Two" is a feint in one line, followed (as the adversary
+parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement. Thus, being
+engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the adversary's blade and
+extend your arm as if to thrust at his left breast, but instead of doing
+this, the instant he parries you move your point back again and lunge in
+quarte, i.e. on the side on which you were originally engaged. In
+feinting it is necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so
+complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a part of a
+real thrust in that line.
+
+The "One-Two-Three" consists of two feints, one at each side, followed
+by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the original engagement.
+Thrusts preceded by three feints are also sometimes used. It is evident
+that the above attacks are useless if the adversary parries by a counter
+(circular parry), which must be met by a "Double." This is executed by
+feinting and, upon perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular
+parry, by following the circle described by his point with a similar
+circle, deceiving (i.e. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting
+home.
+
+The "Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is a
+combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.
+
+_Force-Attacks_, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent by
+assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones being
+the "Beat," the "Press," the "Glide" and the "Bind." The "Beat" is a
+quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon the foible of the
+adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way for a straight lunge which
+follows instantly. The blow is made with the hand only. A "false beat"
+is a lighter blow made for the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting
+the opponent, and is often followed by a disengagement. The "Press" is
+similar in character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse
+blade, a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy
+to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A "false
+press" may be used to entice the adversary into a too heavy responsive
+pressure, which may then be taken advantage of by a disengagement. The
+"Traverse" (Fr. _froissé_, Ital. _striscio_) is a prolonged press
+carried sharply down the adverse blade towards the handle. The "Glide"
+("Graze," Fr. _coulé_) is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of
+the adversary, without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made
+inside his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The
+"Bind" (_liement_) consists in gaining possession of the adversary's
+foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across into the
+opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home, the adversary's
+blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be also carried out from a
+low line into a high one. The bind is less used in the French school
+than in the Italian. The "Flanconnade" is a bind made by capturing the
+adversary's blade in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the
+outside line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by means
+of a twist and thrust is the "Cross" (_croisé_), which is executed when
+the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's point over his wrist
+and forcing down both blades into seconde with a full extension of the
+arm. The result is to create a sudden and wide opening, and often
+disarms the adversary.
+
+_Secondary Attacks_ are those made (1) just as your adversary himself
+starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the completion of
+his attack if it fails.
+
+1. "Attacks on the Preparation" are a matter of judgment and quickness.
+They are usually attempted when the adversary is evidently preparing a
+complicated attack, such as the "one-two-three" or some other manoeuvre,
+involving one or more preliminary movements. At such a time a quick
+thrust will often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for
+preparation attacks are often given when the adversary attempts a beat
+preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an "absence of the
+blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid contact with his by a narrow
+movement, and your point thrust home into the space left unguarded by
+the force of his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an
+"absence" by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades, in the
+hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will fly off to
+one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared for his
+"absence" a straight thrust will score.
+
+2. The chief "Attacks on the Development," or "Counter Attacks," are the
+"Stop Thrust" and the "Time Thrust," both made while the adversary is
+carrying out his own attack. The "Stop Thrust" (_coup d'arrêt_) is one
+made after the adversary has actually begun an attack involving two or
+more movements, and is only justified when it can be brought off without
+your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of the
+person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree that
+the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this and
+attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his opponent while
+totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he, however, be touched,
+even on the foot or mask, by the adversary, his touch, however good, is
+invalid. If both touches are good, that of the original attacker only
+counts. Stop thrusts are employed mostly against fencers who attack
+wildly or without being properly covered. The "Time Thrust" is delivered
+with opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving
+several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the original
+attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer employing it is
+touched on any part of the person.
+
+3. "Attacks on the Completion" (i.e. of the adversary's attack) are
+"Ripostes," "Counter-ripostes," "Remises" and "Renewals of Attack."
+
+The _Riposte_ (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately after
+parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm, the body
+remaining immovable. The "counter-riposte" is a riposte made after
+parrying the adversary's riposte, and generally from the position of the
+lunge, or while recovering from it, since one must have attacked with a
+full lunge if the adversary has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte.
+There are three kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a
+pause.
+
+The "direct _riposte_" may be made instantly after parrying the
+adversary's thrust by quitting his blade and straightening the arm, so
+that the point will touch his body on the nearest and most exposed part;
+or by not quitting his blade but running yours quickly down his and at
+the same time keeping a strong opposition ("riposte d'opposition"). The
+quickest direct riposte is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a
+right-hand fencer), and is called by the French the riposte of
+"_tac-au-tac_," imitative of the sudden succession of the click of the
+parry and the tap of the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's
+breast. In making "ripostes with a feint" the point is not jabbed on to
+the opponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more
+preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a
+disengagement, a cut-over or a double.
+
+_Ripostes_ with a pause (_à temps perdu_, with lost time) are made after
+a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers are too near
+for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the adversary time to make a
+quick parry, which is then deceived.
+
+The _remise_ is a thrust made after one's first thrust has been parried
+and in the same line; it must be made in such a way that the adversary's
+justified riposte is at the same time parried by opposition or
+completely avoided. It is really a renewal of the attack in the original
+line, while the so-called "renewal of attack" ("_redoublement
+d'attaque_") is a second thrust which ignores the adversary's riposte,
+but made in a different line. Both the remise and the renewal are valid
+only when the adversary's riposte does not hit.
+
+"False Attacks" are broad movements made for the purpose of drawing the
+adversary out or of disconcerting him. They may consist of an advance,
+an extension, a change of engagement, an intentional uncovering by
+taking a wide guard (called "invitation guard"), or any movement or
+combination of movements tending to make the adversary believe that a
+real attack is under way.
+
+"The Assault" is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in public,
+while formal fencing in private is called "loose play" or a "friendly
+bout." Bouts between fencers take place on a platform about 24 ft. long
+and 6 ft. wide (in the United States 20 × 3 ft.). Formal bouts are
+usually for a number of touches, or for a certain number of minutes, the
+fencer who touches oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five)
+are sometimes empowered to score one or more points against a competitor
+for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space limits. In the
+United States bouts are for four minutes, with a change of places after
+two minutes, and the competitors are not interrupted, the winner being
+indicated by a vote of the judges, who take into account touches and
+style. In all countries contestants are required to wear jackets of a
+light colour, so that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of
+all touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered to
+be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great Britain under
+the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association, and in the United States
+under those of the Amateur Fencers' League of America.
+
+  _Fencing Terms_ (not mentioned above): "_Cavazione_," Ital. for
+  disengagement. "Contraction, Parries of," those which do not parry in
+  the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another line,
+  e.g. to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte.
+  "_Controtempo_," Ital. for time-thrust. "Coronation," an attack
+  preceded by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and
+  vice versa) made famous by Lafaugère. "_Corps-à-corps_" (body to
+  body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters that
+  their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again come on
+  guard. "_Coulé_," Fr. for glide. "Disarm," to knock the foil out of
+  the adversary's hand; it is of no value in the French school. "Double
+  Hit," when both fencers attack and hit at the same time; neither hit
+  counts. "_Filo_," Ital. for glide (graze). "Flying Cut-over," a
+  cut-over executed as a continuation of a parry, the hand being drawn
+  back towards the body. "_Incontro_," Ital. for double attack. "Give
+  the blade," to allow the adversary easy contact with the foil; it is
+  often resorted to in order to tempt the adversary into a beat or bind.
+  "Menace," to threaten the adversary by an extension and forward
+  movement of the trunk. "_Mur_," see "Salute." "Passage of arms," a
+  series of attacks and parries, ending in a successful hit. "Phrase of
+  arms," a series of attacks and parries ending in a hit or
+  invalidation. "Invalidation," a hit on some part of the person outside
+  the target, made by the fencer whose right it is at that moment to
+  attack or riposte; such a hit invalidates one made simultaneously or
+  subsequently by his opponent, however good. "Rebeat," two beats,
+  executed as quickly as possible together, one on each side of the
+  adversary's blade. "_Reprises d'attaque_," Fr. for renewed attacks.
+  "Salute," the courteous salutation of the public and the adversary
+  before and after a bout. A more elaborate salute, called by the French
+  the _Mur_, consists of a series of parries, lunges and other
+  evolutions carried out by both fencers at the same time. Important
+  exhibition assaults are usually preceded by the _Mur_, which is called
+  in English the Grand Salute. "_Septime enveloppée_," a riposte by
+  means of a twist and thrust after a parry in septime. It envelops and
+  masters the adverse blade, whence the name. "Secret thrusts," the
+  French "_bottes secrètes_," pretended infallible attacks of which the
+  user is supposed alone to know the method of execution; they have no
+  real existence. "_Sforza,_" Ital. for disarmament. "_Scandaglio,_"
+  Ital for examination, studying the form of an opponent at the
+  beginning of a bout. "_Toccato!_" Ital. for "Touched!",. Fr.
+  "_Touché._"
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of foil-fencing is practically identical
+  with that of the art in general (see FENCING). The following modern
+  works are among the best. French School: _Fencing_, in the Badminton
+  library (1897); _Foil and Sabre_, by L. Rondelle (Boston, 1892);
+  "Fencing," by C. Prevost in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_ (1901);
+  _Fencing_, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906). Italian school:
+  _Istruzione per la scherma, &c._, by S. de Frae (Milan, 1885); _La
+  Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola_, by F. Masiello (Florence,
+  1887).     (E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FOIX, PAUL DE (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist. He studied
+Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence at Toulouse,
+where shortly after finishing his curriculum he delivered a course of
+lectures on civil law, which gained him great reputation. At the age of
+nineteen he was named councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in
+this capacity expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild
+measures in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was
+arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained the favour
+of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent ambassador to
+England, where he remained four years. He was then sent to Venice, and
+returned a short time afterwards to England to negotiate a marriage
+between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled
+several important missions during the reign of Henry III. of France. In
+1577 he was made archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed
+ambassador to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.
+
+  _Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et
+  ambassadeur pour le roy auprès du pape Grégoire XIII, au roi Henry
+  III_, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to their
+  authenticity. See _Gallia Christiana_ (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret,
+  _Oraison funèbre de Paul de Foix_ (Paris, 1584); "Lettres de Catherine
+  de Médicis," edited by Hector de la Ferrière (Paris, 1880 seq.) in the
+  _Collection de documents inédits sur l'histoire de France_.
+
+
+
+
+FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages capital of the
+counts of Foix, and now capital of the department of Ariège, 51 m. S. of
+Toulouse, on the Southern railway from that city to Ax. Pop. (1906)
+town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is situated between the Ariège and the
+Arget at their confluence. The old part of the town, with its ill-paved
+winding streets and old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated
+rock crowned by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th
+centuries), while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de
+Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic building of
+the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture, a court of
+assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycée, training
+colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
+Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on. Foix probably owes its
+origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne. This afterwards became an
+abbey, in which were laid the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of
+Tours in the 5th century.
+
+The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the modern
+department of Ariège, a region watered chiefly by the Ariège and its
+affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted of an agglomeration
+of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though subordinate to the counts
+of Foix, had some voice in the government of the district. Protestantism
+obtained an early entrance into the county, and the religious struggles
+of the 16th and 17th centuries were carried on with much implacability
+therein. The estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th
+century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable power and
+virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed one of the
+thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was incorporated in
+the department of Ariège.
+
+_Counts of Foix._--The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished
+French family which flourished from the 11th to the 15th century. They
+were at first feudatories of the counts of Toulouse, but chafing under
+this yoke they soon succeeded in throwing it off, and during the 13th
+and 14th centuries were among the most powerful of the French feudal
+nobles. Living on the borders of France, having constant intercourse
+with Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they were in
+a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of independence, and
+acted rather as the equals than as the dependents of the kings of
+France.
+
+The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of Bernard
+Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of Carcassonne (d.
+1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and the adjoining lands, which
+had hitherto formed part of the county of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064,
+Roger was succeeded by his brother Peter, who died six years later, and
+was succeeded in turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the
+crusade of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II.
+for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased the
+anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died in 1125 he was
+succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of Roger III. about 1149, and
+of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188, brought the county to Roger
+Bernard's only son, Raymond Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French
+king, Philip Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the
+capture of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the
+Albigenses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to Simon
+IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to terms with the church
+and recovered his estates before his death in 1223, was a patron of the
+Provençal poets, and counted himself among their number. He was
+succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted
+Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance
+to the French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated on
+two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who followed, died
+in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard III., who, more
+famous as a poet than as a warrior, was taken prisoner both by Philip
+III. of France and by Peter III. of Aragon. This count married
+Marguerite, daughter and heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Béarn (d.
+1290), and this union led to the outbreak of a long feud between the
+houses of Foix and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger
+Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count in 1302,
+inheriting both Foix and Béarn. Becoming embroiled with the French king,
+Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle with the count of Armagnac,
+Gaston was imprisoned in Paris; but quickly regaining his freedom he
+accompanied King Louis X. on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and
+died on his return to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston
+II., was the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of
+Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and Spain,
+dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his son, Gaston III.
+(1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed Phoebus on account of his
+beauty, was the most famous member of the old Foix family. Like his
+father he assisted France in her struggle against England, being
+entrusted with the defence of the frontiers of Gascony; but when the
+French king, John II., showed a marked preference for the count of
+Armagnac, Gaston left his service and went to fight against the heathen
+in Prussia. Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble
+ladies from the attacks of the adherents of the _Jacquerie_ at Meaux,
+and was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle he
+also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in
+Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI. he made
+peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued to fight
+against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362, was defeated and compelled
+to pay a ransom; and this war lasted until 1377, when peace was made.
+Early in 1380 the count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when
+Charles VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this
+appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the royal command,
+and supported by the communes of Languedoc, Gaston fought for about two
+years against John, duke of Berry, who had been chosen as his successor,
+until, worsted in the combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to
+his estates, remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had
+married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), by his
+wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he divorced in 1373,
+he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have been incited by his
+uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison his father, and who met
+his death in 1381. It is probable, as Froissart says, that he was killed
+by his father. Left without legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded
+to bequeath his lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and
+Béarn when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond of
+hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature. Several
+beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed by his
+orders, and he himself wrote _Déduits de la chasse des bestes sauvaiges
+et des oiseaulx de proye_. Froissart, who gives a graphic description of
+his court and his manner of life, speaks enthusiastically of Gaston,
+saying: "I never saw none like him of personage, nor of so fair form,
+nor so well made," and again, "in everything he was so perfect that he
+cannot be praised too much."
+
+Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI. granted the
+county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, a descendant of Count
+Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, Matthew's lands were seized by
+Archambault, count of Grailly and captal de Buch, the husband of his
+sister Isabella (d. 1426), who became count of Foix in 1401.
+Archambault's eldest son, John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his
+father's lands and titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter
+of Charles III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
+Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the royal
+representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between Foix and
+Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle between the Burgundians
+and the Armagnacs, he intrigued with both parties, and consequently was
+distrusted by the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the
+cause of France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
+when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
+allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc and
+Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding bands which were
+devastating France; fought for Aragon against Castile; and aided his
+brother, the cardinal of Foix, to crush some insurgents in Aragon.
+Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of
+Grailly, and was made archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent
+part in the struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
+the Collège de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's son, Gaston
+IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of John, king of Aragon
+and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty of Narbonne, and having
+assisted King Charles VII. in Guienne, he was made a peer of France in
+1458. In 1455 his father-in-law designated him as his successor in
+Navarre, and Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
+Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and Guienne; but
+these marks of favour did not prevent him from joining a league against
+Louis in 1471. His eldest son, Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a
+daughter of Charles VII. of France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV.
+died two years later, his lands descended to his grandson, Francis
+Phoebus (d. 1483), who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded
+by his sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516).
+Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret and
+subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of Navarre became king
+of France in 1589 the lands of the counts of Foix-Grailly became part of
+the French royal domain. A younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d.
+1500), who received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and
+married Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
+terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death of his nephew
+Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom of Navarre against Jean
+d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted
+until 1497, when John renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix
+(1489-1512), the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
+who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. In 1507
+Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with King Louis XII. for the
+duchy of Nemours, and as duke of Nemours he took command of the French
+troops in Italy. Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston
+encountered the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
+after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. From
+the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also sprung the
+viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of Bénanges and Candale,
+and of Gurson and Fleix.
+
+  See D.J. Vaissète, _Histoire générale de Languedoc_, tome iv. (Paris,
+  1876); L. Flourac, _Jean I^er, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de
+  Béarn_ (Paris, 1884); Le Père Anselme, _Histoire généalogique_, tome
+  iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, _Histoire du comte de Foix_
+  (Toulouse, 1852); Madaune, _Gaston Phoebus, comte de Foix et souverain
+  de Béarn_ (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce
+  and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).
+
+
+
+
+FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1669-1752), French soldier and
+military author, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February 1669. His
+military ardour was first awakened by reading Caesar's _Commentaries_,
+and he ran away from home and joined the army. He soon saw active
+service, and, young as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the
+manuscript of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal
+Belleisle on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and
+aide-de-camp to the duke of Vendôme, then in command of the French
+forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendôme's brother, the
+Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant feat of
+arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at the battle of
+Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was during his tedious
+recovery from his wounds that he conceived the tactical theories to the
+elucidation of which he devoted most of his life. In 1706 he again
+rendered good service in Italy, and in 1708 distinguished himself
+greatly in the operations attempted by Vendôme and the duke of Burgundy
+for the relief of Lille, the failure of which was due in part to the
+disagreement of the French commanders; and it is no small testimony to
+the ability and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
+Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his services were
+rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. He saw further active
+service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles XII. of Sweden in the north, and
+under the duke of Berwick in the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII.
+he regarded as the first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm
+that Folard began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on
+Polybius. On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his
+papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, and in
+1724 appeared his _Nouvelles Découvertes sur la guerre dans une
+dissertation de Polybe_, followed (1727-1730) by _Histoire de Polybe
+traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... de M. de Folard,
+Chevalier de l'Ordre de St Louis_. Folard spent the remainder of his
+life in answering the criticisms provoked by the novelty of his
+theories. He died friendless and in obscurity at Avignon in 1752.
+
+An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not a
+connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of independent
+ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far more often
+extravagant. The central point of his tactics was his proposed column
+formation for infantry. Struck by the apparent weakness of the thin line
+of battle of the time, and arguing from the [Greek: embolon] or _cuneus_
+of ancient warfare, he desired to substitute the shock of a deep mass of
+troops for former methods of attack, and further considered that in
+defence a solid column gave an unshakable stability to the line of
+battle. Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst some
+famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido Starhemberg, approved
+it and put it in practice, the weight of military opinion throughout
+Europe was opposed to it, and eventually history justified this
+opposition. Amongst the most discriminating of his critics was Frederick
+the Great, who is said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian
+king certainly caused a _précis_ to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
+wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like others by
+Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its publication (Paris,
+1760) under the title _Esprit du Chev. Folard_, created a great
+impression. "Thus kept within bounds," said the prince de Ligne,
+"Folard was the best author of the time." Frederick himself said tersely
+that "Folard had buried diamonds in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the
+controversy between line and column formations, which long continued and
+influenced the development of tactics up to the most modern times.
+Folard's principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy
+and Menil Durand.
+
+  See _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard_
+  (Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's
+  works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jähns, _Geschichte
+  der Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
+  1890).
+
+
+
+
+FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any surface,
+whence its particular application in geology with which this article
+deals. The verb "to fold" (O. Eng. _fealdan_) meant originally to double
+back a piece of cloth or other material so as to form a pleat, whence
+has evolved its various senses of to roll up, to enclose, enfold or
+embrace as with the arms, to clasp the hands or arms together, &c. The
+word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _falten_, Dutch _vouwen_
+(for _vouden_), &c., and the ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr.
+[Greek: plekein], Lat. _plicare_, _plectere_, to plait, pleat, weave,
+and in the suffixes of such words as [Greek: diplasios], _duplex_,
+double, _simplex_, &c. Similarly the termination "-fold" is added to
+numbers implying "so many," e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. "manifold."
+The similar word for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for
+sheep, and hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of
+worshippers, or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's
+flock, must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is _falæd_, and cognate
+forms are found in Dutch _vaalt_, &c. It apparently meant a planked or
+boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. _fjael_, Swed. _fjöl_, plank.
+
+In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified rocks of the
+earth's crust, whereby they have been made to take up less horizontal
+space. The French equivalents are _pli_, _plissement_, _ridement_; in
+Germany, _Falte_, _Faltung_, _Sattelung_ are the terms usually employed.
+It is comparatively rarely that bedded rocks are observed in the
+position in which they were first deposited, a certain amount of
+buckling up or sagging down of the crust being continually in progress
+in one region or another. In every instance therefore where, in walking
+over the surface, we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and
+without dislocations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part
+of a great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.
+
+Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on some
+cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
+mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his researches in
+the field without discovering that the rocks of the earth's crust have
+been almost everywhere thrown into curves, usually so broad and gentle
+as to escape observation except when specially looked for. The outcrop
+of beds at the surface is commonly the truncation of these curves. The
+strata must once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
+may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, the
+intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of the Isle of Wight--a Monoclinal
+Curve, a, Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d,
+Bagshot series; e, Headon series; f, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.]
+
+The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or gently
+inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and then an
+immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping character. The
+strata are thus bent up and continue on the other side of the tilt at a
+higher level. Such bends are called _monoclines_, _monoclinal folds_ or
+_flexures_, because they present only one fold, or one half of a fold,
+instead of the two which we see in an arch or trough. The most notable
+instance of this structure in Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of
+which a section is given in fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south
+side of the island rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly
+vertical. The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip,
+but rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable cases
+of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. Powell in his
+survey of the Colorado region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.]
+
+It much more frequently happens that the strata have been bent into
+arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping under the surface
+on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up again on the other
+side. Where they dip away from the axis of movement the structure is
+termed an _anticline_ or _anticlinal fold_; where they dip towards the
+axis, it is a _syncline_ or _synclinal fold_. The diagram in fig. 2 may
+be taken to represent a series of strata (1-17) thrown into an anticline
+(AA') and syncline (BB'). A section drawn across these folds in the line
+CD would show the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the
+part of the anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4
+forms the crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
+On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
+succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under the
+next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the centre of a
+trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on the east side the same
+beds rise to the surface which passed beneath it on the west side. The
+particular bed marked EF has been entirely removed by denudation from
+the top of the anticline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the
+syncline.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the
+line CD (fig. 2).]
+
+Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are abruptly
+terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. 2, both the arch
+and trough are represented as diminishing, the former towards the north,
+the latter towards the south. The observer in passing northwards along
+the axis of that anticline finds himself getting into progressively
+higher strata as the fold sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing
+southwards along the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and
+gets into lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this
+way it is said to "nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
+inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward dip from
+the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. Hence the anticline
+noses out to the north and the syncline to the south.
+
+_Simple Folds._--In describing rock-folds special terms have been
+assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping sides of an
+anticline or syncline are known as the "limbs," "slopes," "flanks" or
+"members" of the fold; in an anticline, the part X, fig. 3, the angle of
+the bend, is the "crest" or "crown" (Ger. _Gewölbebiegung_, Fr.
+_charnière anticlinale_), the corresponding part of a syncline being the
+"trough-core" or "base," Y, fig. 3 (Ger. _Muldenbiegung_, Fr. _charnière
+synclinale_). The portion of an anticline which has been removed by
+denudation is the "aerial arch," dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata
+in a fold constitute the "core," arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core B,
+in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending of the strata
+has taken place about an "axial plane" (often called the "axis"), which
+in the examples illustrated in fig. 3 would pass through the points A and
+B, perpendicularly to the horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded
+regions the axial planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be
+moderately inclined, producing an "inversion," "inverted fold" or
+"overfold." When the inclination of the axial plane is great a "recumbent
+overfold" is produced (Fr. _pli couché_, Ger, _liegende Falte_). In a
+fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an "arch limb" (a), a middle limb (b)
+and a floor or "trough limb" (c). X and Y are the upper and lower bends
+respectively. One of the important functions of a fold is its direction;
+this of course depends upon the orientation of the axial plane. The
+crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of a syncline is rarely
+horizontal for any great distance; its departure from horizontality is
+designated the "pitch," and the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards
+the north, &c. Most simple folds--with the exception of very shallow
+curvatures of wide area,--when considered in their entirety, are seen to
+be somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations of the
+simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs, (1) the limbs may
+tend to diverge as they recede from the crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled
+an "open anticline"; (2) the limbs may be parallel in "closed" folds
+(commonly known as isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open
+angle or widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a
+fan-shaped fold (Fr. _pli en éventail_, Ger. _Fächerfalte_); another
+variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. _pli en champignon_).
+The axial plane is not always extended: it may be so abbreviated that the
+folding appears to have taken place about a point; anticlines of this
+type are variously designated "short-anticlines," "_brachyanticlinaux_"
+or "domes"; similarly, there are "short-synclines," "_brachysynclinaux_"
+or "cuvettes." The dip in cases of this kind has been described as
+"qua-qua versal" or "periclinal."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+_Complex Folding._--Sometimes a simple fold has been itself subjected
+to further folding repeated more than once, it is then termed a
+"refolded fold" (Fr. _pli replié_); fine examples may be observed in the
+Alps and in other mountain chains. A great regional major fold
+containing within itself a number of minor "special" or subsidiary folds
+is described as a "geanticline" (Fr. _structure en éventail composé_),
+or as a "geosyncline" (Fr. _structure en éventail renversé_). Even folds
+of lesser magnitude may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal
+movement, and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or
+higher order (Fr. _couches gaufrées_ [fig. 5]). In its smaller
+manifestation, this class of folding passes into "crumpling" or
+"puckering," where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a
+single hand specimen. In "frilling" or "frilled structure" the folds
+have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated rocks minute
+folds are observable with the microscope that do not appear to the
+unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal overfolds has passed
+into a series of thrusts (see FAULT), the so-called "imbricated"
+structure (Fr. _structure imbriquée_, Ger. _Schuppenstruktur_) is
+generated. Occasionally crust-blocks resembling "graben" and "horsts"
+are circumscribed by folds instead of faults; when this is so they have
+been called respectively "infolded graben" or "overfolded horsts."
+
+The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has always had a
+marked influence on the nature of the folding; some beds have yielded
+much more readily than others, certain beds will be found to be faulted,
+while those above and below have folded without fracture. In many
+examples of apparent plasticity it can be shown that this effect has
+been produced by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock
+substance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of
+Kinsale. (Du Noyer.)]
+
+The larger rock folds have produced important economic results. For
+example, in many coal regions the deposits have been conserved in some
+districts in the synclines or "basins," while they have been removed by
+denudation from the uplifted anticlines in others. Near the crest of
+anticlines is commonly an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized
+districts; and, in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata
+determines the direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most
+convenient site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or "dome,"
+where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a subjacent
+saturated layer under pressure.
+
+  For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement
+  of the great folded regions of the earth's crust, see E. Suess, _Das
+  Antlitz der Erde_, English translation. _The Face of the Earth_, vols.
+  i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim, _Les
+  Dislocations de l'écorce terrestre_ (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,
+  _Geotektonische Probleme_ (Stuttgart, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+FOLENGO, TEOFILO (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino Coccajo or
+Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, was born of noble
+parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th of November 1491, From his
+infancy he showed great vivacity of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in
+making verses. At the age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte
+Casino near Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a
+professed member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a
+monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to have
+produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, not
+unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 he forsook
+the monastic life for the society of a well-born young woman named
+Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about the country for several
+years, often suffering great poverty, having no other means of support
+than his talent for versification. His first publication was the
+_Merlini Cocaii macaronicon_, which relates the adventures of a
+fictitious hero named Baldus. The coarse buffoonery of this work is
+often relieved by touches of genuine poetry, as well as by graphic
+descriptions and acute criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic
+style is rendered peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent
+introduction of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though
+frequently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression,
+it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very few years passed
+through several editions. Folengo's next production was the _Orlandino_,
+an Italian poem of eight cantos, written in rhymed octaves. It appeared
+in 1526, and bore on the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco
+(Merlin the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life of
+dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; and
+shortly afterwards wrote his _Chaos del tri per uno_, in which, partly
+in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes in Italian, and
+sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account of the vicissitudes of
+the life he had lived under his various names, We next find him about
+the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves a life of Christ entitled
+_L'Umanità del Figliuolo di Dio_; and he is known to have composed,
+still later, another religious poem upon the creation, fall and
+restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. These, however, have never
+been published. Some of his later years were spent in Sicily under the
+patronage of Don Fernando de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a
+short time to have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired
+to Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on the 9th
+of December 1544.
+
+  Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by
+  Rabelais. The earlier editions of his _Opus macaronicum_ are now
+  extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text
+  as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
+
+
+
+
+FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born at Dublin on the
+24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to study drawing and modelling at
+the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, where he took several
+first-class prizes. In 1835 he was admitted a student in the schools of
+the Royal Academy, London. He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839
+with his "Death of Abel and Innocence." "Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in
+1840, gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards
+commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. "Lear and
+Cordelia" and "Death of Lear" were exhibited in 1841. "Venus rescuing
+Aeneas" and "The Houseless Wanderer" in 1842, "Prospero and Miranda" in
+1843. In 1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
+"Youth at a Stream," and was, with Calder Marshall and John Bell, chosen
+by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for the decoration of the
+Houses of Parliament. Statues of John Hampden and Selden were executed
+for this purpose, and received liberal praise for the propriety, dignity
+and proportion of their treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to
+come rapidly. Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
+statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him with a
+steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was made an associate
+and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. Among his numerous works the
+following may be noticed, besides those mentioned above:--"The Mother";
+"Egeria," for the Mansion House; "The Elder Brother in Comus," his
+diploma work; "The Muse of Painting," the monument of James Ward, R.A.;
+"Caractacus," for the Mansion House; "Helen Faucit"; "Goldsmith" and
+"Burke," for Trinity College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry,"
+for Westminster Palace Yard; "John Stuart Mill," for the Thames
+embankment; "O'Connell" and "Cough," for Dublin; "Clyde," for Glasgow;
+"Clive," for Shrewsbury; "Hardinge," "Canning" and "Outram," for
+Calcutta; "Hon. James Stewart," for Ceylon; the symbolical group "Asia,"
+as well as the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in
+Hyde Park; and "Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va. The statue of Sir
+James Outram is probably his masterpiece. Foley's early fanciful works
+have some charming qualities; but he will probably always be best
+remembered for the workmanlike and manly style of his monumental
+portraits. He died at Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the
+4th of September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models
+to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part of his
+property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund.
+
+  See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, _The Works of J.H. Foley_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered the navy in
+1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active
+service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted
+lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel
+and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was
+present at the defeat of De Lángara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at
+the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went out to
+the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in
+the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the Revolutionary War he was
+engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and
+afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon
+in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off
+Toulon on the 13th of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he
+was flag-captain to the second in command, and in the following year was
+sent out in command of the "Goliath" (74), to reinforce Nelson's fleet
+in the Mediterranean. The part played by the "Goliath" in the battle of
+the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and
+this manoeuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day.
+Whether this was done by Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson,
+has been a matter of controversy (see _Journal of the Royal United
+Service Institution_, 1885, p. 916). His next important service was with
+Nelson in the Baltic. The "Elephant" carried Nelson's flag at the battle
+of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health
+obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the point of
+starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the
+Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs and at the peace was
+made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be full admiral and G.C.B. He died
+while commanding in chief at Portsmouth in 1833.
+
+  See J.B. Herbert, _Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley_ (Cardiff,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+FOLI (FOLEY), ALLAN JAMES (1837-1899), Irish bass singer, was born at
+Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; originally a carpenter, he
+studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and made his first appearance at
+Catania in 1862. From the opera in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for
+the season of 1865, and appeared with much success in various parts. He
+sang in the first performance of _The Flying Dutchman_ (Daland) in
+England in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's _Redemption_
+in 1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
+vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request at
+ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.
+
+
+
+
+FOLIGNO (anc. _Fulginiae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
+Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, from which
+it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), 26,278 (commune). It
+lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a tributary of the Tiber; it is
+almost square in shape and is surrounded by walls. It is a picturesque
+and interesting town; several of its churches contain paintings by
+Umbrian masters, notably works by Niccolò di Liberatore (or Niccolò
+Alunno, 1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
+(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolò. The cathedral
+has a romanesque S. façade of 1133, restored in 1903; the interior was
+modernized in the 18th century. To the left of the choir is an octagonal
+chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1527). In the same piazza as
+the S. façade is the Palazzo del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a
+chapel with frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra
+Portas is said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
+the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's "Madonna di Foligno," now
+in the Vatican, was originally painted for the church of S. Anna. The
+Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are two good Renaissance buildings.
+
+Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the 8th century
+A.D. It changed hands often during the wars of the 13th century, and was
+destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From 1305 to 1439 it was governed by the
+family of the Trinci as deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter
+year one of its members went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a
+force against Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and
+the last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth Foligno
+belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It suffered from a
+severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station on the main line from
+Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the junction for Perugia. Three miles
+to the E. is the abbey of Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like
+those of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns
+supporting arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic ("Cosmatesque"
+work). The church has been modernized.
+
+
+
+
+FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. _folium_, leaf, but also
+frequently an adaptation of the Ital. _foglio_), a term in bibliography
+and printing, with reference either to the size of paper employed, or of
+the book, or to the pagination. In the phrase "in folio" it means a
+sheet of paper folded once, and thus a book bound up in sheets thus
+folded is a book of the largest size and is known as a "folio" (see
+BIBLIOGRAPHY). Similarly, "folio" is one of the sizes of paper adapted
+to be thus folded (see PAPER). In book-keeping the word is used for a
+page in a ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
+law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, used for
+measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. In Great
+Britain, a "folio" is taken to contain 72 words, except in parliamentary
+and chancery documents, when the number is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words
+form a "folio."
+
+
+
+
+FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by René
+Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x³ + y³ = 3axy. The curve is
+symmetrical about the line x = y, and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and a loop in the first quadrant.
+It may be traced by giving m various values in the equations x = 3am/(1
++ m³), y = 3am² (1 + m³), since by eliminating m between these relations
+the equation to the curve is obtained. Hence it is _unicursal_ (see
+CURVE). The area of the loop, which equals the area between the curve
+and its asymptote, is 3a/2.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+
+
+
+FOLKES, MARTIN (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born in London on the
+29th of October 1690. He was educated at Saumur University and Clare
+College, Cambridge, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics
+that when only twenty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the
+Royal Society. He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723
+Sir Isaac Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the
+vice-presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate for the
+presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, however, he
+succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member of the French Academy;
+in 1746 he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733
+he set out on a tour through Italy, in the course of which he composed
+his _Dissertations on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins_. Before
+the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to 1754,
+he read in 1736 his _Observations on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at
+Rome_ and his _Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th Year of King
+Edward III_. In 1745 he printed the latter with another on the history
+of silver coinage. He also contributed both to the Society of
+Antiquaries and to the Royal Society other papers, chiefly on Roman
+antiquities. He married in 1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had
+appeared at the Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. _Anecdot._
+ii. 578-598).
+
+  For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (_Review of the Works of the
+  Royal Soc._, 1751), see D'Israeli, _Calamities and Quarrels of
+  Authors_ (1860), pp. 364-366.
+
+
+
+
+FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place of Kent,
+England, within the parliamentary borough of Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of
+London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905;
+(1901) 30,650. This is one of the principal ports in cross-Channel
+communications, the steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older
+part of Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the
+shore between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the hills
+on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered by hills rising
+sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of which, such as
+Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. Above the cliff west
+of the old town is a broad promenade called the Lees, commanding a
+notable view of the channel and connected by lifts with the shore below.
+On this cliff also stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith,
+a cruciform building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly
+Early English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine
+priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established by
+Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The site of this
+foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments of the sea. The
+monastery was destroyed at the dissolution of religious houses by Henry
+VIII. Folkestone inner harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep
+water pier for use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not
+only the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
+on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be mentioned the
+grammar school, founded in 1674, the public library and museum, and a
+number of hospitals and sanatoria. The discontinued Harveian Institution
+for young men was named after William Harvey, discoverer of the
+circulation of the blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also
+commemorated by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a
+member of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
+aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
+Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb of
+Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
+
+Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl Godwine and was
+called upon to supply him with ships when he was exiled from England; at
+the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux.
+From early times it was a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to
+find one out of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the
+royal service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose
+liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone by
+Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was prescriptive, was
+entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Folkestone. The history of
+Folkestone is a record of its struggle against the sea, which was
+constantly encroaching upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants,
+impoverished by their losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the
+end of the 18th century the town had become prosperous by the increase
+of its fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th
+century one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
+
+
+
+
+FOLKLAND (_folcland_). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon
+documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is contrasted with
+bookland in a way which shows that these two kinds of tenure formed the
+two main subdivisions of landownership: no one is to deny right to
+another in respect of folkland or bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod.
+Dipl. 281), King Æthelberht exchanges five hides of folkland for five
+hides of bookland which had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the
+latter for the newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal
+exactions except the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd
+and joining in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland
+was not free from the payment of _gafål_ (land tax) and providing
+quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the testator
+disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his sons and his
+daughter, but to a son who is not considered as rightful offspring five
+hides of folkland are left, provided the king consents. It is probable
+that folkland is meant in two or three cases when Latin documents speak
+of _terra rei publicae jure possessa_.
+
+Two principal explanations have been given to this term. Allen thought
+that folkland was similar to the Roman _ager publicus_: it was the
+common property of the nation (_folc_), and the king had to dispose of
+it by carving out dependent tenures for his followers more or less after
+the fashion of continental _beneficia_. These estates remained subject
+to the superior ownership of the folk and of the king: they could
+eventually be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a
+holder of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
+letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted to
+apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and
+others followed Allen's lead.
+
+Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an article on
+folkland in the _English Hist. Review_ for 1893. It considers folkland
+as landownership by folkright--at common law, as might be said in modern
+legal speech. In opposition to it bookland appears as landownership
+derived from royal privilege. The incidents recorded in the charters
+characterize folkland as subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to
+limitations in respect of testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to
+be relieved from fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from
+folkland into bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being
+recognized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession
+or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and
+limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to the
+fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless "books."
+These are exemptions from fiscal dues and freedom of disposition of the
+owner. This view of the matter has been accepted by the chief modern
+authorities.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Allen, _Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal
+  Prerogative in England_ (London, 1849); K. Maurer, _Kritische
+  Überschau_ (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and
+  Beyond_, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland," in the
+  _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, _Land Laws_
+  (London, 1896); H. Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, Band i. (2nd
+  ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).     (P. Vi.)
+
+
+
+
+FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a designation for
+the traditional learning of the uncultured classes of civilized nations.
+The word has been adopted in this sense into many foreign languages; it
+is sometimes regarded as the equivalent of the Ger. _Volkskunde_. But
+folklore is, properly speaking, the "lore _of_ the folk," while
+_Volkskunde_ is lore or learning _about_ the folk, and includes not only
+the mental life of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term
+folklore is also used to designate the science which deals with
+folklore; the study of survivals involves the investigation of the
+similar customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture;
+consequently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
+societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as with the
+popular superstitions of the white races.
+
+_History._--The scientific study of folklore dates back to the first
+quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long before that
+date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of recent growth. The
+first Folklore Society was founded in London in 1878; similar bodies now
+exist in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and especially in
+Germany and Austria. The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at
+a very early period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
+28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many folk-tale
+incidents; for India we have the _Jatakas_ and _Panchatantra_; and for
+the Arabs the great collection of the _Thousand and One Nights_. Another
+type of folk-narrative is represented by Aesop's _Fables_. Not
+unnaturally beliefs and customs received less attention; our knowledge
+of them among the ancients is as a rule pieced together. Among the
+oldest professed collections are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), _Traité des
+superstitions_ (1679), Aubrey's _Miscellanies_ (1686) and H. Bourne's
+(1696-1733) _Antiquitates vulgares_ (1725); but they belong to the
+antiquarian, non-scientific period.
+
+The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore were the
+brothers Grimm, by the publication of their _Kinder-und Hausmärchen_
+(1812-1815) and _Deutsche Mythologie_ (1835). They were the first to
+present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated form. They differed
+from their predecessors in regarding the myth, not as the result of
+conscious speculation, but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however,
+disposed to press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the
+figures of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as
+the folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
+exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and others. At
+the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), the forerunner of
+the anthropological school of folklore, shared in this mistake. Breaking
+away eventually from the philological schools, which interpreted myths
+and their supposed descendants, the folk-tales, as relating to the
+storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. (see MYTHOLOGY), Mannhardt made
+folk-custom and belief his basis. To this end he set himself to collect
+and compare the superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was
+always feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt's
+researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor abroad. In 1878 the
+foundation of the Folklore Society marked a new era in England, where
+the philological school had had few adherents; and the anthropological
+school soon produced evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew
+Lang, Dr J.G. Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.
+
+With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom and belief on
+the one hand, and of rites and religions of people in the lower stages
+of culture on the other hand, it has become abundantly clear that there
+is no line of demarcation between the two. Each throws light upon the
+other, and the superstitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of
+savage creeds which have their parallels all over the world in the
+culture of primitive peoples.
+
+_Subdivisions._--The folklore of civilized peoples may be conveniently
+classified under three main heads: (1) belief and custom; (2) narratives
+and sayings; (3) art. These again may be subdivided. The first division,
+_Belief and Custom_, includes (A) Superstitious beliefs and practices,
+including (a) those connected with natural phenomena or inanimate
+nature, (b) tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d)
+ghosts and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (f) leechcraft, (g) magic in general
+and divination, (h) eschatology, and (i) miscellaneous superstitions and
+practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including (a) festival customs
+for which are set aside certain days and seasons, (b) ceremonial customs
+on the occasion of events such as birth, death or marriage, (c) games,
+(d) miscellaneous local customs, such as agricultural rites connected
+with the corn-spirit (see DEMONOLOGY), and (e) dances. The second head
+of _Narratives and Sayings_ may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or
+tales told as true, (b) Märchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d)
+drolls, apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (see MYTHOLOGY), and
+(f) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as they do not
+come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, riddles, jingles,
+proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The third head, _Art_, subdivides
+into (a) folk music with ballads and songs, (b) folk drama. Any
+classification, however, labours under the disadvantage of separating
+items which properly belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form
+in which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be aetiological
+in their nature and form an elaborate record of a custom. Eschatological
+beliefs naturally take the form of myths. Traditional narratives can
+also be classified under art, and so on.
+
+_Literature._--The literature of the subject falls into two sharply
+defined classes--synthetic works and collections of folklore--of which
+the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former class the most
+important is Dr J.G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, which sets out from the
+study of a survival in Roman religion and covers a wide field of savage
+and civilized beliefs and customs. Especially important are the chapters
+on agricultural rites, in which are set forth the results of Mannhardt's
+researches. Other important lines of folklore research in the _Golden
+Bough_ are those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
+of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. Mr E.S.
+Hartland's _Legend of Perseus_ is primarily concerned with the origin of
+a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is dismissed as insoluble. A
+large part of the book is taken up with a discussion of sympathetic
+magic, and especially with the "life index," an object so bound up with
+the life of a human being that it acts as an indication of his
+well-being or otherwise. The importance of children's games in the study
+of folklore has been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection
+of the games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. With the
+more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem of the diffusion of
+games has also come to the fore. In particular it is found that the
+string-game called "cat's cradle" in various forms is of very wide
+diffusion, being found even in Australia. The question of folk-music has
+recently received much attention (see SONG).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Introductory works: M.R. Cox, _Introduction to
+  Folklore_; Kaindl, _Die Volkskunde_; Marillier in _Revue de l'histoire
+  des religions_, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
+
+  General works: J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; E.S. Hartland, _The
+  Legend of Perseus_; A. Lang, _Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and
+  Religion_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_.
+
+  British Isles. England: Burne, _Shropshire Folklore_; _Denham Tracts_
+  (F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folklore_; Henderson,
+  _Folklore of Northern Counties_; _County Folklore Series_ (Printed
+  Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, _Welsh Folklore_; Rhys,
+  _Celtic Folklore_. Scotland: Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions_; Gregor,
+  _Folklore of N.E. of Scotland_; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c.
+
+  Germany: Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, English translation by
+  Stallybrass; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_; Meyer, _Deutsche
+  Volkskunde_; Tetzner, _Die Slaven in Deutschland_; Mogk in Paul's
+  _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, and the works cited by Kaindl
+  (see above).
+
+  France: Sebillot's works; Rolland, _Faune populaire_; Laisnel de la
+  Salle, _Croyances et légendes_.
+
+  On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia,
+  Grohmann, _Aberglaube_; for Greece, Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_, and
+  Rennell Rodd, _Folklore of Greece_; for Italy, Pitré's bibliography;
+  for India, Crooke's works, and the _Indian Antiquary_. For
+  questionnaires see _Handbook of Folklore_ (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,
+  _Essai de questionnaires_; _Journal of American Folklore_ (1890, &c.);
+  and Kaindl's _Volkskunde_. For a bibliography of folk-tales see
+  Hartland, _Mythology and Folk-tales_; to his list may be added
+  Petitot's _Légendes indiennes_; Rand, _Legends of the Micmacs_;
+  Lummis, _The Man who Married the Moon_; and the publications of the
+  American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies in
+  _Folklore_ and other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned
+  Miss Cox's _Cinderella_ (Folklore Society); Kohler's works, &c. (see
+  also bibliography to the article TALE). For games see Gomme, _English
+  Games_; Culin, _Korean Games_; Rochholz, _Alemannisches Kinderlied_;
+  Böhme, _Deutsches Kinderlied_; Handelmann, _Volks- und Kinderspiele_;
+  Jayne, _String Figures_, &c.; and the bibliography to DOLL. See also
+  Sonnenschein's _Best Books_.
+
+  The following is a list of the more important Societies and
+  publications:--
+
+  England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.
+
+  U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
+
+  France: _Société des traditions populaires_.
+
+  Germany: _Verein für Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung für
+  Volkskunde_; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
+  provinces.
+
+  Austria: _Verein für österreichische Volkskunde_.
+
+  Switzerland: _Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde_.
+
+  Italy: _Società per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari_.
+
+  In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
+  less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies
+  mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
+  the following among others: Belgium, _Wallonia_; Poland, _Wisla_;
+  France, _Melusine_ (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, _Cesky Lid_; Denmark,
+  _Dania_, &c.; Germany, _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_
+  (1859-1890); _Am Urguell_ (1890-1898).     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+FOLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG
+(1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen on the 21st of January
+1794, the son of a district judge. He studied theology at Giessen and
+law at Heidelberg, and after leaving the university edited the Elberfeld
+_Allgemeine Zeitung_. Suspected of being connected with some radical
+plots, he was imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821
+he went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at Aarau,
+farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in Thurgau, and then
+retired to Bern, where he lived till his death on the 26th of December
+1855. Besides a number of minor poems he wrote _Harfengrüsse aus
+Deutschland und der Schweiz_ (1823) and _Malegys und Vivian_ (1829), a
+knightly romance after the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many
+translations, mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
+with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1818) and
+_Siegfrieds Tod_ from the _Nibelungenlied_ (1842); he also collected and
+translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). In 1846 he published a
+brief collection of sonnets entitled _An die gottlosen Nichtswüteriche_.
+This was aimed at the liberal philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the
+occasion of a literary duel between the two authors. Follen's posthumous
+poem _Tristans Eltern_ (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known
+work is a collection of German poetry entitled _Bildersaal deutscher
+Dichtung_ (1827).
+
+
+
+
+FOLLEN, KARL (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother of A.L.
+Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 5th of September
+1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, but after the campaign of
+1814, in which, like his brother August, he took part as a Hessian
+volunteer, began the study of jurisprudence, and in 1818 established
+himself as _Privatdocent_ of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being
+suspected of political intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after
+the assassination of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political
+murder of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen
+being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in
+Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school at Coire
+and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian authorities
+imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in 1824 the hospitality
+of the United States of America. Here he became an instructor in German
+at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 obtained an appointment as professor of
+German language and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation
+having given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835,
+and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in
+Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat which was
+totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from New York to Boston, on
+the night of the 13th-14th of January 1840. Follen was the author of
+several celebrated patriotic songs written in the interests of liberty.
+The best is perhaps _Horch auf, ihr Fürsten! Du Volk, horch auf!_ of
+which Johannes Wit, called von Dörring (1800-1863), was long, though
+erroneously, considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen's
+collection of patriotic songs, _Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend_.
+
+  His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some
+  reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a
+  biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
+
+
+
+
+FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1798-1845), English lawyer, was born at
+Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December 1798. He was the son of
+Captain Benjamin Follett, who had retired from the army in 1790, and
+engaged in business at Topsham. He received his education at Exeter
+grammar school and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He
+had entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a pleader
+below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, and joined the
+western circuit in 1825. At the very outset his great qualifications
+were universally recognized. He was thoroughly master of his profession,
+and his rapid rise in it was due not only to his quick perception and
+sound judgment, but to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of
+temper. In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding
+Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to parliament
+for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished himself, and under the
+first administration of Sir Robert Peel was appointed solicitor-general
+(November 1834); but resigned with the ministry in April 1835. In the
+course of this year he was knighted. On the return of Peel to power in
+1841 Sir William was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April
+1844 he succeeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
+health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been permanently
+injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, and he was
+compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the south of Europe. He
+returned to England in March 1845; but the disease, consumption,
+reasserted itself, and he died in London on the 28th of June following.
+A statue of Follett, executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+
+
+FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872), English journalist, descended
+from a noble French Huguenot family, the Greniers of Languedoc, was born
+in London in 1793. John Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England
+under the name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
+(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the author of a standard
+legal work, a _Treatise on Equity_, was the father of Albany Fonblanque;
+he represented the borough of Camelford in parliament; and was one of
+the Whig friends of George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young
+Fonblanque was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His
+health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
+suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a view to
+being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) he commenced
+writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted notice both by the
+boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by the superiority of his
+style to what Macaulay, when speaking of him, justly called the "rant
+and twaddle of the daily and weekly press" of the time. While he was
+eagerly taking his share in all the political struggles of this eventful
+period, he was also continuing his studies, devoting no less than six
+hours a day to the study of classics and political philosophy. Under
+this severe mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
+however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to the
+newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his habits
+were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary anxieties.
+
+From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively employed upon the
+staff of _The Times_ and the _Morning Chronicle_, whilst he contributed
+to the _Examiner_, to the _London Magazine_ and to the _Westminster
+Review_. In 1828 the _Examiner_ newspaper, which had been purchased by
+the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the _Religion of the Universe_, &c., was
+given over to Fonblanque's complete control; and for a period of
+seventeen years (1830 to 1847) he not only sustained the high character
+for political independence and literary ability which the _Examiner_ had
+gained under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, but
+even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a certain delight
+in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed against themselves.
+When it was proposed that the admirers and supporters of the paper
+should facilitate a reduction in its price by the payment of their
+subscription ten years in advance, not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord
+Lytton) volunteer his aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting
+with radicalism. During his connexion with the _Examiner_, Fonblanque
+had many advantageous offers of further literary employment; but he
+devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to the service of
+the paper he had resolved to make a standard of literary excellence in
+the world of journalism. Fonblanque was offered the governorship of Nova
+Scotia; but although he took great interest in colonial matters, and had
+used every effort to advocate the more generous political system which
+had colonial self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
+beloved _Examiner_ even for so sympathetic an employment. In 1847,
+however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post of statistical
+secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course compelled him to resign
+the editorship of the _Examiner_, but he still continued to contribute
+largely to the paper, which, under the control of John Forster,
+continued to sustain its influential position. During the later years of
+his life Fonblanque took no prominent part in public affairs; and when
+he died at the age of seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew,
+Edward Fonblanque, rightly observes, "a man who had lived and toiled in
+an age gone by and in a cause long since established."
+
+The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may be judged of
+by a study of his _England under Seven Administrations_ (1837), in
+comparison with the course of social and political events in England
+from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must be regarded in the light of
+a reformer. Journalism before his day was regarded as a somewhat
+discreditable profession; men of true culture were shy of entering the
+hot and dusty arena lest they should be confounded with the ruder
+combatants who fought there before the public for hire. But the fact
+that Fonblanque, a man not only of strong and earnest political
+convictions but also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate
+to choose this field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a
+man of letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
+gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
+prejudice.
+
+  See the _Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque_, edited by his nephew,
+  Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his
+  articles with a brief biographical notice.
+
+
+
+
+FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the S. end of Lake
+Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du Lac river, which is navigable
+for only a short distance. Pop. (1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom
+2952 were foreign-born; (1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of
+some importance, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
+Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western
+railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat lines
+connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great Lakes. At
+North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, are car-shops of the two
+last-mentioned railways, and in the city are manufactories of machinery,
+automobiles, wagons and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour,
+refrigerators, agricultural implements, toys and furniture. The total
+value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase
+of 95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal cathedral, the
+Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital and convent, and a
+public library with about 25,000 volumes in 1908. The first settlers on
+the site of Fond du Lac arrived about 1835. Subsequently a village was
+laid out which was incorporated in 1847; a city charter was secured in
+1852.
+
+
+
+
+FONDI (anc. _Fundi_), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of
+Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. of Terracina by road.
+Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above sea-level, at the N. end of a
+plain surrounded by mountains, which extend to the sea. It occupies the
+site of the ancient Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to _Latium
+adjectum_, on the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road
+which passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
+and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly in
+_opus incertum_, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no doubt, from
+the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still exists, and bears the
+inscription of three aediles who erected the gate, the towers and the
+wall. A similar inscription of three different aediles from the N.W.
+gate still exists, but not _in situ_. In the neighbourhood are the
+remains of several ancient villas, and along the Via Appia still stands
+an ancient wall of _opus reticulatum_, with an inscription, in large
+letters, of one Varronianus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft.
+The engineering of the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where
+it passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
+
+The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The castle on
+the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with beautiful tracery.
+Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro (formerly S. Maria), which
+was the cathedral until the see was suppressed in 1818 and united with
+that of Gaeta; it contains a fine pulpit with "cosmatesque" work and the
+fine tomb of Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century
+triptychs and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of
+the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery the cell
+which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.
+
+The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with Formiae)
+the _civitas sine suffragio_, because it had always secured the Romans
+safe passage through its territory; the people as a whole did not join
+Privernum in its war against Rome three years later, though Vitruvius
+Vacca, the leader, was a native of Fundi. It acquired the full
+citizenship in 188 B.C., and was partly under the control of a
+_praefectus_. The inscription upon some waterpipes which have been
+discovered shows that later it became a _municipium_. It was governed by
+three aediles: Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due
+to the exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xiii. p. 113). The
+family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. During the
+Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily abandoned, but it seems
+to have come under the rule of the papacy by A.D. 754 at any rate. Pope
+John VIII. ceded it with its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but
+its history is somewhat intricate after this period. Sometimes it
+appears as an independent countship, though held by members of the
+Caetani family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
+Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to carry off
+Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. After this Fondi
+was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the Di Sangro family, in
+which it still remains. Its position as a frontier town between the
+papal states and the kingdom of Naples, just in the territory of the
+latter--the Via Appia can easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual
+frontier called Portella[1] or S.E. of it--affected it a good deal
+during the French Revolution and the events which led up to the
+unification of Italy.
+
+The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and the
+partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the ancient Via
+Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a considerable détour. The
+lake was also known in classical times ass, _lacus Amyclanu_ from the
+town of Amyclae or Amunclae, which was founded, according to legend, by
+Spartan colonists, and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th
+century B.C. (E. Pais in _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, 1906, 611 seq.); the
+bay was also known as _mare Amunclanum_.
+
+The ancient Speluncae (mod. _Sperlonga_) on the coast also belonged to
+the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa in which Sejanus
+saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost crushed by a fall of rock.
+Considerable remains of it, and of the caves from which it took its
+name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the modern village. For modern
+discoveries see P. di Tucci in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1880), 480; G.
+Patroni, _ibid._ (1898), 493. The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient
+writers, though the _ager Caecubus_, the coast plain round the Lago di
+Fundi, was even more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine;
+and though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
+entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even more
+to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the lacus Avernus
+to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is spoken of in the
+inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of Hadrian, together with
+Falernian and Setian wines (_Corpus inscript. Lat._ vi. Berlin, 1882,
+9797). The plain of Fondi is the northernmost point in Italy where the
+cultivation of oranges and lemons is regularly carried on in modern
+times.
+
+  See G. Conte Colino, _Storia di Fondi_ (Naples, 1902); B. Amante and
+  R. Bianchi, _Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania_
+  (Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in _English Historical Review_, xix. (1904)
+  557 seq. (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the pass of Ad Lautulas see TERRACINA.
+
+
+
+
+FONNI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft. above
+sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S. of Nuoro by road.
+Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated
+among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. The church of the
+Franciscans, built in 1708, contains some curious paintings by local
+artists. The costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on
+the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is
+similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are
+long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over
+that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and
+black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a
+blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two
+identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried
+girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black. A little to the N.
+of Fonni, by the high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile,
+mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ as situated 87 m. from Carales on
+the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the
+discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of
+a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of baths and other
+buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in
+length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (_tabula
+honestae missionis_) of sailors who had served in the _classis Ravennas_
+was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (_id. ib._, 1882, 440; T.
+Mommsen, _Corp. inscr. Lat._ x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several
+"menhirs" (called _pietre celtiche_ in the district) and other
+prehistoric remains.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FONSAGRADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; 25
+m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302. Fonsagrada is situated
+3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed between the rivers Rodil and
+Suarna. It is an important market for all kinds of agricultural produce,
+and manufactures linen and frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing
+to the mountainous character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a
+railway or navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any
+considerable export trade.
+
+
+
+
+FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892), first president of the united
+states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas on the 5th of August 1827, being
+the third son of Lieut.-Colonel Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He
+was educated at the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained
+the rank of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864
+against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez, dictator of
+Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and before the close of
+the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel, and some years later
+that of general of division. After holding several military commands, he
+was appointed in 1886 governor of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In
+this position he threw himself heartily into politics, espoused the
+republican opinions then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their
+exponents with his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the
+government at the close of the year removed him from his post, and
+recalled him to the capital as director of the service of army material.
+Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage
+insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed him from
+office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the viscount de
+Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of the military officers'
+political rights. From that time his influence was supreme in the army.
+In December 1888, when the Conservative Correa d'Oliveira became prime
+minister, Fonseca was appointed to command an army corps on the frontier
+of Matto Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a
+dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to the chamber
+of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in September. Divisions of
+opinion soon arose within the Liberal party on the question of
+provincial autonomy. The more extreme desired the inauguration of a
+complete federal system. Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the
+journalist and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to
+head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection broke
+out on the 15th of November 1889. The government commander, Almeida
+Barreto, hastened to place himself under Fonseca's orders, and the
+soldiers and sailors made common cause with the insurgents. The affair
+was almost bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being
+the only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn the
+ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican, leaders
+and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was constituted by
+the army and navy in the name of the nation, with Fonseca at its head.
+The council was abolished, and both the senate and the chamber of
+deputies were dissolved. The emperor was requested to leave the
+territory of Brazil within twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of
+November was embarked on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a
+decree of banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So
+universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt at
+armed resistance. The provisional government exercised dictatorial
+powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891 Fonseca was elected
+president of the republic. He was, however, no politician, and possessed
+indeed little ability beyond the art of acquiring popularity. His tenure
+of office was short. In May he became involved in an altercation with
+congress, and in November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond
+his constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule
+insurrection broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of
+November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office. From
+that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de Janeiro on the 23rd
+of August 1892.
+
+
+
+
+FONSECA, AMAPALA or CONCHAGUA, BAY OF, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean in
+the volcanic region between the Central American republics of Honduras,
+Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is unsurpassed in extent and security by
+any other harbour on the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest
+length, by about 30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea
+about 18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.)
+and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita and
+Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called "Los Farellones," divide
+the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient depth for
+the largest vessels. A channel called "El Estero Real" extends from the
+extreme southern point of the bay into Nicaragua for about 50 m.,
+reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake Managua. The principal islands in
+the bay are Sacate Grande, Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to
+Honduras, and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri
+belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest, being
+about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its position is the
+most important in the bay, being about 20 m. in circumference, and
+rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft. On the southern and eastern
+shores of the island the lava forms black rocky barriers to the waves,
+varying in height from 10 to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward
+are a number of _playas_ or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the
+most considerable of these is the port of Amapala (q.v.). Fonseca Bay
+was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named by him after
+his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable enemy of Columbus.
+
+
+
+
+FONT (Lat. _fons_, "fountain" or "spring," Ital. _fonte_, Fr. _les
+fonts_), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for Christian
+baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered at rivers or
+natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no doubt the primitive form of
+the rite was by _immersion_ in the water. _Infusion_--pouring water on
+the head of the neophyte--was early introduced into the west and north
+of Europe on account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its
+occasional danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental
+churches. _Aspersion_, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid, but
+recorded early examples of its use are rare (see BAPTISM). These
+different modes of administering baptism have caused corresponding
+changes in the receptacles for the water. After the cessation of
+persecution, when ritual and ornament began to develop openly, special
+buildings were erected for administering the rite of baptism. This was
+obviously necessary, for a large _piscina_ (basin or tank) in which
+candidates could be immersed would occupy too much space of the church
+floor itself. These baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an
+ascent of three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but
+not the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber (see
+BAPTISTERY).
+
+By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries had
+generally given place to that of fonts. The material of which these were
+made was stone, often decorative marble; as early as 524, however, the
+council of Lerida enacted that if a stone font were not procurable the
+presbyter was to provide a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament
+exclusively, which might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the
+font never became an important decorative article of church furniture:
+"The font, [Greek: kolumbêthra] (says Neale, _Eastern Church_, i. 214),
+in the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in the
+West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the font seldom or
+never possesses any beauty. The material is usually either metal or
+wood. In Russia the _columbethra_ is movable and only brought out when
+wanted."
+
+One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by Anastasius
+in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been presented thereto
+by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry, overlaid with silver
+inside and out. In the middle were two porphyry pillars carrying a
+golden dish, on which burnt the Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick
+and fed with balsam). On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with
+silver statues of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags
+poured out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional; the
+majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine early
+Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed, at Beer-Sheba.
+
+Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These are all of
+stone, except a few of lead; much less common are fonts of cast bronze
+(a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the Church of St Barthélemy,
+Liége). The most ancient are plain cylindrical bowls, with a
+circular--sometimes cruciform or quatrefoil--outline to the basin,
+either without support or with a single central pillar; occasionally
+there is more than one pillar. The basins are usually lined with lead to
+prevent absorption by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh,
+possesses an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the
+circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not
+infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone is found.
+Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon; hexagons are even less
+common, and pentagons very rare. There is a pentagonal font of this
+period at Cabourg, dept. Calvados, N. France.
+
+Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief. Arcading
+and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and pictorial
+representation. A very remarkable leaden font is preserved at
+Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in the life of Christ.
+At Pont-à-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs of St John the Baptist
+preaching, and baptizing Christ. Caryatides sometimes take the place of
+the pillars, and sculptured animals and grotesques of strange design not
+infrequently form the base. More remarkable is the occasional
+persistence of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very
+ancient font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian
+symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor (see
+G. Stephens' brochure, _Thunor the Thunderer_).
+
+In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A very remarkable
+example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim in Hanover, resting on
+four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase from which water is running
+(typical of the rivers of Paradise). Above is an inscription explaining
+the connexion of these rivers with the virtues of temperance, courage,
+justice and prudence. On the sides of the cup are representations of the
+passage of the Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the
+Virgin and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with
+bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures of Our
+Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles, exists at
+Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters inscribed
+upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries octagonal fonts became the
+rule. They are delicately ornamented with mouldings and similar
+decorations, in the contemporary style of Gothic architectural art.
+Though the basin is usually circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are
+not infrequently found in which the outline of the basin follows the
+octagonal shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this
+type are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.
+
+In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the Norman
+conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude examples, such as
+those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton, Sussex, are actually of Saxon
+times; of course we cannot count as "Saxon fonts" those adapted from
+pre-Norman sculptured stones originally designed for other purposes,
+such as that at Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are
+very common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman
+parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain, but
+generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage, &c. Among
+good examples that might be instanced of this period are Alphington,
+Devon (inverted cone, without foot); Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on
+caryatides); Ilam, Staffs (cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale,
+Sculthorpe, Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the
+last, remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a
+projecting stoup in the side for the chrism--a unique detail); besides
+others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden, Kent; Coleshill,
+Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome, Herefordshire. Some of the best
+examples of "Norman" fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in
+Winchester cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the
+Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font at
+Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden fonts that
+remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in Gloucestershire, 4
+in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford and Sussex, 1 in Derby,
+Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and Wiltshire); perhaps the finest
+examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English
+fonts are comparatively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth
+ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of an Early
+English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be seen at St
+Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the Decorated period
+are commoner, but not so frequent as those of the preceding Norman or
+subsequent Perpendicular periods. Fonts of the Perpendicular period are
+very common, and are generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem,
+which, together with the body of the font, are frequently richly
+ornamented with panelling. It was also the custom during this period to
+ornament the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic
+insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however, are as a
+rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular work, are stiff
+and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable font, with sculptured
+figures, belonging to the late 14th century, at West Drayton in
+Middlesex.
+
+In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal children
+of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544 by Sir R. Lea, and
+given by him to the church at St Albans, but was afterwards destroyed by
+the Puritans. A silver font existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes
+brought to Westminster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,
+Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the 16th
+century. The only existing structure at all recalling the ancient
+baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in Bedfordshire. The
+font at Luton belongs to the Decorated style, and is enclosed in an
+octagonal structure of freestone, consisting of eight pillars about 25
+ft. in height, supporting a canopy. The space around the font is large
+enough to hold twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a
+vessel for containing the consecrated water, which when required was let
+down into the font by means of a pipe.
+
+In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, that
+baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a precaution
+against sorcery:--"Fontes baptismales sub sera clausi teneantur propter
+sortilegia." The lids appear at first to have been quite simple and
+flat. They gradually, however, partook of the ornamentation of the font
+itself, and are often of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated
+with finials, crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers
+are very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be raised
+at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme, Oxon; St Gregory,
+Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk; Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary
+position of the font in the church was and is near the entrance, usually
+to the left of the south door.
+
+  See Arcisse de Caumont, _Cours d'antiquités monumentales_ (Paris,
+  1830-1843); Francis Simpson, _A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts_
+  (London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dict.
+  raisonné de l'architecture_ (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker's
+  _Glossary of Architecture_; Francis Bond, _Fonts and Font-Covers_
+  (London, 1908). A large number of fine illustrations of fonts,
+  principally of the earlier periods, will be found in the volumes of
+  the _Reliquary_ and _Illustrated Archaeologist_.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD (1762-1853), French architect, was
+born at Pontoise on the 20th of September 1762. He came of a family
+several of whose members had distinguished themselves as architects.
+Leaving the college of Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to
+L'Isle-Adam to assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect
+André. To facilitate his improvement André allowed him to have access to
+his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was sent to Paris
+to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and there began his
+acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into a life-long friendship.
+After six years of study he competed for a prize at the Academy, and,
+winning the second for the plan of an underground chapel, he received a
+pension and was sent to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The
+Revolution breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge
+in England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was
+employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by the painter,
+David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth he was fully
+engaged in the principal architectural works executed in Paris as
+architect successively to Napoleon I., Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe.
+In conjunction with Percier (till his death) he was employed on the arch
+of the Carrousel, the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand
+staircase of the Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the
+Louvre and the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the
+Academy of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the
+emperor. With Percier he published the following works--_Palais_,
+_maisons_, _et autres édifices de Rome moderne_ (1802); _Descriptions de
+cérémonies et de fêtes_ (1807 and 1810); _Recueil de décorations
+intérieures_ (1812); _Choix des plus célèbres maisons de plaisance de
+Rome et des environs_ (1809-1813); _Résidences des souverains,
+Parallèle_ (1833). _L'histoire du Palais-Royal_ was published by
+Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and associate, in 1838, and
+himself died in Paris on the 10th of October 1853.
+
+
+
+
+FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E. of Paris on the railway
+to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau, a town of clean, wide and
+well-built streets, stands in the midst of the forest of Fontainebleau,
+nearly 2 m. from the left bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the
+Tambour mansion, and a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of
+Ferrara, both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the
+palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of General
+Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a monument to
+President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau is the seat of a
+subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
+The school of practical artillery and engineering was transferred to
+Fontainebleau from Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part
+of the palace surrounding the cour des offices.
+
+Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills, and
+manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are grown in the
+vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort, and during the season
+the president of the Republic frequently resides in the palace. This
+famous building, one of the largest, and in the interior one of the most
+sumptuous, of the royal residences of France, lies immediately to the
+south-east of the town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by
+buildings, extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du Cheval
+Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting scene between
+Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour de la Fontaine, the Cour
+Ovale, built on the site of a more ancient château, and the Cour d'
+Henri IV.: the smaller Cour des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the
+Cour Ovale. The exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. _Fons
+Bleaudi_) are equally unknown, but the older château was used in the
+latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas Becket
+to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued a favourite
+residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The creator of the present
+edifice was Francis I., under whom the architect Gilles le Breton
+erected most of the buildings of the Cour Ovale, including the Porte
+Dorée, its southern entrance, and the Salle des Fêtes, which, in the
+reign of Henry II., was decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio
+and Nicolo dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber
+in France. The Galerie de François I. and the lower storey of the left
+wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same architect, who
+also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin. In the same reign
+the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the Chapelle de la Ste Trinité and
+the Galerie d'Ulysse, destroyed and rebuilt under Louis XV., was
+constructed by Pierre Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes
+most to Henry IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des
+Princes, with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs,
+used as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase in
+the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs on works
+of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and Napoleon III.
+devoted considerable sums to the same end. The palace is surrounded by
+gardens and ornamental waters--to the north the Jardin de l'Orangerie,
+to the south the Jardin Anglais and the Parterre, between which extends
+the lake known as the Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large
+numbers. A space of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered
+by the park, which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of
+Henry IV. On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine
+white grapes.
+
+_Forest of Fontainebleau._--The forest of Fontainebleau is one of the
+most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations it has been
+the chosen haunt of French landscape painters. Among the most celebrated
+spots are the Vallée de la Solle, the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de
+Franchard and d'Apremont, and the Fort l'Empereur. The whole area
+extends to 42,200 acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter
+of this area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone
+supplied a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech,
+hornbeam and birch are the chief varieties of trees.
+
+It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical events
+which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the Fair, Henry III. and
+Louis XIII. were all born in the palace, and the first of these kings
+died there. James V. of Scotland was there received by his intended
+bride; and Charles V. of Germany was entertained there in 1539.
+Christina of Sweden lived there for years, and the gallery is still to
+be seen where in 1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to
+death. In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of the
+edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the great Condé.
+In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests in Peter the Great of
+Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark; and in the early part of the 19th
+century it was twice the residence of Pius VII.,--in 1804 when he came
+to consecrate the emperor Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his
+prisoner.
+
+  See Pfnor, _Monographie de Fontainebleau_, with text by Champollion
+  Figeac (Paris, 1866); _Guide artistique et historique au palais de
+  Fontainebleau_ (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, _Recherches sur
+  Fontainebleau_ (Fontainebleau, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (1801-1839), French man of letters, was born at
+Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began his career as a clerk in a
+government office, but was dismissed for taking part in a political
+banquet. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris and began to contribute
+to the _Tablettes_ and the _Album_. He was brought to trial for
+political articles written for the latter paper, but defended himself so
+energetically that he secured the indefinite postponement of his case.
+The offending paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a
+collection of political poems, _Odes et épîtres_, and a number of plays,
+of which _Perkins Warbec_ (1828), written in collaboration with MM.
+Halévy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828 the _Album_ was
+revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent but witty attack on
+Charles X., entitled _Le Mouton enragé_ (20th June 1829). To escape the
+inevitable prosecution Fontan fled over the frontier, but, finding no
+safe asylum, he returned to Paris to give himself up to the authorities,
+and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was
+liberated by the revolution of 1830, and his _Jeanne la folle_,
+performed in the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to
+sympathy with the author's political principles than to the merits of
+the piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton
+history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which he wrote
+in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, _Le Procès d'un maréchal de
+France_ (printed 1831), was suppressed on the night of its production.
+Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of October 1839.
+
+  A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis of his
+  principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin's _Histoire de la
+  littérature dramatique_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect and mechanician, was
+born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in 1543. After a good
+training in mathematics, he went in 1563 to join his elder brother, then
+studying architecture at Rome. He made rapid progress, and was taken
+into the service of Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in
+the church of Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the
+cardinal's pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana
+volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense. The
+cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of Sixtus V., he
+immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect. Amongst the works
+executed by him were the Lateran palace, the palace of Monte Cavallo
+(the Quirinal), the Vatican library, &c. But the undertaking which
+brought Fontana the highest repute was the removal of the great Egyptian
+obelisk, which had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from
+the place where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in
+front of St Peter's he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus
+V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation of public
+moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his post (1592). This
+appears to have been just in time to save the Colosseum from being
+converted by Fontana into a huge cloth factory, according to a project
+of Sixtus V. Fontana was then called to Naples, and accepted the
+appointment of architect to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples
+he built the royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a
+new harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only
+literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the obelisk
+(Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was honoured with a public
+funeral in the church of Santa Anna. His plan for a new harbour at
+Naples was carried out only after his death. His son Giulio Cesare
+succeeded him as royal architect in Naples, the university of that town
+being his best-known building.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter, was the daughter
+of Prospero Fontana (q.v.). She was greatly employed by the ladies of
+Bologna, and, going thence to Rome, painted the likenesses of many
+illustrious personages, being under the particular patronage of the
+family (Buoncampagni) of Pope Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman
+ladies, from the days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in
+1605, showed no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had
+done; and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,
+often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works of a
+different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness. Among
+the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum; the "Virgin lifting
+a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the Escorial; and the "Queen
+of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her own portrait in youth--she was accounted
+very beautiful--was perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts
+Zappi of Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband,
+whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the draperies
+in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the whole a better
+painter than her father; from him naturally came her first instruction,
+but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque style, with strong
+quasi-Venetian colouring. She was elected into the Academy of Rome, and
+died in that city in 1614.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597), Italian painter, was born in Bologna, and
+became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola. He afterwards worked for Vasari
+and Perino del Vaga. It was probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a
+practice of offhand, self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of
+commissions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few
+weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Città di Castello. Along
+with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works of parade he
+attained a certain measure of success, although his drawing was
+incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs to the degenerate
+period of the Bolognese school, under the influence chiefly of the
+imitators of Raphael--Sabbatini, Sammachini and Passerotti being three
+of his principal colleagues. His soundest successes were in portraiture,
+in which branch of art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo
+introduced him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was
+pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court with the
+three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand scale, and figured
+as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his professional brethren.
+Returning to Bologna, after doing some work in Fontainebleau and in
+Genoa, he opened a school of art, in which he became the preceptor of
+Lodovico and Agostino Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as
+reformers and innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue
+of Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane history
+and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in Bologna,--the
+picture of the "Adoration of the Magi," in the church of S. Maria delle
+Grazie, being considered his masterpiece--not unlike the style of Paul
+Veronese. He died in Rome in 1597.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898), German poet and novelist, was born at
+Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At the age of sixteen he was
+apprenticed to a chemist, and after qualifying as an apothecary, he
+found employment in Leipzig and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in
+England, and settling in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature.
+He made repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English
+ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published _Ein Sommer in
+London_ (1854); _Aus England, Studien und Briefe_ (1860) and _Jenseit
+des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland_ (1860). Fontane was
+particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg, in which his home lay;
+he was proud of its past achievements, and delighted in the growth of
+the capital city, Berlin. The fascination which the country of his birth
+had for him may be seen in his delightfully picturesque _Wanderungen
+durch die Mark Brandenburg_ (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the
+wars of Prussia in _Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864_
+(1866) and _Der deutsche Krieg von 1866_ (1869). He proceeded to the
+theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs,
+remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates in
+_Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870_ (1871), and he published the result of
+his observations of the campaign in _Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71_
+(1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries, he at first sought
+inspiration for his poetry in the heroes of other countries. His
+_Gedichte_ (1851) and ballads _Manner und Helden_ (1860) tell of
+England's glories in bygone days. Then the achievements of his own
+countrymen entered into rivalry, and these, as an ardent patriot, he
+immortalized in poem and narrative. It is, however, as a novelist that
+Fontane is best known. His fine historical romance _Vor dem Sturm_
+(1878) was followed by a series of novels of modern life: _L'Adultera_
+(1882); _Schach von Wuthenow_ (1883); _Irrungen, Wirrungen_ (1888);
+_Stine_ (1890); _Unwiederbringlich_ (1891); _Effi Briest_ (1895); _Der
+Stechlin_ (1899), in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the
+realistic methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to
+the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September 1898
+at Berlin.
+
+  Fontane's _Gesammelte Romane und Erzählungen_ were published in 12
+  vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the
+  autobiographical works _Meine Kinderjahre_ (1894) and _Von zwanzig bis
+  dreissig_ (1898), also _Briefe an seine Familie_ (1905); also F.
+  Servaes, _Theodor Fontane_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1821), French poet and politician, was
+born at Niort (Deux Sèvres) on the 6th of March 1757. He belonged to a
+noble Protestant family of Languedoc which had been reduced to poverty
+by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father and grandfather
+remained Protestant, but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His
+parents died in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he
+found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published poems,
+some of which were inspired by English models, appeared in the _Almanack
+des Muses_; "Le Cri de mon coeur," describing his own sad childhood, in
+1778; and "La Forêt de Navarre" in 1780. His translation from Alexander
+Pope, _L'Essai sur l'homme_, was published with an elaborate preface in
+1783, and _La Chartreuse_ and _Le Jour des morts_ in the same year, _Le
+Verger_ in 1788 and his _Épître sur l'édit en faveur des
+non-catholiques_, and the _Essai sur l'astronomie_ in 1789. Fontanes was
+a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became joint-editor of the
+_Modérateur_. He married at Lyons in 1792, and his wife's first child
+was born during their flight from the siege of that town. Fontanes was
+in hiding in Paris when the four citizens of Lyons were sent to the
+Convention to protest against the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The
+petition was drawn up by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered,
+he fled from Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and
+afterwards at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor
+of literature in the École Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he was one
+of the original members of the Institute. In the _Mémorial_, a journal
+edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated reaction to the monarchical
+principle. He was exiled by the Directory and made his way to London,
+where he was closely associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to
+France, and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to write
+an _éloge_ on Washington, secured his return to the Institute and his
+political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative chamber,
+of which he was president from 1804 to 1810. Other honours and titles
+followed. He has been accused of servility to Napoleon, but he had the
+courage to remonstrate with him on the judicial murder of the due
+d'Enghien, and as grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he
+consistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He
+acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis in 1817.
+He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving eight cantos of an
+unfinished epic poem entitled _La Grèce sauvée_.
+
+The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of the 18th
+century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve edited the
+_Oeuvres_ (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic critical study of
+the author and his career. But by that time the Romantic movement was in
+the ascendant and Fontanes met with small appreciation.
+
+
+
+
+FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, a town of western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Vendée 30 m. N.E. of La Rochelle on
+the State railway between that town and Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639;
+commune, 10,326. Fontenay, an ancient and straggling town, is situated a
+few miles south of the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the
+Vendée, at the point where it becomes navigable. The church of
+Notre-Dame (15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly
+sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th and 17th
+centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town has several
+houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most remarkable of these is
+the Hôtel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600), which contains much rich
+decoration together with collections of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay
+was the birthplace of many prominent men during the 15th and 16th
+centuries, and the Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the
+Renaissance style, given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates
+the fact. The chief square is named after François Viète, the great
+mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public institutions
+of the town include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
+Among its industries are the manufacture of felt hats, oil and soap and
+timber-sawing, flour-milling and tanning. There is trade in horses,
+mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c.
+
+Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls. The affix
+of "comte" is said to have been applied to it when it was taken by King
+Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and given to his brother Alphonse,
+count of Poitou, under whom it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to
+the English by the treaty of Brétigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by
+Duguesclin. It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of
+the 16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both by the
+republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From 1790 to 1806 it
+was capital of the department of Vendée.
+
+
+
+
+FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757), French author, was born at
+Rouen, on the 11th of February 1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of
+January 1757, having thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His
+father was an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two
+Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his native
+city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary precocity and
+versatility of his talents. His teachers, who readily appreciated these,
+were anxious for him to join their order, but his father had designed
+him for the bar, and an advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost
+the first cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and
+gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was first
+directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for prizes of the
+French Academy, but never with success. He visited Paris from time to
+time and established intimate relations with the abbé de Saint Pierre,
+the abbé Vertot and the mathematician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in
+1680, the total failure of his tragedy _Aspar_. Fontenelle afterwards
+acknowledged the justice of the public verdict by burning his
+unfortunate drama. His opera of _Thétis et Pélée_, 1689, though highly
+praised by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and
+it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic works not one
+has kept the stage. His _Poésies pastorales_ (1688) have no greater
+claim to permanent repute, being characterized by stiffness and
+affectation; and the utmost that can be said for his poetry in general
+is that it displays much of the _limae labor_, great purity of diction
+and occasional felicity of expression.
+
+His _Lettres galantes du chevalier d'Her_ ..., published anonymously in
+1685, was an amusing collection of stories that immediately made its
+mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised
+as the rival princesses Mreo and Eenegu, in the _Relation de l'île de
+Bornéo_, gave proof of his daring in religious matters. But it was by
+his _Nouveaux Dialogues des morts_ (1683) that Fontenelle established a
+genuine claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three
+years later by the appearance of the _Entretiens sur la pluralité des
+mondes_ (1686), a work which was among the very first to illustrate the
+possibility of being scientific without being either uninteresting or
+unintelligible to the ordinary reader. His object was to popularize
+among his countrymen the astronomical theories of Descartes; and it may
+well be doubted if that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or
+successful expositor among his disciples.
+
+Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687 he removed
+to Paris; and in the same year he published his _Histoire des oracles_,
+a book which made a considerable stir in theological and philosophical
+circles. It consisted of two essays, the first of which was designed to
+prove that oracles were not given by the supernatural agency of demons,
+and the second that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It
+excited the suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus,
+published a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition
+of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered. To the
+following year (1688) belongs his _Digression sur les anciens et les
+modernes_, in which he took the modern side in the controversy then
+raging; his _Doutes sur le système physique des causes occasionnelles_
+(against Malebranche) appeared shortly afterwards.
+
+In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of the
+determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this quarrel,
+especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous occasions had
+secured his rejection. He consequently was admitted a member both of the
+Academy of Inscriptions and of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he
+became perpetual secretary to the latter body. This office he actually
+held for the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official
+capacity that he wrote the _Histoire du renouvellement de l'Académie des
+Sciences_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts and
+analyses of the proceedings, and also the _éloges_ of the members,
+written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best known of
+his _éloges_, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that of his uncle
+Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the _Nouvelles de la
+république des lettres_ (January 1685) and, as _Vie de Corneille_, was
+included in all the editions of Fontenelle's _Oeuvres_. The other
+important works of Fontenelle are his _Élements de la géometrie de
+l'infini_ (1727) and his _Apologie des tourbillons_ (1752). Fontenelle
+forms a link between two very widely different periods of French
+literature, that of Corneille, Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and
+that of Voltaire, D'Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in
+virtue of his great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually
+had much in common with the _beaux esprits_ of the 17th century, as well
+as with the _philosophes_ of the 18th. But it is to the latter rather
+than to the former period that he properly belongs.
+
+He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve has
+said, he well deserves a place "_dans la classe des esprits infiniment
+distingués_"--distinguished, however, it ought to be added by
+intelligence rather than by intellect, and less by the power of saying
+much than by the power of saying a little well. In personal character he
+has sometimes been described as having been revoltingly heartless; and
+it is abundantly plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling
+strongly the more generous emotions--a misfortune, or a fault, which
+revealed itself in many ways. "_Il faut avoir de l'âme pour avoir du
+goût._" But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken
+too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the esteem of
+many friends suffices to show that the theoretical selfishness which he
+sometimes professed cannot have been consistently and at all times
+carried into practice.
+
+  There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle's works, the
+  first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The best is
+  that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate works have
+  been very frequently reprinted and also translated. The _Pluralité des
+  mondes_ was translated into modern Greek in 1794. Sainte-Beuve has an
+  interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several useful references, in
+  the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii. See also Villemain, _Tableau de la
+  littérature française au XVIII^e siècle_; the abbé Trublet, _Mémoires
+  pour servir à l'histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de
+  Fontenelle_ (1759); A. Laborde-Milaà, _Fontenelle_ (1905), in the
+  "Grands écrivains français" series; and L. Maigron, _Fontenelle,
+  l'homme, l'oeuvre, l'influence_ (Paris, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, about 4 m.
+S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of Fontenoy, in which
+on the 11th of May 1745 the French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the
+Anglo-Allied army under the duke of Cumberland. The object of the French
+(see also AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE) was to cover the siege of the
+then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies, who slowly
+advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed of the impending attack,
+Louis XV., with the dauphin, came with all speed to witness the
+operations, and by his presence to give Saxe, who was in bad health and
+beset with private enemies, the support necessary to enable him to
+command effectively. Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal
+Königsegg, and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of
+Waldeck.
+
+The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river at
+Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between Antoing and
+Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed, and Fontenoy itself was
+put in a complete state of defence. On the left rear of this line, and
+separated from Fontenoy by some furlongs of open ground, another redoubt
+was made at the corner of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain.
+The infantry was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy
+redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood; behind them
+was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were guarded by a mounted
+volunteer corps called _Grassins_. At Calonne the marshal had
+constructed three military bridges against the contingency of a forced
+retreat. The force of the French was about 60,000 of all arms, not
+including 22,000 left in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself,
+who was suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to
+mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the troops.
+At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian army with the
+Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vézon, facing towards Fontenoy
+and the wood, while the Dutch on their left extended the general line to
+Péronne. The total force was 46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe
+could actually put into the line of battle.
+
+The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Königsegg and Waldeck on the
+10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary skirmish had cleared the
+broken ground immediately about Vézon and revealed a part of the
+defender's dispositions. It was resolved that the Dutch should attack
+the front Antoing-Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank
+attack against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground
+between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round the wood was
+projected but had to be given up, as in the late evening of the 10th the
+Allies' light cavalry drew fire from its southern edge. Cumberland then
+ordered his cavalry commander to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to
+cover the formation of the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another
+and most important modification had to be made. The advance was
+beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became visible.
+Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby (major and
+brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and an artillery
+detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing its fire with that of
+Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the development of the flank
+attack. At 6 A.M. the brigade moved off, but it was irresolutely handled
+and halted time after time; and after waiting as long as possible, the
+British and Hanoverian cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and
+extended in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious
+cannonade which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir
+John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were to have
+covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns of the Dutch
+towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward through the lanes,
+each unit on reaching open ground covering the exit and deployment of
+the one in rear, all under the French cannonade. This went on for two
+hours, and save that it showed the magnificent discipline of the British
+and Hanoverian regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack.
+Cumberland's own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the
+Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed Antoine
+Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Françaises, and another
+Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe's artillery commander.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fontenoy.]
+
+It was now 9 A.M., and while the guns from the wood redoubt battered the
+upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby's brigade was huddled together,
+motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself galloped thither, and under
+his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the last remnants of self-possession. To
+Sir John Ligonier's aide-de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a
+bitterly formal order to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the
+duke's orders were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main body.
+By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had collapsed.
+
+But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together had roused a
+stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the men they led.
+Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the Hanoverian general
+Zastrow, gave up the right attack and brought his battalions into the
+main body. A second halfhearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by
+some Dutch troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of
+these battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland
+regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own accord.
+Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal had agreed to
+take all risks and to storm through between Fontenoy and the wood
+redoubt, and had launched the great attack, one of the most celebrated
+in the history of war. The English infantry was in two lines. The
+Hanoverians on their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to
+file into third line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were
+the battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn,
+accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry followed. The column
+may have numbered 14,000 infantry. All the infantry battalions closed on
+their centre, the normal three ranks becoming six. If the proper
+distances between lines were preserved, the mass must have formed an
+oblong about 500 yds × 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).
+
+The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the front line and
+gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade order, drums beating
+and colours flying, the mass advanced, straight up the gentle slope,
+which was swept everywhere by the flanking artillery of the defence.
+Then, when the first line reached the low crest on the ends of which
+stood the French artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full
+enfilade from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and
+foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the front
+gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to avoid the fire.
+Then the French advanced, and the Guards Brigade and the Gardes
+Françaises met face to face. Captain Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760),
+lieutenant of the First (Grenadier) Guards, suddenly ran in front of the
+line, took off his hat to the enemy and drank to them from a pocket
+flask, shouting a taunt, "We hope you will stand till we come up to you,
+and not swim the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his
+own men, he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers
+returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether or not the
+French, as legend states, were asked and refused to fire first, the
+whole British line fired one tremendous series of volleys by companies.
+50 officers and 760 men of the three foremost French regiments fell at
+once, and at so appalling a loss the remnant broke and fled. Three
+hundred paces farther on stood the second line of the French, and slowly
+the mass advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the
+French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept the
+crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up, the
+assailants were practically in square and repelled various partial
+attacks coming from all sides. The Régiment du Roi lost 33 officers and
+345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream) Guards. But these
+counter-attacks gained a few precious minutes for the French. It was the
+crisis of the battle. The king, though the court meditated flight, stood
+steady with the dauphin at his side,--Fontenoy was the one great day of
+Louis XV.'s life,--and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to collect
+his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians were now at a
+standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes were repulsed, but no
+progress was made; their cavalry was unable to get to the front, and
+Saxe was by now thinking of victory. Captain Isnard of the Touraine
+regiment suggested artillery to batter the face of the square,
+preparatory to a final charge. General Löwendahl galloped up to Saxe,
+crying, "This is a great day for the king; they will never escape!" The
+nearest guns were planted in front of the assailants, and used with
+effect. The infantry, led by Löwendahl, fastened itself on the sides of
+the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the Irish
+Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting for the cannon
+to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie and all the
+light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of Richelieu and count
+d'Estrées. The left wing of the Allies was still inactive, and troops
+were brought up from Antoing and Fontenoy to support the final blow.
+About 2 P.M. it was delivered, and in eight minutes the square was
+broken. As the infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn
+groups the French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts
+to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and they
+regained the broken ground about Vézon, whence they had come. Cumberland
+himself and all the senior generals remained with the rearguard.
+
+The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat less than
+normally heavy when distributed over the whole of both armies, but
+exceedingly severe in the units really engaged. Eight out of nineteen
+regiments of British infantry lost over 200 men, two of these more than
+300. A tribute to the loyalty and discipline of the British, as compared
+with the generality of armies in those days, may be found in the fact
+that the three Guards' regiments had no "missing" men whatever. The 23rd
+(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Böschlanger's Hanoverian
+regiment suffered even more heavily, and four others of that nation had
+200 or more casualties. The total loss was about 7500, that of the
+French 7200. The French "Royal" regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men;
+some other regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch
+lost a bare 7% of their strength.
+
+Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the Prussian Guards
+at St Privat is to-day, _a locus classicus_ for military theorists. But
+the technical features of the battle are completely overshadowed by its
+epic interest, and above all it illustrates the permanent and
+unchangeable military characteristics of the British and French nations.
+
+
+
+
+FONTEVRAULT, or FONTEVRAUD (Lat. _Fons Ebraldi_), a town of western
+France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 10 m. S.E. of Saumur by
+road and 2½ m. from the confluence of the Loire and Vienne. Pop. (1906)
+1279. It is situated in the midst of the forest of Fontevrault. The
+interest of the place centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has been
+utilized and abused as a central house of detention for convicts. The
+church (12th century), of which only the choir and apse are appropriated
+to divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by four cupolas
+destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the crossing. In a
+chapel in the south transept are the effigies of Henry II. of England,
+of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard I. of England and of Isabella
+of Angoulême, wife of John of England--Eleanor's being of oak and the
+rest of stone. The cloister, refectory and chapter-house date from the
+16th century. The second court of the abbey contains a remarkable
+building, the Tour d'Évrault (12th century), which long went under the
+misnomer of _chapelle funéraire_, but was in reality the old kitchen.
+Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc's _Dictionnaire de
+l'architecture_. There are three stories, the whole being surmounted by
+a pyramidal structure.
+
+The _Order of Fontevrault_ was founded about 1100 by Robert of
+Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec, in the
+diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher and ascetic.
+The establishment was a double monastery, containing a nunnery of 300
+nuns and a monastery of 200 monks, separated completely so that no
+communication was allowed except in the church, where the services were
+carried on in common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers
+and other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by the
+nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the observance
+of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency. The special
+feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled the monks as well as
+the nuns. At the beginning the order had a great vogue, and at the time
+of Robert's death, 1117, there were several monasteries and 3000 nuns;
+afterwards the number of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the
+same plan. The institute never throve out of France; there were attempts
+to introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were three
+houses--at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton, and Westwood in
+Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in France were recruited from the
+highest families, and the abbess of Fontevrault, who was the
+superior-general of the whole order, was usually of the royal family of
+France.
+
+  See P. Hélyot, _Hist, des ordres religieuses_ (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13;
+  Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1907), i. 46; the arts.
+  "Fontevrauld" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3), supply full references to
+  the literature. The most recent monograph is Édouard, _Fontevrault et
+  ses monuments_ (1875); for the later history see art. by Edmund Bishop
+  in _Downside Review_ (1886).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOD (like the verb "to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng.
+_foda_; cf. "fodder"; connected with Gr. [Greek: pateiothai], to feed),
+the general term for what is eaten by man and other creatures for the
+sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of human food is dealt with
+under NUTRITION and DIETETICS.
+
+_Infancy._--The influence of a normal diet upon the health of man (we
+exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must depend on the
+abnormal conditions existing) begins at the earliest stage of his life.
+No food has as yet been found so suitable for the young of all animals
+as their mother's milk. This, however, has not been from want of
+seeking. Dr Brouzet (_Sur l'éducation médicinale des enfants_, i. p.
+165) had such a bad opinion of human mothers, that he expressed a wish
+for the state to interfere and prevent them from suckling their
+children, lest they should communicate immorality and disease! A still
+more determined pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who
+thought life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn
+propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer and honey
+for milk, which latter he calls "brute's food." Baron Justus von Liebig,
+as the result of his chemical researches, introduced a "food for
+infants," which in more modern days has been followed by a
+multiplication of patent foods. A close imitation of human milk may also
+be made by the addition to fresh cow's milk of half its bulk of soft
+water, in each pint of which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of
+powdered "sugar of milk" and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These
+artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value where
+for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food, however, for
+the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone. A vigorous baby
+can indeed bear with impunity much rough usage, and often appears none
+the worse for a certain quantity of farinaceous food; but the majority
+do not get habituated to it without an exhibition of dislike which
+indicates rebellion of the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on
+their way to the front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands
+secrete an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then
+anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered in the light
+of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.
+
+The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's age, partly
+by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth nine times out of
+ten consists of the lower central front teeth, which may appear any time
+during the sixth and seventh month. The mother may then begin to
+diminish the number of suckling times; and by a month she can have
+reduced them to twice a day, so as to be ready when the second group
+makes its way through the upper front gums to cut off the supply
+altogether. The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders,
+usually after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid
+food can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a
+considerable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which
+seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.
+
+_Childhood and Youth._--At this stage of life the diet must obviously be
+the best which is a transition from that of infancy to that of adult
+age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire surrender of every
+consideration to the claim of growth is not possible, nor indeed
+desirable. Moreover, that abundance of adipose tissue, or reserve new
+growth, which a baby can bear is an impediment to the due education of
+the muscles of the boy or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so
+continuous as before, but at the same time should be more frequent than
+for the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule
+should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in nutritive
+power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate, all sufficient. The
+maturity the body then reaches involves a hardening and enlargement of
+the bones and cartilages, and a strengthening of the digestive organs,
+which in healthy young persons enables us to dispense with some of the
+watchful care bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are
+generally sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be
+allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition which
+has hitherto been paramount.
+
+_Adults._--It is only necessary here to refer to the article on
+DIETETICS (see also VEGETARIANISM) for a discussion of the food of
+normal adults; and to such headings as DIETARY (for fixed allowances) or
+COOKERY. Different staple articles of food are dealt with under their
+own headings. For animals other than man see the respective articles on
+them.
+
+  Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those enumerated
+  under DIETETICS, see Sir Henry Thompson's _Foods and Feeding_ (1894);
+  Hart's _Diet in Sickness and Health_ (1896); Knight, _Food and its
+  Functions_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FOOD PRESERVATION. The preservation of food material beyond the short
+term during which it naturally keeps sound and eatable has engaged human
+thought from the earliest dawn of civilization. Necessity compelled man
+to store the plenitude of one season or place against the need of
+another. The hunter dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man
+preserved milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented
+grape-juice into wine. With the separation of country from town, the
+development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural and
+food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man from torrid to
+arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and sea and of armies on
+the march, the problem of the prevention of the natural decomposition to
+which nearly all food substances are liable became increasingly urgent,
+and forms to-day, next to the production of food, the most important
+problem in connexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long
+as the reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at
+preservation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless processes
+which have during modern times been proposed and attempted comparatively
+few have stood the test of experience. In the light of modern knowledge,
+however, the guiding principles appear to be very simple.
+
+Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it were, of their
+own accord. They may lose water by evaporation, and fatty substances may
+alter by the absorption of oxygen from the air. They are otherwise quite
+stable and unchangeable while not attacked and eaten up by living
+organisms, or while the life with which they may be endowed is in a
+state of suspense. An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its
+ripening change; a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A
+substance, in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under
+the attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be
+available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the life
+be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower organism. All
+decomposition of food is due to the development within the food of
+living organisms. Under conditions under which living organisms cannot
+enter or cannot develop food keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length
+of time. The problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore,
+into that of keeping out or killing off all living things that might
+feed upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly belong
+to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food preservation
+is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.
+
+The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily intelligible when
+once their biological origin is recognized. Yeasts cause the
+decomposition of saccharine substances into alcohol and carbon dioxide,
+acetic and lactic ferments produce from sugar or from alcohol the
+organic acids causing the souring of food, moulds as a rule cause
+oxidation and complete destruction of organic matter, nitrogenous or
+saccharine, while most bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous
+constituents, producing albumoses and peptones and breaking up the
+complex albumen-molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to
+alkaloids, generally with the production of evil-smelling gases. These
+processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently take place
+successively in the decomposition of food, one set of organisms taking
+up the work of destruction as the conditions become favourable to its
+development and unfavourable to its predecessor. The organisms may come
+from the air, the soil or from animal sources. The air teems with
+organisms which settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable
+nidus; the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life;
+while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all animals
+harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in countless millions.
+Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed to the air, or touched by
+the soil or by animals or man, it becomes infected with living cells,
+which by their development lead to its decomposition and destruction.
+
+Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals; or their
+development may be arrested by cold, removal of water, or by the
+presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not destroying their
+life. All successful processes of food preservation depend upon one or
+other of these circumstances.
+
+_Preservation by Heat._--At the boiling-point of water all living cells
+perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about three hours.
+Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75° C. (167° F.) in the presence of
+water, though dry heat only kills with certainty at 140° C. (284° F.).
+Destruction of life takes place more rapidly in solutions showing an
+acid than a feebly alkaline reaction; hence acid fruit is more easily
+preserved than milk, which, when quite fresh, is alkaline. By cooking,
+therefore, food becomes temporarily sterile, until a fresh crop of
+organisms finds access from the air. By repeated cooking all food can be
+indefinitely preserved. One of the most important functions of cookery
+is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts against the
+consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of certain fungus-infected
+material is an inheritance from barbarous ages; few materials of animal
+origin are eaten raw, and in vegetables some sort of sterilizing process
+is attempted by washing (of salads) or removal of the outer skin (of
+fruits). All preparation of food for the table, cooking being the most
+important, tends towards preservation, but is effectual only for a few
+hours or days at most, unless special means are adopted to prevent
+reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with a thin paper soaked in
+brandy, or the potted meat with a thin layer of lard, attempts
+unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria and other minute organisms. To
+preserve food in a permanent manner and on a commercial scale it has to
+be cooked in a receptacle which must be sufficiently strong for
+transport, cheap, light and unattacked by the material in contact with
+it. None of the receptacles at present in use quite fulfils the whole of
+these conditions: glass and china are heavy and fragile, and their
+carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called tin-plate, is rarely quite
+unaffected by food materials, but owing to its strength, tenacity and
+cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing scale. The sheet iron, which
+formerly was made of soft wrought iron, now generally consists of steel
+containing but very little carbon; it is cleaned by immersion in acid
+and covered with a very thin layer of pure tin, all excess of tin being
+removed by hot rollers and brushes. The layer of tin, which formerly
+constituted from 3 to 5% of the total weight of the plate, has, owing to
+the increased price of tin and the improvement in machinery, gradually
+become so thin that its weight is only from 1 to 3%. Not rarely,
+therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect, perforated or pin-holed. Tin
+itself is slightly attacked by all acid juices of vegetable or animal
+substances. With the exception of milk, all human food is slightly acid,
+and consequently all food that has been preserved in tin canisters
+contains variable traces of dissolved tin. Happily, salts of tin have
+but little physiological action. Nevertheless, the employment cf
+tin-plate for very acid materials, like tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very
+objectionable.
+
+The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as
+follows:--The canister, which has been made either by the use of solder
+or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material to be
+preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the interstices
+the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally the former.
+Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in pressure chambers,
+which are heated by steam to 120° C. or more. The tins are exposed to
+that temperature for such time as experience has shown to be necessary
+to heat the contents throughout to at least 100° C. The temperature is
+then allowed to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of water, when
+the tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they are placed in
+pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride and are therein
+heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small aperture is pierced
+through the lid, to allow of the escape of the expanding air, such holes
+before cooling closed by means of a drop of solder. This process, which
+was originally introduced by François Appert early in the 19th century,
+is employed on an enormous scale, especially in America. The use of
+lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the tin covered with a
+heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. Imperfect sterilization
+shows itself in many cases by gas development within the tin, which
+causes the ends to become convex and drummy. More frequently than not
+the contents of the larger tins, containing meat or other animal
+products, are not absolutely sterile, but the conditions are mostly such
+that the organisms which have survived the cooking process cannot
+develop. When they can develop without formation of gas dangerous
+products of decomposition may be produced without showing themselves to
+taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine poisoning have thus
+occurred; these are more frequently associated with preserved fish and
+lobster than with meats, although no class of preserved animal food is
+free from liability of ptomaine formation. The formation of poisonous
+substances has never been traced to preserved fruit or other material
+poor in nitrogen. The mode of preserving food in china or glass is quite
+similar, but the losses by breakage are not inconsiderable. Food which
+has been preserved in tins is sometimes transferred to glass and
+re-sterilized, the feeling against "tinned" food caused by the "Chicago
+scandals" not having entirely subsided. Were it not for the facts that
+sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and that the food attacks the
+tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to keep for an indefinite
+length of time. Under existing circumstances, however, there is a
+distinct limit to the age of soundness of canned food.
+
+_Preservation by Chemicals._--Salt is the oldest chemical preservative
+and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and with wood-smoke,
+has been used for many centuries, mainly as a meat preservative. It is
+used either dry in layers strewn on the surface of the meat or fish to
+be preserved, or in the form of brine in which the meat is submerged or
+which is injected into the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is
+but moderate. It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is
+non-injurious, that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and
+that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When aided by
+wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power upon traces of
+creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite efficient. The addition
+of saltpetre is principally for the purpose of giving to the meat a
+bright pink tint. The strongly saline taste of pickled meat or salted
+butter appears gradually to have become repugnant to a large part of
+mankind, and other preservatives have come into use, possessing greater
+bactericidal power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to
+them is discussed in the article ADULTERATION. At the present time the
+use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England. Meat which
+has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde, and has thus been
+superficially sterilized, is also coming into commerce in increasing
+quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is distinctly poisonous, and has the
+property of combining with albuminoids and rendering them completely
+insoluble in the digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are
+not infrequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages or
+deterioration of so-called "potted meats," which are supposed to last
+fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable length of
+time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used in the preservation
+of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium fluoride has been found in
+butter. The whole of these substances possess decided and injurious
+physiological properties. Alcohol now rarely forms a preservative of
+food material, its employment being confined to small fruit. The use of
+sugar as a preservative depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute
+solution it is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it
+possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated
+syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less does not undergo
+any biological change; in the presence of organic acids, like those
+contained in fruit, growth of organisms is inhibited when the percentage
+of water is somewhat greater. Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in
+the manufacture of jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the
+surface of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains
+unaffected and unaltered.
+
+_Preservation by Drying._--Food materials in which the percentage of
+moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little liable to
+bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent _Penicillium_.
+Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts, which are laden with
+otherwise decomposable food material, by the simple expedient of water
+removal. The life of cereal grains and many seeds appears to be
+unlimited. By the removal of water the most perishable materials, like
+meat or eggs, can be rendered unchangeable, except so far as the
+inevitable oxidation of the fatty substances contained in them is
+concerned and which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat,
+upon which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of
+attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively small
+articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish. It has been
+superseded even among less civilized communities by the spread of canned
+food. Fruit, however, is very largely preserved in the dried state.
+Grapes are sun-dried and thus form currants, raisins and sultanas, the
+last variety being often bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums,
+apples and pears are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on
+wire sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated with
+notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried vegetables,
+including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans and cabbages, are also
+manufactured.
+
+The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to some
+extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due to J. von
+Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the middle of the 19th
+century. The soluble material is extracted mainly from beef, in
+Australia to some extent from mutton, by means of warm water; the
+albumen is coagulated by heat and removed, and the broths thus obtained
+are evaporated _in vacuo_ until the extract contains no more than about
+20% of water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 lb. of lean
+beef.
+
+_Preservation by Refrigeration._--At or below the freezing-point of
+water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication.
+Although it has been asserted that many of them perish when kept for
+some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that the vast majority
+of bacteria and their germs remain merely dormant. Even so highly
+organized structures as cereal seeds do not suffer in vitality on being
+kept for a considerable length of time at the far lower temperature of
+liquid air. Biological change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point,
+and as long as that temperature is maintained food material remains
+unaltered, except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation of
+water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations due to
+oxidation.
+
+Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a reasonably
+long time, and without the addition of any preservative substance, food
+in a raw condition. It is the only process of preservation which from a
+sanitary point of view is entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and
+properly employed. Its introduction on a commercial scale has more
+powerfully affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less
+degree, of the United States than any other scientific advance since
+the establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities of
+frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced in
+the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until required.
+Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have become almost
+impossible, and the abundance of Australian and New Zealand ranches, and
+of West Indian orchards, has been made readily accessible to the British
+consumer. For household purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers
+suffices to preserve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used
+for the purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored
+from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far larger
+quantity is artificially produced by the methods described in the
+article on REFRIGERATING, which also contains an account of the means by
+which low temperatures are produced for industrial purposes of
+importation and storage. Fleets of steamships fitted with refrigerating
+machinery and insulated cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food
+materials, which are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses,
+markets and hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July
+1873 from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory state.
+In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America. The first cargo of
+frozen meat was successfully brought to the United Kingdom in 1880 from
+Australia in the "Strathleven," fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine.
+The temperature in the cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34° F.,
+whilst in the chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the freezing
+room or chambers a much lower temperature (between 0° and 10° F.) is
+maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled slowly at first
+to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent damage by the unequal
+expansion of the outer layer of ice. The carcasses when freezing must be
+hung separated from each other, but for storage or transportation they
+are packed tightly together. Fish such as salmon is washed, thoroughly
+cleansed, and frozen on trays. Butter should be cooled as rapidly as
+possible to about 10° F.; its composition as regards proportion of
+volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely unaltered for years.
+Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe and should not be
+frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each one being inspected by
+candle-light. They are placed in cases holding about three hundred,
+which are taken first to a room in which they are slowly cooled to about
+33° F., and are then kept in store just below freezing-point. Particular
+attention must be paid to the relative humidity of the air in egg
+stores. Fruit should be quite fresh; grapes may be chilled to 26° F.,
+while lemons cannot safely be kept at a lower temperature than 36°. The
+time during which soft fruit can be kept even in cold-store is limited,
+and does not exceed about six weeks.
+
+In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable prejudice
+existed against stored meat. While in many cases the flavour of fresh
+meat is rather superior, the food value is in no way altered by
+cold-storage.[1]
+
+_Preservation by Pickling other than Salt._--For the preservation of
+vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to a
+limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute solution of
+sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage of eggs the more
+aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a portion of its water to the
+more concentrated yolk, which thereby expands and renders its thin
+containing-membrane liable to rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats
+and salmon, is preserved by packing in olive or other oil.
+
+The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely, milk,
+deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that alkaline
+liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat than acid
+materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour which milk
+undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact that milk forms
+perhaps the best medium for the growth and propagation of bacterial
+organisms, there is exceptional difficulty in its sterilization. As
+secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly sterile fluid, and, as shown
+by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under aseptic conditions and kept under
+such, it remains definitely fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other
+pollution at the time of milking arises from the animal, the stable, the
+milker and the vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other
+bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder. Milk as
+it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000 bacteria and
+often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh country cream 100
+millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual. These bacteria are of
+many kinds, some of them spore-bearing. The spores are more difficult to
+kill than the adult organism. The first step towards preservation is the
+removal of the dirt unavoidably present, to the particles of which a
+considerable proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through
+cloths or, better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects
+that removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a
+breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet of the
+milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate, a process
+known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the cream separates slowly,
+and does not form the coherent layer thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating
+is then effected either after bottling or by passing the milk
+continuously through pipes in which it is heated to from 160° to 170° F.
+By a repetition of the heating process on two or more succeeding days,
+complete sterilization may be effected, although a single treatment is
+sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many forms of
+pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general
+introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark for the
+feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals has
+practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use of
+sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found little
+favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board ship.
+
+Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a most extensive
+sale. The first efforts to condense and thus preserve milk date from
+1835, when an English patent was granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N.
+Horsford prepared condensed milk with the addition of lactose.
+Commercially successful milk condensation began in 1856. The milk is
+heated to about 180° F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, after
+having been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts of
+milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122° F., and is
+carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration that 100
+parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar, contain the solids of
+300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed milk, although rarely quite
+sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is invariably brought into commerce in
+tin canisters. The preparation of sweetened condensed milk forms one of
+the most important branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is
+steadily increasing in England. Although milk can quite well be
+preserved in the form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically
+possesses immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the
+balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable, such
+unsweetened milk has found little or no favour. Milk powder is
+manufactured under various patents, the most successful of which depends
+upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate and the subsequent rapid
+evaporation of the milk on steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk
+powder made from skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but
+full-cream milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of
+the finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation
+of so-called milk chocolates.     (O. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Per contra_, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the
+    _Year-book for 1907_ (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp.
+    197-206, with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two
+    and three years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on
+    the efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an "indefinite" period
+    is concerned; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat
+    may really account for various modern diseases.
+
+
+
+
+FOOL (O. Fr. _fol_, modern _fou_, foolish, from a Late Latin use of
+_follis_, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a
+jester, a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester.
+
+The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its
+culminating point of influence and recognized place and function in the
+social organism during the middle ages, appears to have existed in all
+times and countries. Not only have there always been individuals
+naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others; there has been besides
+in most communities a definite class, the members of which have used
+their powers or weaknesses in this direction as a regular means of
+getting a livelihood. Savage jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests,
+have certainly much in common with the jester by profession. There
+existed in ancient Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose
+habits were not essentially different from those of the jesters of the
+middle ages. Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon
+has given a picturesque account in the _Banquet_. Philip of Macedon is
+said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as well as
+court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have sometimes been
+not unreasonably confounded) were common in a number of the petty courts
+at that era of civilization. _Scurrae_ and _moriones_ were the Roman
+parallels of the medieval witty fool; and during the empire the
+manufacture of human monstrosities was a regular practice, slaves of
+this kind being much in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester
+again has from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories
+are told of Bahalul (see D'HERBELOT, s.v.) the jester of Harun
+al-Reshid, which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the
+conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures of all kinds
+were found at the court of Montezuma. But that monarch no doubt hit upon
+one great cause of the favour of monarchs for this class when he said
+that "more instruction was to be gathered from them than from wiser men,
+for they dared to tell the truth." Douce, in his essay _On the Clowns
+and Fools of Shakespeare_, has made a ninefold division of English
+fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the domestic
+fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool of the
+mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the "vice," and
+is the original of the stage clowns so common among the dramatists of
+the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so much of the wit of Shakespeare.
+A very palpable classification is that which distinguishes between such
+creatures as were chosen to excite to laughter from some deformity of
+mind or body, and such as were so chosen for a certain (to all
+appearance generally very shallow) alertness of mind and power of
+repartee,--or briefly, butts and wits. The dress of the regular court
+fool of the middle ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge
+from the prints and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge
+on this matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time.
+The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight, with
+generally one leg different in colour from the other. The head was
+covered with a garment resembling a monk's cowl, which fell over the
+breast and shoulders, and often bore asses' ears, and was crested with a
+cockscomb, while bells hung from various parts of the attire. The fool's
+bauble was a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was
+sometimes attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham
+castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occasionally worn,
+but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots than to the wits.
+
+The fool's business was to amuse his master, to excite him to laughter
+by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression of state affairs, and,
+in harmony with a well-known physiological precept, by his liveliness at
+meals to assist his lord's digestion. The names and the witticisms of
+many of the official jesters at the courts of Europe have been preserved
+by popular or state records. In England the list is long between Hitard,
+the fool of Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I.,
+and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are
+remembered from some connexion with general or literary history. Scogan
+was attached to Edward IV., and later was published a collection of poor
+jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew Boorde's name was attached, but
+without authority.
+
+Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have been a
+kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally used his influence
+with the king for good and charitable purposes. Armin, who, in his _Nest
+of Ninnies_, gives a full description of Sommers, and introduces many
+popular fools, says of him--
+
+  "Only this much, he was a poor man's friend.
+   And helpt the widow often in her end.
+   The king would ever grant what he would crave.
+   For well he knew Will no exacting knave."
+
+The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is full of
+allusions to Will Sommers.
+
+Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted from any
+list of jesters. A book of Tarleton's Jests was published in 1611, and,
+together with his _News out of Purgatory_, was reprinted by Halliwell
+Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844. Archie Armstrong, for a
+too free use of wit and tongue against Laud, lost his office and was
+banished the court. The conduct of the archbishop against the poor fool
+is not the least item of the evidence which convicts him of a certain
+narrow-mindedness and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of
+the court-jester flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with
+fantastic effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of
+the times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais's romance, and is
+the hero of Victor Hugo's _Le Roi s'amuse_, and, with some changes, of
+Verdi's opera _Rigoletto_; while Chicot, the lithe and acute Gascon, who
+was so close a friend of Henry III., is portrayed with considerable
+justness by Dumas in his _Dame de Monsoreau_. In Germany Rudolph of
+Habsburg had his Pfaff Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen
+(whose features, as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved
+by the pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after
+jester.
+
+Late in the 16th century appeared _Le Sottilissime Astuzie di Bertoldo_,
+which is one of the most remarkable books ever written about a jester.
+It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of Bologna, and is a
+comic romance giving an account of the appearance at the court of Alboin
+king of the Lombards of a peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and
+wit. The book was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number
+of editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified. Though
+fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo are typical of
+the jester. That the private fool existed as late as the 18th century is
+proved by Swift's epitaph on Dicky Pearce, the earl of Suffolk's jester.
+
+  See Flögel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The
+  History of Court Fools (1858).     (W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat. _festum stultorum_, _fatuorum_, _follorum_, Fr.
+_fête des fous_), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious
+festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical
+counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The
+celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of ancient
+Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire to Christianity,
+and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical councils,
+continued to be celebrated by the people on the Kalends of January with
+all their old licence. The custom, indeed, so far from dying out, was
+adopted by the barbarian conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths
+in Spain, Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in
+Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms thought it
+necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected with it
+(_Decretum_, xix. c. 5, Migne, _Patrologia lat_. 140, p. 965). Then,
+just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among the people,
+the clergy themselves gave it the character of a specific religious
+festival. Certain days seem early to have been set apart as special
+festivals for different orders of the clergy: the feast of St Stephen
+(December 26) for the deacons, St John's day (December 27) for the
+priests, Holy Innocents' Day for the boys, and for the sub-deacons
+Circumcision, the Epiphany, or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy
+Innocents became a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected
+by his fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or
+archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy, while the
+canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At first there is no
+evidence to prove that these celebrations were characterized by any
+specially indecorous behaviour; but in the 12th century such behaviour
+had become the rule. In 1180 Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens,
+calls the festival of the sub-deacons _festum stultorum_ (Migne,
+_Patrol_. _lat_. 202, p. 79). The burlesque ritual which characterized
+the Feast of Fools throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A
+young sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal _insignia_
+(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary. A mock
+mass was begun, during which the lections were read _cum farsia_,
+obscene songs were sung and dances performed, cakes and sausages eaten
+at the altar, and cards and dice played upon it.
+
+This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though condemned by
+serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the child-like popular mind of
+the middle ages no suggestion of contempt, though when belief in the
+doctrines and rites of the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready
+instrument in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this
+kind of retribution Scott in _The Abbot_ gives a vivid picture, the
+Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling remnant of
+the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting on substituting the
+traditional Feast of Fools.
+
+This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously
+displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under various forms was
+celebrated in a large number of churches throughout the West. The ass
+had been introduced into the ritual of the church in the 9th century,
+representing either Balaam's ass, that which stood with the ox beside
+the manger at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt,
+or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often the ass
+was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes he was the
+occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to modern notions, but
+by no means intended in an irreverent spirit. The three most notable
+celebrations of the Feast of the Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens.
+At Rouen the feast was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to
+represent the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with
+a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs and
+kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil, the chief
+figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow wooden effigy,
+within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies. The procession was
+followed, inside the church, by a curious combination of ritual office
+and mystery play, the text of which, according to the _Ordo processionis
+asinorum secundum Rothomagensem usum_, is given in Du Cange.
+
+Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was held on the
+14th of January, and represented the flight into Egypt. A richly
+caparisoned ass, on which was seated the prettiest girl in the town
+holding in her arms a baby or a large doll, was escorted with much pomp
+from the cathedral to the church of St Étienne. There the procession was
+received by the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the
+sanctuary. Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to
+the _Introit_, _Kyrie_, _Gloria_, &c., the congregation chanted "Hinham"
+(Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this feast actually
+runs: _In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum vice, Ite missa est,
+Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias, ter respondebit Hinham,
+Hinham, Hinham_ (At the close of the mass the priest turning to the
+people instead of saying, _Ite missa est_, shall bray thrice: the
+people, instead of _Deo gratias_, shall thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw,
+Hee-haw).
+
+At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast of Fools,
+celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision. The clergy went in
+procession to the west door of the church, where two canons received the
+ass, amid joyous chants, and led it to the precentor's table. Bizarre
+vespers followed, sung falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts
+from all the vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was
+solemnly fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the
+precentor out into the square before the church (_conductus ad ludos_);
+water was poured on the precentor's head, and the ass became the centre
+of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery being carried on far
+into the night, while the clergy and the serious-minded retired to
+matins and bed.
+
+Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish the Feast of
+Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed its more obvious
+indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III. forbade the feasts of priests,
+deacons and sub-deacons altogether; and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened
+those who disobeyed this prohibition with excommunication. How little
+effect this had, however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo,
+archbishop of Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses
+of the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the
+university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed a
+letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King Charles
+VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology to forbid it in
+collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact, too popular to succumb
+to these efforts, and it survived throughout Europe till the
+Reformation, and even later in France; for in 1645 Mathurin de Neuré
+complains in a letter to Pierre Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries
+which yearly on Innocents' Day took place in the monastery of the
+Cordeliers at Antibes. "Never did pagans," he writes, "solemnize with
+such extravagance their superstitious festivals as do they.... The
+lay-brothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen ...
+occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the sacerdotal
+garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands books turned upside
+down, and pretend to read through spectacles in which for glass have
+been substituted bits of orange-peel."
+
+  See B. Picart, _Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les
+  peuples_ (1723); du Tilliot, _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de la
+  fête des Fous_ (Lausanne, 1741); Aimé Cherest, _Nouvelles recherches
+  sur la fête des Innocents et la fête des Fous dans plusieurs églises
+  et notamment dans celle de Sens_ (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Müller's
+  _Zeitschrift für deutsche Kulturgeschichte_ (1858); H. Böhmer, art.
+  "Narrenfest" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop_. (ed. 1903); Du Cange,
+  _Glossarium_ (ed. 1884), s.v. "Festum Asinorum."
+
+
+
+
+FOOLSCAP, the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb running up
+the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn by jesters and
+fools (see FOOL); also a conical cap worn by dunces. The name is given
+to a size of writing or printing paper, varying in size from 12 × 15 in.
+to 17 × 13-1/2 in. (see PAPER). The name is derived from the use of a
+"fool's cap" as a watermark. A German example of the watermark dating
+from 1479 was exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The _New
+English Dictionary_ finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction
+of the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-mill at
+Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the familiar
+story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool's cap for the royal
+arms as a watermark on the paper used for the journals of parliament.
+
+
+
+
+FOOL'S PARSLEY, in botany, the popular name for _Aethusa Cynapium_, a
+member of the family _Umbelliferae_, and a common weed in cultivated
+ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform root and a smooth hollow
+branched stem 1 to 2 ft. high, with much divided (ternately pinnate)
+smooth leaves and small compound umbels of small irregular white
+flowers. The plant has a nauseous smell, and, like other members of the
+order (e.g. hemlock, water-drop wort), is poisonous.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT, the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting of
+tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests when in an
+upright position, standing or moving (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and
+Artistic_; and SKELETON: _Appendicular_). The word is also applied to
+such parts of invertebrate animals as serve as a foot, either for
+movement or attachment to a surface. "Foot" is a word common in various
+forms to Indo-European languages, Dutch, _voet_, Ger. _Fuss_, Dan.
+_fod_, &c. The Aryan root is _pod_-, which appears in Sans. _pud_, Gr.
+[Greek: pous, podos] and Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. From the resemblance to
+the foot, in regard to its position, as the base of anything, or as the
+lowest member of the body, or in regard to its function of movement, the
+word is applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a
+sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part of an
+organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the bottom of a
+type is divided by a groove into two portions known as "feet." Probably
+referring to the beating of the rhythm with the foot in dancing, the Gr.
+[Greek: pous] and Lat. _pes_ were applied in prosody to a grouping of
+syllables, one of which is stressed, forming the division of a verse.
+"Foot," i.e. foot-soldier, was formerly, with an ordinal number
+prefixed, the name of the infantry regiments of the British army. It is
+now superseded by territorial designations, but it still is used in the
+four regiments of the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a
+lineal measure of length the "foot" is of great antiquity, estimated
+originally by the length of a man's foot (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). For
+the ceremonial washing of feet, see MAUNDY THURSDAY.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic Aphtha, Eczema
+Epizootica), a virulent contagious and inoculable malady of animals,
+characterized by initial fever, followed by the formation of vesicles or
+blisters on the tongue, palate and lips, sometimes in the nostrils,
+fourth stomach and intestine of cattle, and on parts of the body where
+the skin is thin, as on the udder and teats, between the claws, on the
+heels, coronet and pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very
+rapidly. A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is
+accompanied by salivation and a peculiar "smacking" of the lips. The
+vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break, exposing a red raw
+patch, which is very sensitive. The animal cannot feed so well as usual,
+suffers much pain and inconvenience, loses condition, and, if a
+milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or, if pregnant, may abort.
+More or less lameness is a constant symptom, and sometimes the feet
+become very much diseased and the animal is so crippled that it has to
+be destroyed. It is often fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by
+the saliva and the discharges from the vesicles, though all the
+secretions and excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all
+articles and places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by
+injecting the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or
+the peritoneal cavity.
+
+If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of different
+disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has been a European
+malady for more than 2000 years. But no reliance can be placed on this
+evidence, and it is not until we reach the 17th and 18th centuries that
+we find trustworthy proof of its presence, when it was reported as
+frequently prevailing extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During
+the 19th century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations
+between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become widely
+diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced from the
+Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
+Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834. Cattle in the Vosges and in
+Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and the disease extending to France,
+Belgium and Holland, reached England in 1839, and quickly spread over
+the three kingdoms (see also under AGRICULTURE). At this time the
+importation of foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was
+supposed that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships'
+stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the voyage.
+This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct outbreaks,
+and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-mouth disease.
+From the observations of the best authorities it would appear to be an
+altogether exotic malady in the west of Europe, always invading it from
+the east; at least, this has been the course noted in all the principal
+invasions. It was introduced into Denmark in 1841; and into the United
+States of America in 1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by
+diseased cattle from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic
+from the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually
+extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North America. It
+was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was stamped out on each
+occasion. It appears to be well known in India, Ceylon, Burma and the
+Straits Settlements. In 1870 it was introduced into the Andaman Islands
+by cattle imported from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in
+the same year it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is
+frequently epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks
+used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle also
+spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also prevails in
+central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle of the Dinkas
+suffering from a disease of the kind.
+
+Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young animals, or when
+malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge. In one year (1892) in
+Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with an estimated loss to the owners
+of £7,500,000 sterling. It is transmissible to nearly all the domestic
+animals, but its ravages are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and
+swine. Human beings are also liable to infection.
+
+The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet, with
+salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to the
+sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation of the
+diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough disinfection
+of all places and substances which are capable of conveying the
+infection.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTBALL, a game between two opposing sides played with a large inflated
+ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or by both feet and
+hands.
+
+Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity, and their
+existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris, Faroe Islanders,
+Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos, points to their primitive
+nature. In Greece the [Greek: episkyros] seems to have borne a
+resemblance to the modern game. Of this we read in Smith's _Dictionary
+of Antiquities_--"It was the game at football, played in much the same
+way as with us, by a great number of persons divided into two parties
+opposed to one another." Amongst the Romans the _harpastum_, derived
+from the Greek verb [Greek: harpazô], I seize, thus showing that
+carrying the ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil
+Kennett, in his _Romae antiquae notitia_, terms this missile a "larger
+kind of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and
+striving to throw it into one another's goals, which was the conquering
+cast." The _harpastum_ was a gymnastic game and probably played for the
+most part indoors. The real Roman football was played with the inflated
+_follis_, which was kicked from side to side over boundaries, and thus
+must have closely resembled the modern Association game. Tradition
+ascribes its introduction in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It
+has been played in Tuscany under the name of _Calcio_ from the middle
+ages down to modern times.
+
+Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman tradition
+has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians assert that a
+variety of football has been played in Ireland for over 2000 years. In
+early times the great football festival of the year was Shrove Tuesday,
+though the connexion of the game with this particular date is lost in
+obscurity. William Fitzstephen, in his _History of London_ (about 1175),
+speaks of the young men of the city annually going into the fields after
+dinner to play at the well-known game of ball on the day _quae dicitur
+Carnilevaria_. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention of
+football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314) in
+consequence of "the great noise in the city caused by hustling over
+large balls (_rageries de grosses pelotes_)." A clear reference is made
+"ad pilam ... pedinam" in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39 Edward III. (1365),
+memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be prohibited on account of the
+decadence of archery, and the same thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6
+(1388). Both Henry VIII. and Elizabeth enacted laws against football,
+which, both then and under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have
+been violent to the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by
+prominent writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his _Boke named the
+Governour_ (1531), speaks of football as being "nothyng but beastely
+fury and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and consequently
+rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be wounded, wherefore it is
+to be put in perpetual silence." In Stubbes' _Anatomie of Abuses_ (1583)
+it is referred to as "a develishe pastime ... and hereof groweth envy,
+rancour and malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great
+effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth." Fifty years later
+(1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone's _Table-Book_) as remarking, "I
+would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am stopped by one of your
+heroic games called football; which I conceive (under your favour) not
+very conveniently civil in the streets, especially in such irregular and
+narrow roads as Crooked Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like
+your military pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed
+these two valiant exercises in the streets."
+
+An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes of
+Galway in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery, excepting "onely
+the great foot balle." In the time of Charles II. football was popular
+at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene College, as is evidenced by the
+following extract from the register book of that institution under the
+date 1679:--
+
+  "That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation
+  upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day, further
+  than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their thirsts.
+  And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking and spending
+  money--Sophisters and Freshmen together--upon ye account of making or
+  not making a speech at that football time be utterly left off and
+  extinguished."
+
+It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the masses, and
+never took root, except in educational institutions, among the upper
+classes until the 19th century. No clubs or code of rules had been
+formed, and the sole aim seems to have been to drive the ball through
+the opposing side's goal by fair means or foul. So rough did the game
+become that James I. forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes
+the exercise in his _Basilikon Doron_ as "meeter for laming than making
+able the users thereof." Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part
+in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses closed in
+order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered that the game fell
+into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal, occurred; and Shrove
+Tuesday "football-day" gradually died out about 1830, though a relic of
+the custom still remained in a few places. For some thirty years
+football was only practised at the great English public schools, many of
+which possessed special games, which in practically all cases arose from
+the nature of the individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its
+charging, tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it
+was taken up by the great public schools, would have been extremely
+dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts of some schools,
+as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence at such institutions the
+dribbling style of play, in which Mr Montague Shearman (_Football_, in
+the "Badminton Library") sees the origin of the Association game, came
+into existence. Only at Rugby (later at some other schools), which from
+the first possessed an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved
+and developed, including even its roughness, for actual "hacking" (i.e.
+intentional kicking of an opponent's legs) was not expressly abolished
+at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school game at Rugby
+contained in _Tom Brown's School Days_ has become classic.
+
+1. _Rugby Union._--We have seen that from early times a rudimentary game
+of football had been a popular form of sport in many parts of Great
+Britain, and that in the old-established schools football had been a
+regular game among the boys. In different schools there arose various
+developments of the original game; or rather, what, at first, must have
+been a somewhat rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape
+as a definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby
+school had developed such a game, and from football played according to
+Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about the middle of the
+19th century that football--up till that time a regular game only among
+schoolboys--took its place as a regular sport among men. To begin with,
+men who had played the game as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to
+continue playing their favourite school game, and others were induced to
+join them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had not
+had the experience of playing the game at school, but who had the energy
+and the will to follow the example of those who had had this experience.
+In this way football was established as a regular game, no longer
+confined to schoolboys. When football was thus first started, the game
+was little developed or organized. Rules were very few, and often there
+was great doubt as to what the rules were. But, almost from the first,
+clubs were formed to play football according to Rugby rules--that is,
+according to the rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even
+the Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost
+unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still, the
+fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a certain
+uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the English Union,
+and the commencement of international matches, that a really definite
+code of rules was drawn up.
+
+It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of Rugby
+school became so popular in preference to the games of other schools,
+such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was probably very largely due to
+the reputation and success of Rugby school under Dr Arnold, and this
+also led most probably to its adoption by other schools; for in 1860
+many schools besides Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The
+rapidity with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th century
+was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the London
+district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great rival,
+shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been started in
+Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield football club dates back
+to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby
+football clubs had been formed before 1870, and by that date the game
+had been implanted both in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland,
+before 1860, football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been
+established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many districts had
+been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid as, in some ways, had
+been the spread of the game between the years 1850 and 1870, it was as
+nothing to what happened in the following twenty years; for by 1890
+Rugby football, together with Association football, had become the great
+winter amusement of the people, and roused universal interest; while
+to-day on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of
+thousands of people playing football, while those who watch the game can
+be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to this great
+increase in the game and interest taken in it were, undoubtedly, the
+establishment of the various national Unions and the international
+matches; and, of course, the local rivalry of various clubs, together
+with cup or other competitions prevalent in certain districts, was a
+leading factor. The establishment of the English Union led to a
+codification of the rules without which development was impossible.
+
+In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in London. This
+Union was an association of some clubs and schools which joined together
+and appointed a committee and officials to draw up a code of rules of
+the game. From this beginning the English Rugby Union has become the
+governing body of Rugby football in England, and has been joined by
+practically all the Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters
+connected with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international
+teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded in Edinburgh on
+the same lines, and with the same objects, while in 1880 the Welsh
+Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby Football Union, were
+established as the national Unions of Wales and Ireland, though in both
+countries there had been previously Unions not thoroughly representative
+of the country. All these Unions became the chief governing body within
+their own country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and
+laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by the English
+Union, the others adopted the English rules, with amendments to them
+from time to time. This state of affairs had one element of
+weakness--viz. that since all the Unions made their own rules, if ever a
+dispute should arise between any of them, a dead-lock was almost certain
+to ensue. Such a dispute did occur in 1884 between the English and
+Scottish Unions. This dispute eventually turned on the question of the
+right of the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game,
+and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior to the other
+Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this claim, and finally, in
+1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin were appointed as a commission
+to settle the dispute. The result was the establishment of the
+International Board, which consists of representatives from each
+Union--six from England, two from each of the others--whose duties were
+to settle any question that might arise between the different Unions,
+and to settle the rules under which international matches were to be
+played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various Unions as
+the rules of the game.
+
+With the establishment of the International Board the organization of
+the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail, and in 1895
+occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading clubs in Yorkshire
+and Lancashire broke off from the English Union and formed the Northern
+Union, which since that date has had many accessions, and has become the
+leading body in the north of England. The question in dispute was the
+payment of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer
+love of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do, and who
+could give the time to play it; but with the increasing popularity of
+the game it became the pastime of all classes of the people, and clubs
+began to grow rich by "drawing big gates,"--that is, large numbers of
+spectators, frequently many thousands in number, paid for the privilege
+of witnessing the match. In these circumstances the temptation arose to
+reimburse the player for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to
+for playing the game, and thus it became universally recognized as
+legitimate to pay a player's expenses to and from a match. But in the
+case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their weekly
+wage when they had to go a distance to play a match, or to go on tour
+with their club--that is, go off for a few days and play one or two
+matches in different parts of the country--and consequently the claim
+was made on their behalf to recoup them for their loss of wage; while at
+the same time rich clubs began to be willing to offer inducements to
+good players to join their club, and these inducements were generally
+most acceptable in the form of money. In Association football (see
+below) professionalism--i.e. the hiring and paying of a player for his
+services--had been openly recognized. A large section of the English
+Union--the amateur party--would not tolerate anything that savoured of
+professionalism, and regarded payments made to a player for broken time
+as illegitimate. The result was the formation of the Northern Union,
+which allowed such payments, and has practically recognized
+professionalism. This body has also somewhat altered the laws of the
+game, and reduced the number of players constituting a team from fifteen
+to thirteen. In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly
+amateur; but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan
+the professional element is strong.
+
+Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to select
+international teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first international
+match was played between England and Scotland in Edinburgh. This was a
+match between teams picked from English and Scottish players. These
+matches from the first roused widespread interest, and were a great
+stimulus to the development of the game. With the exception of a few
+years, when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all the
+countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one
+another--England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland since 1875
+and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing Ireland in 1877 and
+Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales met first in 1882 and then in
+1884, and since 1887 have played annually. The qualifications of a
+player for any country were at first vaguely considered to be birth; but
+they were never definitely settled, and there has been a case of a
+player playing for two countries. In 1894, however, the International
+Board decided that no player was to play for more than one country, and
+this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and though birth
+is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is not essential.
+Though international matches excite interest throughout the United
+Kingdom, the matches between two rival clubs arouse just as much
+excitement in their district, particularly when the clubs may be taken
+as representatives of two neighbouring rival towns. But when to this
+rivalry there is added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the
+excitement is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions
+have never been so popular as among Association, but the competition for
+the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before the establishment of
+the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly was the main cause of the
+popularity of the game in that county. Similarly the competition for the
+South Wales Cup from 1878 to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game
+in that country. The method of carrying on these competitions is, that
+all the clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in
+the first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn in
+pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is only one
+pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elaboration of this
+competition is the "League system" of the Association game. This,
+likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players. Still it exists in
+some districts, especially where clubs are anxious to draw big gates. In
+the League system a certain number of clubs form a league to play one
+another twice each season; two points are counted for a win and one for
+a draw. The club which at the end of the season comes out with most
+points wins the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup
+competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season, and
+one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming out first.
+
+It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with them, and
+this has certainly been the case with Rugby football, especially in New
+Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An interchange of football visits
+between these colonies and the motherland is now an important feature in
+the game. These tours date from 1888, when an English team visited
+Australia and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of New
+Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over to England, and
+by their play even then indicated how well the grammar of the game had
+been studied in that colony. Subsequently several British teams visited
+at intervals New Zealand and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent
+home a team which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played
+altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England,
+Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz. by a
+try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for itself. In 1908
+a combined team of English and Welsh players toured in New Zealand and
+Australia, and also visited Canada on their way home. The team was not
+so strong as could have been wished, and though they did fairly well in
+Australia, they lost all three "test matches" against New Zealand. In
+South Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play is
+hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The first
+British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the generosity of
+Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking against loss. Teams were
+also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the result of matches played in each
+visit showing the steady improvement of the colonists. In 1906 the South
+Africans paid their first visit to England, and the result of their tour
+proved them to be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England
+managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one of the home
+Unions to gain a victory. The success of these colonial visits, more
+especially financially, created a development very foreign to the
+intentions of their organizers. The Northern Union as a professional
+body had drifted into a somewhat parlous state, through suffering on the
+one hand from a lack of international matches, and on the other from the
+competition of Association professional teams. The great financial
+success resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention
+of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered into
+negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team who would come
+over and play the Northern Union clubs, the visiting players themselves
+taking a share of the gate-money. For this purpose a team of New
+Zealanders toured the north of England in 1907, and their action caused
+the introduction of professional or Northern Union football in both New
+Zealand and Australia.
+
+The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to
+English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil, and
+numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 international matches
+have been played between France and England, and the energy of French
+players, coupled with their national _élan_, makes them formidable
+opponents. The Rugby code has also obtained a firm footing in Canada,
+India, Ceylon and the Argentine.
+
+The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite
+conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft though
+firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than 110 yds. long
+nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approximates to these
+dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines, called touch-lines, down
+the sides, and goal-lines along the ends. The touch-lines are continued
+beyond the goal-lines for a distance of not more than 25 yds.; and
+parallel to the goal-line and behind it, at a distance of not more than
+25 yds., is drawn a line called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of
+the touch-lines produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from
+the touch-lines, are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding 11
+ft. in height, and generally much more--averaging perhaps from 20 to 30
+ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a height of 10
+ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar; and the object of
+the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar between the upright
+posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate
+spheroid), and the official dimensions are--length, 11 to 11¼ in.;
+length circumference, 30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 25½ to 26 in.;
+weight, 13 to 14½ oz. It is made of india-rubber inflated, and covered
+with a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is
+generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked by flags
+on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there is similarly
+marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the side that had gained
+the majority of goals won the match, and if no goal had been scored, or
+an equal number, the game was said to be left drawn; but a modification
+was adopted before long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the
+ordinary course of play; but from the very first a try goal could be
+obtained by that side one of whose players either carried the ball
+across his opponents' goal-line and then touched it down (i.e. on the
+ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the
+goal-line, before any of his opponents. The "try" is then proceeded with
+as follows: the ball is taken out by a member of the side obtaining the
+try in a straight line from the spot where it was "touched down," and is
+deposited in a selected position on the ground in the field of play, the
+defending side being all confined behind their own goal-line until the
+moment the ball is so placed on the ground, when another member of the
+attacking side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a "place kick")
+over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal is kicked;
+very often not. The modification first allowed was to count that side
+the winner which had gained the majority of tries, provided no goal or
+an equal number of goals had been scored; but a majority of one goal
+took precedence of any number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards
+abolished, and a system of points instituted by which the side with the
+majority of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and
+tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being as
+follows:--A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which case the
+try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except from a mark or a
+penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a goal obtained by a player
+who drops the ball from his hands and kicks it the moment it rises off
+the ground, as in the "half-volley" at cricket or tennis. A goal from a
+mark or penalty kick 3 points. Under the Northern Union code any sort of
+goal counts 2 points, a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a
+goal, both try and goal count, i.e. 5 points are scored.
+
+In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the direction of
+the opponents' goal, but it may also be carried; but it must not be
+thrown forward or knocked on--that is, in the direction of the
+opponents' goal--though it may be thrown back. Thus the game is really a
+combination of football and handball. The main principle is that any one
+who is not "offside" is in play. A player is offside if he gets in front
+of the ball--that is, on the opponents' side of the ball, nearer than a
+colleague in possession of the ball to the opponents' goal-line; when in
+this position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the ball
+under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the "scrummage." In
+old days at Rugby school there was practically no limit to the numbers
+of players on each side, and not infrequently there would be a hundred
+or more players on one side. This was never prevalent in club football;
+twenty a-side was the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to
+fifteen a-side, the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides
+the ball got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted
+to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise forcing
+their way through with the ball in front of them. This was the origin of
+the scrummage.
+
+The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten minutes,
+sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends each goal in turn
+for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players who compose a side,
+the usual arrangement is that eight are called "forwards," and form the
+scrummage; two "half-backs" are posted outside the scrummage; and four
+"three-quarter-backs," a little behind the halves, stretch in a line
+across the field, their duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the
+ball to other members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents
+from doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of
+"passing," the field position of the half-backs has undergone a change.
+One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is known as the
+"scrum-half," the other takes a position between the latter and the
+three-quarters, and is termed the "stand-off-half." Behind the
+three-quarters comes the "full-back" or "back," a single individual to
+maintain the last line of defence; his duties are entirely defensive,
+either to "tackle" an opponent who has managed to get through, or, more
+usually, to catch and return long kicks. Play is started by one side
+kicking the ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of
+the opponents' goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other side,
+who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on until he is
+"tackled," or caught, by one of his opponents, unless he should choose
+to "pass" or throw it to another of his own side, who, provided he be
+not offside, may either kick, or run, or pass as he chooses. The ball in
+this way is kept moving until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line,
+or is tackled. If the ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at
+right angles to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is
+thrown in straight either by one of the same side whose player carried
+the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown
+out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-line
+either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending side
+touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds. from the
+goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field. If the ball is
+tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from the ground as soon as
+possible, and the forwards at once form the scrummage by putting down
+their heads and getting ready to shove against one another. They shove
+as soon as the ball is put down between the two front rows. In the
+scrummage the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise
+breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in the direction
+of the opponents' goal-line by a series of short kicks in which the
+players run after the ball as fast as possible, while their opponents
+lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick or other device stop
+the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards breaking away with the ball,
+sometimes they let the ball come out of the scrummage to their
+half-backs, who either kick or run with it, or pass it to the
+three-quarter-backs, and so the game proceeds until the ball is once
+more "dead"--that is, brought to a standstill. The scrummage appears to
+be an uninteresting manoeuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but
+it is not merely a manoeuvre in which weight and strength alone tell--it
+also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet, applying
+the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking the opposing side,
+as it were--usually termed wheeling--directing all the force to one side
+of the scrummage and thus breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively
+one, for the players are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it
+is called a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an
+open game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open
+game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting struggle,
+frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very rapidly from one
+side to the other, so that it is a matter of no surprise to find the
+British public so ardently attached to it. (C. J. N. F.; C. J. B. M.)
+
+2. _Association._--It is generally supposed that the English game of
+Association football is the outcome of the game of football as played at
+Cambridge University about the middle of the 19th century. In October
+1863 a committee, consisting of representatives of the schools of Eton,
+Harrow, Rugby, Marlborough, Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code
+of laws which settled the fundamental principle of the "Association"
+game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which permitted of
+handling and carrying the ball. In Association football the use of the
+hands or arms, either for the purpose of playing the ball or impeding or
+holding an opponent, is absolutely prohibited; "dribbling" or kicking
+the ball with the feet, and propelling it by the head or body, are the
+methods to be adopted. The Cambridge laws specially provided for
+"kicking" the ball. Laws 13 and 14 provided that "the ball, when in
+play, may be stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit
+by the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding,
+pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden."
+
+The laws of Association football first took practical shape as the
+outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863 at the Freemasons'
+Tavern, London. The clubs which sent delegates were representative of
+all classes of football then played. The meeting was a momentous one,
+for not only was the foundation laid of the Football Association, the
+national association which has since then controlled the game in
+England, but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed
+as to "hacking" being permissible under the laws, the representatives
+who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is now so roundly
+condemned in both the Association and Rugby games, withdrew and formed
+the Rugby Union.
+
+The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the Football
+Association at their meeting on the 24th of November 1863. They took the
+view that those laws "embraced the true principles of the game with the
+greatest simplicity"; the laws were "officially" passed on the 1st of
+December 1863, and the first publication was made in _Bell's Life_ four
+days later. These laws have from time to time been modified, but the
+principles as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the
+Association game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual
+dimensions for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and the goals
+are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post 8 ft. from the
+ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and must be a perfect sphere
+from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as distinguished from the elliptical
+or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in
+front of the goals, and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the
+"penalty area"; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the
+centre of the goal, is the "penalty kick mark." The boundary lines at
+the sides of the field are called the "touch-lines"; those at the ends
+(in the centre of which are the goals) being the "goal-lines." The game
+is started by a place kick from the centre of the field of play, and
+none of the opposite side is allowed to approach within 10 yds. of the
+ball when it is kicked off. When the ball passes over the touch line it
+has to be thrown in by one of the opposite side, and can be returned
+into the field of play in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line
+at any time without touching one of the defending side, it has to be
+kicked out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in
+front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest the
+point where the ball left the field of play. But should it touch one of
+the defending side in its transit over the goal-line the attacking side
+has the privilege of a free kick from the corner flag (a "corner kick").
+This is often a great advantage, but such free kick does not produce a
+goal unless the ball touches one of the other players on its way to the
+post. Ordinarily a goal is scored when the ball goes between the
+goal-posts and under the cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or
+carried. The regulation duration of a game is an hour and a half, and
+ends are changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has
+the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority of
+goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except when the
+free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty for certain
+infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and if such
+infringement take place within the penalty area on the part of a player
+on the side then defending the goal, and in the judgment of the referee
+be intentional, a "penalty kick" is awarded to the attacking side. The
+penalty kick is a free kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players
+of the defending side being excluded from the penalty area, except the
+goalkeeper, who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore,
+being an almost certain goal.
+
+A player is always in play as long as there are three of the opposite
+side between him and the opposite goal _at the time the ball is kicked_.
+This "offside" rule gives much trouble to the young player, though why
+it should do so it is not easy to say. The rule is simple if the words
+in italics are remembered. The ball must not be carried, knocked or
+wilfully handled under any pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper,
+who is allowed to use his hands in defence of his goal, either by
+knocking on or throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus
+far he is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the
+ball the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the
+rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them the
+serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player. Players
+are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such as have their
+heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal plates or
+gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this rule is liable
+to be prohibited from taking further part in a match.
+
+In the early 'sixties of the 19th century there were probably not more
+than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association football in the
+United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined in the south of England
+to the universities and public schools. But whilst the game was being
+established in the south it was making steady progress in the north,
+particularly in Yorkshire, where the Sheffield Club had been formed as
+early as 1854. In 1867 the game had become so well established that it
+was decided to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played
+"in the wilds of Battersea Park," terminated in a draw, neither side
+having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the growing
+popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871, only three years
+later, two matches of an international character were played between
+Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership with the Football Association;
+they were not, however, recognized as "international" matches. The first
+real international match, England v. Scotland, was played on the 30th of
+November 1872 at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between
+England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879; and that
+between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In 1896 amateur
+international matches were inaugurated with Germany, Austria and
+Bohemia; and games are now annually played with Scotland, Wales,
+Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany, Holland, Austria and other
+continental countries. As the outcome of the international relations
+with Scotland, Wales and Ireland, an International Football Association
+Board was formed in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon.
+Two representatives from each of the four national associations
+constitute the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not only by
+the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in all countries where
+the Association game is played. At a meeting held at Paris on the 21st
+of May 1904 the "International Federation of Association Football" was
+instituted. It consists of the recognized national associations in the
+respective countries: and its objects are to develop and control
+Association international football. The countries in federation are:
+Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary,
+Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
+
+The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early days
+becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of the game in the
+20th century. Association football has become one of the most popular of
+all national sports in the United Kingdom. It is slowly but surely
+taking a similar position on the continent of Europe and is making
+progress even in the Far East, Japan being one of its latest adherents.
+In the season of 1871-1872 the Football Association inaugurated its
+popular challenge cup competition which is now competed for by both
+amateur and professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered,
+all of which were from the south of England. The first winners of the
+cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the final
+tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the competition was
+mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the season of 1881-1882 the
+Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in the final tie by the Old Etonians
+by one goal to nothing. Professionalism was then unknown in the game,
+and comparatively little interest was taken in it except by the players
+themselves. In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the
+first time taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in
+the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900-1901
+it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur Club, who defeated
+the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three goals to one. In the
+following season the cup was again taken north by the Bury Club. In the
+early days of the competition a few hundred people only attended the
+final tie, which for many years was played at Kennington Oval in London.
+In the course of time, however, the interest of the public so largely
+increased that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity;
+accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Manchester,
+where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894 it was played at
+Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace. The attendance during the
+following ten years averaged 80,000 people. The record attendance was in
+the season of 1900-1901, when the south were contesting with the north,
+the spectators then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909
+356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had increased
+to 404.
+
+The great development of the game necessitated many changes in the
+system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary to the rules)
+a practice of making payment to players crept into the game in the north
+of England and slowly developed. After some years of debate as to the
+best method of dealing with this development the Football Association
+decided in 1885 to legalize and control the payment of players. The
+rules define a professional player as one who receives remuneration of
+any sort above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually
+paid, or is registered as a professional. They further provide that
+training expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered
+as remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses. Players
+competing for any money prizes in football contests are also considered
+professionals.
+
+In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional clubs of the
+north and midlands of England, was formed; and a new scheme was
+inaugurated for the playing of matches on what is known as the "League"
+principle, the essential advantage of which is that the clubs in
+membership of a league agree to play with each other "home and home"
+matches each season, and also bind themselves under certain penalties to
+play their best team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern
+League came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the
+interest in the game in the south and west of England. The Football
+League and the Southern League very soon had their imitators, and in
+1909 there were upwards of six hundred league competitions playing under
+the sanction and control of the Football Association. The league system
+also found favour in Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and has extended to
+most of the colonies where Association football is played. In the season
+of 1893-1894 the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in
+membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated. In the first
+season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity of the competition
+is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-1909 there were 229
+entries.
+
+The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs, had in
+1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur clubs and a
+quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400 professional clubs with
+7000 professional players. It has also directly affiliated 52 county,
+district and colonial associations, and indirectly in membership a large
+number of minor associations which are affiliated through the county and
+district associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs in
+Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the various
+battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other army stations;
+and the Royal Navy Football Association comprises all ships afloat
+having Association football clubs.
+
+The regulations of the Football Association, which is the recognized
+administrative and legislative body for the game in England, make
+provision for the sanction and control of leagues and competitions; and
+its rules, regulations, principles and practices very largely prevail in
+all national associations. The king is the patron, and the council
+consists of 56 members, a president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10
+representatives elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the
+country is subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the
+navy and of county associations in England which have upwards of 50
+clubs in membership, each representative being directly appointed by his
+association. In 1905 the Football Association became incorporated under
+the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and as a consequence the word "Limited"
+appears in its title. It is not, however, a trading body; the
+shareholders are not entitled to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may
+the members of the council, who are the directors, receive any payment
+for their services. The Scottish Football Association is also an
+incorporated body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the
+United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the regulations
+of the Football Association they may not pay a larger dividend to their
+shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the directors receive payment for
+their services.
+
+The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late years
+has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing every one into
+full play. The great aim accordingly has been to encourage combination
+and to discourage purely individual efforts. In the early days, though
+there was a certain amount of cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on
+himself. Even up to the middle of the 'seventies dribbling was looked
+upon as the great desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just
+as long kicks were the main object of a back. The development of the
+game was of course bound to change all that. The introduction of
+passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler pure
+and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with which he was
+mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually came to be regarded as the
+keynote to success. Instead of one full back, as was originally the
+case, and one half-back, the defence gradually developed by the addition
+first of a second half, then of a second full back, and still later of a
+third half-back, until it came to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of
+course, two full backs and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used
+to constitute the attack in the earliest days of the Association have
+been reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood,
+until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has been
+to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and as a natural
+consequence to make the game more open and thereby generally more
+interesting and attractive. Association football is indeed, from the
+standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in its
+infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of the eleven
+players into full relief throughout the game. The players who, as a
+rule, make or mar the success of a side in modern football are the
+centre forward and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the
+attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close dribbling and
+following up, the new formation makes for accuracy of passing among the
+forwards, with intelligent support from the half-backs. The net result
+is practically the effective combination of the whole side. To do his
+part as it ought to be done every member of an eleven must work in
+harmony with the rest, and on a definite system, in all cases
+subordinating his own methods and personal interests to promote the
+general well-being of the side.     (C. W. A.; F. J. W.)
+
+  The literature of British football is very extensive, but the
+  following works are among the best: _Football_ in the "Badminton
+  Library" (London, 1904), where the different games played at Eton,
+  Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly
+  described; Rev. F. Marshall, _Football; the Rugby Game_ (London,
+  Cassells); J.E. Vincent, _Football; its History for Five Centuries_
+  (London, 1885); C.J.B. Marriott and C.W. Alcock, _Football_ ("Oval
+  Series"); "Football," in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _The Rugby
+  Football Union Handbook_, Richardson, Greenwich, Official Annual; and
+  _The Football Annual_, Merritt and Hatcher (Association Game), London.
+
+_United States._--In America the game of football has been elaborated
+far more than elsewhere, and involves more complications than in
+England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of football generally
+resembling the English Association game was played on the village greens
+and by the students of colleges and academies. There was no running with
+the ball, but dribbling, called "babying," was common. In 1871 a code of
+rules was drawn up, but they were unsatisfactory and not invariably
+observed. "Batting the ball," i.e. striking the ball forward with the
+fists, was allowed. There were two backs, sixteen rushers or forwards,
+and two rovers or "peanutters," who lurked near the opponents' goal.
+During this period the first international football game was played at
+Yale between the college team and one made up of old Etonians, the rules
+being a compromise between the American and the English.
+
+English Rugby, introduced from Canada, was first played at Harvard
+University, and in 1875 a match under a compromise set of rules, taken
+partly from the Rugby Union and partly from the existing American game,
+was played with Yale. The following year Yale adopted the regular Rugby
+Union rules, and played Harvard under these. Later, several other
+colleges adopted these English rules. Absence of tradition necessitated
+expansion of these laws, and a convention of colleges was assembled.
+Thenceforward annual conventions were held, which from time to time
+altered and amplified the rules. A college association was formed, and
+the game grew in popularity. Public criticism of the roughness shown in
+the play early threatened its existence; indeed at one time the
+university authorities compelled Harvard to abstain from the annual game
+with Yale. Changes in the rules were introduced, and the game has been
+characterized by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become
+the most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal
+university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even 40,000
+spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but a Rules
+Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of New York, made the
+necessary changes in the rules from time to time, and these have been
+accepted by the country at large. In the West associations were formed;
+but the game in the East is played principally under separate agreements
+between the contesting universities, all using, however, one code of
+rules. Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new committee of
+wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as well as public and
+private schools have also taken up the game. The American football
+season lasts from the middle of September to the first of December only,
+owing to the severity of the American winter. Professional football is
+not played in America.
+
+The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men on a field of
+330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines into squares with
+sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on each side of the field.
+Until 1903 the field was divided by latitudinal lines only and was
+therefore popularly called the "gridiron"; subsequently it was called
+the "checkerboard." The end lines are called "goal-lines," the side
+"touch-lines." The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle
+line, or 55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of
+each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft. in
+length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the ground.
+The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby type.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FIELD.
+
+  The football rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a
+  scrimmage, the first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the
+  quarter-back, may carry it forward beyond the line of scrimmage,
+  provided in so doing he crosses such line at least 5 yds. from the
+  point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore,
+  that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line
+  of scrimmage at least 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put
+  in play. The field is marked off at intervals of 5 yds. with white
+  lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in penalizing fouls
+  and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained in three downs, and also at
+  intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the side lines, in
+  order to assist the referee in determining whether the quarter-back
+  runs according to rule, or whether, in case of a forward pass, such
+  pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed from the
+  gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the
+  above diagram shows exactly how the field should be marked. As the
+  width of the field does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is
+  wise to run the first line through the middle point of the field and
+  then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle line. In
+  order to save labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion
+  of the longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is
+  accomplished if their points of intersection with the transverse lines
+  are distinctly marked, for instance, by a line a foot long.]
+
+A match game consists of two periods (_halves_) of thirty-five minutes
+with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games usually have shorter
+halves. There are four officials: the _umpire_, whose duty it is to
+watch the conduct of the players and decide regarding fouls; the
+_referee_, who decides questions regarding the progress of the ball and
+of play; the _field judge_ who assists the referee and keeps the time;
+and the _linesman_, who (with two assistants, one representing each
+eleven) marks the distance gained or lost in each play.
+
+In scoring, a "touchdown" (the English Rugby "try") counts 5 points, a
+goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the touchdown), a
+"goal from the field," whether from placement or drop-kick, 4, and a
+"safety" (the English Rugby "touchdown") 2. _Mutatis mutandis_, these
+are made as in English Rugby. American Rugby differs from the English
+game, because in the scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other,
+and, although separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a
+constant man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of "interference"
+is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put "on side"
+when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward passing, i.e.
+throwing the ball toward the opponents' goal, is permissible under
+certain restrictions. The costume usually consists of a close-fitting
+jersey with shoulders and elbows padded and reinforced with leather;
+short trousers with padded thighs and knees, heavy stockings and shoes
+with leather cleats. In the early period of the game caps were worn,
+but, as they were impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour
+of the wearing of long hair, and the "chrysanthemum head" became the
+distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however, proved an
+inadequate protection, and some players now wear a "head harness" of
+soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed in the places of injured
+players.
+
+The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby, and the
+rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking, place-kicking,
+goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are practically the same,
+except that, on a free kick after a fair catch, the opposing players in
+the American game may not come up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in
+front of it. In the American game there is no scrummage in the English
+sense, nor is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch.
+The element of chance in both these methods of play was done away with
+by the enunciation of the principle of the "possession of the ball." In
+America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a runner has been
+tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is also put into play by
+an evolution called a scrimmage, usually called "line-up," which beyond
+the name bears no resemblance to the English scrummage. The ball, at
+every moment of the game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to
+the other. It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not
+being able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive
+attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven linemen (i.e.
+forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-lines on the
+spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The ball is placed on the
+ground by the centre-rush, also called the snapper-back, who, upon the
+signal being given by his quarter-back, "snaps back" the ball to this
+player, or to the full-back, by a quick movement of the hand or foot.
+The moment the ball is snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it
+is a foul for the side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an
+opponent except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms); or
+for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The defenders
+may use their hands and arms only to get their opponents out of the way
+in order to get at the man with the ball. Each member of the attacking
+side endeavours, of course, to prevent his opponents from breaking
+through and interfering with the quarter-back, who requires this
+protection from his line in order to have time to pass the ball to one
+of the backs, whom he has notified by a signal to be ready. In the
+United States a player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long
+as hands and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called
+"blocking-off" and "interference" when done to protect a friend running
+with the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of
+American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the
+half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his
+interference must form immediately. This means that one or more of his
+fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any
+opponent who tries to tackle him. The first duty of the defence against
+a hostile run is therefore to break up the interference, i.e. put these
+defenders out of the play, so that the runner may be reached and
+tackled.
+
+The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off or goal.
+If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account of the direction
+of wind, the loser must kick off and send the ball at least 10 yds. into
+the opponents' territory from a place-kick from the 55 yds. line. The
+two ends of the kicking side, who are usually fast runners, get down the
+field after the ball as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man
+who catches the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the
+kick-off is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it
+back as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his
+opponents the ball is down, and a line-up takes place, the ball being in
+the possession of the catcher's side, which now attacks. In order to
+prevent the so-called "block game," once prevalent, in which neither
+side made any appreciable progress, the rules provide that the side in
+possession of the ball must make _at least 10 yds. in three successive
+attempts_, or, failing to do so, must surrender the ball to the enemy,
+or, as it is called, "lose the ball on downs". This is infrequent in
+actual play, because if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly
+successful, it becomes evident that the chances of completing the
+obligatory 10-yd. gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a
+forward pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball
+on the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball,
+nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When the wind
+is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often, as the other
+side, not being able to kick back on equal terms, is forced to play a
+rushing game, which is always exhausting. Again, the kicking game is
+often resorted to by the side that has the lead in the score, in order
+to save its men and yet retain the advantage. The only remaining way to
+advance the ball is on a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English
+game. The free kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from
+placement. Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is
+brought back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who
+carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the side
+which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of two ways.
+Either it may be touched to the ground and then kicked at least 10 yds.
+towards the opponents' goal, or it may be taken into the field at right
+angles to the line a distance not less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and
+there put down for a line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring
+how far he will go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.
+
+Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his weight and
+ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back. He must also, in
+case the full-back is to make the next play, be able to throw the ball
+from between his legs accurately into the full-back's hands, thus saving
+the time that would be wasted if the quarter-back were used as an
+intermediary. The two "guards," who must also be heavy men, form with
+the centre the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in
+defence blocking the enemy. The two "tackles" must be heavy yet active
+and aggressive men, as they must not only help the centre and guards in
+repelling assaults on the middle of the line, but also assist the ends
+in stopping runs round the line as well as those between tackle and end,
+a favourite point of attack. The "ends" are chosen for their activity,
+sure tackling, fast running and ability to follow up the ball after a
+kick. Of the four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure
+catcher and tackler and a fast runner. The two half-backs must also be
+fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is often chosen for his
+ability to gain ground by "bucking the line," i.e. plunging through the
+opposing team's line. He must therefore be over the average weight,
+while the other half-back is called upon to gain by running round the
+opposing ends. The quarter-back is the commanding general and therefore
+the most important member of his side, as with him lies the choice of
+plays to be made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in
+decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities
+absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains the
+ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a series of
+numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain play that is to be
+carried through the moment the ball is snapped back. A good quarter-back
+thinks rapidly and shouts his signal for the next play as soon as a down
+has been called and while the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays
+are run off rapidly and the enemy is given as little time as possible to
+concentrate. The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard
+them from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating every
+position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and other open
+plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called sequence-signals,
+and indicate a prearranged series of plays for use in certain
+emergencies. Every manoeuvre of the attacking side is carried out by
+every member of the team, the ideal being "every man in every play every
+time." As soon as a signal is given each man should know what part of
+the ensuing move will fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for
+the runner, or getting down the field under a punt. Every team has its
+own code.
+
+About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and mass plays
+(wedge-formations, tandems, &c.), i.e. to the grouping of bodies of men
+behind the line, and starting them before the ball was snapped back, so
+that they struck the line with an acquired momentum that was extremely
+severe, particularly when met by men equally determined. These plays
+caused frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most
+important law providing for a limitation to the number of men who could
+be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping seven men drawn up
+in the line.
+
+_Penalties_ are of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for refusing
+to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for repeated fouls
+made with the intention of delaying the game; (2) disqualification of
+players for unnecessary roughness or ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for
+infringement of rules, for which certain distances are taken away from
+the previous gains of the side making the fouls.
+
+The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages interspersed with
+runs and kicks. The systematized development of plays places at the
+disposal of the quarter an infinite variety of attack, which he seeks to
+direct at the opposing line with bewildering rapidity and dash. During
+the preliminary games of the season "straight football" is generally
+played; that is, intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple
+plunges into the line are mainly relied upon. "Trick plays," which
+comprise all manoeuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved for later
+and more important matches. Among these is the "fake (false) kick," in
+which the full-back takes position as if to receive the ball for a kick,
+but the ball is passed to a different player for a run. Another play of
+this kind is the "wing-shift," in which some or all of the players on
+one side of centre suddenly change to the other side, thus forming a
+mass and throwing the opponents' line out of balance. To this category
+belong also "double passes," "false passes," "delayed passes," "delayed
+runs" and "criss-crosses."
+
+Training for football in America resembles that for other sports in
+regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems at the universities
+differ, but there is generally a head coach, who is assisted by
+graduates, each of whom pays especial attention to one set of men, one
+to the men in the centre of the line, one to the backs, another to the
+ends, &c. Candidates for the teams are put through a severe course of
+practice in catching punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts,
+falling on the ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking
+through the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the
+kicking is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves
+particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the ball
+whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of cardinal
+importance in American football, and dribbling for this reason is
+unknown. When running with the ball the player is taught to take short
+steps, to follow his interference, that is, not isolate himself from his
+defenders, and neither to slow up nor shut his eyes when striking the
+opposing line. Tackling well below the waist is taught, but it is a foul
+to tackle below the knee. The general rule for defensive work of all
+kinds is "play low."
+
+  See Walter Camp, _How to play Football_, and the _Official Football
+  Guide_ (annual), both in Spalding's Athletic Library; his _Book of
+  College Sports_ (New York, 1893), his _American Football_ (New York,
+  1894), and his _Football_ (Boston, 1896)--the last in co-operation
+  with L.F. Deland; R.H. Barbour, _The Book of School and College
+  Sports_ (New York, 1904); W.H. Lewis, _Primer of College Football_
+  (Boston, 1896).     (E. B.; W. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-1863), American admiral, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806, his father, Samuel Augustus
+Foote (1780-1846), being a prominent lawyer and Whig politician, who as
+U.S. senator moved in 1829 "Foote's resolutions" on public lands, in the
+discussion of which Daniel Webster made his "reply to Hayne." He entered
+the U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830. After
+cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the "John Adams," he was
+assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later (1846-1848) to the
+Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made commander of the "Perry," and
+engaged for two years in suppressing the slave trade on the African
+coast. In 1856, as commander of the "Portsmouth," he served on the East
+India station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the Barrier
+Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak of the Civil War,
+he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, becoming a full captain in
+1861. In August 1861 he was assigned to the command "of the naval
+operations upon the Western waters." His exploit in capturing Fort Henry
+(on the right bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the
+6th of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant's land
+forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success; but their
+combined attack on Fort Donelson (12 m. off, on the left bank of the
+Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry garrison had escaped,
+resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16), in heavy losses to Foote's
+gunboats, Foote himself being severely wounded. In March-April he
+co-operated in the capture of New Madrid (q.v.) and Island No. 10. In
+June he retired from his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral,
+and became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On the 26th
+of June 1863 he died at New York.
+
+  See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906).
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK (1847-   ), American author and illustrator, was
+born in Milton, New York, on the 19th of November 1847, of English
+Quaker ancestry. She was educated at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female
+Collegiate Seminary and at the Cooper Institute School of Design for
+women, in New York. In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining
+engineer, and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California,
+Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories, in which,
+as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough picturesque life,
+especially the mining life, of the West. Some of her best drawings
+appear in her own books. Among her publications are _The Led-Horse
+Claim_ (1883), _John Bodewin's Testimony_ (1886), _The Chosen Valley_
+(1892), _Coeur d'Alene_ (1894); _The Prodigal_ (1900), a novelette; _The
+Desert and the Sown_ (1902); and several collections of short stories,
+including _A Touch of Sun and other Stories_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor, was baptized at
+Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his attachment to his native
+Cornwall he gives no better proofs as an author than by making the
+country booby Timothy (in _The Knights_) sound the praises of that
+county and of its manly pastimes; but towards his family he showed a
+loyal and enduring affection. His father was a man of good family and
+position. His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as well
+as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally supported in
+the days of his prosperity, and after her death indignantly vindicated
+her character from the imputations recklessly cast upon it by the
+revengeful spite of the duchess of Kingston. About the time when Foote
+came of age, he inherited his first fortune through the murder of his
+uncle, Sir John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel
+Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at Worcester, and
+at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing himself in both places by
+mimicry and audacious pleasantries of all kinds, and, although he left
+Oxford without taking his degree, acquiring a classical training which
+afterwards enabled him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion,
+and helped to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.
+
+Foote was "designed" for the law, but certainly not by nature. In his
+chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian Coffee-house hard by, he
+learned to know something of lawyers if not of law, and was afterwards
+able to jest at the jargon and to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and
+to satirize the Latitats of the other branch of the profession with
+particular success. The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in _The
+Lame Lovers_, is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v.
+Pickwick. But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house
+in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was the social
+centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the second of which he
+appears to have inherited at his father's death), and had then passed
+through severe straits, he made his first appearance on the actual stage
+in 1744. It is said that he had married a young lady in Worcestershire;
+but the traces of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to
+his washer-woman) are mysterious, and probably apocryphal.
+
+Foote's first appearance as an actor was made little more than two
+years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics, including
+Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own first venture, as
+Othello, was a failure; and though he was fairly successful in genteel
+comedy parts, and was, after a favourable reception at Dublin, enrolled
+as one of the regular company at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746,
+he had not as yet made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay
+neither in tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder "where
+the devil it _did_ lie," when his successful performance of the part of
+Bayes in _The Rehearsal_ at last suggested to him the true outlet for
+his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the example of Garrick, he
+had introduced into this famous part imitations of actors, and had added
+a variety of other satirical comment in the way of "gag." Engaging a
+small company of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April
+1747, at the theatre in the Haymarket "_gratis_," "a new entertainment
+called the _Diversions of the Morning_," to which were to be added a
+farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue "spoken by the B-d-d
+Coffee-house." Foote's success in these _Diversions_ obtained for him
+the name of "the English Aristophanes," an absurd compliment, declined
+by Foote himself (see his letter in _The Minor_). The _Diversions_
+consisted of a series of imitations of actors and other well-known
+persons, whose various peculiarities of voice, gesture, manner or dress
+were brought directly before the spectators, while the epilogue
+introduced the wits of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and
+specially "took off" an eminent physician (probably the munificent Sir
+William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in _The Devil on Two
+Sticks_), and a notorious quack oculist of the day. The actors ridiculed
+in this entertainment having at once procured the aid of the constables
+for preventing its repetition, Foote immediately advertised an
+invitation to his friends to drink a dish of tea with him at the
+Haymarket on the following day at noon--"and 'tis hoped there will be a
+great deal of comedy and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make
+the morning as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to
+be had at St George's coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no person
+will be admitted. N.B.--_Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there, and Lady
+Betty Frisk has absolutely promised._" The device succeeded to
+perfection; further resistance was abandoned as futile by the actors,
+whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the "instructions to his pupils"
+which the entertainer pretended to impart (typifying them under
+characters embodying their several chief peculiarities or defects--the
+massive and sonorous James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy
+Ryan as a razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had an
+occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her wares and the
+bill of the play); and Mr Foote's _Chocolate_, which was afterwards
+converted into an evening _Tea_, became an established favourite with
+the town.
+
+In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend a third
+fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his means by a
+speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing anecdote told of
+him by Johnson. But he could now command a considerable income; and when
+money came he seems to have freely expended it in both hospitality and
+charity. During his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of
+which he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and
+more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of other
+authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop in his
+_Knights_ (1749, printed 1754). _Taste_ (1752), in which parts of the
+_Diversions_ were incorporated, was followed by some eighteen pieces,
+the majority of which were produced at the Haymarket, the favourite home
+of Foote's entertainments. In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this
+theatre a licence from the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766)
+converted into a licence for summer performances for life. The
+entertainments were a succession of variations on the original idea of
+the _Diversions_ and the _Tea_. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures
+(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second act of
+the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on _Orators_ (1754), suggested by some
+bombastic discourses given by Macklin in his old age at the Piazza
+coffee-house in Covent Garden, where Foote had amused the audience and
+confounded the speaker by interposing his humorous comments. _The
+Orators_ is preserved in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with
+a mock lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England,
+and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate, to which
+Holberg's _Politician-Tinman_ can hardly have been a stranger. At a
+later date (1773) a new device was introduced in a _Puppet-show_. The
+piece (unprinted) played in this by the puppets was called _Piety in
+Pattens_, and professed to show "by the moral how maidens of low degree
+might become rich from the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by
+the literature how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed
+under cover of words the most high flown." In other words, it was an
+attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not altogether
+extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion with the notorious
+Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from the _Puppet-show_, and
+thus was avoided a recurrence of the quarrel which many years before had
+led to an interchange of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by
+Woodward of the imitative Foote.
+
+On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites became
+very friendly, and on Foote's part unmistakably affectionate, and they
+have not been always generously represented by Garrick's biographers. A
+comparison between the two as actors is of course out of the question;
+but, though Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue,
+there is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character was
+one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson's opinions of him many
+records remain in Boswell; when Johnson had at last found his way into
+Foote's company (he afterwards found it to Foote's own table) he was
+unable to "resist" him, and, on hearing of Foote's death, he thought the
+career just closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.
+
+Meanwhile most of poor Foote's friendships in high life were probably
+those that are sworn across the table, and require "t'other bottle" to
+keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture--of Lord Mexborough and his
+royal guest the duke of York, and their companions, bantering Foote on
+his ignorance of horsemanship, and after he had weakly protested his
+skill, taking him out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and
+broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the "patientee" (in which
+character he said he was now making his first appearance) consoling
+himself with the reflection that he would now be able to take off "old
+Faulkner" (a pompous Dublin alderman with a wooden leg, whom he had
+brought on the stage as Peter Paragraph in _The Orators_) "to the life."
+The duke of York made him the best reparation in his power by promising
+him a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and Foote not
+only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp, he considered
+the leg he had lost "a redundancy, a mere nothing at all," but
+ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two of his later pieces,
+_The Lame Lover_ and _The Devil on Two Sticks_, while, with the true
+instinct of a public favourite, making constant reference to it in plays
+and prologues. Though the characters played by him in several of his
+later plays are comparatively short and light, he continued to retain
+his hold over the public, and about the year 1774 was beginning to think
+of withdrawing, at least for a time, to the continent, when he became
+involved in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his
+entertainments nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick's
+case, and it is said in Johnson's) put any visible restraint upon
+personal satire. _The Author_, in which, under the infinitely humorous
+character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh gentleman of the name
+of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed, been ultimately suppressed. But in
+general he had pursued his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to
+public ridicule and contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or
+supposed quacks in medicine (as in _The Devil on Two Sticks_),
+enthusiasts in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in _The Cozeners_) and George
+Whitefield and his connexion (in _The Minor_). He had not only dared the
+wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in _The Nabob_), and been
+rewarded by the withdrawal, from among the pundits who rationalized away
+Whittington's Cat, of Horace Walpole and other eminent members of the
+body, but had in the same play attacked a well-known representative of a
+very influential though detested element in English society,--the
+"Nabobs" themselves. But there was one species of cracked porcelain
+which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with impunity. The rumour
+of his intention to bring upon the stage, in the character of Lady Kitty
+Crocodile in _The Trip to Calais_, the notorious duchess of Kingston,
+whose trial for bigamy was then (1775) impending, roused his intended
+victim to the utmost fury; and the means and influence she had at her
+disposal enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to
+prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint as to
+the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify Foote's
+character in every way that hatred and malice could suggest. After he
+had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been exchanged between the
+duchess and him equally characteristic of their respective writers,
+Foote took his revenge upon the chief of the duchess's instruments, a
+"Reverend Doctor" Jackson, who belonged to the "reptile" society of the
+journalists of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of
+_The Bankrupt_. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper in _The
+Capuchin_, under which name the altered _Trip to Calais_ was performed
+in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were not yet at an end; and a
+discharged servant of Foote's was suborned by Jackson to bring a charge
+of assault and apply for a warrant against him. Though the attempt
+utterly broke down, and Foote's character was thus completely cleared,
+his health and spirits had given way in the struggle--as to which,
+though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part of the
+public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the very audiences of
+his own theatre had been, or had seemed to be, divided in opinion. He
+thus resolved to withdraw, at least for a time, from the effects of the
+storm, let his theatre to Colman, and after making his last appearance
+there in May 1777, set forth in October on a journey to France. But at
+Dover he fell sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few
+hours died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary's church at Dover
+(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that he had a
+hand "open as day for melting charity." His resting-place in Westminster
+Abbey is without any memorial.
+
+  Foote's chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of
+  mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the mere
+  outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose likeness he
+  assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility of voice,
+  though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice was not
+  disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assuming
+  characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies, where he
+  occasionally "doubled" parts. The excellent "patter" of some of his
+  plays, such as _The Liar_ and _The Cozeners_, must have greatly
+  depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person he was
+  rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his overflowing
+  humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible
+  sparkle of his eyes.
+
+  As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank. He
+  regarded comedy as "an exact representation of the peculiar manners of
+  that people among whom it happens to be performed; a faithful
+  imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which are
+  openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the
+  correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community."
+  This he regarded as the _utile_, or useful purpose, of comedy; the
+  _dulce_ he conceived to be "the fable, the construction, machinery,
+  conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece." For part at least of this
+  view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly "Letter" in which
+  he replied, "to the Reverend Author of the 'Remarks, Critical and
+  Christian,' on _The Minor_"), he rather loftily appealed to classical
+  authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of the _dulce_ to
+  the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species of art. His
+  comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and reproducing
+  characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that he not only took
+  them from real life, but closely modelled them on well-known living
+  men and women, was not in himself an artistic sin. Nor indeed was the
+  novelty of this process absolute, though probably no other comic
+  dramatist has ever gone so far in this course, or has pursued it so
+  persistently. The public delighted in his "d----d fine originals,"
+  because it recognized them as copies; and he was himself proud that he
+  had taken them from real persons, instead of their being "vamped from
+  antiquated plays, pilfered from the French farces, or the baseless
+  beings of the poet's brain." But the real excellence of many of
+  Foote's comic characters lies in the fact that, besides being
+  incomparably ludicrous types of manners, they remain admirable comic
+  types of general human nature. Sir Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile
+  appetite for news; Lady Pentweazel, and her preposterous vanity in her
+  superannuated charms; Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages
+  of public schools (where children may "make acquaintances that may
+  hereafter be useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they
+  learn there, does not signify twopence"); Major Sturgeon and Jerry
+  Sneak; Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or
+  two of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves,
+  whatever their origin; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed by
+  Foote's vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic
+  treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies
+  in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute
+  contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention or
+  conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the
+  interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His
+  characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them.
+  With the exception of _The Liar_ (which Foote pretended to have taken
+  from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele's adaptation
+  of Corneille's _Le Menteur_), and perhaps of _The Bankrupt_, there is
+  hardly one of Foote's "comedies" in which the conception and conduct
+  of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest farce. Not that
+  sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters are wanting, but
+  these familiar ingredients are as incapable of exciting real interest
+  as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable to produce more
+  than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays Foote constantly
+  resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce--a disguise. Of course
+  Foote must have been well aware of the shortcomings of his rapidly
+  manufactured productions; he knew that if he might sneer at "genteel
+  comedy" as suited to the dramatists of the servants' hall, and
+  pronounce the arts of the drama at the great houses to be "directed by
+  the genius of insipidity," he, like the little theatre where he held
+  sway, was looked upon as "an eccentric, a mere summer fly."
+
+  At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic scenes
+  of genuine farce. An oration of "old masters," an election of a
+  suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians, a
+  newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputations
+  massacred--all these and other equally happy situations are brought
+  before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And everywhere the
+  comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour, and the comic
+  characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy which at once raises
+  them above the level of mere theatrical conventionalism. Foote
+  professed to despise the mere caricaturing of national peculiarities
+  as such, and generally used dialect as a mere additional colouring; he
+  was, however, too wide awake to the demands of his public not to treat
+  France and Frenchmen as fair game, and coarsely to appeal to national
+  prejudice. His satire against those everlasting victims of English
+  comedy and farce, the Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned
+  from Paris, was doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he
+  made fun of the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the
+  society of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of
+  Foote's social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it
+  is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone of
+  his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at
+  refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made
+  occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare
+  against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the
+  two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.
+
+  The following is a list of Foote's farces or "comedies" as he calls
+  them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print. The
+  date of production, and the character originally performed by Foote,
+  are added to the title of each:
+
+  _The Knights_ (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir
+  Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the _Diversions_ is
+  incorporated; _The Englishman in Paris_ (1753: Young Buck); _The
+  Englishman returned from Paris_ (1756: Sir Charles Buck); _The Author_
+  (1757: Cadwallader); _The Minor_ (1760: Smirk and Mrs Cole); _The
+  Liar_ (1762); _The Orators_ (1762: Lecturer); _The Mayor of Garratt_
+  (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); _The Patron_ (1764: Sir Thomas
+  Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); _The Commissary_ (1765: Mr Zac.
+  Fungus); _The Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768: Devil,--alias Dr Hercules
+  Hellebore); _The Lame Lover_ (1770: Sir Luke Limp); _The Maid of Bath_
+  (1771: Mr Flint); _The Nabob_ (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); _The Bankrupt_
+  (1773: Sir Robert Riscounter); _The Cozeners_ (1774: Mr Aircastle);
+  _The Capuchin_, a second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by
+  the censor (1776: O'Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in
+  1763-1768.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Foote's biography may be read in W. ("Conversation")
+  Cooke's _Memoirs of Samuel Foote_ (3 vols., 1805), which contain,
+  amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things and of
+  anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously unpublished
+  occasional pieces (with the _Tragedy à la mode_, part of the
+  _Diversions_, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this source
+  seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information in the
+  rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by "Jon Bee" (John
+  Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as "John Hunds") to his useful
+  edition of Foote's Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars will be
+  found in Tate Wilkinson's _Wandering Patentee_ (York, 1795) and in
+  other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, reprinted with
+  additions, from the _Quarterly Review_, in John Forster's
+  _Biographical Essays_ (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy
+  Fitzgerald (1910).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOTMAN, a name given among articles of furniture to a metal stand,
+usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong or oval in shape,
+for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-room fire. In the days
+before the general use of hot-water dishes the footman possessed
+definite utility, but although it is still in occasional use, it is now
+chiefly regarded as an ornament. It was especially common in the
+hardware counties of England, where it is still frequently seen; the
+simple conventionality of its form is not inelegant.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTSCRAY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, on the
+Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
+18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from which most of the
+building stones in Melbourne and the neighbourhood is obtained; it is
+also an important manufacturing centre, with numerous sugar-mills, jute
+factories, soap works, woollen-mills, foundries, chemical works and many
+other minor industries.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT-STALL, a word supposed to be a literal translation of _pièdestal_,
+or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture (see BASE).
+
+
+
+
+FOPPA, VINCENZO, Italian painter, was born near Brescia. The dates of
+his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and 1492; but there is now
+good reason for substituting 1427 and 1515. He settled in Pavia towards
+1456, and was the head of a Lombard school of painting which subsisted
+up to the advent of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia.
+His contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in
+perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially. Among his
+noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan, the "Martyrdom of
+St Sebastian"; and a "Crucifixion" in the Carrara gallery, Bergamo,
+executed in 1455. He worked much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his
+paintings are now lost.
+
+  See C.J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, _Vincenzo Foppa_ (1910).
+
+
+
+
+FORAGE, food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender collected for
+the food of the horses of an army. In early usage the word was confined
+to the dried forage as opposed to grass. From this word comes "foray,"
+an expedition in search of "forage," and hence a pillaging expedition, a
+raid. The word "forage," directly derived from the Fr. _fourrage_, comes
+from a common Teutonic origin, and appears in "fodder," food for cattle.
+The ultimate Indo-European root, _pat_, cf. Gr. [Greek: pateisthai],
+Lat. _pascere_, to feed, gives "food," "feed," "foster"; and appears
+also in such Latin derivatives as "pastor," "pasture."
+
+
+
+
+FORAIN, J. L. (1852-   ), French painter and illustrator, was born in
+1852. He became one of the leading modern Parisian caricaturists, who in
+his merciless exposure of the weaknesses of the _bourgeoisie_ continued
+the work which was begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The
+scathing bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as
+his pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in his
+painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives him to
+caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called "a Degas pushed on to
+caricature." In his pen-and-ink work he combines extraordinary economy
+of means with the utmost power of expression and suggestion. Forain's
+popularity dates from the publication of his _Comédie parisienne_, a
+series of two hundred and fifty sketches republished in book form. He
+has contributed many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the
+_Figaro_, _Le Rire_, _L'Assiette au beurre_, _Le Courrier français_, and
+_L'Indiscret_. His political drawings for the _Figaro_ were republished
+in book form under the title of _Doux Pays_.
+
+
+
+
+FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON (1846-   ), American political leader, was born
+near Rainsboro, Highland county, Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He
+passed his early life on a farm, enlisted as a private in the 89th Ohio
+Volunteer Infantry in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for
+part of the time as an aide on the staff of General H.W. Slocum, and in
+1865 received a captain's brevet for "efficient services during the
+campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia." After the war he spent two
+years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two years at Cornell. In 1869
+he was admitted to the Ohio bar and began practice in Cincinnati. He was
+a judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he
+was the Republican candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in
+1885 and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in 1889.
+He then for eight years practised law with great success in Cincinnati.
+In 1896 he was elected United States senator to succeed Calvin S. Brice
+(1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected and served until 1909. In the Senate
+he was one of the aggressive Republican leaders, strongly supporting the
+administration of President M'Kinley (whose name he presented to the
+Republican National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in the debates
+preceding, during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War,
+and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt, was
+conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence. He vigorously
+opposed various measures advocated by the president, and led the
+opposition to the president's summary discharge of certain negro troops
+after the Brownsville raid of the 13th of August 1906 (see BROWNSVILLE,
+Texas).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5
+       "Fleury, Claude" to "Foraker"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2011 [EBook #35747]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME X SLICE V<br /><br />
+Fleury, Claude to Foraker</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FLEURY, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FLIEDNER, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FLYING BUTTRESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FLIGHT and FLYING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FLYING COLUMN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FLINCK, GOVERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">"FLYING DUTCHMAN,"</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FLINDERS, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FLYING-FISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FLINSBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FLYING-FOX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FLINT, AUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FLYING-SQUIRREL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FLINT, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FLYSCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FLINT, TIMOTHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FO&#268;A</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FLINT</a> (Michigan, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FOCHABERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FLINT</a> (county of North Wales)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FOCSHANI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FLINT</a> (town of North Wales)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FOCUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FLINT</a> (crystalline substance)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FOG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FLOAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FLOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FOGGIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FLODDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FÖHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FLODOARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FÖHR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FLOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FOIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FLOOD, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FOIL-FENCING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FLOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FOIX, PAUL DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FLOOD PLAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FOIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FLOOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FLOORCLOTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FOLENGO, TEOFILO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FLOR, ROGER DI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FOLEY, JOHN HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FLORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FOLEY, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FOLI, ALLAN JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FOLIGNO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FLORENCE OF WORCESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FOLIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FLORENCE</a> (Alabama, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FOLIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FLORENCE</a> (capital of Tuscany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FOLKES, MARTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FLORES</a> (island in the Atlantic Ocean)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FOLKESTONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FLORES</a> (island of the Dutch East Indies)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FOLKLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FLOREZ, ENRIQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FOLKLORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FLORIAN, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FOLLEN, KARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FLORIANOPOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FLORIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MOÑINO Y REDONDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FOND DU LAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FLORIDOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FONDI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FLORIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FONNI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FLORIO, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FONSAGRADA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FLORIS, FRANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FLORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FONSECA, BAY OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FLORUS, JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FONTAINEBLEAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FLOUNDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FONTANA, DOMENICO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FONTANA, LAVINIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FLOURENS, GUSTAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FONTANA, PROSPERO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FONTANE, THEODOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FONTANES, LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FLOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FONTENAY-LE-COMTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FLOYD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FONTENOY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FONTEVRAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FLOYER, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FLUDD, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FOOD PRESERVATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FOOL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FOOLS, FEAST OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FLUKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FOOLSCAP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FLUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FOOL'S PARSLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FLUMINI MAGGIORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FOOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FLUORANTHENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FLUORENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FOOTBALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FLUORESCEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FOOTE, ANDREW HULL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FLUORESCENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FLUORINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FOOTE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FLUOR-SPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FOOTMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FLUSHING</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FOOTSCRAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FLUSHING</a> (Zeeland, Holland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FOOT-STALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FLUTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FOPPA, VINCENZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FLUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FORAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FORAIN, J. L.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FLYCATCHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FLEURY, CLAUDE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian,
+was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for
+the bar, he was educated at the aristocratic college of Clermont
+(now that of Louis-le-Grand). In 1658 he was nominated an
+advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for nine years followed
+the legal profession. But he had long been of a religious disposition,
+and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had been
+some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as
+tutor of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king
+next entrusted to him the education of the count of Vermandois,
+one of his natural sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received
+for his services the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese
+of Rhodez. In 1689 he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes
+of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of Berry, and thus became intimately
+associated with Fénelon, their chief tutor. In 1696 he was
+elected to fill the place of La Bruyère in the French Academy;
+and on the completion of the education of the young princes
+the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the
+diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned,
+with rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu.
+About this time he began his great work, the first of the kind in
+France, and one for which he had been collecting materials
+for thirty years&mdash;the <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>. Fleury&rsquo;s evident
+intention was to write a history of the church for all classes of
+society; but at the time in which his great work appeared it
+was less religion than theology that absorbed the attention of
+the clergy and the educated public; and his work accordingly
+appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader,
+dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine,
+of discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood
+and the imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success.
+The first edition, printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was
+followed by many others, among which may be mentioned that
+of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692, and that of Nismes, in 25 vols.
+8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury only comes down to the
+year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre and Goujet
+down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of Fleury
+and its supplement, the general table of contents, published
+by Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful.
+Translations have been made of the entire work into Latin,
+German and Italian. The Latin translation, published at
+Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo, carries the work down to
+1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor to the young
+king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans said,
+he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but
+Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was
+equalled by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness
+of his conduct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fleury left many works besides his <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>. The
+following deserve special mention:&mdash;<i>Histoire du droit françois</i> (1674,
+12mo); <i>M&oelig;urs des Israélites</i> (1681, 12mo); <i>M&oelig;urs des Chrétiens</i>
+(1682, 12mo); <i>Traité du choix et de la méthode des études</i> (1686,
+2 vols. 12mo); <i>Les Devoirs des maîtres et des domestiques</i> (1688,
+12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one volume
+at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned
+his <i>Catéchisme historique</i> (1679) and the <i>Institution du droit ecclésiastique</i>
+(1687).</p>
+
+<p>See C. Ernst Simonetti, <i>Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers
+in dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury</i> (Göttingen,
+1746, 4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, <i>Notice sur C. Fleury, considéré comme
+historien de l&rsquo;église</i> (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg,
+<i>Geschichte des Christentums, i.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLIEDNER, THEODOR<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1800-1864), German Protestant
+divine, was born on the 21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near
+Wiesbaden), the small village in which his father was pastor.
+He studied theology at the universities of Giessen and Göttingen,
+and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and at the age of
+twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent
+in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the
+Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine,
+a few miles below Düsseldorf. To help his people and to provide
+an endowment for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822
+through part of Germany, and then in 1823 to Holland and
+England. He met with considerable success, and had opportunities
+of observing what was being done towards prison reform;
+in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist
+Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad
+state. The prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms,
+badly fed, and left in complete idleness. No one dreamed of
+instructing them, or of collecting statistics to form the basis
+of useful legislation on the subject. Fliedner, at first singly,
+undertook the work. He applied for permission to be imprisoned
+for some time, in order that he might look at prison life from the
+inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to hold
+fortnightly services in the Düsseldorf prison, and to visit the
+inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded
+themselves together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first
+Prison Society of Germany (<i>Rheinisch-Westfälischer Gefängnisverein</i>)
+was founded. In 1833 Fliedner opened in his own
+parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for discharged
+female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly
+increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited
+his interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be
+best served by an organized body of specially trained women.
+Accordingly in 1836 he began the first deaconess house, and
+the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their ordination vows the
+deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the poor, the sick
+and the young; but their engagements were not final&mdash;they
+might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose.
+In addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an
+infant school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses
+(1836), an orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842),
+and an asylum for female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted
+at the foundation and in the management of similar institutions,
+not only in Germany, but in various parts of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851
+he travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East&mdash;the
+object of his journeys being to found &ldquo;mother houses,&rdquo;
+which were to be not merely training schools for deaconesses, but
+also centres whence other training establishments might arise.
+He established a deaconess house in Jerusalem, and after his
+return assisted by counsel and money in the erection of establishments
+at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and Bucharest.
+Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house of
+refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other
+institutions soon arose) and the &ldquo;house of evening rest&rdquo; for
+retired deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received
+the degree of doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in
+recognition rather of his practical activity than of his theological
+attainments. He died on the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind
+him over 100 stations attended by 430 deaconesses; and these
+by 1876 had increased to 150 with an attendance of 600.</p>
+
+<p>Fliedner&rsquo;s son <span class="sc">Fritz Fliedner</span> (1845-1901), after studying
+in Halle and Tübingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+Madrid. He followed in his father&rsquo;s footsteps by founding
+several philanthropic institutions in Spain. He was also the
+author of a number of books, amongst which was an autobiography,
+<i>Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen</i>
+(1901).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Theodor Fliedner&rsquo;s writings are almost entirely of a practical
+character. He edited a periodical, <i>Der Armen und Kranken Freund,</i>
+which contained information regarding the various institutions, and
+also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides purely
+educational and devotional works, he wrote <i>Buch der Märtyrer</i> (1852);
+<i>Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang. Liebesanstalten zu
+Kaiserswerth</i> (1856); <i>Nachricht über das Diakonissen-Werk in der
+Christ. Kirche</i> (5th ed., 1867); <i>Die evangel. Märtyrer Ungarns und
+Siebenbürgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach Jerusalem und
+Constantinopel</i>. All were published at Kaiserswerth. There is a
+translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London, 1867).
+See also G. Fliedner, <i>Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines Lebens
+und Wirkens</i> (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work
+<i>Kaiserswerth Deaconesses</i> (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson&rsquo;s
+<i>Deaconesses</i> (London, 1862); <i>The Service of the Poor</i>, by E.C.
+Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson&rsquo;s <i>Praying and Working</i>
+(London, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLIGHT<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> and <b>FLYING.</b> Of the many scientific problems of
+modern times, there are few possessing a wider or more enduring
+interest than that of aerial navigation (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>).
+To fly has always been an object of ambition with man; nor
+will this occasion surprise when we remember the marvellous
+freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with non-volant animals.
+The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme difficulty.
+To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, at
+first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are
+thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this
+feat. These creatures, however varied in form and structure,
+all fly according to one and the same principle; and this is a
+significant fact, as it tends to show that the air must be attacked
+in a particular way to ensure flight. It behoves us then at the
+outset to scrutinize very carefully the general configuration of
+flying animals, and in particular the size, shape and movements
+of their flying organs.</p>
+
+<p>Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from
+balloons, with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously
+compared; and a flying machine constructed upon proper
+principles can have nothing in common with either of those
+creations. The ship floats upon water and the balloon upon air;
+but the ship differs from the balloon, and the ship and the balloon
+differ from the flying creature and flying machine. The water
+and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The
+analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the
+balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature
+and flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported
+by the water and requires merely to be propelled; a
+flying creature and a flying machine constructed on the living
+type require to be both supported and propelled. This arises
+from the fact that water is much denser than air, and because
+water supports on its surface substances which fall through air.
+While water and air are both fluid media, they are to be distinguished
+from each other in the following particulars. Water
+is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible;
+air, on the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and
+compressible. If water be struck with violence, the recoil
+obtained is great when compared with the recoil obtained from
+air similarly treated. In water we get a maximum recoil with a
+minimum of displacement; in air, on the contrary, we obtain a
+minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. Water and
+air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form
+<i>movable fulcra</i> to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet
+these peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying
+animals (whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made
+not of rigid but of elastic materials. The travelling organs,
+moreover, increase in size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid
+to be acted upon. The difference in size of the travelling organs
+of animals becomes very marked when the land animals are
+contrasted with the aquatic, and the aquatic with the aerial,
+as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well
+illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds.
+A bird when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately
+in a backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil.
+The water supports the bird, and the feet simply propel. In
+this case the bird is lighter than the water, and the long axis of
+the body is horizontal (<i>a</i> of fig. 4). When the bird dives, or flies
+under water, the long axis of the body is inclined obliquely downwards
+and forwards, and the bird forces itself into and beneath the
+water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both. In diving or sub-aquatic
+flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, the wings
+downwards and <i>backwards</i> (<i>b</i> of fig. 4). In aerial flying everything
+is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely
+upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards
+and backwards, but downwards and <i>forwards</i> (<i>c</i> of fig. 4). These
+changes in the direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming,
+diving and flying, and in the direction of the stroke of the wings
+in sub-aquatic and aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird
+is heavier than the air and lighter than the water.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:266px" src="images/img502a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Chillingham Bull (<i>Bos Scoticus</i>). Small travelling extremities
+adapted for land. <i>r, s, t, u</i>, figure-of-8 described by the
+feet in walking.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:224px" src="images/img502b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;The Turtle (<i>Chelonia imbricata</i>). Enlarged travelling
+extremities (flippers) adapted for water.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:128px" src="images/img502c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;The Bat (<i>Phyllocina gracilis</i>). Greatly expanded
+travelling extremities adapted for air.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:734px; height:429px" src="images/img503a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a bird in (<i>a</i>) swimming,
+(<i>b</i>) diving, and (<i>c</i>) flying.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The physical properties of water and air explain in a great
+measure how the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how
+the latter differs from the flying creature and flying machine
+constructed on the natural type. The sailing ship is, as it were,
+immersed in two oceans, viz. an ocean of water and an ocean
+of air&mdash;the former being greatly heavier and denser than the
+latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and the
+ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel
+the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes
+the hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water,
+which, as explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+ship is in motion it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by
+the rudder alone, or by both combined. A balloon differs from
+a sailing ship in being immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean
+of air. It resembles the ship in floating upon the air, as the ship
+floats upon the water; in other words, the balloon is lighter than
+the air, as the ship is lighter than the water. But here all analogy
+ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being immersed in two fluids
+having different densities, can be steered and made to tack about
+in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in the case of
+the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The balloon
+in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its horizontal
+movements, which ought to be the more important, are accidental
+movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the
+balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt
+to steer a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence
+of oars, sails and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by
+currents of air. The balloon has no hold upon the air, and this
+consequently cannot be employed as a <i>fulcrum</i> for regulating
+its course. The balloon, because of its vast size and from its
+being lighter than the air, is completely at the mercy of the wind.
+It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the wind for the time
+being, and the direction of the wind in every instance determines
+the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to
+propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its
+destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree
+of certainty from one point of the earth&rsquo;s surface to another,
+and hence the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as
+likely as not, carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a
+mere lifting machine and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying
+machine. It resembles the flying creature only in this, that it is
+immersed in the ocean of air in which it sustains itself. The mode
+of suspension is wholly different. The balloon floats because it
+is lighter than the air; the flying creature floats because it extracts
+from the air, by the vigorous downward action of its wings,
+a certain amount of upward recoil. The balloon is passive; the
+flying creature is active. The balloon is controlled by the wind;
+the flying creature controls the wind. The balloon in the absence
+of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical line; the flying creature
+can fly in a horizontal plane in any given direction. The balloon
+is inefficient because of its levity; the flying creature is efficient
+because of its weight.</p>
+
+<p>Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to
+flight. Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air.
+The inertia of the mass of the flying creature enables it to control
+and direct its movements in the air. Many are of opinion that
+flight is a mere matter of levity and power. This is quite a mistake.
+No machine, however light and powerful, will ever fly
+whose travelling surfaces are not properly fashioned and properly
+applied to the air.</p>
+
+<p>It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed
+in some mysterious way to flight, but
+this is now known to be erroneous.
+The bats and some of the best-flying
+birds have no air sacs. Similar remarks
+are to be made of the heated
+air imprisoned within the bones of
+certain birds.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Feathers even are not
+necessary to flight. Insects and bats
+have no feathers, and yet fly well.
+The only facts in natural history
+which appear even indirectly to
+countenance the flotation theory are
+the presence of a swimming bladder
+in some fishes, and the existence of
+membranous expansions or pseudo-wings
+in certain animals, such as
+the flying fish, flying dragon and
+flying squirrel. As, however, the
+animals referred to do not actually
+fly, but merely dart into the air and
+there sustain themselves for brief
+intervals, they afford no real support
+to the theory. The so-called floating
+animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6 and 7.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:484px; height:324px" src="images/img503b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;The Red-throated Dragon<br />
+(<i>Draco haematopogon</i>).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;The Flying Colugo<br />
+(<i>Galeopithecus volans</i>); also called<br />
+flying lemur and flying squirrel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:225px" src="images/img503c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash;The Flying Fish (<i>Exocoetus exiliens</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It has been asserted, and with some
+degree of plausibility, that a fish
+lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter
+than the air might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind
+that, in point of fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold
+its own if the water were in the least perturbed, and that a bird
+lighter than the air would be swept into space by even a moderate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+breeze without hope of return. Weight and power are always
+associated in living animals, and the fact that living animals are
+made heavier than the medium they are to navigate may be
+regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight being
+necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the
+bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for
+the most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that
+flight in every instance is the product, not of superior levity,
+but of <i>weight</i> and <i>power</i> directed upon properly constructed
+flying organs.</p>
+
+<p>This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying
+machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily
+be a light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of
+surface. On the contrary, it favours the belief that it should
+be a compact and moderately heavy and powerful structure,
+which trusts for elevation and propulsion entirely to its flying
+appliances&mdash;whether actively moving wings, or screws, or aeroplanes
+wedged forward by screws. It should attack and subdue
+the air, and never give the air an opportunity of attacking or
+subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a master,
+and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance
+elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be
+<i>multum in parvo</i>. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and
+must extract from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces&mdash;however
+fashioned and however applied&mdash;the recoil or resistance
+necessary to elevate and carry it forward. Extensive inert
+surfaces indeed are contra-indicated in a flying machine, as they
+approximate it to the balloon, which, as has been shown, cannot
+maintain its position in the air if there are air currents. A flying
+machine which could not face air currents would necessarily be
+a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to fall back
+upon <i>weight</i>, or rather the structures and appliances which weight
+represents. These appliances as indicated should not be unnecessarily
+expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever
+practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces,
+in preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>The question of surface is a very important one in aviation:
+it naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface.
+As there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal,
+so there are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying
+machine. Art should follow nature in this matter. The active
+surfaces in flying creatures are always greatly in excess of the
+passive ones, from the fact that the former virtually increase in
+proportion to the spaces through which they are made to travel.
+Nature not only distinguishes between active and passive surfaces
+in flying animals, but she strikes a just balance between them,
+and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces to the strength and
+weight of the flying creature and the air currents to which the
+surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to operate.
+In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects are
+to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she
+reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she
+likewise reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying
+surfaces. While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying
+animal as a whole, she increases as occasion demands the active
+or wing surfaces by wing movements, and the passive or dead
+surfaces by the forward motion of the body in progressive
+flight. She knows that if the wings are driven with sufficient
+rapidity they practically convert the spaces through which they
+move into solid bases of support; she also knows that the body
+in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it passes.
+The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the
+wing movements will be readily understood from the accompanying
+illustrations of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in
+motion (figs. 8 and 9). In fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body
+of the insect and the wings are, as compared with those of fig. 9,
+trifling. The wing would have much less purchase on fig. 8 than
+on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by the latter were passive
+or dead surfaces. But they are not dead surfaces: they represent
+the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating wings, which are
+actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings travel at
+a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are superior
+to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart through
+the wind in whatever direction it pleases.</p>
+
+<p>The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to
+realize that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in a flying
+machine would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically,
+as will be shown by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier
+than fig. 8, and if both were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9
+would be more blown about than fig. 8.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:495px; height:202px" src="images/img504.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.&mdash;Blow-fly (<i>Musca vomitoria</i>)<br />
+with its wings at rest.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.&mdash;Blow-fly with its wings<br />
+in motion as in flight.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the
+elytra or wing cases&mdash;thin, light, horny structures inclined
+slightly upwards&mdash;which in the act of flight are spread out
+and act as sustainers or gliders. The elytra, however, are comparatively
+long narrow structures which occupy a position in
+front of the wings, of which they may be regarded as forming
+the anterior parts. The elytra are to the delicate wings of some
+insects what the thick anterior margins are to stronger wings.
+The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures. They
+can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with
+the horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight,
+as flight in the great majority of instances is performed without
+them. The elytra serve as protectors to the wings when the
+wings are folded upon the back of the insect, and as they are
+extended on either side of the body more or less horizontally when
+the insect is flying they contribute to flight indirectly, in virtue
+of their being carried forward by the body in motion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Flight</i>.&mdash;The manner in which the wings of the insect
+traverse the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support,
+raises the whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, therefore,
+at this stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat
+fully to the subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and
+bat, a knowledge of natural flight preceding, and being in some
+sense indispensable to, a knowledge of artificial flight. The
+bodies of flying creatures are, as a rule, very strong, comparatively
+light and of an elongated form,&mdash;the bodies of birds being
+specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying creatures, however,
+are less remarkable for their strength, shape and comparative
+levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and complicated
+movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first satisfactorily
+analysed those movements, and reproduced them by
+the aid of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> showed
+that all natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are
+screws structurally, and that they act as screws when they are
+made to vibrate, from the fact that they twist in opposite
+directions during the down and up strokes. He also explained
+that all wings act upon a common principle, and that they
+present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air, through which they
+pass much in the same way that an oar passes through water
+in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying
+creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already
+indicated) strike downwards and <i>forwards</i> during the down
+strokes, and upwards and <i>forwards</i> during the up strokes. Lastly
+he demonstrated that the wings of flying creatures, when the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+bodies of said creatures are fixed, describe <i>figure-of-8 tracks</i> in
+space&mdash;the figure-of-8 tracks, when the bodies are released and
+advancing as in rapid flight, being opened out and converted
+into <i>waved tracks</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his
+admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo
+da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and
+practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, <i>Spirals in Nature and
+Art</i>, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo&rsquo;s chief
+work on flight, bearing the title <i>Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie
+Altre Materie</i>, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of
+twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations
+interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references
+to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In
+none of Leonardo&rsquo;s manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures,
+is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral
+movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the
+wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the
+stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by
+modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo
+gives a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of
+the wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes
+downwards and <i>backwards</i>, whereas in reality it strikes downwards
+and <i>forwards</i>. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: &ldquo;The
+wings have to row downwards and <i>backwards</i> to support the machine
+on high, so that it moves forward.&rdquo; In speaking of natural flight he
+remarks: &ldquo;If in its descent the bird rows <i>backwards</i> with its wings
+the bird will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike
+the air which successively runs behind the bird to fill the void
+whence it comes.&rdquo; There is nothing in Leonardo&rsquo;s writings to show
+that he knew either the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the
+modern sense.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pettigrew&rsquo;s discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements
+made by the wing in stationary and progressive flight was confirmed
+some two years after it was made by Prof. E.J. Marey
+of Paris<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> by the aid of the &ldquo;sphygmograph.&rdquo;<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The movements
+in question are now regarded as fundamental, from the fact
+that they are alike essential to natural and artificial flight.</p>
+
+<p>The following is Pettigrew&rsquo;s description of wings and wing
+movements published in 1867:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:344px; height:131px" src="images/img505a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Beetle (<i>Goliathus
+micans</i>) when at rest; seen from above.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:354px; height:54px" src="images/img505b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Beetle (<i>Goliathus
+micans</i>) when in motion; seen from
+behind. This figure shows how the wing twists
+and untwists when in action, and how it forms
+a true screw.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less triangular
+in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards the
+body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical on
+section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape
+converting the pinions into delicately graduated instruments balanced
+with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular
+system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air
+on the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumerable
+varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated
+or scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some lanceolate
+and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of one
+or two pairs&mdash;the anterior or upper pair, when two are present,
+being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous
+condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="elytron">&#7956;&#955;&#965;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the integument,
+or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various directions
+by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists as
+the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity
+of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin,
+where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae
+are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
+spiral stair&mdash;the anterior one occupying a higher position than that
+farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also
+to the margins, <i>the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves</i>
+and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper
+surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under
+surface,&mdash;their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with
+such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance
+and the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the
+form of wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited&mdash;the
+pinions in those insects acting as <i>helices</i>, or <i>twisted levers</i>, and
+elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would seem
+to warrant&rdquo; (figs. 10 and 11).... &ldquo;To confer on the wings the
+multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied
+with double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move
+not only in an upward, downward, forward and backward direction,
+but also at various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with
+wings thus hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be
+not inaptly compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the universality
+of motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness
+in another.&rdquo;... &ldquo;All wings obtain their leverage by presenting
+oblique surfaces to
+the air, the degree
+of obliquity gradually
+increasing in a
+direction from behind,
+forwards and
+downwards, during
+extension when the
+sudden or effective
+stroke is being given,
+and gradually decreasing
+in an opposite
+direction during
+flexion, or when the
+wing is being more
+slowly recovered preparatory
+to making
+a second stroke. The
+effective stroke in
+insects, and this
+holds true also of
+birds, is therefore delivered <i>downwards and forwards</i>, and not, as the
+majority of writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards....
+The wing in the insect is more flattened than in the bird; and advantage
+is taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in
+heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, <i>to reverse the pinion
+more or less completely during the down and up strokes</i>.&rdquo;... &ldquo;This
+is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of
+the wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction
+from above downwards and from behind forwards&mdash;the anterior
+margin travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating.
+The wing may thus be said to attack the air by a <i>screwing
+movement</i> from above. During the up or return stroke, on the other
+hand, the posterior margin rotates in a direction from below upwards
+and from before backwards, so that by a similar but <i>reverse screwing
+motion</i> the pinion attacks the air from beneath.&rdquo;... &ldquo;<i>A figure-of-8</i>,
+compressed laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running
+from left to right of the spectator, represents the movements in
+question. <i>The down and up strokes</i>, as will be seen from this account,
+<i>cross each other</i>, the wing smiting the air during its descent from
+above, as in the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as
+in the flying fish and boy&rsquo;s kite&rdquo; (fig. 12).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:131px" src="images/img505c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 12</span> shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of the wing in
+extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As the tip of
+the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the continuous
+and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The
+arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how
+the down and up strokes <i>cross each other</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">... &ldquo;The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect
+or bird may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward reciprocating
+action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion.
+In these instances the backward and forward strokes are made to
+counterbalance each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with
+considerable fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during
+extension and flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an
+object, or still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when
+the down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and progressing
+rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being carried
+forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or spiral
+course, as shown in fig. 13.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>... &ldquo;The down and up strokes are compound movements&mdash;the
+termination of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the
+up stroke, and the termination of the up stroke including the beginning
+of the down stroke. This is necessary in order that the down
+and up strokes may glide into each other in such a manner as to
+prevent jerking and unnecessary retardation.&rdquo;<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a>...</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:88px" src="images/img506a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Wave track made by the wing in progressive flight. <i>a, b</i>,
+Crests of the wave; <i>c, d, e</i>, up strokes; <i>x, x</i>, down strokes; <i>f</i>, point
+corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre
+for the downward rotation of the wing (<i>a, g</i>); <i>g</i>, point corresponding
+to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre for the
+upward rotation of the wing (<i>d, f</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:134px" src="images/img506b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<i>a, b</i>, line along which the wing travels during extension
+and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in which the wing is
+spread out in extension and closed or folded in flexion.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:119px" src="images/img506c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Red-legged
+Partridge (<i>Perdix rubra</i>). Dorsal
+aspect as seen from above.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:91px" src="images/img506d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Red-legged
+Partridge (<i>Perdix rubra</i>). Dorsal
+and ventral aspects as seen from behind;
+showing auger-like conformation
+of wing. Compare with figs. 11 and 18.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:143px" src="images/img506e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Bat (<i>Phyllocina
+gracilis</i>). Dorsal aspect as seen from
+above.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:87px" src="images/img506f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Right Wing of the Bat (<i>Phyllocina
+gracilis</i>). Dorsal and ventral aspects,
+as seen from behind. These show the
+screw-like configuration of the wing, and
+also how the wing twists and untwists
+during its action.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">&ldquo;The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex,
+and <i>more or less twisted upon itself</i> when extended, so that the anterior
+or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature
+to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great
+measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are
+twisted upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular
+surfaces&mdash;the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other
+at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter
+of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion.
+As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing may
+be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the same
+plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during
+either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of
+the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance
+in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
+forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers
+which they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact
+ensures that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which
+the primary and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and
+down upon the wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn
+from the wind during flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore
+be compared to a huge gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet representing
+the bones of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet
+the primary and secondary
+feathers&rdquo; (figs. 15 and 16)....
+&ldquo;From this description
+it will be evident that
+by the mere rotation of the
+bones of the forearm and
+hand the maximum and
+minimum of resistance is
+secured much in the same
+way that this object is
+attained by the alternate
+dipping and feathering of
+an oar.&rdquo;... &ldquo;The wing, both when at rest and when in motion,
+may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw
+propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of
+the wing corresponds closely
+with the outline of the
+propeller (figs. 11, 16 and
+18), and the track described
+by the wing in space <i>is
+twisted upon itself</i> propeller
+fashion<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (figs. 12, 20, 21,
+22, 23). The great velocity
+with which the wing is
+driven converts the impression
+or blur made by it
+into what is equivalent to a
+solid for the time being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel
+in violent motion, as is well understood, more or less completely
+occupy the space contained within the rim or circumference of the
+wheel&rdquo; (figs. 9, 20 and 21).</p>
+
+<p>... &ldquo;The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to
+that of the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-transparent,
+continuous
+membrane, supported in
+divers directions, particularly
+towards its
+anterior margin, by a
+system of osseous stays
+or stretchers which confer
+upon it the degree
+of rigidity requisite for
+flight. It is, as a rule,
+deeply concave on its
+under or ventral surface,
+and in this respect resembles
+the wing of the
+heavy-bodied birds. The movement of the bat&rsquo;s wing in extension
+is a <i>spiral</i> one, the spiral running alternately from below upwards
+and forwards and from above downwards and backwards. The
+action of the wing of the bat, and the movements of its component
+bones, are essentially
+the same as in the bird&rdquo;
+(figs. 17 and 18).</p>
+
+<p>... &ldquo;The wing strikes
+the air precisely as a
+boy&rsquo;s kite would if it
+were jerked by its string,
+the only difference being
+that the kite is <i>pulled
+forwards</i> upon the wind
+by the string and the
+hand, whereas in the
+insect, bird and bat
+the wing is <i>pushed forwards</i> on the wind by the weight of the body
+and the power residing in the pinion itself&rdquo; (fig. 19).<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:95px" src="images/img506g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;The Cape Barn-owl (<i>Strix capensis</i>), showing the kite-like
+surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and body
+in flight.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to
+lead us to explain how it happens that the wing, which in many
+instances is a comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet
+attack the air with such vigour as to extract from it the recoil
+necessary to elevate and propel the flying creature. The accompanying
+figures from one of Pettigrew&rsquo;s later memoirs<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> will
+serve to explain the <i>rationale</i> (figs. 20, 21, 22 and 23).</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration
+sweeps through a comparatively very large space. This space,
+as already explained, is practically a solid basis of support for
+the wing and for the flying animal. The wing attacks the air
+in such a manner as virtually to have no slip&mdash;this for two
+reasons. The wing reverses instantly and acts as a kite during
+nearly the entire down and up strokes. The angles, moreover,
+made by the wing with the horizon during the down and up
+strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this is a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed
+at which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase
+and decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to
+and fro are due partly to the resistance offered by the air, and
+partly to the mechanism and mode of application of the wing
+to the air. The wing, during its vibrations, rotates upon two
+separate centres, the tip rotating round the root of the wing as
+an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior margin rotating around
+the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing is really
+eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the rowing
+feathers of the bird&rsquo;s wing. The compound rotation goes on
+throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately
+associated with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately
+seizing and evading the air.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:281px" src="images/img507a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the left wing
+of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to vibrate.
+These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing with the
+horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing reverses and
+reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite directions, and
+describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22 represent the
+forward or down stroke (<i>a b c d e f g</i>), figs. 21 and 23 the backward
+or up stroke (<i>g h i j k l a</i>). The terms forward and back strokes are
+here employed with reference to the head of the insect, <i>x, x</i>&prime;, line
+to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or forward
+stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward
+stroke, it will be seen that <i>the wing crosses its own track</i> more or less
+completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by
+the wing being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the
+wing to twist and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is
+made to vibrate. The twisting referred to is partly a vital and
+partly a mechanical act;&mdash;that is, it is occasioned in part by
+the action of the muscles and in part by the greater resistance
+experienced from the air by the tip and posterior margin of the
+wing as compared with the root and anterior margin,&mdash;the resistance
+experienced by the tip and posterior margin causing
+them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior
+margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior
+margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs.
+9, 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.</p>
+
+<p>The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is
+represented in fig. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the
+remarkable power which the wing possesses of making and
+utilizing its own currents. Thus, when the wing descends it
+draws after it a strong current, which, being met by the wing
+during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy of the up stroke.
+Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it creates an
+upward current, which, being met by the wing when it descends,
+powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke.
+This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with
+natural and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes
+are complete in themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed,
+and in such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide
+into each other. It is only in this way that the air can be made
+to pulsate, and that the rhythm of the wing and the air waves
+can be made to correspond. The air must be seized and let go
+in a certain order and at a certain speed to extract a maximum
+recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is regulated by the
+size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very much higher
+speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing, moreover,
+travel at different degrees of velocity&mdash;the tip and posterior
+margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater
+space, in a given time, than the root and anterior margin.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:485px; height:215px" src="images/img507b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Wing of the Bird with its root (<i>a, b</i>) cranked forwards.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a, b,</i> Short axis of the wing (axis
+for tip of wing, <i>h</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>c, d,</i> Long axis (axis for posterior
+margin of wing, <i>h, i, j, k, l</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>m, n,</i> Short axis of rowing
+feathers of wing.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>r, s,</i> Long axis of rowing feathers
+of wing. The rotation of
+the rowing feathers on
+their long axis (they are
+eccentrics) enables them
+to open or separate during
+the up, and close or come
+together during the down
+strokes.</p>
+
+<p><i>e f, g p,</i> concave shape presented
+by the under surface of the
+wing.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:247px" src="images/img507c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25 shows how different
+portions of the wing travel at
+different degrees of speed. In this
+figure the rod <i>a, b,</i> hinged at <i>x,</i>
+represents the wing. When the
+wing is made to vibrate, its several
+portions travel through the spaces
+<i>d b f, j k l, g h i,</i> and <i>e a c</i> in
+exactly the same interval of time.
+The part of the wing marked b,
+which corresponds with the tip,
+consequently travels very much
+more rapidly than the part marked
+<i>a</i>, which corresponds with the root.
+<i>m n, o p,</i> curves made by the wing
+at the end of the up and down
+strokes; <i>r</i>, position of the wing at
+the middle of the stroke.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:220px" src="images/img508a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;In this figure <i>f, f&rsquo;</i> represent
+the movable fulcra furnished by the
+air, <i>p p&rsquo;</i> the power residing in the wing,
+and b the body to be moved. In order
+to make the problem of flight more intelligible,
+the lever formed by the wing
+is prolonged beyond the body (<i>b</i>), and
+to the root of the wing so extended the
+weight (<i>w, w&prime;</i>) is attached; x represents
+the universal joint by which the wing
+is attached to the body. When the
+wing ascends as shown at <i>p</i>, the air
+(fulcrum <i>f</i>) resists its upward passage,
+and forces the body (<i>b</i>) or its representative
+(<i>w</i>) slightly downwards.
+When the wing descends as shown at
+<i>p&rsquo;</i>, the air (fulcrum <i>f&prime;</i>) resists its downward
+passage, and forces the body (<i>b</i>)
+or its representative (<i>w&prime;</i>) slightly upwards.
+From this it follows that when
+the wing rises the body falls, and vice
+versa&mdash;the wing describing the arc of
+a large circle (<i>f f&prime;</i>), the body (<i>b</i>), or the
+weights (<i>w, w&prime;</i>) representing it, describing
+the arc of a small circle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases
+enormous. The wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at
+the rate of 110, and the common house-fly at the rate of 330
+beats per second. Quick as are the vibrations of natural wings,
+the speed of certain parts of the wing is amazingly increased.
+Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a consequence, a
+comparatively slow and very
+limited movement at the root
+confers great range and immense
+speed at the tip, the
+speed of each portion of the
+wing increasing as the root of
+the wing is receded from. This
+is explained on a principle well
+understood in mechanics, viz.
+that when a wing or rod
+hinged at one end is made to
+move in a circle, the tip or
+free end of the wing or rod
+describes a much wider circle
+in a given time than a portion
+of the wing or rod nearer the
+hinge (fig. 25).</p>
+
+<p>One naturally inquires why
+the high speed of wings, and
+why the progressive increase
+of speed at their tips and
+posterior margins? The
+answer is not far to seek. If
+the wings were not driven at
+a high speed, and if they were
+not eccentrics made to revolve
+upon two separate axes, they
+would of necessity be large
+cumbrous structures; but
+large heavy wings would be difficult to work, and what is
+worse, they would (if too large), instead of controlling the
+air, be controlled by it, and so cease to be flying organs.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another reason why wings should be made
+to vibrate at high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light,
+thin, elastic medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and
+unless the wings attacked it with great violence the necessary
+recoil or resistance could not be obtained. The atmosphere,
+because of its great tenuity, mobility and comparative imponderability,
+presents little resistance to bodies passing through it at
+low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly accelerated,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to elicit a recoil.
+This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the resistance
+experienced varying according to the density of the atmosphere
+and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon it.
+While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the progress
+of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly
+difficult to compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy
+to convert it into a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary
+support and forward impetus. This arises from the fact that
+bodies moving in air experience a <i>minimum of resistance</i> and
+occasion a <i>maximum of displacement</i>. Another and very obvious
+difficulty is traceable to the great disparity in the weight of air
+as compared with any known solid, and the consequent want of
+buoying or sustaining power which that disparity involves. If
+we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times lighter.
+To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are furnished
+with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which they
+apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of
+the third order. In this form of lever the power is applied
+between the fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power
+is represented by the wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the
+weight by the body of the flying animal. Although the third
+order of lever is particularly inefficient when the fulcrum is rigid
+and immobile, it possesses singular advantages when these
+conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as happens
+with the air, is <i>elastic</i> and <i>yielding</i>. In this instance a very slight
+movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever
+directed towards the body,
+is followed by an immense
+sweep of the extremity of
+the wing, where its elevating
+and propelling power
+is greatest&mdash;this arrangement
+ensuring that the
+large quantity of air
+necessary for support and
+propulsion shall be compressed
+under the most
+favourable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In this process the
+weight of the body performs
+an important part,
+by acting upon the inclined
+planes formed by
+the wings in the plane of
+progression. The power
+and the weight may thus
+be said to reciprocate, the
+two sitting as it were side
+by side and blending their
+peculiar influences to produce
+a common result, as
+indicated at fig. 26.</p>
+
+<p>When the wings descend
+they elevate the body, the
+wings being active and
+the body passive; when
+the body descends it contributes
+to the elevation of
+the wings,<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> the body being
+active and the wings more or less passive. It is in this way that
+weight forms a factor in flight, the wings and the weight of the body
+reciprocating and mutually assisting and relieving each other.
+This is an argument for employing four wings in artificial flight,&mdash;the
+wings being so arranged that the two which are up shall
+always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are
+down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve
+the driving power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:277px" src="images/img508b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;<i>a, b</i>, quill feathers; <i>c</i>,
+cork; <i>d, e, f, g</i>, downward and <i>forward</i>
+curved trajectory made by the
+feathers and cork before reaching the
+ground (<i>h, i</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>That the weight of the body plays an important part in the
+production of flight may be proved by a very simple experiment.
+If two quill feathers are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged
+that they expand and arch
+above it (fig. 27), it is found
+that if the apparatus be
+dropped from a vertical
+height of 3 yds. it does
+not fall vertically downwards,
+but downwards and
+<i>forwards</i> in a curve, the
+forward travel amounting
+in some instances to a yard
+and a half. Here the cork,
+in falling, acts upon the
+feathers (which are to all
+intents and purposes wings),
+and these in turn act upon
+the air, in such a manner as
+to produce a horizontal
+transference.</p>
+
+<p>In order to utilize the air
+as a means of transit, the body in motion, whether it moves
+in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a force super-added,
+must be heavier than air. It must tread with its
+wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water,
+or as a kite upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple
+reason that the body must be active, the air passive. The
+flying body must act against gravitation, and elevate and
+carry itself forward at the expense of the air and of the force
+which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it were otherwise&mdash;if
+it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the
+one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other,
+it would float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an
+ordinary balloon.</p>
+
+<p>In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must
+attack the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must
+attack the wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a
+calm, the wings must be made to smite the air after the manner
+of a boy&rsquo;s kite with great vigour and at a high speed. In this
+case the wings fly the bird. If, however, the bird is fairly
+launched in space and a stiff breeze is blowing, all that is required
+in many instances is to extend the wings at a slight upward
+angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the wings present
+kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly moving
+air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the necessary
+illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights
+upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his
+wings with tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched.
+This done he extends his enormous pinions<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and sails majestically
+along, seldom deigning to flap his wings, the breeze doing the
+work for him. A familiar illustration of the same principle may
+be witnessed any day when children are engaged in the pastime
+of kite-flying. If two boys attempt to fly a kite in a calm, the
+one must hold up the kite and let go when the other runs. In
+this case the under surface of the kite is made to strike the still
+air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it suffices if
+the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands still.
+In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface
+of the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the
+kite what the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined
+planes formed by its wings.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully
+expanded, is greater than that of any other class of animal,
+their weight being proportionally less. As already stated,
+however, it ought never to be forgotten that even the lightest
+insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier than the air, and that no
+fixed relation exists between the weight of body and expanse
+of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+large-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and
+others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and
+partridge. Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those
+apparent inconsistencies in the dimensions of the body and wings
+are readily explained by the greater muscular development
+of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects, birds and bats, and
+the increased power and rapidity with which the wings in them
+are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in the
+science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a
+heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well
+as by a lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore,
+there is apparently no correspondence between the area of the
+wing and the animal to be raised, there is, except in the case of
+sailing insects, birds and bats, an unvarying relation as to the
+weight and number of oscillations; so that the problem of flight
+would seem to resolve itself into one of weight, power, velocity
+and small surfaces, <i>versus</i> buoyancy, debility, diminished speed
+and extensive surfaces&mdash;weight in either case being a <i>sine qua
+non</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:416px" src="images/img509.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.&mdash;Hawk and Pigeon.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and
+the size and weight of the body to
+be elevated is evident on comparing
+the dimensions of the wings and
+bodies of the several orders of insects,
+bats and birds. If such comparison
+be made, it will be found that the
+pinions in some instances diminish
+while the bodies increase, and the
+converse. No practical good can
+therefore accrue to aviation from
+elaborate measurements of the wings
+and body of any flying thing; neither
+can any rule be laid down as to the
+extent of surface required for sustaining
+a given weight in the air.
+The statements here advanced are
+borne out by the fact that the wings
+of insects, bats and birds may be
+materially reduced without impairing
+their powers of flight. In such
+cases the speed with which the
+wings are driven is increased in
+the direct ratio of the mutilation.
+The inference to be deduced from the foregoing is plainly this,
+that even in large-bodied, small-winged insects and birds the
+wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus wing area supplying
+that degree of elevating and sustaining power which is necessary
+to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal. In
+this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects,
+and the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,&mdash;the
+bats carrying their young without inconvenience, the birds elevating
+surprising quantities of fish, game, carrion, &amp;c. (fig. 28).</p>
+
+<p>While as explained, no definite relation exists between the
+weight of a flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there
+being, as stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds
+and bats, and the converse, and while, as has been shown, flight
+is possible within a wide range, the wings being, as a rule, in
+excess of what are required for the purposes of flight,&mdash;still it
+appears from the researches of L. de Lucy that there is a general
+law, to the effect that the larger the volant animal, the smaller,
+by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The existence of such
+a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight is concerned,
+for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy, powerful
+flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently
+comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very
+considerable importance, as the object desiderated in a flying
+machine is elevating capacity.</p>
+
+<p>De Lucy tabulated his results as under:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb2 tb bb sc" colspan="4">Insects</td> <td class="tccm rb tb bb sc" colspan="4">Birds.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Names.</td>
+ <td class="tccm rb2 bb" colspan="3">Flying Surface<br />referred to the<br />&emsp; Kilogramme<br />= 2 &#8468; 8 oz. 3 dwt.<br />&emsp; 2 gr. avoird.<br />= 2 &#8468; 3 oz. 4.428<br />&emsp; dr. troy.</td>
+ <td class="tccm bb">Names.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Flying Surface<br />referred to the<br />&emsp; Kilogramme.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">sq.<br />yds.</td> <td class="tcrm">ft.</td> <td class="tcrm rb2">in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">sq.<br />yds.</td> <td class="tcrm">ft.</td> <td class="tcrm rb">in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gnat</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">92</td> <td class="tcl rb">Swallow</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">104½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dragon-fly (small)</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sparrow</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">142½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coccinella (Lady-bird)</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb2">87</td> <td class="tcl rb">Turtle-dove</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">100½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dragon-fly (common)</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pigeon</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stork</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bee</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">74½</td> <td class="tcl rb">Vulture</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meat-fly</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54½</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crane of Australia</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drone (blue)</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cockchafer</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">50</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Lucanus cervus</i> Stag-beetle (female)</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">39½</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Lucanus cervus</i> Stag-beetle (male)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Rhinoceros-beetle</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">122½</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb bb" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always
+decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal increases
+in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one
+another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the
+stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs
+150 times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of
+surface, &amp;c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs
+about 10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface.
+The pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice
+as much surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the
+Australian crane, and possesses 7 times more surface, &amp;c. If now
+we compare the insects and the birds, the gradation will become
+even much more striking. The gnat, for example, weighs 97,000
+times less than the pigeon, and has 40 times more surface; it weighs
+three millions of times less than the crane of Australia, and possesses
+140 times more of surface than this latter, the weight of which is
+about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 &#8468; 5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 &#8468; 15 oz.
+2¼ dr. avoirdupois).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has
+the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it
+does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139
+sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre.
+But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent
+birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest
+and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted,
+the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of which
+is the longest maintained.&rdquo;<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air,
+and reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very
+obvious bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body
+of the flying creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+wing ascends, and is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing
+descends. The wing and body are consequently always playing
+at cross purposes, the wing rising when the body is falling and
+vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of the body and wing of
+the bird are well seen when contemplating the flight of the gull
+from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is following in the wake
+of the vessel. The complementary movements referred to are
+indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line represents
+the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line that
+made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, <i>the wing
+advances both when it rises and when it falls</i>. It is a peculiarity
+of natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the
+principle of living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed,
+even in a strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward.
+If, for instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical
+direction, as at <i>a b</i> of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and
+forwards in a double curve (see continuous line of figure) to <i>c</i>,
+thus converting the vertical down stroke into a <i>down, oblique,
+forward stroke</i>. If, again, the wing be suddenly elevated in a
+strictly vertical direction, as at <i>c d</i>, the wing as certainly darts
+upwards and forwards in a double curve to <i>e</i>, thus converting
+the vertical up strokes into an <i>upward, oblique, forward stroke</i>.
+The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from <i>e</i> to <i>f</i>
+and elevated from <i>g</i> to <i>h</i>, the wing describing a <i>waved track</i> as at
+<i>e g, g i</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:96px" src="images/img510a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the body
+describe <i>waved tracks</i>,&mdash;the crests of the waves made by the wing
+(<i>a, c, e, g, i</i>) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by
+the body (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There are good reasons why the wings should always be in
+advance of the body. A bird when flying is a body in motion;
+but a body in motion tends to fall not vertically downwards,
+but <i>downwards and forwards</i>. The wings consequently must
+be made to strike <i>forwards</i> and kept in advance of the body of the
+bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling <i>downwards and
+forwards</i>. If the wings were to strike backwards in aerial flight,
+the bird would turn a forward somersault.</p>
+
+<p>That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and
+up strokes in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and
+experiment. If any one watches a bird rising from the ground
+or the water, he cannot fail to perceive that the head and body
+are slightly tilted upwards, and that the wings are made to
+descend with great vigour in a downward and <i>forward</i> direction.
+The dead natural wing and a properly constructed artificial
+wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet,
+just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator
+believes to be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of
+the wing, in spite of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.&mdash;the
+amount of forward movement being regulated by the
+rapidity of the down stroke. This is a very striking experiment.
+The same thing happens with a properly constructed artificial
+wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with the natural
+wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and
+forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its
+wings towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during
+the down stroke <i>pushed</i> the body of the bird in an upward and
+forward direction; in reality the wings do not push but <i>pull</i>, and
+in order to pull they must always be in advance of the body to
+be flown. If the wings did not themselves fly <i>forward</i>, they could
+not possibly cause the body of the bird to fly forward. It is the
+wings which cause the bird to fly.</p>
+
+<p>It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite,
+during both the down and the up strokes, its under concave
+or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel communicated
+to it by the body of the flying creature, being closely applied
+to the air, during both its ascent and its descent. This explains
+how the wing furnishes a persistent buoyancy alike when it rises
+and when it falls (fig. 30).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:88px" src="images/img510b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the down and
+up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon (<i>a, b</i>)
+vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades the
+superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air
+during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double
+dotted lines (<i>c g, i b</i>) represent the down strokes, the single dotted line
+(<i>h, i</i>) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and angles
+made by the wing with the horizon (<i>a, b</i>) during the down strokes
+are indicated at <i>c d e f g, j k l m</i>,&mdash;those made during the up strokes
+being indicated at <i>g h i</i>. As the down and up strokes run into each
+other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards
+and the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface
+of the wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under
+surface seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this
+figure how the wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent
+buoyancy.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial
+kite only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in
+all its parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the
+latter is comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of
+the kite formed by the natural wing are rendered necessary by
+the fact that the wing, as already stated, is practically hinged
+at its root and along its anterior margin, an arrangement which
+necessitates its several parts travelling at different degrees of
+speed, in proportion as they are removed from the axes of
+rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the root,
+and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a
+<i>twisting diagonal movement</i> of the wing on its long axis, which, but
+for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments.
+The elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing,
+and ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the
+same instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would
+reverse at precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be
+characterized by pauses or dead points at the end of the down
+and up strokes which would be fatal to it as a flying organ.
+The elastic properties of the wing are absolutely essential, when
+the mechanism and movements of the pinion are taken into
+account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those
+upon which the constructors of flying machines very properly
+ground their hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be
+conferred on artificial wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar
+structures; and these structures, if we may judge from what
+we find in nature, <i>should be of moderate size and elastic</i>. The power
+of the flying organs will be increased if they are driven at a comparatively
+high speed, and particularly if they are made to
+reverse and reciprocate, as in this case they will practically
+create the currents upon which they are destined to rise and
+advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces with the
+horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should
+be small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated,
+is true of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings
+and their analogues.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Flight</i>.&mdash;We are now in a position to enter upon a
+consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of
+artificial flight and flying machines.</p>
+
+<p>We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenticated
+account of an artificial wing was given by G.A. Borelli
+in 1670. This author, distinguished alike as a physiologist,
+mathematician and mechanician, describes and figures a bird
+with artificial wings, each of which consists of <i>a rigid rod in front
+and flexible feathers behind</i>. The wings are represented as striking
+<i>vertically downwards</i>, as the annexed duplicate of Borelli&rsquo;s figure
+shows (fig. 31).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:247px; height:209px" src="images/img511.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 31.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Borelli&rsquo;s bird with artificial wings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>r e</i>, Anterior margin of the right
+     wing, consisting of a rigid rod.</p>
+<p><i>o a</i>, Posterior margin of the right
+     wing, consisting of flexible
+     feathers.</p>
+<p><i>b c</i>, Anterior; and</p>
+<p><i>f</i>,   Posterior margins of the left
+     wing same as the right.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>,   Tail of the bird.</p>
+<p><i>r g, d h</i>, Vertical direction of the
+    down stroke of the wing.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Borelli was of opinion that flight resulted from the application
+of an inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+action. He, in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges
+itself forward upon the air by the perpendicular vibration of its
+wings, the wings during their action forming a wedge, the base of
+which (<i>c b e</i>) is directed towards
+the head of the bird,
+the apex (<i>a f</i>) being directed
+towards the tail (<i>d</i>). In the
+196th proposition of his work
+(<i>De motu animalium</i>, Leiden,
+1685) he states that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;If the expanded wings of a
+bird suspended in the air shall
+strike the undisturbed air beneath
+it with a motion <i>perpendicular
+to the horizon</i>, the bird
+will fly with <i>a transverse motion</i>
+in a plane parallel with the
+horizon.&rdquo; &ldquo;If,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;the
+wings of the bird be expanded,
+and the under surfaces of the
+wings be struck by the air
+<i>ascending perpendicularly to the
+horizon</i> with such a force as
+shall prevent the bird gliding
+downwards (<i>i.e.</i> with a tendency
+to glide downwards) from
+falling, it will be urged in a
+horizontal direction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same argument is restated
+in different words as under:&mdash;&ldquo;If the air under the wings be
+struck by the flexible portions of the wings (<i>flabella</i>, literally fly
+flaps or small fans) with a motion perpendicular to the horizon, the
+sails (<i>vela</i>) and flexible portions of the wings (<i>flabella</i>) will yield in
+an upward direction and form a wedge, the point of which is
+directed towards the tail. Whether, therefore, the air strikes the
+wings from below, or the wings strike the air from above, the result
+is the same,&mdash;the posterior or flexible margins of the wings <i>yield
+in an upward direction</i>, and in so doing urge the bird in a <i>horizontal
+direction</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are three points in Borelli&rsquo;s argument to which it is
+necessary to draw attention: (1) the direction of the down
+stroke: it is stated to be <i>vertically downwards</i>; (2) the construction
+of the anterior margin of the wing: it is stated to consist
+of <i>a rigid rod</i>; (3) the function delegated to the posterior margin
+of the wing: it is said <i>to yield in an upward direction</i> during the
+down stroke.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing
+strikes vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body
+of a flying bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion
+tends to fall downwards and forwards, the wing must strike
+downwards and forwards in order effectually to prevent its fall.
+Moreover, in point of fact, all natural wings, and all artificial
+wings constructed on the natural type, invariably strike downwards
+and forwards.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity
+of the anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine
+the anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they
+are in every case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to
+properly constructed artificial wings. If the anterior margins of
+natural and artificial wings were rigid, it would be impossible
+to make them vibrate smoothly and continuously. This is a
+matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a wing with a rigid
+anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is characterized
+by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up
+strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady
+fanning movement peculiar to natural wings.</p>
+
+<p>As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior
+margin of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to
+remark that the statement is true if it means a slight upward
+bending, but that it is untrue if it means an extensive upward
+bending.</p>
+
+<p>Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one
+of his followers, E.J. Marey, maintains that during the down
+stroke the wing yields until its under surface makes a backward
+angle with the horizon of 45°. Marey further states that during
+the up stroke the wing yields to a corresponding extent in an
+opposite direction&mdash;the posterior margin of the wing, according
+to him, passing through an angle of 90°, plus or minus according
+to circumstances, every time the wing rises and falls.</p>
+
+<p>That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent
+during both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted,
+alike because of the very delicate and highly elastic properties
+of the posterior margins of the wing, and because of the comparatively
+great force employed in its propulsion; but that it
+does not yield to the extent stated by Marey is a matter of
+absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any one
+watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will
+observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never
+rises during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the
+under surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards.
+On the contrary, he will perceive that the under surface of the
+wing (during the down stroke) invariably looks forwards and
+forms a true kite with the horizon, the angles made by the kite
+varying at every part of the down stroke, as shown more
+particularly at <i>c d e f g, i j k l m</i> of fig. 30.</p>
+
+<p>The authors who have adopted Borelli&rsquo;s plan of artificial wing,
+and who have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing&rsquo;s action
+most fully, are J. Chabrier, H.E.G. Strauss-Dürckheim and
+Marey. Borelli&rsquo;s artificial wing, it will be remembered, consists
+of a rigid rod in front and a flexible sail behind. It is also made
+to strike vertically downwards. According to Chabrier, the wing
+has only one period of activity. He believes that if the wing be
+suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles, it is elevated solely
+by the reaction of the air. There is one unanswerable objection
+to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if not all the insects,
+have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate their wings at
+pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the reaction
+of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Dürckheim agrees with Borelli
+both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion
+that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined
+plane a component force (composant) which it employs to support
+and direct itself. In his theology of nature he describes a schematic
+wing as consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible
+sail behind. A membrane so constructed will, according to him,
+be fit for flight. It will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers
+itself successively. It will of its own accord dispose itself as an
+inclined plane, and receiving obliquely the reaction of the air,
+it transfers into tractile force a part of the vertical impulsion it
+has received. These two parts of the wing, moreover, are equally
+indispensable to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Marey repeats Borelli and Dürckheim with very trifling
+modifications, so late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings,
+the one composed of a rigid rod and sail&mdash;the rod representing
+the stiff anterior margin of the wing; the sail, which is made of
+paper bordered with cardboard, the flexible posterior margin.
+The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in front and behind of
+thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He states that
+if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, &ldquo;the resistance of
+the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements. In
+effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power
+of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the
+extended nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and
+flexible. During the vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure
+has the power of remaining rigid, whereas the flexible portion,
+being pushed in an upward direction on account of the resistance
+it experiences from the air, assumes an oblique position which
+causes the upper surface of the wing to look forwards.&rdquo; The
+reverse of this, in Marey&rsquo;s opinion, takes place during the elevation
+of the wing&mdash;the resistance of the air from above causing
+the upper surface of the wing to look backwards.... &ldquo;At first,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the
+animal. It lowers itself&mdash;the front part of the wing strongly
+resists, the sail which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by
+the ribbing (the anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself,
+the sail or posterior margin of the wing being raised meanwhile
+by the air, which sets it straight again, the sail will take an intermediate
+position and incline itself about 45° plus or minus according
+to circumstances.... The wing continues its movements
+of depression inclined to the horizon; but the impulse of the air,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+which continues its effect, and naturally acts upon the surface
+which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself into two forces,
+a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices to raise the
+animal, the second to move it along.&rdquo;<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Marey, it will be
+observed, reproduces Borelli&rsquo;s artificial wing, and even his text,
+at a distance of nearly two centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact
+imitation of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more
+or less triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin,
+and thin at the tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid.
+It is, on the contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout.
+It is furnished with springs at its root to contribute to its continued
+play, and is applied to the air by a direct piston action
+in such a way that it descends in a downward and forward
+direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an upward and
+forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and propels
+both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists
+during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in
+space, precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most
+marked at the tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of
+the posterior margin next the tip. The wing when in action may
+be divided into two portions by a line running diagonally between
+the tip of the wing anteriorly and the root of the wing posteriorly.
+The tip and posterior parts of the wing are more active than the
+root and anterior parts, from the fact that the tip and posterior
+parts (the wing is an eccentric) always travel through greater
+spaces, in a given time, than the root and anterior parts.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:476px; height:206px" src="images/img512a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 32.&mdash;Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists during
+its action, to form <i>a mobile helix or screw</i>. This wing is made to
+vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be
+propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a b</i>, Anterior margin of wing, to
+which the neurae or ribs
+are affixed.</p>
+<p><i>c d</i>, Posterior margin of wing
+crossing anterior one.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Ball-and-socket joint at root
+of wing, the wing being
+attached to the side of the
+cylinder by the socket.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Cylinder.</p>
+<p><i>r r</i>, Piston, with cross heads
+(<i>w, w</i>) and piston head (<i>s</i>).</p>
+<p><i>o o</i>, Stuffing boxes.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e, f</i>, Driving chains.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Superior elastic band, which
+assists in elevating the
+wing.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Inferior elastic band, which
+antagonizes m. The alternate
+stretching of the
+superior and inferior elastic
+bands contributes to the
+continuous play of the wing,
+by preventing dead points
+at the end of the down and
+up strokes. The wing is
+free to move in a vertical
+and horizontal direction
+and at any degree of
+obliquity.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields
+freely in a downward direction during the up stroke, while it
+yields comparatively little in an upward direction during the
+down stroke; and this is a distinguishing feature, as the wing
+is thus made to fold and elude the air more or less completely
+during the up stroke, whereas it is made to expand and seize
+the air with avidity during the down stroke. The oblique line
+referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually divides
+the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating
+and propelling, the latter sustaining.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise
+function discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment
+tends to show that the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior
+margin propels, and the root sustains.</p>
+
+<p>The wing&mdash;and this is important&mdash;is driven by a direct piston
+action with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion
+having communicated to it a smart click at the beginning of
+every down stroke&mdash;the up stroke being more uniform. The
+following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the artificial wing here
+represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural wing as
+depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in the one
+which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to
+the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to
+be applied to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the
+head of the piston. This wing, like the single wing described,
+twists and untwists as it rises and falls, and possesses all the
+characteristics of the natural wing (fig. 34).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:478px; height:148px" src="images/img512b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each
+wing forms a mobile helix or screw.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a b</i>, Anterior margin of left wing.</p>
+<p><i>c d</i>, Posterior margin of ditto.</p>
+<p><i>d g</i>, Primary or rowing feathers of left wing.</p>
+<p><i>g a</i>, Secondary feathers ditto.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>x</i>,   Root of right wing with ball-and-socket joint.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>,   Elbow joint.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,   Wrist joint,</p>
+<p><i>n,o</i>, Hand and finger joints.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:393px; height:287px" src="images/img512c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 34.&mdash;Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston action.
+During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly convex
+on its upper surface (<i>a b c d</i>, A A&prime;); its under surface (<i>e f g h</i>, A A&prime;)
+being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards.
+It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke.
+During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every
+direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form
+two screws, as seen at <i>a&prime; b&prime; c&prime; d&prime;, e&prime; f&prime; g&prime; h&prime;</i>, B, B&prime;. The active area of
+the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during
+the up stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke;
+the wing seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than
+during the up stroke. <i>i, j, k</i>, elastic band to regulate the expansion
+of the wing; <i>l</i>, piston; <i>m</i>, piston head; <i>n</i>, cylinder.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two
+blades, which taper and become thinner towards the tips and
+posterior margins. When the screw is made to rotate, the blades,
+because of their elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the
+angles being least where the speed of the blades is greatest and
+vice versa. The pitch of the blades is thus regulated by the
+speed attained (fig. 35).</p>
+
+<p>The peculiarity of Pettigrew&rsquo;s wings and screws consists in
+their elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative
+length and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air
+when they are at rest, and when in motion the speed with which
+they are driven is such as to ensure that the comparatively
+large spaces through which they travel shall practically be
+converted into solid bases of support.</p>
+
+<p>After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw
+configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more
+especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings,
+and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construction
+of flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+D.S. Brown,<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> elastic aerial screws by J. Armour,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and elastic
+aeroplanes, wings and screws by Alphonse Pénaud.<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:492px; height:163px" src="images/img513a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 35.&mdash;Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades resembling
+wings (<i>a b c d, e f g h</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>x</i>,   End of driving shaft.</p>
+<p><i>v,w</i>, Sockets in which the roots
+of the blades of the screw
+rotate, the degree of rotation
+being limited by steel
+springs (<i>z, s</i>).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a b, e f</i>, tapering elastic rods forming
+anterior or thick
+margins of blades of screw.</p>
+<p><i>d c, h g</i>, Posterior or thin elastic
+margins of blades of screw.
+The arrows <i>m, n, o, p, q, r</i>
+indicate the direction of
+travel.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Pénaud&rsquo;s experiments are alike interesting and instructive.
+He constructed models to fly by three different methods:&mdash;(<i>a</i>)
+by means of screws acting vertically upwards; (<i>b</i>) by aeroplanes
+propelled horizontally by screws; and (<i>c</i>) by wings which
+flapped in an upward and downward direction. An account of
+his helicoptère or screw model appeared in the <i>Aeronaut</i> for
+January 1872, but before giving a description of it, it may be well
+to state very briefly what is known regarding the history of the
+screw as applied to the air.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:381px; height:511px" src="images/img513b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 36.&mdash;Cayley&rsquo;s Flying Model.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The first suggestion on this subject was given by A.J.P.
+Paucton in 1768. This author, in his treatise on the <i>Théorie
+de la vis d&rsquo;Archimède</i>, describes a machine provided with two
+screws which he calls a &ldquo;ptérophores.&rdquo; In 1796 Sir George
+Cayley gave a practical illustration of the efficacy of the screw
+as applied to the air by constructing a small machine, consisting
+of two screws made of quill feathers, a representation of which
+we annex (fig. 36). Sir George writes as under:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a
+machine rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my
+present communication by describing an instrument of this kind,
+which any one can construct at the expense of ten minutes&rsquo; labour.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted
+four wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like
+the sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A
+round shaft is fixed in the cork <i>a</i>, which ends in a sharp point. At
+the upper part of the cork <i>b</i> is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small
+pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is
+then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the
+shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by
+turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may
+unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the
+cork with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on
+the upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from unwinding,
+and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the
+ceiling.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cayley&rsquo;s screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were superimposed
+and rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that
+if the area of the screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and
+moved by a man, they would elevate him. His interesting
+experiment is described at length, and the apparatus figured
+in <i>Nicolson&rsquo;s Journal</i>, 1809, p. 172.</p>
+
+<p>Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris
+Sarti in 1823, followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing
+flying models on the vertical screw principle. In 1842 W.H.
+Phillips succeeded, it is stated, in elevating a steam model by
+the aid of revolving fans, which according to his account flew
+across two fields after having attained a great altitude; and in
+1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be sustained
+by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by vertical
+screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave
+de Ponton d&rsquo;Amécourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who
+exhibited models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended
+with graduated weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These
+models were so fragile that they usually broke in coming in contact
+with the ground in their descent. Their flight, moreover, was
+unsatisfactory, from the fact that it only lasted a few seconds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:518px" src="images/img513c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 37.&mdash;De la Landelle&rsquo;s Flying-machine. <i>m, n, o, p</i>; <i>q, r, s, t</i>,
+Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards. The
+vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the
+machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an extensive
+aeroplane.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton
+d&rsquo;Amécourt had a small steam model constructed. This model,
+which was shown at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society
+of Great Britain at the Crystal Palace in 1868, consisted of two
+superposed screws propelled by an engine, the steam for which
+was generated (for lightness) in an aluminium boiler. This
+steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only lifted a third
+of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle&rsquo;s ideas.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span></p>
+
+<p>All the models referred to (Cayley&rsquo;s excepted<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a>) were provided
+with rigid screws. In 1872 Pénaud discarded the rigid screws
+in favour of elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:398px; height:309px" src="images/img514a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 38.&mdash;Hélicoptère or Screw-Model, by Pénaud.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pénaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the
+whalebone and clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam
+of the larger ones. His hélicoptère or screw-model is remarkable
+for its lightness, simplicity and power. The accompanying
+sketch will serve to illustrate its construction (fig. 38). It consists
+of two superposed elastic screws (<i>a a, b b</i>), the upper of which
+(<i>a a</i>) is fixed in a vertical frame (<i>c</i>), which is pivoted in the central
+part (<i>d</i>) of the under screw. From the centre of the under
+screw an axle provided with a hook (<i>e</i>), which performs the part
+of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between the hook
+or crank (<i>e</i>) and the centre of the upper screw (<i>a a</i>), the india-rubber
+in a state of torsion (<i>f</i>) extends. By fixing the lower
+screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times
+the requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The
+apparatus when liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height
+of 50 ft., and gyrates in large circles for a period varying from
+15 to 30 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Pénaud next directed his attention to the construction of a
+model, to be propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic
+aeroplane extending horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed
+such a machine in 1810, and W.S. Henson constructed and
+patented a similar machine in 1842. Several inventors succeeded
+in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and screws, as,
+<i>e.g.</i> J. Stringfellow in 1847,<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a> and F. du Temple in 1857. These
+models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found exceedingly
+difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of stability
+fore and aft and laterally. Pénaud succeeded in overcoming
+the difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated
+an automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane
+placed aft or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic.
+The two elastic aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a
+slight upward angle with the horizon, the angle made by the
+smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being slightly in excess of that
+made by the larger. The motive power was india-rubber in the
+condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The reader will
+understand the arrangement by a reference to the accompanying
+drawing (fig. 39).</p>
+
+<p>Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two
+screws, one fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions;
+and in the event of only one screw being employed it may be
+placed in front of or behind the aeroplane.</p>
+
+<p>When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about
+2 ft., after which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and
+flies in a forward direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from
+the ground for a distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this
+distance in from 10 to 11 seconds, its mean speed being something
+like 12 ft. per second. From experiments made with this model,
+Pénaud calculates that one horse-power would elevate and
+support 85 &#8468;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:234px" src="images/img514b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 39.&mdash;Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a a</i>, Elastic aeroplane.</p>
+<p><i>b b</i>, Automatic rudder.</p>
+<p><i>c c</i>, Aerial screw centred at <i>f</i>.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>,   Frame supporting aeroplane,
+rudder and screw.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e</i>,   India-rubber, in a state of
+torsion, attached to hook
+or crank at <i>f</i>. By holding
+the aeroplane (<i>a a</i>) and
+turning the screw (<i>c c</i>) the
+necessary power is obtained
+by torsion. (Pénaud.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">D.S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-biplanes.
+His experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes
+united by a central shaft or shafts, and separated by a wide
+interval, always produce increased stability. The production
+of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is in some respects
+the most difficult, but this also has been attempted and achieved.
+Pénaud and A.H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged
+models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to
+construct an artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli,
+Strauss-Dürckheim and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect
+never having been able to lift more than a third of its own
+weight.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:271px" src="images/img514c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 40.&mdash;Pénaud&rsquo;s Artificial Flying Bird.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a b c d, a&prime; b&prime; c&prime; d&prime;</i>, Elastic wings,
+which twist and untwist
+when made to vibrate.</p>
+<p><i>a b, a&prime; b&prime;</i>, Anterior margins of
+wings.</p>
+<p><i>c d, c&prime; d&prime;</i>, Posterior margins of
+wings.</p>
+<p><i>c, c&prime;</i>, Inner portions of wings
+attached to central shaft of
+model by elastic bands at e.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>f</i>, India-rubber in a state of
+torsion, which provides the
+motive power, by causing
+the crank situated between
+the vertical wing supports
+(<i>g</i>) to rotate; as the crank
+revolves the wings are made
+to vibrate by means of two
+rods which extend between
+the crank and the roots of
+the wings.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Tail of artificial bird.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">De Villeneuve and Pénaud constructed their winged models
+on different types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird.
+De Villeneuve made the wings of his artificial bat conical in
+shape and comparatively rigid. He controlled the movements
+of the wings, and made them strike downwards and forwards
+in imitation of natural wings. His model possessed great power
+of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with ease, and flew
+in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and at a velocity
+of 20 m. an hour. Pénaud&rsquo;s model differed from de Villeneuve&rsquo;s
+in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins
+of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber
+springs were made to extend between the inner posterior parts
+of the wings and the frame, corresponding to the backbone of
+the bird.</p>
+
+<p>A vertical movement having been communicated by means
+of india-rubber in a state of torsion to the roots of the wings,
+the wings themselves, in virtue of their elasticity, and because
+of the resistance experienced from the air, twisted and untwisted
+and formed reciprocating screws, precisely analogous to those
+originally described and figured by Pettigrew in 1867. Pénaud&rsquo;s
+arrangement is shown in fig. 40.</p>
+
+<p>If the left wing of Pénaud&rsquo;s model (<i>a b, c d</i> of fig. 40) be compared
+with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew&rsquo;s
+artificial wing (fig. 32), the identity of principle and application
+is at once apparent.</p>
+
+<p>In Pénaud&rsquo;s artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the
+addition of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground,
+but on being liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when,
+having acquired initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance
+of 50 or more feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following
+are the measurements of the model in question:&mdash;length of wing
+from tip to tip, 32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber,
+&amp;c., 73 grammes (about 2½ ounces).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. B. P.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Flying Machines</i>.&mdash;Henson&rsquo;s flying machine, designed in
+1843, was the earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale.
+Henson was one of the first to combine aerial screws with extensive
+supporting structures occupying a nearly horizontal position.
+The accompanying illustration explains the combination (fig. 41).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:219px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 41.&mdash;Henson&rsquo;s Aerostat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse
+of its sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight
+it had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced
+with its front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present
+its under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of
+which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill,
+prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining
+of the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled
+through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged
+on the air in its front.... The machine, fully prepared for flight,
+was started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it
+attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress.
+That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the
+air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the steam-engine
+and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of velocity;
+it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight necessary for
+that small effect.&rdquo; The editor of Newton&rsquo;s <i>Journal of Arts and
+Sciences</i> speaks of it thus:&mdash;&ldquo;The apparatus consists of a car containing
+the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &amp;c., to which a rectangular
+frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with canvas
+or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side of the car
+in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird; but with this
+difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the wings are two
+vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which are intended
+to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like circular
+wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of a steamboat,
+and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill. These wheels
+receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or other engine
+contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car a triangular
+frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which is also covered
+with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or contracted at
+pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of causing the
+machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a rudder for directing
+the course of the machine to the right or to the left; and to
+facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts which rise
+from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary for buoying
+up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot for each
+half pound of weight.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>F.H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented
+in 1866 what he designated his aeroplanes.<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> These were thin,
+light, long, narrow structures, arranged above each other in
+tiers like so many shelves. They were tied together at a slight
+upward angle, and combined strength and lightness. The idea
+was to obtain great sustaining area in comparatively small space
+with comparative ease of control. It was hoped that when the
+aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical screws,
+or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float
+upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the
+aeroplanes would give the same support as if spread out horizontally.
+The accompanying figures illustrate Wenham&rsquo;s views
+(figs. 42 and 43).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:401px; height:80px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 42.&mdash;Wenham&rsquo;s system of Aeroplanes designed to carry a man.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a, a,</i> Thin planks, tapering at each
+end, and attached to a
+triangle.</p>
+
+<p><i>b,</i> Similar plank for supporting
+the aeronaut.</p>
+
+<p><i>c, c,</i> Thin bands of iron with truss
+planks a, a, and</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>d, d,</i> Vertical rods. Between
+these are stretched five
+bands of holland 15 in. broad
+and 16 ft. long, the total
+length of the web being
+80 ft. This apparatus
+when caught by a gust of
+wind, actually lifted the
+aeronaut.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:120px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 43.&mdash;A similar system, planned by Wenham.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a, a,</i> Main spar 16 ft. long;</p>
+
+<p><i>b, b,</i> Panels, with base board for
+aeronaut attached to main
+spar.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e, e,</i> Thin tie-band of steel with
+struts starting from main
+spar. This forms a strong
+light framework for the
+aeroplanes, consisting of six
+webs of thin holland 15 in.
+broad. The aeroplanes are
+kept in parallel plane by
+vertical divisions of holland
+2 ft. wide.</p>
+
+<p><i>c, c&prime;</i>, Wing propellers driven by
+the feet.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:239px" src="images/img515d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 44.&mdash;Stringfellow&rsquo;s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson,
+and built a successful flying model in 1847, made a second model
+in 1868, in which Wenham&rsquo;s aeroplanes were combined with
+aerial screws. This model was on view at the exhibition of the
+Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, held at the Crystal Palace,
+London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact, elegant and
+light, and obtained the £100 prize of the exhibition for its engine,
+which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed.
+The illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a
+very good idea of the arrangement&mdash;<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> representing the
+superimposed aeroplanes, <i>d</i> the tail, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> the screw propellers.
+The superimposed aeroplanes (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) in this machine contained
+a sustaining area of 28 sq. ft., in addition to the tail (<i>d</i>). Its engine
+represented a third of a horse power, and the weight of the
+whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel, superimposed aeroplanes and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+propellers) was under 12 &#8468; Its sustaining area, if that of the
+tail (<i>d</i>) be included, was something like 36 sq. ft., <i>i.e.</i> 3 sq. ft. for
+every pound. The model was forced by its propellers along a
+wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer could determine,
+failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme lightness and
+the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow,
+however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sustained
+by its aeroplanes alone.</p>
+
+<p>The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874,
+consisted of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three
+wheels; a very effective light engine constructed on a new
+principle, which dispensed with the old-fashioned, cumbrous
+boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal aeroplanes; and two
+comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was to get
+up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This
+accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine
+would gradually be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way
+that the weight of certain birds&mdash;the eagle, <i>e.g.</i>&mdash;is thrown upon
+the wings after a few hops and leaps. Once in the air the aeroplanes,
+it was believed, would become effective in proportion to
+the speed attained. The machine, however, did not realize
+the high expectations formed of it, and like all its predecessors
+it was doomed to failure.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:293px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 45.&mdash;Moy&rsquo;s Aerial Steamer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the
+problem of artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those
+of Prof. S.P. Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began
+their aerial experiments about the same time (1889-1890). By
+1893-1894 both had embodied their views in models and large
+flying machines.</p>
+
+<p>Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the
+Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small
+flying models and one large one. These he designated &ldquo;aerodromes.&rdquo;
+They were all constructed on a common principle,
+and were provided with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of
+rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the horizon, and
+more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The
+cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at
+their anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of powerful
+vertical screw propellers driven at high speed&mdash;the greater
+the horizontal speed provided by the propellers, the greater, by
+implication, the lifting capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies,
+frames and aeroplanes of the aerodromes were strengthened
+by vertical and other supports, to which were attached aluminium
+wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that was possible.
+Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in this he
+succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously
+shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface
+being directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of
+highly trained mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and
+great secrecy was observed as to his operations. He flew his
+smallest models in the great lecture room of the National Museum,
+and his larger ones on the Potomac river about 40 m. below
+Washington.</p>
+
+<p>While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in
+1889, he did not construct and test his steam-driven flying
+models until 1893. These were made largely of steel and
+aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made the longest flight
+then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully half a mile
+on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to carry
+passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to
+the order and at the expense of the American government,
+which granted a sum of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:283px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 46.&mdash;Langley&rsquo;s Flying Machine. <i>a</i>, Large aeroplane;
+<i>b</i>, Small aeroplane; <i>c</i>, Propelling screws.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Langley&rsquo;s machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not
+intended to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion
+closely resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very
+rigid tube of aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than
+2 in. in diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the
+framework corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed
+60 oz. and developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made
+of thin hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 &#8468; each;
+these occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was
+refined gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was
+utilized for a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were
+twin screw propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in
+practice, to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute.
+The wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames
+of tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front
+were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at
+different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height,
+or a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could
+be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast
+extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the
+craft, and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips
+of the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this
+trussing arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly
+stiff.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:260px" src="images/img516c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;Langley&rsquo;s Aerodrome in flight.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-convex,
+narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities,
+the two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed
+amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th
+of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked
+violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared,
+by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was pulled
+into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the aerodrome
+rose to the surface, it was found that while the front sustaining
+surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, yet the rear
+ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last attempt,
+on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to the
+launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track. This
+time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained,
+was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear
+sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had
+come before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid
+in the recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted
+apart, and one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened
+a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what
+it should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in
+two. Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see
+<i>Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution</i>, 1904, p. 122).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:198px" src="images/img517.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 48.&mdash;Sir H. Maxim&rsquo;s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly
+skilled workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on
+which stood a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex
+aeroplanes arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward
+angle with the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and
+propelled by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha,
+&amp;c. The boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained
+in about 2000 bent copper tubes, only <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in external diameter,
+heated by over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha
+or gasoline. Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute.
+The steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 &#8468; in
+all, were placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was
+provided by a pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about
+8 ft. from the ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was independently
+governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in
+actual effect, an amount which, considering that their total weight
+was only 600 &#8468;, gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 horse-power
+for every 2 &#8468; weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders
+were 5 and 8 in. in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in.
+When going at full speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per
+minute on the two gigantic propellers that drove the machine along.
+These were in appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except
+that they were square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad
+and thin. They were built from overlapping strips of American pine,
+planed smooth and covered with glued canvas. They weighed
+135 &#8468; each, the length of each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the
+width at the ends 5½ ft. The pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully
+stayed by steel wires to their shafts, or the first revolution would have
+snapped them off short. The material of which the framework was
+built was thin steel tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties
+were of the best steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the
+square inch. The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the
+fore-part cut away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the
+stern over which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all
+over it. High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly
+concavo-convex main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an
+imperceptible angle, and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft.,
+increased by side wings to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes
+arranged in tiers, and large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted
+and served for vertical steering. The machine was strengthened in
+every direction by vertical and other supports and securely wired
+together at all points. It was furnished with four strong flanged
+wheels and ran along a light broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track,
+1800 ft. long, in the hope that when the speed reached a certain
+point it would leave the rails, but it was prevented from rising more
+than an inch or so by four arms, or outriggers, furnished with wheels,
+which projected from its sides and ran under an inverted wooden
+upper or safety track outside the railway track proper.</p>
+
+<p>At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main aeroplane,
+the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side planes
+were in position. After everything had been got in readiness, careful
+observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was connected
+to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the
+pump set so as to deliver over 5000 &#8468; of water per hour into the boiler.
+The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted
+to 310 &#8468; per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more
+than 2100 &#8468; A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had
+been adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 &#8468; and with a strong
+blast at 320 &#8468; The signal being given to let go, the machine darted
+forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More
+gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced
+300 ft., the steam had mounted to 320 &#8468; per sq. in., and the safety-valve
+was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had
+travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger
+wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was
+lifting at least 8000 &#8468; The speed rapidly increased until when the
+machine had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were
+of 2 in. steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine
+completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft.,
+the left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety
+track, and shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper
+track&mdash;3 in. by 9 in. Georgia pine&mdash;and a plank became entangled
+in the framework of the machine. Steam had already been shut off,
+and the machine coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four
+of its wheels sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other
+marks. Before making this run the wheels which were to engage the
+upper track were painted, and the paint left by them on the upper
+track indicated the exact point where the machine lifted. The area
+of the aeroplanes was very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting
+effect was fully 10,000 &#8468; The planes therefore lifted 2.5 &#8468; per
+sq. ft., and 5 &#8468; for each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of
+the engines was lost in the screw slip. This showed that the diameter
+of the screws was not great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1897 M.C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent
+results, two full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus
+with funds furnished by the French government. This reproduced
+the structure of a bird with almost servile imitation, save
+that traction was obtained by two screw-propellers. The steam
+engine weighed about 7 &#8468; per horse-power, but the equilibrium
+of the apparatus was defective.</p>
+
+<p>Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining
+equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal,
+Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight
+by means of aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They
+depended mainly on the utilization of natural air currents, trusting
+for stability and balance to movements in their own bodies,
+or in portions of their machines which they could control. They
+threw themselves from natural or artificial elevations, or, facing
+the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards against it until
+they got under way and the wind caught hold of their aeroplanes.
+To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of demonstrating
+the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of
+reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000
+glides safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave,
+batlike wings, in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49).
+It was with a machine of the latter type that he was upset by
+a sudden gust of wind and killed in 1896. Pilcher in England
+improved somewhat on Lilienthal&rsquo;s apparatus, but used the same
+general method of restoring the balance, when endangered, by
+shifting the weight of the operator&rsquo;s body. He too made several
+hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust
+of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his
+endeavours to the production of automatic stability, and made
+the surfaces movable instead of the man. He used several
+different forms of apparatus, including one with five superposed
+pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50) and another with two continuous
+aeroplanes, one above the other (fig. 51). He made over 1000
+glides without accident.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:298px" src="images/img517a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 49.&mdash;Lilienthal&rsquo;s Gliding Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur
+and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider
+developed into a successful flying machine. These investigators
+began their work in 1900, and at an early stage introduced two
+characteristic features&mdash;a horizontal rudder in front for steering
+in the vertical plane, and the flexing or bending of the ends of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+the main supporting aeroplanes as a means of maintaining the
+structure in proper balance. Their machines to begin with were
+merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a horizontal,
+position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight
+lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five
+flights, in the longest of which they remained in the air for half
+an hour and covered a distance of 24½ m. The utmost secrecy,
+however, was maintained concerning their experiments, and in
+consequence their achievements were regarded at the time with
+doubt and suspicion, and it was hardly realized that their success
+would reach the point later achieved.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:352px" src="images/img518a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 50.&mdash;Chanute&rsquo;s Multiple Gliding Machine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:480px" src="images/img518b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 51.&mdash;Chanute&rsquo;s Biplane Gliding Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great
+improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and,
+although the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still
+left something to be desired, it provided the designers of flying
+machines with what they had long been looking for&mdash;a motor
+very powerful in proportion to its weight. Largely in consequence
+of this progress, and partly no doubt owing to the stimulus
+given by the activity of builders of dirigible balloons, the construction
+of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a number
+of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont,
+after a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-shaped
+gas balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine.
+It consisted of the following parts:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) A system of aeroplanes
+arranged like the capital letter T at a certain upward angle to
+the horizon and bearing a general resemblance to box kites;
+(<i>b</i>) a pair of very light propellers driven at a high speed; and
+(<i>c</i>) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine. The driver
+occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which is
+shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels
+and vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts
+of the aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground
+on either side. With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th
+of November 1906 a distance of 220 metres in 21 seconds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:189px" src="images/img518c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;Santos Dumont&rsquo;s Flying Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights
+on a machine of the biplane type, consisting of two main supporting
+surfaces one above the other, with a box-shaped vertical
+rudder behind and two small balancing aeroplanes in front.
+The engine was an eight-cylinder Antoinette petrol motor,
+developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a minute, and
+driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th of
+October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at Issy-les-Molineaux,
+and on the 13th of January 1908 he made a circular
+flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon
+prize of £2000. In March he remained in the air for 3½ minutes,
+covering a distance of 1¼ m.; but in the following month a rival,
+Leon Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and constructed
+by the same makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this
+performance by flying nearly 2½ m. in 6½ minutes. In July
+Farman remained in the air for over 20 minutes; on the 6th of
+September Delagrange increased the time to nearly 30 minutes,
+and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front
+with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24½ m.</p>
+
+<p>But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers&mdash;Orville
+Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On
+the 9th of September 1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia,
+made three notable flights; in the first he remained in the air
+57½ minutes and in the second 1 hour 3 minutes, while in the third
+he took with him a passenger and covered nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes.
+Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in 1 hour 14<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> minutes,
+but on the 17th he had an accident, explained as being due to one
+of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by which his
+machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and Lieutenant
+Selfridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards
+Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records
+with a flight lasting 1 hour 31 minutes 25<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> seconds, in which he
+covered about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the 11th of October,
+he made a flight of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger.
+On the 31st of December he succeeded in remaining in the air
+for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Wilbur Wright&rsquo;s machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother
+being essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched
+supporting surfaces, each 12½ metres long, arranged parallel
+one above the other at a distance of 1<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> metres apart. As they
+were each about 2 metres wide their total area was about 50 sq.
+metres. About 3 metres in front of them was arranged a pair
+of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped like a long narrow
+ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected changes of elevation,
+the driver being able by means of a lever to incline them up
+or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. The rudder
+for lateral steering was placed about 2½ metres behind the main
+surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes.
+The lever by which they were turned was connected with the
+device by which the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed
+simultaneously though in opposite directions; <i>i.e.</i> if the ends of
+the aeroplanes on one side were bent downwards, those on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+other were bent upwards. By the aid of this arrangement the
+natural cant of the machine when making a turn could be
+checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol engine
+was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the
+central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger
+if one was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line.
+Making about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24
+horse-power, and was connected by chain gearing to two wooden
+propellers, 2½ metres in diameter and 3½ metres apart, the
+speed of which was about 450 revolutions a minute. The whole
+machine, with aeronaut, weighed about 1100 &#8468;, the weight of
+the motor being reputed to be 200 &#8468;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 f90 noind sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:851px; height:562px" src="images/img518d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:555px" src="images/img518e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;WRIGHT BIPLANE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 f90 noind sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:861px; height:569px" src="images/img518f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;BLERIOT MONOPLANE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:851px; height:562px" src="images/img518g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;A.V. ROE&rsquo;S TRIPLANE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:477px; height:138px" src="images/img519.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, B, Main supporting surfaces.</p>
+<p>C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder
+      with fixed semilunar fin E.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>F, Vertical rudder.</p>
+<p>G, Motor.</p>
+<p>H, Screws.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with
+monoplanes having only a single supporting surface, and it was
+on a machine of this type that the Frenchman Blériot on July
+25th flew across the English Channel from Calais to Dover in
+31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but performed the same feat on
+an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw considerable increases
+in the periods for which aviators were able to remain in the air,
+and Roger Sommer&rsquo;s flight of nearly 2½ hours on August 7th
+was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he
+covered a distance estimated at 137¼ m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec.
+In both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation
+meetings were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy,
+Doncaster and Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was
+made in a wind of 40 m. an hour by Latham. This aviator also
+proved the possibility of flying at considerable altitudes by
+attaining on December 1st a height of over 1500 ft., but this
+record was far surpassed in the following January by L. Paulhan,
+who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los Angeles.
+In the course of the year three aviators were killed&mdash;Lefèvbre
+and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and
+four men perished in September by the destruction of the French
+airship &ldquo;République,&rdquo; the gas-bag of which was ripped open by
+a broken propeller. In January 1910 Delagrange was killed
+by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane on which
+he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully
+flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within
+24 hours, for the <i>Daily Mail&rsquo;s</i> £10,000 prize.</p>
+
+<p>The progress made by all these experiments at aviation
+had naturally created widespread interest, both as a matter of
+sport and also as indicating a new departure in the possibilities of
+machines of war. And in 1909 the British government appointed
+a scientific committee, with Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a consultative
+body for furthering the development of the science in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>The table below gives some details, approximately correct,
+of the principal experiments made with flying machines up to
+1908.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Experimenter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tip<br />to<br />Tip.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Surface.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Weight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pounds<br />per<br />sq. ft.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Speed<br />per<br />hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Maximum<br />Flight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Motor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Horse-<br />power.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pounds<br />sustained<br />per h.p.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Sq. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#8468;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Mls.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tclm rb">Tatin</td> <td class="tcrm rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcrm rb">7.5</td> <td class="tcrm rb">3.85</td> <td class="tclm rb">0.51</td> <td class="tclm rb">18</td> <td class="tcrm rb">100?</td> <td class="tccm rb">Compressed<br />air</td> <td class="tcrm rb">0.03</td> <td class="tcrm rb">110?</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb cl">1885<br />1889</td> <td class="tclm rb">Hargrave (No. 16)</td> <td class="tcrm rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcrm rb">26.0</td> <td class="tclm rb">5.00</td> <td class="tclm rb">0.19</td> <td class="tclm rb">10</td> <td class="tcrm rb">343</td> <td class="tccm rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcrm rb">0.06</td> <td class="tcrm rb">79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">Phillips</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">136.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">402.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">500?</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steam</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">72?</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maxim*</td> <td class="tcr rb">50.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4000.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8000.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">300?</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">363.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Langley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcl rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tatin and Richet</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">86.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.83</td> <td class="tcl rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ader*</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">270.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1100.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">50?</td> <td class="tcr rb">100?</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lilienthal*</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">151.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">220.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.46</td> <td class="tcl rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">Gravity</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pilcher*</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">170.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">200.00</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcl rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">900</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chanute*</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">135.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">178.00 </td> <td class="tcl rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcl rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">360</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. Dumont*</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">560 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">550 &emsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.98</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">Petrol</td> <td class="tcr rb">50 &emsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">W. Wright*</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">41 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">650 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1100 &emsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1.7</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">295,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Petrol</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">24 &emsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f90" colspan="11">* The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>.&mdash;Some of the books mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>
+contain details of flying machines; see H.W.L. Moedebeck, <i>A Pocketbook
+of Aeronautics</i>, trans. by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907);
+Sir Hiram S. Maxim, <i>Artificial and Natural Flight</i> (London, 1908);
+F.W. Lanchester, <i>Aerodynamics</i> and <i>Aerodonetics</i> (London, 1907 and
+1908); C.C. Turner, <i>Aerial Navigation of To-day</i> (London, 1909);
+also two papers on &ldquo;Aerial Navigation&rdquo; read by Colonel G.O.
+Fullerton before the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and
+1906; papers read by Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell and E.S. Bruce
+before the Society of Arts, London, in April 1907 and December 1908
+respectively; Cantor Lectures by F.W. Lanchester (Society of
+Arts, 1909); and the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Aeronautical Society
+(founded 1865), &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds
+of passage have no air in their bones.&mdash;<i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond</i>. part
+xxv., 1857, p. 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure
+inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or
+rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of support
+to any body attached to it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,&rdquo;
+by J. Bell Pettigrew, <i>Proc. Roy. Inst</i>., 1867; &ldquo;On the Mechanical
+Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom,&rdquo;
+by the same author, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc</i>., 1867.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l&rsquo;Étranger</i>, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording instrument.
+It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of clock-work
+at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its surface
+by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements to
+be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more levers,
+and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where they appear
+as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the wings the
+tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious modification,
+employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the different
+parts of the wings were made actually to record their own movements.
+As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave theory of
+stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject of a
+rigorous <i>experimentum crucis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse
+is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in the
+substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when necessary,
+in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some measure what
+may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are especially
+useful in giving it continuous play.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> &ldquo;The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form
+cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated
+with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the
+wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their
+nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is equivalent&mdash;morphologically
+and physiologically&mdash;to one entire insect wing. In the
+wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are short, and in
+some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary feathers are
+greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that the wing
+as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by the
+insect&rsquo;s wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones, muscles
+and feathers have attained a maximum development. The conformation
+of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance
+in every direction&mdash;the waves running longitudinally, transversely
+and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently
+be removed without essentially altering either its form or its functions.
+This is proved by making sections in various directions,
+and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the
+wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of
+flight.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. xxvi. pp. 325, 326.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> &ldquo;On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,&rdquo;
+<i>Proc. Roy. Inst.</i>, 1867; &ldquo;On the Mechanical Appliances by which
+Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>,
+1867, 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> &ldquo;On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the movements
+by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are&mdash;(<i>a</i>) the
+elevator muscles of the wings, (<i>b</i>) the elastic properties of the wings,
+and (<i>c</i>) the reaction of the compressed air on the under surfaces of
+the wings.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across
+the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes
+under a foot in width.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>On the Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in reference to the
+subject of Aerial Locomotion,</i> by L. de Lucy (Paris).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> E.J. Marey, <i>Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de
+l&rsquo;étranger</i> (1869).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> &ldquo;The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight,&rdquo; <i>Ninth Annual
+Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</i>, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> &ldquo;Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation,&rdquo; <i>Ninth
+Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</i>, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> The <i>Aeronaut</i> for January 1872 and February 1875.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Cayley&rsquo;s screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and consequently
+elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his writings
+to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid screws, it is
+to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for convenience
+and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was the first to
+advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial purposes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and
+figured further on (fig. 44).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> &ldquo;On Aerial Locomotion,&rdquo; <i>Aeronautical Society&rsquo;s Report</i> for 1867.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINCK, GOVERT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves
+in 1615, was apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but
+having secretly acquired a passion for drawing, was sent to
+Leuwarden, where he boarded in the house of Lambert Jacobszon,
+a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant preacher than as a
+painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and the
+companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist
+only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours
+of Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of
+Rombert Ulenburg, whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt
+in 1634. Other members of the same family lived at Amsterdam,
+cultivating the arts either professionally or as amateurs. The
+pupils of Lambert probably gained some knowledge of Rembrandt
+by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly J. von Sandrart,
+who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged as
+one of Rembrandt&rsquo;s best pupils, and living habitually in the house
+of the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years
+Flinck laboured on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master&rsquo;s
+style in all the works which he executed between 1636 and 1648;
+then he fell into peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling
+forms and grand action of Rubens&rsquo;s creations. Finally he sailed
+with unfortunate complacency into the Dead Sea of official
+and diplomatic painting. Flinck&rsquo;s relations with Cleves became
+in time very important. He was introduced to the court of the
+Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who married
+in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John
+Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649.
+In 1652 a citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress,
+daughter of Ver Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India
+Company. He was already well known even then in the patrician
+circles over which the burgomasters De Graef and the Echevin
+Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the poet Vondel
+and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with
+antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still
+preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest of Flinck&rsquo;s authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady,
+dated 1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture
+is the &ldquo;Blessing of Jacob,&rdquo; in the Amsterdam museum (1638).
+Both are thoroughly Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in
+vigour of touch and warmth of flesh tints. The four &ldquo;civic
+guards&rdquo; of 1642, and &ldquo;the twelve musketeers&rdquo; with their
+president in an arm-chair (1648), in the town-hall at Amsterdam,
+are fine specimens of composed portrait groups. But the best
+of Flinck&rsquo;s productions in this style is the peace of Münster in
+the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures full
+of animation in the faces, &ldquo;radiant with Rembrandtesque
+colour,&rdquo; and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his
+own likeness to the left in a doorway. The mannered period of
+Flinck is amply illustrated in the &ldquo;Marcus Curius eating Turnips
+before the Samnite Envoys,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Solomon receiving Wisdom,&rdquo;
+in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here it is that Flinck
+shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy in tint,
+flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh that
+looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge.
+The chronology of Flinck&rsquo;s works, so far as they are seen in
+public galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the
+&ldquo;Grey Beard&rdquo; of 1639 at Dresden, the &ldquo;Girl&rdquo; of 1641 at the
+Louvre, a portrait group of a male and female (1646) at Rotterdam,
+a lady (1651) at Berlin. In November 1659 the burgomaster
+of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12 canvases to
+represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus
+Curius and Horatius Cocles, and scenes from the wars of the
+Batavians and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than
+the sketches. In the same year he received a flattering acknowledgment
+from the town council of Cleves on the completion of a
+picture of Solomon which was a counterpart of the composition
+at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and portraits, such as
+the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg and John
+Maurice of Nassau, and the allegory of &ldquo;Louisa of Orange attended
+by Victory and Fame&rdquo; and other figures at the cradle of the
+first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several
+pictures which were painted for the Great Elector, none are
+preserved except the &ldquo;Expulsion of Hagar&rdquo; in the Berlin
+museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of February
+1660.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINDERS, MATTHEW<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1774-1814), English navigator,
+explorer, and man of science, was born at Donington, near
+Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 16th of March 1774. Matthew
+was at first designed to follow his father&rsquo;s profession of surgeon,
+but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of adventure impelled him
+to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd of October
+1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies,
+and after serving in the &ldquo;Bellerophon&rdquo; during Lord Howe&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;glorious first of June&rdquo; (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out
+in 1795 as midshipman in the &ldquo;Reliance&rdquo; to New South Wales.
+For the next few years he devoted himself to the task of accurately
+laying down the outline and bearings of the Australian coast,
+and he did his work so thoroughly that he left comparatively
+little for his successors to do. With his friend George Bass, the
+surgeon of the &ldquo;Reliance,&rdquo; in the year of his arrival he explored
+George&rsquo;s river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again in
+March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the &ldquo;Tom Thumb,&rdquo;
+only 8 ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a
+stretch of coast to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage
+to the Cape of Good Hope, when he was promoted to a lieutenancy,
+Flinders was engaged during February 1798 in a survey of the
+Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of Tasmania. His delight
+was great when, in September of the same year, he was commissioned
+along with Bass, who had already explored the sea
+between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and
+inferred that it was a strait, to proceed in the sloop &ldquo;Norfolk&rdquo;
+(25 tons) to prove conclusively that Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land was an
+island by circumnavigating it. In the same sloop, in the summer
+of next year, Flinders made an exploration to the north of Port
+Jackson, the object being mainly to survey Glasshouse Bay
+(Moreton Bay) and Hervey&rsquo;s Bay. Returning to England he
+was appointed to the command of an expedition for the thorough
+exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern
+continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been
+the first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of
+July 1801 the sloop &ldquo;Investigator&rdquo; (334 tons), in which the
+expedition sailed, left Spithead, Flinders being furnished with
+instructions and with a passport from the French government
+to all their officials in the Eastern seas. Among the scientific
+staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent English
+botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders&rsquo;s relative,
+John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-west
+coast of Australia, was reached on November 6, and King
+George&rsquo;s sound on the 9th of December. Flinders sailed round
+the Great Bight, examining the islands and indentations on the
+east side, noting the nature of the country, the people, products,
+&amp;c., and paying special attention to the subject of the variation
+of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs were discovered
+and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after leaving
+Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders
+fell in with the French exploring ship, &ldquo;Le Géographe,&rdquo; under
+Captain Nicolas Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter
+Bay. In the narrative of the French expedition published in
+1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the Mauritius) by M.
+Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the land west
+of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered
+by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for
+the English ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when
+Flinders published his own narrative, that the real state of the
+case was fully exposed. Flinders continued his examination
+of the coast along Bass&rsquo;s Strait, carefully surveying Port Phillip.
+Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of May 1802.</p>
+
+<p>After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months,
+Flinders set out again on the 22nd of July to complete his
+circumnavigation of Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was
+examined with the greatest care in several places. The north-east
+entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was reached early in
+November; and the next three months were spent in an examination
+of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt them.
+An inspection of the &ldquo;Investigator&rdquo; showed that she was in so
+leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could
+the voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey
+of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of
+Timor, the &ldquo;Investigator&rdquo; sailed round the west and south of
+Australia, and Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of June
+1803. Much suffering was endured by nearly all the members
+of the expedition: a considerable proportion of the men succumbed
+to disease, and their leader was so reduced by scurvy
+that his health was greatly impaired.</p>
+
+<p>Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. &ldquo;Porpoise&rdquo;
+as a passenger, submit the results of his work to the Admiralty,
+and obtain, if possible, another vessel to complete his exploration
+of the Australian coast. The &ldquo;Porpoise&rdquo; left Port Jackson on
+the 10th of August, accompanied by the H.E.I.C.&rsquo;s ship &ldquo;Bridgewater&rdquo;
+(750 tons) and the &ldquo;Cato&rdquo; (450 tons) of London. On the
+night of the 17th the &ldquo;Porpoise&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cato&rdquo; suddenly struck
+on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to wrecks. The officers
+and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4 ft. above
+high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many
+of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks.
+The reef was in about 22° 11&prime; S. and 155° E., and about 800 m.
+from Port Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a
+six-oared cutter in order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party.
+The reef was again reached on the 8th of October, and all the
+officers and men having been satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders
+on the 11th left for Jones Strait in an unsound schooner of 29
+tons, the &ldquo;Cumberland,&rdquo; with ten companions, and a valuable
+collection of papers, charts, geological specimens, &amp;c. On the
+15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he discovered
+that France and England were at war. The passport he possessed
+from the French government was for the &ldquo;Investigator&rdquo;;
+still, though he was now on board another ship, his mission was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+essentially the same, and the work he was on was simply a continuation
+of that commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Nevertheless,
+on her arrival at Port Louis the &ldquo;Cumberland&rdquo; was
+seized by order of the governor-general de Caen. Flinders&rsquo;s
+papers were taken possession of, and he found himself virtually
+a prisoner. We need not dwell on the sad details of this unjustifiable
+captivity, which lasted to June 1810. But there can
+be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was compelled
+to endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his
+health, and brought his life to a premature end. He reached
+England in October 1810, after an absence of upwards of nine
+years. The official red-tapeism of the day barred all promotion
+to the unfortunate explorer, who set himself to prepare an
+account of his explorations, though unfortunately an important
+part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The results of
+his labours were published in two large quarto volumes, entitled
+<i>A Voyage to Terra Australis</i>, with a folio volume of maps. The
+very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published
+Flinders died, at the early age of forty. The great work is a
+model of its kind, containing as it does not only a narrative of
+his own and of previous voyages, but masterly statements of
+the scientific results, especially with regard to magnetism,
+meteorology, hydrography and navigation. Flinders paid great
+attention to the errors of the compass, especially to those caused
+by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to have been
+the first to discover the source of such errors (which had scarcely
+been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the
+variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for
+which Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards.
+Numerous experiments on ships&rsquo; magnetism were conducted at
+Portsmouth by Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812.
+Besides the <i>Voyage</i>, Flinders wrote <i>Observations on the Coast
+of Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land</i>, <i>Bass&rsquo;s Strait</i>, &amp;c., and two papers
+in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>&mdash;one on the &ldquo;Magnetic Needle&rdquo; (1805),
+and the other, &ldquo;Observations on the Marine Barometer&rdquo;
+(1806).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINSBERG,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a village and watering-place of Germany, in
+the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the
+Iserkamm, 1450 ft. above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the
+terminus station of the railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1900)
+1957. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
+and has some manufactures of wooden wares. Flinsberg is
+celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of feminine
+disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also
+a climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors
+number about 8500 annually.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Adam, <i>Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort</i> (Görlitz, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT, AUSTIN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1812-1886), American physician, was born
+at Petersham, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812,
+and graduated at the medical department of Harvard University
+in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was professor of the theory and
+practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical College, of which he was
+one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he filled the same
+chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886 he was
+professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical
+medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He
+wrote many text-books on medical subjects, among these being
+<i>Diseases of the Heart</i> (1859-1870); <i>Principles and Practice of
+Medicine</i> (1866); <i>Clinical Medicine</i> (1879); and <i>Physical
+Exploration of the Lungs by means of Auscultation and Percussion</i>
+(1882). He died in New York on the 13th of March 1886.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Austin Flint</span>, junr., who was born at Northampton,
+Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at
+Harvard and at the university of Louisville, graduated at the
+Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became
+professor of physiology at the university of Buffalo (1858) and
+subsequently at other centres, his last connexion being with the
+Cornell University Medical College (1898-1906). He was better
+known as a teacher and writer on physiology than as a practitioner,
+and his <i>Text-book of Human Physiology</i> (1876) was
+for many years a standard book in American medical colleges.
+He also published an extensive <i>Physiology of Man</i> (5 vols., 1866-1874),
+<i>Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease</i> (1870),
+<i>Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise</i> (1871), <i>Source
+of Muscular Power</i> (1878), and <i>Handbook of Physiology</i> (1905).
+In 1896 he became a consulting physician to the New York State
+Hospital for the Insane.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT, ROBERT<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1838-&emsp;&emsp;), Scottish divine and philosopher,
+was born near Dumfries and educated at the university of
+Glasgow. After a few years of pastoral service, first in Aberdeen
+and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he was appointed professor of
+moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews in 1864.
+From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at Edinburgh.
+He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. His chief works are <i>Christ&rsquo;s Kingdom
+upon Earth</i> (Sermons, 1865); <i>Philosophy of History in Europe</i>
+(1874; partly rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland,
+1894); <i>Theism</i> and <i>Anti-theistic Theories</i> (2 vols., being the
+Baird Lectures for 1876-1877; often reprinted); <i>Socialism</i>
+(1894); <i>Sermons and Addresses</i> (1899); <i>Agnosticism</i> (1903).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT, TIMOTHY<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1780-1840), American clergyman and
+writer, was born in Reading, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July
+1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as
+a Congregational minister in Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued
+scientific studies with interest; and his labours in his chemical
+laboratory seemed so strange to the people of that retired region,
+that some persons supposed and asserted that he was engaged in
+counterfeiting. This, together with political differences, led to
+disagreeable complications, which resulted in his resigning his
+charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the valley of
+the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and a
+farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the
+settlers of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a
+picturesque work called <i>Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed
+in the Valley of the Mississippi</i> (1826; reprinted in England
+and translated into French), the first account of the western
+states which brought to light the real life and character of the
+people. The success which this work met with, together with the
+failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish his more active
+labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the <i>Western
+Review</i> in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and <i>Knickerbocker&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i> (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books,
+including <i>Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot</i> (1826), his best
+novel; <i>A Condensed Geography and History of the Western States,
+or the Mississippi Valley</i> (2 vols., 1828); <i>Arthur Clenning</i> (1828),
+a novel; and <i>Indian Wars in the West</i> (1833). His style is vivid,
+plain and forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on
+the western states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass.,
+on the 16th of August 1840.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop.
+(1890) 9803; (1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 38,550. It is served by the Grand Trunk and
+the Père Marquette railways, and by an electric line, the
+Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The city has a
+fine court-house (1904), a federal building (1908), a city hall
+(1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf,
+established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the
+treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has
+important manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being
+automobiles, wagons, carriages&mdash;Flint is called &ldquo;the vehicle
+city,&rdquo;&mdash;flour, woollen goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks
+and tiles; and its grain trade is of considerable importance.
+In 1904 the total value of the city&rsquo;s factory product was
+$6,177,170, an increase of 31.1% over that of 1900. The settlement
+of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the Flint,
+began in 1820, but Flint&rsquo;s growth was very slow until 1831,
+when it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in
+1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flintshire</span> (<i>sîr Gallestr</i>), a county of North Wales,
+the smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the
+Dee estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by
+Denbighshire. Area, 257 sq. m. Included in Flint is the detached
+hundred of Maelor, lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+and shut in by Cheshire on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire
+on the S., and by Denbighshire on the W. and N.W. The Clwyd
+valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of the Alyn and
+Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee, entering
+the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the
+W., passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N.
+The Clwyd enters Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near
+Rhuddlan, reaches the Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the
+county under Moel Fammau, passes Cilcen and Mold (<i>y Wyddgrug</i>),
+runs underground near Hesb-Alyn (Alyn&rsquo;s drying-up),
+bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and joins the
+Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief lake.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their
+economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most
+important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous
+limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwen; it forms
+the Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold
+to beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series
+is cherty in the north&mdash;the chert is quarried for use in the potteries
+of Staffordshire&mdash;but traced southward it passes into sandstones and
+grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the
+equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire,
+while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought
+to correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may
+be a representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the
+coal measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays
+and marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from
+Talacre through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope.
+The carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a
+fault, in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of
+Wenlock age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western
+border of the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd
+valley and appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead
+and zinc ores have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in
+the north of the county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer
+Gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene
+mammals along with palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift
+obscures the older rocks on the east and north and in the vale of
+Clwyd. Short stretches of blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl
+and Talacre.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The London &amp; North-Western railway follows the coast-line.
+Other railways which cross the county are the Great Western,
+and the Wrexham, Mold &amp; Connah&rsquo;s Quay, acquired by the
+Great Central company. For pasture the vale of Clwyd is well
+known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief crops. Stock
+and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed with
+Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and Southdowns,
+while in the thick mining population a ready market is
+found for meat, cheese, butter, &amp;c. The population (81,700 in
+1901) nearly doubled in the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day
+is one of the most densely populated counties in North Wales.
+The area of the ancient county is 164,744 acres, and that of
+the administrative county 163,025 acres. The collieries begin at
+Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint, Halkin (Halcyn),
+Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlâg). At Halkin,
+Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is
+sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc,
+formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and
+copper mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting
+works, oil, vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries
+around Buckley send their produce chiefly to Connah&rsquo;s Quay,
+whence a railway crosses the Dee to the Birkenhead (Cheshire)
+district. Iron seams are now thin, but limestone quarries yield
+building stone, lime for burning and small stone for chemical
+works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile manufactures
+small.</p>
+
+<p>The county returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary
+borough district (returning one member), consists of
+Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint, Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph
+and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a small part of the Chester
+parliamentary borough. There is one municipal borough,
+Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley
+(5780), Connah&rsquo;s Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263),
+Prestatyn (1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales
+and Chester circuit, assizes being held at Mold. The Flint
+borough has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate
+court of quarter sessions. The ancient county, which is in the
+dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph, contains forty-six
+entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with parts of eleven
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the
+fragmentary ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:&mdash;Caerwys,
+near Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation.
+Bodfary (Bodfari) was traditionally occupied by the Romans.
+Moel y gaer (bald hill of the fortress), near Northop, is a remarkably
+perfect old British post. Maes y Garmon (perhaps
+for <i>Meusydd Garmon</i>, as <i>y</i>, the article, has no significance before
+a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields of Germanus).
+A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of <i>une victoire sans larmes,
+gagnée non par les armes, mais par la foi</i> (E.H. Vollet). The
+Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and
+Saxons, at whose approach the <i>Alleluia</i> of that Easter (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 430)
+was sung. Panic duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St
+Germanus, confessor and bishop of Auxerre (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 380-448), had
+to return to the charge in 446. He has, under the name Garmon,
+a great titular share in British topography. At Bangor Iscoed,
+&ldquo;the great high choir in Maelor,&rdquo; was the monastery, destroyed
+with over 2000 monks, by Æthelfred of Northumberland in 607,
+as (by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland
+was sacked by the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (ii. 2)
+that Bangor monastery was in seven sections, with three hundred
+(working) monks. The supposed lines of direction of Watt&rsquo;s and
+Offa&rsquo;s dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope, Alyn valley,
+Oswestry (<i>Croes Oswallt</i>, &ldquo;Oswald&rsquo;s cross&rdquo;), for Watt&rsquo;s, and
+Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (<i>Hafren</i>, or Sabrina)
+for Offa&rsquo;s. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North
+Wales) defeated Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower)
+and at Coleshill (<i>Cynsyllt</i>). Near Pant Asa (<i>pant</i> is a bottom)
+is the medieval Maen Achwynfan (<i>achwyn</i>, to complain, <i>maen</i>,
+stone), and tumuli, menhirs (<i>meini hirion</i>) and inscribed stones
+are frequent throughout the county. There is a 14th-century
+cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early
+Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county
+date from the early Edwards.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Taylor, <i>Flint</i> (London, 1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a municipal borough and the county town of the
+above; a seaport and contributory parliamentary borough, on
+the south of the Dee estuary, 192 m. from London by the London
+&amp; North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4265. The seat of
+great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur and other
+chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &amp;c. The county
+gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle,
+was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with
+Cheshire.)</p>
+
+<p>Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by
+Edward I. Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward
+III. bestowed its constableship upon the earls of Chester, and
+here Richard II. surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice
+taken, after siege, by the parliamentarians, and finally dismantled
+in 1647. There remain a square court (with angle towers),
+round tower and drawbridge, all three entrusted to a constable,
+appointed by the crown under the Municipal Corporations
+Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was chartered
+by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of
+Chester.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian
+languages, possibly cognate with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="plinthos">&#960;&#955;&#943;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, a tile), in
+petrology, a dark grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance
+which has an almost vitreous lustre, and when pure appears
+structureless to the unaided eye. In the mass it is dark and
+opaque, but thin plates or the edges of splinters are pale yellow
+and translucent. Its hardness is greater than that of steel, so
+that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when drawn
+across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2.6 or only a little
+less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when
+hammered readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains.
+The fracture is perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer
+detach flakes which have convex, slightly undulating surfaces.
+At the point of impact a bulb of percussion, which is a somewhat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
+elevated conical mark, is produced. This serves to distinguish
+flints which have been fashioned by human agencies from those
+which have been split merely by the action of frost and the
+weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably
+intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to
+archaeologists investigating Palaeolithic implements. With
+skill and experience a mass of flint can be worked to any simple
+shape by well directed strokes, and further trimming can be
+effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a direction slightly
+across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have the
+most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known
+to have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were
+specially suitable for his purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and
+dolomite may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also
+detected minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic compounds,
+&amp;c., to which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities.
+These are dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller
+in lustre. Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystalline
+and consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorphous
+silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part
+of the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms,
+such as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur
+in flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their
+original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk
+which encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure
+to the weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints.
+At first they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is
+subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish
+porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the removal
+of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres
+and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a
+very slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material
+of great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist
+attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the south-east
+of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their surfaces
+often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the edges
+of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one pebble
+on another during storms or floods.</p>
+
+<p>Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in
+the white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>).
+It is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses
+which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules
+often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not
+deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands
+cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right
+angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as
+bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some
+extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of
+radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into
+solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again
+precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is
+consequently the result of &ldquo;concretionary action.&rdquo; Where the flints
+lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fact a kind
+of metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly
+replaced a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and
+the organisms of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved
+in the flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have
+their cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the
+shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind
+are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.</p>
+
+<p>Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the
+same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and
+commonly occurs in limestone (<i>e.g.</i> the Carboniferous Limestone) in
+the same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of
+radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian
+oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some
+of the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the
+English Greensand; these often contain remains of sponges.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrication
+of weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other
+materials have been employed where flint was not available,
+<i>e.g.</i> obsidian, chert, chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to
+prehistoric man (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flint Implements</a></span> below) flint must have
+been of great value and served many of the uses to which steel
+is put at the present day. Flint gravels are widely employed
+for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in architecture.
+For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not
+regarded with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily;
+binds badly, yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy
+traffic and in bad weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do
+much damage to tires of motors and cycles. Seasoned flints
+from the land, having been long exposed to the atmosphere,
+are preferred to flints freshly dug from the chalk pits. Formerly
+flint and steel were everywhere employed for striking a light;
+and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special industry
+in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in Suffolk.
+In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade
+has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in
+semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable.
+Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass,
+and is still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties
+of pottery.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS.<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> The excavation of
+these remains of the prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift
+gravel-beds has marked a revolution in the study of Man&rsquo;s
+history (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>). Until almost the middle of the 19th
+century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of British and
+European archaeologists that the momentous results of the
+excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be
+dwarfed by discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous
+ideas of Man&rsquo;s antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes
+observed in some sand containing mammalian remains, at
+Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint, roughly worked into a cutting
+implement. This &ldquo;find&rdquo; was rapidly followed by others, and
+Boucher de Perthes published his first work on the subject,
+<i>Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes: mémoire sur l&rsquo;industrie
+primitive et les arts à leur origin</i> (1847), in which he proclaimed
+his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging
+to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French
+archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission
+then visited his collection and testified to the great importance
+of his discoveries. The &ldquo;finds&rdquo; at Abbeville were followed
+by others in many places in England, and in fact in every
+country where siliceous stones which are capable of being flaked
+and fashioned into implements are to be found. The implements
+occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the tumuli and ancient
+burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of prehistoric man in
+nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and lake-dwellings;
+but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of England
+and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long
+left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These
+gravels represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man
+shared Europe with the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros.
+The worked flints of this age are, however, unevenly distributed;
+for while the river-gravels of south-eastern England yield them
+abundantly, none has been found in Scotland or the northern
+English counties. On the continent the same partial distribution
+is observable: while they occur plentifully in the north-western
+area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway or
+Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by
+chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no
+longer indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier
+period of the Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint
+implements, which show signs of polishing and in many cases
+remarkably fine workmanship, and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs
+and lake-dwellings mixed with the bones of common domestic
+animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later Stone Age. The
+Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers, implements
+worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which resemble
+rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round,
+and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these
+is ground or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand,
+exhibit more variety of design, are carefully finished, and the
+particular use of each weapon can be easily detected. Man has
+reached the stage of culture when he could socket a stone into
+a wooden handle, and fix a flaked flint as a handled dagger or
+knife. The workmanship is superior to that shown in any of the
+stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic times. The
+manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all
+ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only
+kind of stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any
+shape, and thus forms the principal material of these earliest
+weapons. The blows must be carefully aimed or the flakes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+dislodged will be shattered: a gun-flint maker at Brandon,
+Suffolk, stated that it took him two years to acquire the art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and
+detailed descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans,
+<i>Ancient Stone Implements</i> (1897), Lord Avebury&rsquo;s <i>Prehistoric Times</i>
+(1865, 1900); also Thomas Wilson, &ldquo;Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and
+Knives of Prehistoric Times,&rdquo; in <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for 1897; and
+W.K. Moorehead, <i>Prehistoric Implements</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOAT<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>flot</i> and <i>flota</i>, in the verbal form <i>fléotan</i>; the
+Teutonic root is <i>flut-</i>, another form of <i>flu-</i>, seen in &ldquo;flow,&rdquo; cf.
+&ldquo;fleet&rdquo;; the root is seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="pleein">&#960;&#955;&#941;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to sail, Lat. <i>pluere</i>, to
+rain; the Lat. <i>fluere</i> and <i>fluctus</i>, wave, is not connected), the
+action of moving on the surface of water, or through the air.
+The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river,
+backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as
+a mass of ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed
+boat, or a raft, or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support
+a baited line or fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or
+inflated organ by means of which certain animals, such as the
+&ldquo;Portuguese man-of-war,&rdquo; swim, to a hollow metal ball or piece
+of whinstone, &amp;c., used to regulate the level of water in a tank or
+boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the cistern of a barometer.
+&ldquo;Float&rdquo; is also the name of one of the boards of a paddle-wheel
+or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to denote the
+footlights. The word is also applied to something broad, level
+and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon
+for the purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a
+special kind of low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and
+to a platform on wheels used for shows in a procession. The term
+is applied also to various tools, especially to many kinds of trowels
+used in plastering. It is also used of a dock where vessels may
+float, as at Bristol, and of the trenches used in &ldquo;floating&rdquo; land.
+In geology and mining, loose rock or ore brought down by water
+is known as &ldquo;float,&rdquo; and in tin-mining it is applied to a large
+trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word is used of
+the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without being
+woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United
+States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to
+bribery is called a &ldquo;float&rdquo; or &ldquo;floater.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOCK.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian,
+from which come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in
+other Teutonic languages), originally a company of people, now
+mainly, except in figurative usages, of certain animals when
+gathered together for feeding or moving from place to place.
+For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other animals most
+generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular application
+of the word to sheep that &ldquo;flock&rdquo; is used of the Christian
+Church in its relation to the &ldquo;Good Shepherd,&rdquo; and also of
+a congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual
+head.</p>
+
+<p>2. (Probably from the Lat. <i>floccus</i>, but many Teutonic
+languages have the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool,
+cotton or similar substance. The name &ldquo;flock&rdquo; is given to a
+material formed of wool or cotton refuse, or of shreds of old
+woollen or cotton rags, torn by a machine known as a &ldquo;devil.&rdquo;
+This material is used for stuffing mattresses or pillows, and also
+in upholstery. The name is also applied to a special kind of
+wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like cloth, or, in
+the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting on a
+specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of
+cotton or silk. The word &ldquo;flocculent&rdquo; is used of many substances
+which have a fleecy or &ldquo;flock&rdquo;-like appearance, such as a
+precipitate of ferric hydrate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLODDEN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flodden Field</span>, near the village of Branxton,
+in Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene
+of a famous battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between
+the English and the Scots. On the 22nd of August a great
+Scottish army under King James IV. had crossed the border.
+For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
+absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no
+organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much
+precious time among the border castles, and when Surrey
+appeared at Wooler, with an army equal in strength to his own,
+which was now greatly weakened by privations and desertion,
+he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The English commander
+promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle, which
+the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors,
+accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and
+took up a strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey&rsquo;s
+reproaches for the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge
+to fight on Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The
+English commander, thus foiled, executed a daring and skilful
+march round the enemy&rsquo;s flank, and on the 9th drew up for battle
+in rear of the hostile army. It is evident that Surrey was confident
+of victory, for he placed his own army, not less than the
+enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter ruin.
+On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took
+post on Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>
+Surrey&rsquo;s archers and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the
+Scots, unable quietly to endure their losses, rushed to close
+quarters. Their left wing drove the English back, but Lord
+Dacre&rsquo;s reserve corps restored the fight on this side. In all other
+parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were personally
+opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king&rsquo;s
+corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward
+Stanley in flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre&rsquo;s
+force closed upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself,
+boldly neglecting an almost intact Scottish division in front of
+him, charged in upon the rear of King James&rsquo;s corps. Surrounded
+and attacked on all sides, this, the remnant of the
+invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen around
+the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of his
+nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to
+the last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all
+the leading men in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no
+family of importance that had not lost a member in this great
+disaster. The &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Stone,&rdquo; said to mark the spot where
+James was killed, is at some distance from the actual battlefield.
+&ldquo;Sybil&rsquo;s Well,&rdquo; in Scott&rsquo;s <i>Marmion</i>, is imaginary.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLODOARD<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (894-966), French chronicler, was born at
+Epernay, and educated at Reims in the cathedral school which
+had been established by Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As
+canon of Reims, and favourite of the archbishops Herivaeus
+(d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while still young an
+important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was twice
+deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on
+account of his steady opposition to the election of the count&rsquo;s
+infant son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of
+Archbishop Artold in 947, Flodoard became for a time his chief
+adviser, but withdrew to a monastery in 952, and spent the
+remaining years of his life in literary and devotional work. His
+history of the cathedral church at Reims (<i>Historia Remensis
+Ecclesiae</i>) is one of the most remarkable productions of the 10th
+century. Flodoard had been given charge of the episcopal
+archives, and constructed his history out of the original texts,
+which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the
+period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The <i>Annales</i>
+which Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly
+important, by reason of the author&rsquo;s honesty and the central
+position of Reims in European affairs in his time. Flodoard&rsquo;s
+poetical works are of hardly less historical interest. The long
+poem celebrating the triumph of Christ and His saints was called
+forth by the favour shown him by Pope Leo VII., during whose
+pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes fourteen books to
+the history of the popes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Flodoard&rsquo;s works were published in full by J.P. Migne (<i>Patrologia
+Latina</i>, vol. 135); a modern edition of the <i>Annales</i> is the one edited
+by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier, <i>Sources
+de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (No. 932).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse <i>flo</i>, layer, level
+plain), a sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of
+polar ice. It is of less extent than the field of &ldquo;pack&rdquo; ice,
+which is a compacted mass of greater depth drifting frequently
+under the influence of deep currents, while the floating floe is
+driven by the wind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOOD, HENRY<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden
+Flood, chief justice of the king&rsquo;s bench in Ireland, was born
+in 1732, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became proficient in
+the classics. His father was a man of good birth and fortune,
+and he himself married a member of the influential Beresford
+family, who brought him a large fortune. In his early years
+he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant conversationalist.
+His judgment was sound, and he had a natural
+gift of eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by
+study of classical oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood
+therefore possessed every personal advantage when, in 1759,
+he entered the Irish parliament as member for Kilkenny in his
+twenty-seventh year. There was at that time no party in the
+Irish House of Commons that could truly be called national,
+and until a few years before there had been none that deserved
+even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still
+constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it
+had practically no powers of independent legislation, and none
+of controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated
+by the ministers in London (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>). Though
+the great majority of the people were Roman Catholics, no
+person of that faith could either enter parliament or exercise the
+franchise; the penal code, which made it almost impossible for
+a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a learned profession,
+or even to educate his children, and which in numerous particulars
+pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and subjected them to
+degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in practice
+largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were
+throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the
+economic theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade
+of Great Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison
+fully realized the necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only
+needed the ability and eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of
+Commons to raise up an independent party in parliament, and
+to create in the country a public opinion with definite intelligible
+aims.</p>
+
+<p>The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening
+of the duration of parliament&mdash;which had then no legal limit
+in Ireland except that of the reigning sovereign&rsquo;s life,&mdash;the
+reduction of the scandalously heavy pension list, the establishment
+of a national militia, and, above all, the complete legislative
+independence of the Irish parliament. For some years little
+was accomplished; but in 1768 the English ministry, which
+had special reasons at the moment for avoiding unpopularity
+in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass, which was the first
+step towards making the Irish House of Commons in some
+measure representative of public opinion. It had become the
+practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by
+the owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their undertaking
+to manage the House in the government interest. But
+during the viceroyalty of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and
+more particularly these &ldquo;undertakers&rdquo; as they were called,
+were made to understand that for the future their privileges in
+this respect would be curtailed. When, therefore, an opportunity
+was taken by the government in 1768 for reasserting the constitutional
+subordination of the Irish parliament, these powerful
+classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood. In the
+following year, in accordance with the established procedure,
+a money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for
+acceptance by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it
+rejected, but contrary to custom a reason for this course was
+assigned, namely, that the bill had not originated in the Irish
+House. In consequence parliament was peremptorily prorogued,
+and a recess of fourteen months was employed by the government
+in securing a majority by the most extensive corruption.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Nevertheless
+when parliament met in February 1771 another money
+bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year
+Lord Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked
+this conflict, was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a
+publication, famous in its day, called <i>Baratariana</i>, to which
+Flood contributed a series of powerful letters after the
+manner of Junius, one of his collaborators being Henry
+Grattan.</p>
+
+<p>The success which had thus far attended Flood&rsquo;s efforts had
+placed him in a position such as no Irish politician had previously
+attained. He had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes,
+&ldquo;proved himself beyond all comparison the greatest popular
+orator that his country had yet produced, and also a consummate
+master of parliamentary tactics. Under parliamentary conditions
+that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an atmosphere
+charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had
+created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and
+had inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine
+spirit of liberty and self-reliance.&rdquo;<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Lord Harcourt, who
+succeeded Townsend as viceroy, saw that Flood must be conciliated
+at any price &ldquo;rather than risk the opposition of so
+formidable a leader.&rdquo; Accordingly, in 1775, Flood was offered
+and accepted a seat in the privy council and the office of vice-treasurer
+with a salary of £3500 a year. For this step he has
+been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly
+in the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost
+influence from the moment he became a minister of the crown,
+Flood may reasonably have held that he had a better prospect
+of advancing his policy by the leverage of a ministerial position
+than by means of any opposition party he could hope to muster
+in an unreformed House of Commons.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The result, however,
+was that the leadership of the national party passed from Flood
+to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same session
+that Flood became a minister.</p>
+
+<p>Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this
+long period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the
+independence of the Irish parliament, and had to be content
+with advocating minor reforms as occasion offered. He was
+thus instrumental in obtaining bounties on the export of Irish
+corn to foreign countries and some other trifling commercial
+concessions. On the other hand he failed to procure the passing
+of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges irremovable,
+while his support of Lord North&rsquo;s American policy
+still more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But
+an important event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to
+some extent his former position in the country; this event was
+the alliance of France with the revolted American colonies.
+Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a French invasion, while
+the English government could provide no troops to defend the
+island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on
+foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000
+men, disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by
+the country gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism
+of Lord Charlemont. This volunteer force, in which Flood was
+a colonel, while vigilant for the defence of the island, soon
+made itself felt in politics. A Volunteer Convention, formed
+with all the regular organization of a representative assembly,
+but wielding the power of an army, began menacingly to demand
+the removal of the commercial restrictions which were destroying
+Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government gave way;
+the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland for
+the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood,
+who had taken an active though not a leading part in this movement,
+now at last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He
+found to his chagrin that his former services had been to a great
+extent forgotten, and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When
+in a debate on the constitutional question in 1779 Flood complained
+of the small consideration shown him in relation to a
+subject which he had been the first to agitate, he was reminded
+that by the civil law &ldquo;if a man should separate from his wife,
+and abandon her for seven years, another might then take her
+and give her his protection.&rdquo; But though Flood had lost
+control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament,
+the agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+and by increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in
+1782 to the concession of the demand, together with a number
+of other important reforms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a
+question arose&mdash;known as the Simple Repeal controversy&mdash;as
+to whether England, in addition to the repeal of the Acts on
+which the subordination of the Irish parliament had been based,
+should not be required expressly to renounce for the future all
+claim to control Irish legislation. The chief historical importance
+of this dispute is that it led to the memorable rupture of friendship
+between Flood and Grattan, each of whom assailed the other with
+unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective in the House of
+Commons. Flood&rsquo;s view prevailed&mdash;for a Renunciation Act such
+as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parliament
+in 1783&mdash;and for a time he regained popularity at the
+expense of his rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783)
+introduced a reform bill, after first submitting it to the Volunteer
+Convention. The bill, which contained no provision for giving
+the franchise to Roman Catholics&mdash;a proposal which Flood
+always opposed&mdash;was rejected, ostensibly on the ground that the
+attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of parliament.
+The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crown and the connexion
+with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by
+Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary
+reform might be imputed to nothing but &ldquo;a sober and laudable
+desire to uphold the constitution ... and to perpetuate the
+cordial union of both kingdoms.&rdquo; The convention then dissolved,
+though Flood had desired, in opposition to Grattan, to continue
+it as a means of putting pressure on parliament for the purpose
+of obtaining reform.</p>
+
+<p>In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House
+of Commons. In 1783 he tried again, this time with success.
+He purchased a seat for Winchester from the duke of Chandos,
+and for the next seven years he was a member at the same time
+of both the English and Irish parliaments. He reintroduced,
+but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in 1784;
+supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but
+short-sightedly opposed Pitt&rsquo;s commercial propositions in 1785.
+He remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation,
+even defending the penal laws on the ground that after the
+Revolution they &ldquo;were not laws of persecution but of political
+necessity&rdquo;; but after 1786 he does not appear to have attended
+the parliament in Dublin. In the House at Westminster, where
+he refused to enrol himself as a member of either political party,
+he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition to Fox&rsquo;s
+India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the expectations
+aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition
+to the commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however,
+most able; and in 1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox
+declared to be the best scheme of reform that had yet been
+proposed, and which in Burke&rsquo;s opinion retrieved Flood&rsquo;s reputation.
+But at the dissolution in the same year he lost his seat in
+both parliaments, and he then retired to Farmley, his residence
+in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of December 1791.</p>
+
+<p>When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal
+friendship with Grattan, declared that Flood was &ldquo;perhaps the
+ablest man Ireland ever produced, indisputably the ablest man
+of his own times,&rdquo; he expressed what was probably the general
+opinion of Flood&rsquo;s contemporaries. Lord Charlemont, who knew
+him intimately though not always in agreement with his policy,
+pronounced him to be &ldquo;a man of consummate ability.&rdquo; He also
+declared that avarice made no part of Flood&rsquo;s character. Lord
+Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described
+him as a pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested
+flattery. Grattan, who even after the famous quarrel never lost
+his respect for Flood, said of him that he was the best tempered and
+the most sensible man in the world. In his youth he was genial,
+frank, sociable and witty; but in later years disappointment
+made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he was less polished,
+less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner and a
+greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition
+often governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually
+sound; and it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have
+succeeded in carrying a reform bill which might have preserved
+Irish parliamentary independence, if he had been supported by
+Grattan and the rest of his party in keeping alive the Volunteer
+Convention in 1783. Though he never wavered in loyalty to the
+British crown and empire, Ireland never produced a more sincere
+patriot than Henry Flood.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Warden Flood, <i>Memoirs of Henry Flood</i> (London, 1838);
+Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H.
+Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections
+of Curran and some of his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822); <i>The Irish
+Parliament 1775</i>, from an official and contemporary manuscript,
+edited by William Hunt (London, 1907); W.J. O&rsquo;Neill Daunt,
+<i>Ireland and her Agitators</i>; Lord Mountmorres, <i>History of the Irish
+Parliament</i> (2 vols., London, 1792); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of
+England in the Eighteenth Century</i> (8 vols., London, 1878-1890);
+and <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (enlarged edition, 2 vols.,
+London, 1903); J.A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland</i>, vols. ii. and iii.
+(London, 1881); Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i>
+(4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, <i>Rise and Fall
+of the Irish Nation</i> (London, 1833); Francis Plowden, <i>Historical
+Review of the State of Ireland</i> (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, <i>Compendium
+of Irish Biography</i> (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, <i>Memoirs of
+Lord Charlemont</i> (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer movement,
+on which see also <i>Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of
+Ireland 1784</i> (Anon. Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also <i>The Charlemont
+Papers</i>, and <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>, (vols. i.-iv.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Walpole&rsquo;s <i>George III.</i>, iv. 348.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> W.E.H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (enlarged
+edition, 2 vols., 1903), i. 48.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Hardy&rsquo;s <i>Life of Charlemont</i>, i. 356.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOOD<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>flód</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages,
+cf. Ger. <i>Flut</i>, Dutch <i>vloed</i>, from the same root as is seen in &ldquo;flow,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;float&rdquo;), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging
+land, a deluge, hence &ldquo;the flood,&rdquo; specifically, the Noachian deluge
+of Genesis, but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded
+in the mythology of other nations than the Hebrew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge,
+The</a></span>). In the sense of &ldquo;flowing water,&rdquo; the word is applied to
+the inflow of the tide, as opposed to &ldquo;ebb.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOOD PLAIN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> the term in physical geography for a plain
+formed of sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down
+which a river runs has become very slight, it is unable to carry
+the sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source,
+and consequently the lower portion of the river valley becomes
+filled with alluvial deposits; and since in times of flood the rush
+of water in the high regions tears off and carries down a greater
+quantity of sediment than usual, the river spreads this also over
+the lower valley where the plain is flooded, because the rush of
+water is checked, and the stream in consequence drops its extra
+load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent. That
+of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m.,
+and its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood
+plains may be the result of planation, with aggradation, that is,
+they may be due to a graded river working in meanders from side
+to side, widening its valley by this process and covering the
+widened valley with sediment. Or the stream by cutting into
+another stream (piracy), by cutting through a barrier near its
+head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer rock, and by
+glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling up
+its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river&rsquo;s
+course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind
+it, and indeed anything which checks a river&rsquo;s course and causes
+it to drop its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most
+commonly found near the mouth of a large river, such as the
+Rhine, the Nile, or the Mississippi, where there are occasional
+floods and the river usually carries a large amount of sediment.
+&ldquo;Levees&rdquo; are formed, inside which the river usually flows,
+gradually raising its bed above the surrounding plain. Occasional
+breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to spread in
+a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt covers
+the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain
+made by the United States geological survey show a great variety
+of material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured
+at one place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying
+swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel,
+sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any
+section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar
+character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by
+meandering, or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span>
+marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered
+with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is
+entirely diverted owing to any cause, the flood plain may become
+a level area of great fertility, similar in appearance to the floor of
+an old lake. The flood plain differs, however, inasmuch as it is
+not altogether flat. It has a gentle slope down-stream, and often
+for a distance from the sides towards the centre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOOR<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>flor</i>, a word common to many Teutonic
+languages, cf. Dutch <i>vloer</i>, and Ger. <i>Flur</i>, a field, in the feminine,
+and a floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of
+a room, but specially employed for one covered with boarding
+or parquetry. The various levels of rooms in a house are designated
+as &ldquo;ground-floor,&rdquo; &ldquo;first-floor,&rdquo; &ldquo;mezzanine-floor,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+The principal floor is the storey which contains the chief apartments
+whether on the ground- or first-floor; in Italy they are
+always on the latter and known as the &ldquo;piano nobile.&rdquo; The
+storey below the ground-floor is called the &ldquo;basement-floor,&rdquo;
+even if only a little below the level of the pavement outside; the
+storey in a roof is known as the &ldquo;attic-floor.&rdquo; The expressions
+one pair, two pair, &amp;c., apply to the storeys above the first
+flight of stairs from the ground (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpentry</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOORCLOTH,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a rough flannel cloth used for domestic
+cleaning; also a generic term applied to a variety of materials
+used in place of carpets for covering floors, and known by such
+trade names as kamptulicon, oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork-carpet,
+&amp;c. Kamptulicon (<span class="grk" title="kamptos">&#954;&#945;&#956;&#960;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, flexible, <span class="grk" title="oulos">&#959;&#8016;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, thick) was
+patented in 1844 by E. Galloway, but did not attract much
+attention till about 1862. It was essentially a preparation of
+india-rubber masticated up with ground cork, and rolled out
+into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers, sometimes
+over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has
+given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose.
+Oil-cloth is a coarse canvas which has received a number of
+coats of thick oil paint, each coat being rubbed smooth with
+pumice stone before the application of the next. Its surface
+is ornamented with patterns printed in oil colours by means of
+wooden blocks. Linoleum (<i>linum</i>, flax, <i>oleum</i>, oil), patented by
+F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized linseed oil and
+ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated with
+the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of
+pigments such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed
+on to a rough canvas backing between steam-heated rollers.
+Patterns may be printed on its surface with oil paint, or by an
+improved method may be inlaid with coloured composition
+so that the colours are continuous through the thickness of the
+linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and thus do not disappear
+with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material to linoleum,
+also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is stamped
+out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1828-1896), French statesman,
+was born at St Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses-Pyrénées) on
+the 2nd of October 1828. He studied law in Paris, and was
+called to the bar in 1851. The <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of that year aroused
+the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who had, while yet a student,
+given proof of his republican sympathies by taking part in the
+fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant and fearless
+attacks on the government in a series of political trials, and at
+the same time contributed to the <i>Temps</i> and other influential
+journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de
+Justice in 1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with
+the cry &ldquo;Vive la Pologne, monsieur!&rdquo; He delivered a scathing
+indictment of the Empire at the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for
+killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took a part in the revolution
+of the 4th of September, as well as in the subsequent defence
+of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly
+by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed
+the <i>Ligue d&rsquo;union républicaine des droits de Paris</i> to attempt a
+reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his
+efforts failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers,
+but soon released. He became editor of the <i>République Française</i>,
+was chosen president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was
+elected deputy for the eleventh arrondissement. He took a
+prominent place among the extreme radicals, and became
+president of the group of the &ldquo;Union républicaine.&rdquo; In 1882
+he held for a short time the post of prefect of the Seine. In
+1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber.
+This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality
+that he was re-elected the two following years. Having
+approached the Russian ambassador in such a way as to remove
+the prejudice existing against him in Russia since the incident
+of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for office; and on the fall
+of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became president of the council
+and minister of the interior in a radical ministry, which pledged
+itself to the revision of the constitution, but was forced to combat
+the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates in the
+chamber culminated on the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet
+and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following
+February the government fell on the question of revision, and
+in the new chamber of November Floquet was re-elected to
+the presidential chair. The Panama scandals, in which he was
+compelled to admit his implication, dealt a fatal blow to his
+career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892, and his
+seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the senate.
+He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet</i>, edited by Albert
+Faivre (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOR, ROGER DI,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a military adventurer of the 13th-14th
+century, was the second son of a falconer in the service of the
+emperor Frederick II., who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when
+eight years old was sent to sea in a galley belonging to the
+Knights Templars. He entered the order and became commander
+of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in
+1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and
+an apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa,
+where he began to play the pirate. The struggle between the
+kings of Aragon and the French kings of Naples for the possession
+of Sicily was at this time going on; and Roger entered the
+service of Frederick, king of Sicily, who gave him the rank of
+vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302, as Frederick was
+anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops (called
+<i>Almúgavares</i>), whom he had no longer the means of paying,
+Roger induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures
+in the East, in fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging
+the empire. The emperor Andronicus II. accepted his offer of
+service; and in September 1303 Roger with his fleet and army
+arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted into the imperial
+family, was married to a grand-daughter of the emperor, and
+was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and
+the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and
+bloody quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after
+some successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter
+quarters at Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field,
+and rendered the important service of relieving Philadelphia,
+then invested and reduced to extremities by the Turks. But
+Roger, bent on advancing his own interests rather than those
+of the emperor, determined to found in the East a principality
+for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but the people
+slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed the
+siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was
+compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his
+troops in Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople
+to demand pay for the <i>Almúgavares</i>. Dissatisfied with the small
+sum granted by the emperor, he plundered the country and
+carried on intrigues both with and against the emperor, receiving
+reinforcements all the while from all parts of southern Europe.
+Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly afterwards the young
+emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack the fierce
+and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to
+Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the
+massacre of his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was
+avenged by his men in a fierce and prolonged war against the
+Greeks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Moncada, <i>Expedicion de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contre
+Turcos y Griegos</i> (Paris, 1840).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORA,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and
+flowers, later identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival
+at Rome, the Floralia, instituted 238 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by order of the
+Sibylline books and at first held irregularly, became annual
+after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May 3), the first day being
+the anniversary of the foundation of her temple. It included
+theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and
+vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings
+were characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness.
+According to the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus
+Tatius, and her priest, the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art
+Flora was represented as a beautiful maiden, bedecked with
+flowers (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, v. 183 ff.; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, ii. 49).</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;flora&rdquo; is used in botany collectively for the plant-growth
+of a district; similarly &ldquo;fauna&rdquo; is used collectively
+for the animals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a 13th-century romance.
+This tale, generally supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the
+passionate devotion of two children, and their success in overcoming
+all the obstacles put in the way of their love. The
+romance appears in differing versions in French, English, German,
+Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and Hungarian.
+The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E.
+Hausknecht&rsquo;s version of the 13th-century Middle English poem
+of &ldquo;Floris and Blauncheflur&rdquo; (<i>Samml. eng. Denkmäler</i>, vol. v.
+Berlin, 1885). Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of
+the story, but France was in the 12th and 13th centuries the
+chief market of romance, and the French version of the tale,
+<i>Floire et Blanchefleur</i>, is the most widespread. Floire, the son
+of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in constant companionship
+with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian slave of
+noble birth. Floire&rsquo;s parents, hoping to destroy this attachment,
+send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to foreign
+slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is
+told that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill
+himself, his parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the
+tower of the maidens destined for the harem of the emir of
+Babylon, into which he penetrates concealed in a basket of
+flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their constancy touches
+the hearts of their judges. They are married, and Floire returns
+to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt Christianity.
+Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Édélestand du
+Méril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few
+additions, the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the
+usual battles, single combats, &amp;c. Two lyrics based on episodes
+of the story are printed by Paulin Paris in his <i>Romancero
+français</i> (Paris, 1883). The English poem renders the French
+version without amplifications, such as are found in other
+adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original,
+and less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms
+of the story must be noted the prose romance (<i>c.</i> 1340) of
+Boccaccio, <i>Il Filocolo</i>, and the 14th-century <i>Leggenda della
+reina Rosana e di Rosana sua figliuola</i> (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The
+similarity between the story of Floire and Blanchefleur and
+<i>Chante-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete</i><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> has been repeatedly pointed
+out, and they have even been credited with a common
+source.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht
+(Berlin, 1885); also H. Sundmacher, <i>Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche
+Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur</i> (Göttingen, 1872);
+H. Herzog, <i>Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur</i> (Vienna,
+1884); <i>Zeitschrift für deut. Altertum</i> (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish
+version; the Scandinavian <i>Flores Saga ok Blankiflùr</i>, ed. E. Kölbing
+(Halle, 1896); the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, <i>Flore und
+Blanscheflur</i>, ed. E. Sommer (Leipzig, 1846); the Swedish by G.E.
+Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited
+by Hartschorne (<i>English Metrical Tales</i>, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford
+Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited
+G.H. McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (<i>Floire et Blanchefleur</i>, Paris,
+1906) suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as
+told by Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily
+imply a connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with
+small alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the
+book of Esther.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French
+by G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bédier (Tours, 1901); English
+by Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and
+by Laurence Housman (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1831-1891), American
+actor, of Irish descent, whose real name was Bernard Conlin,
+was born on the 26th of July 1831 at Albany, N.Y., and first
+attracted attention as an actor at Brougham&rsquo;s Lyceum in 1851.
+Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (<i>d</i>. 1906), in
+association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won all
+his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf&rsquo;s <i>The Mighty Dollar</i>,
+said to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856
+they had a successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of
+the first American actresses to appear on the English stage.
+In 1889 Florence entered into partnership with Joseph Jefferson,
+playing Sir Lucius O&rsquo;Trigger to his Bob Acres and Mrs John
+Drew&rsquo;s Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. His last
+appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891,
+as Ezekiel Homespun in <i>The Heir-at-law</i>, and he died on the 18th
+of November in Philadelphia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE OF WORCESTER<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (d. 1118), English chronicler,
+was a monk of Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator,
+on the 7th of July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is
+known of his life. He compiled a chronicle called <i>Chronicon
+ex chronicis</i> which begins with the creation and ends in 1117.
+The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by Marianus
+Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards at
+Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up
+to 1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version
+of the English Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth
+comparing with the extant English Chronicles; and from 1106
+he is an independent annalist, dry but accurate. Either Florence
+or a later editor of his work made considerable borrowings from
+the first four books of Eadmer&rsquo;s <i>Historia novorum</i>. Florence&rsquo;s
+work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of Worcester,
+who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years
+of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to
+Stephen, but not an indiscriminate partisan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
+Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc.,
+2 vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe&rsquo;s text of John&rsquo;s continuation needs
+revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an
+ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology
+of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John
+Taxter (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St
+Edmunds. Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J.
+Stevenson in his <i>Church Historians of England</i>, vol. ii. pt. i. (London,
+1853); T. Forester&rsquo;s translation in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Antiquarian Library</i>
+(London, 1854) gives the work of Taxter also.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama,
+U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of
+Muscle Shoals Canal, and about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
+(1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) 6478 (1952 negroes); (1910)
+6689. It is served by the Southern, the Northern Alabama
+(controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville &amp; Nashville
+railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia,
+and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated
+in the fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on
+the edge of the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has
+various manufactures, including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons,
+stoves, fertilizers, staves and mercantile supplies. At Florence
+are the state Normal College, the Florence University for
+Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for negroes; founded
+in 1903 by the American Missionary Association). Florence
+was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president
+of the United States, and ex-president James Madison being
+among the early property holders. For several years Florence
+and Nashville, Tennessee, were commercial rivals, being situated
+respectively at the head of navigation on the Tennessee and
+Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of Alabama by Federal
+troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the Tennessee
+to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April
+1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels
+were repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+of May following, Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed
+cotton mills and public and private property; but they were
+driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy (1820-1897). On the
+11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but the
+Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was
+chartered as a city in 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORENCE<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Firenze</i>, Lat. <i>Florentia</i>), formerly the capital
+of Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of
+Italy, and the sixth largest city in the country. It is situated
+43° 46&prime; N., 11° 14&prime; E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at
+this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between
+spurs of the Apennines. The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and
+occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of the commune, 16½ sq. m.).
+The geological formation of the soil belongs to the Quaternary
+and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the Eocene and
+Cretaceous in the lower. <i>Pietra forte</i> of the Cretaceous period
+is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for
+centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. <i>Pietra serena</i>
+or <i>macigno</i>, a stone of a firm texture also used for building
+purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil
+is very fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of
+many kinds cover both the plain and the surrounding hills;
+the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress,
+the ilex and the poplar, while many other varieties are represented.
+The gardens and fields produce an abundance of
+flowers, which justify the city&rsquo;s title of <i>la città dei fiori</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Sanitary Conditions.</i>&mdash;The climate of Florence
+is very variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high
+winds from the north in winter to great heat in the summer,
+while in spring-time sudden and rapid changes of temperature
+are frequent. At the same time the climate is usually very
+agreeable from the end of February to the beginning of July,
+and from the end of September to the middle of November.
+The average temperature throughout the year is about 57°
+Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8°, and the minimum
+36.5°, sometimes sinking to 21°. The longest day is 15 hours and
+33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average
+rainfall is about 37½ inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and
+children&rsquo;s diseases mild; cholera has visited Florence several
+times, but the city has been free from it for many years.
+Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe
+epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare intervals
+and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
+measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses.
+The drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water
+brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good,
+and the general sanitary conditions are satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>&mdash;Of the very numerous Florentine churches
+the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most
+important, founded in 1298 on the plans of Arnolfo
+di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and consecrated
+<span class="sidenote">Churches.</span>
+in 1436; the façade, however, was not finished until the 19th
+century&mdash;it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and
+unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous
+Campanile built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with
+exquisite bas-reliefs. Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo
+di Cambio in the 13th century on the site of an earlier church,
+and adorned with beautiful bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th
+century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are
+a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence.
+The existence of these works of art attracts students from all
+countries, and a German art school subsidized by the imperial
+government has been instituted.</p>
+
+<p>The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their
+splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the
+residences of the noble families of Florence. Among others we
+may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government
+of the Republic and now the town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi,
+the residence of the Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of
+the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of
+Florentine <i>quattrocento</i> architecture), Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti
+(the royal palace), &amp;c. The palace of the Arte della Lana or
+gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is
+the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence,
+which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view,
+was pulled down in 1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care
+was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic
+and artistic value which might have been spared without impairing
+the work of sanitation, while the new structures erected
+in their place, especially those in the <span class="correction" title="amended from Piaza">Piazza</span> Vittorio Emanuele,
+are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with
+Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics
+at the time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was
+built, a society called the <i>Società per la difesa di Firenze antica</i>
+was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient
+buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of
+intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this connexion.
+The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters
+have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the
+older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic
+feeling. The <i>viali</i> or boulevards form pleasant residential streets
+with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for
+each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming
+more and more general.</p>
+
+<p>Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number
+of smaller collections. The <i>Biblioteca Nazionale</i>, originally
+founded by Antonio Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the
+right, shared by the <i>Vittorio Emanuele</i> library of
+<span class="sidenote">Libraries.</span>
+Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since
+1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with regard
+to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed
+volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings
+(including 284 by Albert Dürer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000
+letters. The number of readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately,
+however, the confusion engendered by a defective
+organization has long been a byword among the people; there
+is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in packing-cases
+and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very poor,
+hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself
+is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new
+one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon,
+so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to
+more suitable quarters. The <i>Biblioteca Marucelliana</i>, founded in
+1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 incunabula, 17,000
+engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly
+remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publications.
+The <i>Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana</i>, founded in 1571,
+has its origin in the library of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici the Elder, and
+was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the
+Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it
+with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of
+which was the collection of <i>editiones principes</i> given by Count d&rsquo;Elci,
+in 1841, and the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by
+the Italian Government in 1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS.,
+including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a
+number of valuable Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and
+11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with palaeography; it is
+in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries.
+The <i>Biblioteca Riccardiana</i>, founded in the 16th century by
+Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books
+and 650 incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The
+state archives are among the most complete in Italy, and contain
+over 450,000 <i>filze</i> and <i>registri</i> and 126,000 charters, covering the
+period from 726 to 1856.</p>
+
+<p>Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of
+artistic and historic interest, although the great majority of
+them belong to a comparatively limited period&mdash;from
+the 13th to the 16th century. The chief art galleries
+<span class="sidenote">Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums.</span>
+are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two
+former are among the finest in the world, and are
+filled with masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino,
+Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine,
+Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous
+admirable examples of antique, medieval and Renaissance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+sculpture. The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly
+the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine new stairway
+and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence.
+In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological
+order. In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan
+masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special
+mention. Other pictures are scattered about in the churches,
+monasteries and private palaces. Of the monasteries, that of
+St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of
+Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the private
+collections the only one of importance is that of Prince Corsini.
+There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance
+antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podestà,
+itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many
+treasures are works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other
+sculptors, and large collections of ivory, enamel and bronze
+ware. The Opera del Duomo contains models and pieces of
+sculpture connected with the cathedral; the Etruscan and
+Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the Michelangelo
+museum, the museum of natural history and other collections
+are all important in different ways.</p>
+
+<p>The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners
+and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363;
+it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in
+Florence (1865-1872), but decreased or increased very
+<span class="sidenote">Population.</span>
+slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and
+increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the
+rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration,
+as the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903,
+since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a
+decrease of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the
+central government is represented by a prefect (<i>prefetto</i>), while
+<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span>
+local government is carried on by a mayor (<i>sindaco</i>)
+and an elective town council (<i>consiglio comunale</i>).
+The city is the seat of a court of cassation (for civil
+cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor tribunals. It is
+the headquarters of an army corps, and an archiepiscopal see.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls
+(education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000
+pupils, and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary
+education is provided by one higher and four lower
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+technical schools with 1375 pupils, three <i>ginnasii</i> or lower classical
+schools, and three <i>licei</i> or higher classical schools, with 1000
+pupils, and three training colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher
+education is imparted at the university (<i>Istituto di studii superiori
+e di perfezionamento</i>), with 600 to 650 students; although only
+comprising the faculties of literature, medicine and natural science,
+it is, as regards the first-named faculty, one of the most
+important institutions in Italy. The original <i>Studio Fiorentino</i>
+was founded in the 14th century, and acquired considerable fame
+as a centre of learning under the Medici, enhanced by the presence in
+Florence of many learned Greeks who had fled from Constantinople
+after its capture by the Turks (1453). Although in 1472 some of the
+faculties and several of the professors were transferred to Pisa, it
+still retained importance, and in the 17th and 18th centuries it
+originated a number of learned academies. In 1859 after the annexation
+of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was revived and reorganized;
+since then it has become to some extent a national centre of learning
+and culture, attracting students from other parts of Italy, partly on
+account of the fact that it is in Florence that the purest Italian is
+spoken. The revival of classical studies on scientific principles in
+modern Italy may be said to have begun in Florence, and great
+activity has also been displayed in reviving the study of Dante;
+Dante lectures being given regularly by scholars and men of letters
+from all parts of the country, above the church of Or San Michele
+as in the middle ages, under the auspices of the <i>Società Dantesca</i>.
+Palaeography, history and Romance languages are among the other
+subjects to which especial importance is given. Besides the <i>Istituto di
+studii superiori</i> there is the <i>Istituto di scienze sociali</i> &ldquo;<i>Cesare Alfieri</i>,&rdquo;
+founded by the marchese Alfieri di Sostegno for the education of
+aspirants to the diplomatic and consular services, and for students
+of economics and social sciences (about 50 students); an academy
+of fine arts, a conservatoire of music, a higher female training-college
+with 150 students, a number of professional and trade schools, and
+an academy of recitation. There are also many academies and learned
+societies of different kinds, of which one of the most important is the
+<i>Accademia della Crusca</i> for the study of the Italian language, which
+undertook the publication of a monumental dictionary.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most
+important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco
+Portinari, the father of Dante&rsquo;s Beatrice, has been
+thoroughly renovated according to modern scientific
+<span class="sidenote">Charities, etc.</span>
+principles. There are numerous other hospitals both
+general and special, a foundling hospital dating from the 13th century
+(Santa Maria degli Innocenti), an institute for the blind, one for the
+deaf and dumb, &amp;c. Most of the hospitals and other charitable
+institutions are endowed, but the endowments are supplemented by
+private contributions.</p>
+
+<p>Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district,
+and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
+the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There
+are no important industries, except a few flour-mills, some
+<span class="sidenote">Commerce and Industry.</span>
+glass works, iron foundries, a motor car factory, straw
+hat factories, and power-houses supplying electricity for
+lighting and for the numerous tramcars. There are, however, some
+artistic industries in and around the city, of which the most important
+is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and the Cantagalli majolica
+works. There are many other smaller establishments, and the
+Florentine artificer seems to possess an exceptional skill in all kinds
+of work in which art is combined with technical ability. Another
+very important source of revenue is the so-called &ldquo;tourist industry,&rdquo;
+which in late years has assumed immense proportions; the city
+contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses which every
+year are filled to overflowing with strangers from all parts of the
+world.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p>Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae
+(Fiesole), which lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name
+indicates, it was built only in Roman times and probably in
+connexion with the construction by C. Flaminius in 187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later on formed part
+of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river
+Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to
+have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla,
+and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15 (by which period it seems to have been already
+a colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting part of
+the waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chiana</a></span>). Tacitus
+mentions it, and Florus describes it as one of the <i>municipia
+splendidissima</i>. A bishop of Florence is mentioned in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 313.
+A group of Italic cremation tombs <i>a pozzo</i> of the Villanova
+period were found under the pavement of the medieval Vicolo
+del Campidoglio. This took its name from the <i>Capitolium</i> of
+Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza
+Luna; the three <i>cellae</i> were clearly traceable. The capitals
+of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it
+became clear that this temple had supplied building materials
+for S. Giovanni and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal
+altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found. Remains
+of baths have been found close by, while the ancient amphitheatre
+has been found near S. Croce outside the Roman town,
+which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
+gates, the <i>Decumanus</i> being represented by the Via Strozzi and
+Via del Corso, and the <i>Cardo</i> by the Via Calcinara, while the
+Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the Forum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L.A. Milani, &ldquo;Reliquie di Firenze antica,&rdquo; in <i>Monumenti dei
+Lincei</i>, vi. (1896), 5 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<p>The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city
+by the Goths, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general
+Stilicho. Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by
+the imperial garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied
+by the Goths. We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and
+mention is made of one <i>Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum</i>,
+which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of
+the regular divisions of the Longobard empire). Charlemagne
+was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city,
+which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation
+on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
+agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the
+head of the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto,
+of the monastery of San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro
+Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances
+and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the
+triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk Petrus Igneus, champion
+of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the
+beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or
+margraviate, and the marquises became so powerful as to be
+even a danger to the Empire. Under the emperor Otto I. one
+Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor Conrad II. (elected
+in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of Tuscany,
+a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
+Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year
+<span class="sidenote">The countess Matilda.<br />Guelphs and Ghibellines.</span>
+the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous
+countess Matilda, who ruled for forty years and played
+a prominent part in the history of Italy in that period.
+In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on
+the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor
+and the faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and
+she herself often led armies to battle. It is at this
+time that the people of Florence first began to acquire
+influence, and while the countess presided at the courts
+of justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group
+of great feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &amp;c., who formed, as
+elsewhere in Tuscany, the <i>boni homines</i> or <i>sapientes</i>. As the
+countess was frequently absent these <i>boni homines</i> gave judgment
+without her, thus paving the way for a free commune. The
+citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility of the
+hills around the city, Teutonic feudatories of Ghibelline
+sympathies, who interfered with their commerce. Florence
+frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities
+on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and
+the citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations
+which were the germs of the <i>arti</i> or gilds. After the death of
+<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the commune.</span>
+Countess Matilda in 1115 the <i>grandi</i> or <i>boni homines</i>
+continued to rule and administer justice, but in the
+name of the people&mdash;a change hardly noticed at first,
+but which marks the foundation of the commune.
+After 1138 the <i>boni homines</i> began to be called <i>consules</i>, while
+the population was divided into the <i>grandi</i> or <i>delle torri</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
+noble families who had towers, and the <i>arti</i> or trade and merchant
+gilds. At first the <i>consules</i>, of whom there seem to have been
+twelve, two for each <i>sestiere</i> or ward, were chosen by the men
+of the towers, and assisted by a council of 100 <i>boni homines</i>, in
+which the <i>arti</i> were predominant; the government thus came to
+be in the hands of a few powerful families. The republic now
+proceeded to extend its power. In 1125 Fiesole was sacked and
+destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the <i>contado</i> (surrounding
+country), protected by the imperial margraves, were still powerful.
+The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage
+war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
+The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit
+to his authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their
+former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the
+powerful counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected
+emperor in 1152, made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed
+one Welf of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other
+cities were forced to supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard
+campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial
+bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a <i>potestas</i>, who resided at
+San Miniato (whence the name of &ldquo;San Miniato al Tedesco&rdquo;),
+to represent him and exercise authority in the <i>contado</i>; this
+double authority of the <i>consoli</i> in the town and the <i>potestas</i> or
+<i>podestà</i> outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines
+were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of
+<span class="sidenote">War with the nobles.</span>
+Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within
+the city broke out between the <i>consoli</i> and the greater
+nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened by
+the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their
+castles and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti,
+though not victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted
+to the consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief
+cities of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the
+Alberti whose castle of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later
+<span class="sidenote">The potestas.</span>
+we find a <i>potestas</i> within the city, elected for a year
+and assisted by seven councillors and seven <i>rectores
+super capitibus artium</i>. This represented the triumph
+of the feudal party, which had gained the support of the <i>arti
+minori</i> or minor gilds. The <i>potestates</i> subsequently were
+foreigners, and in 1207 the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto
+of Milan; a new council was formed, the <i>consiglio del comune</i>,
+while the older senate still survived. The Florentines now
+undertook to open the highways of commerce towards Rome,
+for their city was already an important industrial and banking
+centre.</p>
+
+<p>Discord among the great families broke out again, and the
+attempt to put an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte
+de&rsquo; Buondelmonti and a daughter of the Amidei, only led to
+further strife (1215), although the causes of these broils were
+deeper and wider, being derived from the general division between
+Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of crushing
+the nobles of the <i>contado</i> and of asserting the city&rsquo;s position
+among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war
+successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next
+few years against the Sienese with varying results; although
+the emperor supported the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure
+for Germany in 1235 they were forced to accept peace on onerous
+terms. During the interregnum (1241-1243) following on the
+death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline cause revived in Tuscany
+and imperial authority was re-established. The tumults against
+the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many
+Ghibelline nobles favoured by the <i>podestà</i> Pace di Pesamigola,
+indicate a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II.,
+having defeated his enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two
+Sicilies, appointed his natural son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial
+vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil war broke out, entered the
+city with 1600 German knights. The Ghibellines now triumphed
+completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders were driven into
+exile&mdash;the first of many instances in Florentine history of exile
+<i>en masse</i> of a defeated party. The attempt to seize Montevarchi
+and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
+failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six <i>caporali di
+popolo</i>, who formed the basis of the <i>primo popolo</i> or body of
+citizens independent of the nobles, headed by the <i>capitano
+del popolo</i>. The Ghibellines being unable to maintain their
+<span class="sidenote">Comune and popolo.</span>
+supremacy, the city came to be divided into two
+almost autonomous republics, the <i>comune</i> headed by
+the <i>podestà</i>, and the <i>popolo</i> headed by the <i>capitano</i> and
+militarily organized into twenty companies; the central
+power was represented by twelve <i>anziani</i> or elders. The <i>podestà</i>,
+who was always a foreigner, usually commanded the army, represented
+the city before foreign powers, and signed treaties. He
+was assisted by the <i>consiglio speciale</i> of 90 and the <i>consiglio
+generale e speciale</i> of 300, composed of nobles, while the <i>capitano
+del popolo</i> had also two councils composed of burghers, heads of
+the gilds, <i>gonfalonieri</i> of the companies, &amp;c. The <i>anziani</i> had a
+council of 36 burghers, and then there was the <i>parlamento</i> or
+general assembly of the people, which met only on great
+occasions. At this time the <i>podestà&rsquo;s</i> palace (the Bargello) was
+built, and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be
+accepted as the standard gold piece throughout Europe. But,
+although greatly strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be
+called the democrats as opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats,
+were by no means wholly victorious, and in 1251 they had to
+defend themselves against a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena,
+Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine Ghibellines; the
+Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after their
+plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in
+its hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession
+of Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines
+declared war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs
+of other towns was cunningly induced to believe that Siena
+would surrender at the first summons; but it was met by a
+Sienese army reinforced by Florentine exiles, including Farinata
+degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by the cavalry of Manfred
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Montaperti (1260).</span>
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the count
+of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were
+totally routed at Montaperti on the 4th of September
+1260. Count Giordano entered Florence, appointed
+Count Guido Novello <i>podestà</i>, and began a series of persecutions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze the
+walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the
+idea, saying that &ldquo;he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
+fatherland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the
+old liberties were abolished, and the <i>popolo</i> was deprived of all
+share in the administration. But when Charles I.
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of Anjou descended into Italy as champion of
+<span class="sidenote">New constitution.</span>
+the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed
+(1266), the <i>popolo</i>, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry,
+was ready to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and
+the Ghibellines were expelled, but it was not the <i>popolo</i> who
+triumphed; the pope and Charles were the real masters of the
+situation, and the Florentines found they had exchanged a
+foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who was foreign and
+Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
+the <i>podestà</i> who represented King Charles was assisted by 12
+<i>buoni uomini</i>, and by the council of the 100 <i>buoni uomini del
+popolo</i>, &ldquo;without the deliberation of whom,&rdquo; says Villani, &ldquo;no
+great matter nor expenditure could be undertaken.&rdquo; Other
+bodies and magistrates were maintained, and the <i>capitano del
+popolo</i>, now called <i>capitano della massa di parte Guelfa</i>, tended
+to become a very important person. The property of the
+Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six <i>capitani
+di parte Guelfa</i> appointed to administer it and in general to
+expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole
+constitution of the republic, although of very democratic
+tendencies, seemed designed to promote civil strife and weaken
+the central power.</p>
+
+<p>While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed
+to argue small political ability and no stability in the Florentines,
+the people had built up a wonderful commercial
+organization. Each of the seven <i>arti maggiori</i> or
+<span class="sidenote">Florentine trade and the gilds.</span>
+greater gilds was organized like a small state with its
+councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &amp;c., and
+in times of trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine
+cloth especially was known and sold all over Europe, and the
+Florentines were regarded as the first merchants of the age.
+If the life of the city went on uninterruptedly even during the
+many changes of government and the almost endemic civil war,
+it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who could carry on the
+administration without a government.</p>
+
+<p>After Charles&rsquo;s victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines
+defeated the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan
+territory. As Charles perpetually interfered in their
+affairs, always favouring the <i>grandi</i> or Guelph nobles,
+<span class="sidenote">Cardinal Latino.</span>
+some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a counterpoise,
+which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph of
+Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come
+to terms with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278
+to give up his title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had
+held during the interregnum following on the death of Frederick
+II. In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher
+Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal
+bishop of Ostia the same year, to reconcile the parties in Florence
+once more. Cardinal Latino to some extent succeeded, and was
+granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He raised the 12
+<i>buoni uomini</i> to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be changed
+every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100.
+A force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the <i>podestà</i>
+and <i>capitano</i> (now both elected by the people) to keep order and
+oblige the <i>grandi</i> to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (<i>q.v.</i>)
+by weakening Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed
+at complete independence of emperors, kings and popes. After
+1282 the <i>signoria</i> was composed of the 3 (afterwards 6) <i>priori</i>
+of the gilds, who ended by ousting the <i>buoni uomini</i>, while a
+<i>defensor artificum et artium</i> takes the place of the <i>capitano</i>;
+thus the republic became an essentially trading community,
+governed by the <i>popolani grassi</i> or rich merchants.</p>
+
+<p>The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power
+of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini
+were completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a
+battle made famous by the fact that Dante took part in it.
+War against the Pisans, who had been defeated by the Genoese
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Campaldino (1289).</span>
+in the naval battle of La Meloria in 1284, was
+carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was
+made. But the <i>grandi</i>, who had largely contributed
+to the victory of Campaldino, especially men like Corso
+Donati and Vieri de&rsquo; Cerchi, were becoming more powerful, and
+Charles had increased their number by creating a great many
+knights; but their attempts to interfere with the administration
+of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were passed to
+reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the abolition
+of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in
+the number of <i>arti</i>, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 <i>maggiori</i> and 14
+<i>minori</i>) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for
+the Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing
+power and arrogance of the <i>grandi</i>, who in spite of their exclusion
+from many offices were still influential and constituted independent
+clans within the state. The law obliged each member
+of the clan (<i>consorteria</i>) to <i>sodare</i> for all the other members, <i>i.e.</i>
+to give a pecuniary guarantee to ensure payment of fines for
+offences committed by any one of their number, a provision
+made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted collectively.
+But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe ones
+<span class="sidenote">Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).</span>
+were enacted. These were the famous <i>Ordinamenti
+della Giustizia</i> of 1293, by which all who were not of
+the <i>arti</i> were definitely excluded from the signory.
+The <i>priori</i> were to remain in office two months and
+elected the <i>gonfaloniere</i>, also for two months; there were the
+<i>capitudini</i> or councils of the gilds, and two <i>savi</i> for each <i>sestiere</i>,
+with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the <i>grandi</i>
+families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters concerning
+the <i>Ordinamenti</i> was delivered in a summary fashion
+without appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano
+della Bella, a noble who by engaging in trade had become a
+<i>popolano</i>; the <i>grandi</i> now tried to make him unpopular with the
+<i>popolani grassi</i>, hoping that without him the <i>Ordinamenti</i> would
+not be executed, and opened negotiations with Pope Boniface
+VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his authority in
+Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
+was driven into exile in 1295. The <i>grandi</i> regained some of their
+power by corrupting the <i>podestà</i> and by the favour of the <i>popolo
+minuto</i> or unorganized populace; but their quarrels among
+themselves prevented them from completely succeeding, while
+the <i>arti</i> were solid.</p>
+
+<p>In 1295 a signory favourable to the <i>grandi</i> enacted a law
+attenuating the <i>Ordinamenti</i>, but now the <i>grandi</i> split into two
+factions, one headed by the Donati, which hoped to
+abolish the <i>Ordinamenti</i>, and the other by the Cerchi,
+<span class="sidenote">The Bianchi and the Neri.</span>
+which had given up all hope of their abolition; afterwards
+these parties came to be called <i>Neri</i> (Blacks)
+and <i>Bianchi</i> (Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their
+influence over Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having
+been discovered (May 1300), serious riots broke out between the
+Neri and the Bianchi. The pope&rsquo;s attempt to unite the <i>grandi</i>
+having failed, he summoned Charles of Valois to come to his
+assistance, promising him the imperial crown; in 1301 Charles
+entered Italy, and was created by the pope <i>paciaro</i> or peacemaker
+of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and
+the <i>popolo</i> and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles
+reached Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted
+Corso Donati and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new
+<i>podestà</i>, Cante dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles,
+punished many of that faction; among those whom he exiled
+was the poet Dante (1302). Corso Donati, who for some time
+was the most powerful man in Florence, made himself many
+enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the <i>popolo
+grasso</i>, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in which
+he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg
+was elected king of the Romans and with the pope&rsquo;s favour he
+came to Italy in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines
+of Italy regarded him as a saviour and regenerator of the
+country, while the Guelphs of Florence on the contrary opposed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+both him and the pope as dangerous to their own liberties and
+accepted the protection of King Robert of Naples, disregarding
+Henry&rsquo;s summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was crowned
+emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
+ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances
+into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate
+free Italian communes. He besieged Florence without success,
+and died of disease in 1313.</p>
+
+<p>The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that
+Henry was dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della
+Fagginola, imperial vicar in Genoa. A brave general
+and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca and defeated
+<span class="sidenote">Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.</span>
+the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini
+in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa
+and Lucca and had to fly from Tuscany. A new danger
+now threatened Florence in the person of Castruccio
+Castracani degli Antelminelli (<i>q.v.</i>), who made himself
+lord of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of
+Milan, and other Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and
+1323 he harried the Florentines and defeated them several times,
+captured Pistoia, devastated their territory up to the walls of
+the city in spite of assistance from Naples under Raymundo
+de Cardona and the duke of Calabria (King Robert&rsquo;s son);
+never before had Florence been so humiliated, but while
+Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he died in 1328.
+Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been appointed
+protector of the city in 1325, died, and further constitutional
+reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by the
+<i>consiglio del popolo</i>, consisting of 300 <i>popolani</i> and presided over
+by the <i>capitano</i>, and the <i>consiglio del comune</i> of 250 members,
+half of them nobles and half <i>popolani</i>, presided over by the
+<i>podestà</i>. The <i>priori</i> and other officers were drawn by lot from
+among the Guelphs over thirty years old who were declared fit
+for public office by a special board of 98 citizens (1329). The
+system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in, and many
+persons were unjustly excluded from office; trouble being
+expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was created. But the
+first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, used his
+dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
+office no successor was chosen.</p>
+
+<p>The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they
+might have acquired the city immediately after Castruccio&rsquo;s
+death for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so owing to
+differences of opinion in the signory; Martino della
+<span class="sidenote">Attempt to capture Lucca.</span>
+Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in 1335, but
+broke his word, and although their finances were not
+then very flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make
+war on him. They were successful at first, but Venice made a
+truce with the Scala independently of the Florentines, and by
+the peace of 1339 they only obtained a part of Lucchese territory.
+At the same time they purchased from the Tarlati the protectorate
+over Arezzo for ten years. But misfortunes fell on the city:
+Edward III. of England repudiated the heavy debts contracted
+for his wars in France with the Florentine banking houses of
+Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to their failure
+and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine credit
+all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums
+from the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions
+by accusing them of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought
+terrible havoc in Florence, and riots again broke out between the
+<i>grandi</i> and the <i>popolo</i>, partly on account of the late unsuccessful
+wars and the unsatisfactory state of the finances. To put an
+<span class="sidenote">The duke of Athens (1342-43).</span>
+end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke of
+Athens, was elected &ldquo;conservator&rdquo; and captain of
+the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute and ambitious
+man, half French and half Levantine, he began his
+government by a policy of conciliation and impartial justice
+which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought
+the ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed
+by the populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of
+September was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria.
+The <i>podestà</i> and the <i>capitano</i> assenting to this treachery, he
+dismissed the <i>gonfaloniere</i>, reduced the <i>priori</i> to a position of
+impotence, disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted
+the lordship of Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and
+Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen,
+who behaved with the greatest licence and brutality; by his
+oppressive taxes, and his ferocious cruelty towards all who
+opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he concluded with
+Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
+<i>grandi</i> were disappointed because he had not crushed the
+<i>popolo</i>, and the latter because he had destroyed their liberties
+and interfered with the organization of the <i>arti</i>. Many unsuccessful
+plots against him were hatched, and having discovered one
+that was conducted by Antonio degli Adimari, the duke summoned
+the latter to the palace and detained him a prisoner. He also
+summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of wishing to
+consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
+the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the
+duke&rsquo;s abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came
+to the Florentines from neighbouring cities, the <i>podestà</i> was expelled,
+and a <i>balìa</i> or provisional government of 14 was elected.
+The duke was forced to set Adimari and his other prisoners free,
+and several of his men-at-arms were killed by the populace;
+three of his chief henchmen, whom he was obliged to surrender,
+were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the 1st of August he
+had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence under a
+strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
+his enactments.</p>
+
+<p>The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several
+measures to humble the <i>grandi</i> still further, while the <i>popolo
+minuto</i> or artisans began to show signs of discontent
+at the rule of the merchants, and the populace destroyed
+<span class="sidenote">New constitution.</span>
+the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was
+restored a <i>balìa</i> was appointed to reform the government, in
+which task it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian
+ambassadors and by Simone da Battifolle. The <i>priori</i> were
+reduced to 8 (2 <i>popolani grassi</i>, 3 <i>mediani</i> and 3 <i>artifici minuti</i>),
+while the <i>gonfaloniere</i> was to be chosen in turn from each of those
+classes; the <i>grandi</i> were excluded from the administration, but
+they were still admitted to the <i>consiglio del comune</i>, the <i>cinque
+di mercanzia</i>, and other offices pertaining to the commune; the
+<i>Ordinamenti</i> were maintained but in a somewhat attenuated
+form, and certain <i>grandi</i> as a favour were declared to be of the
+<i>popolo</i>. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial
+republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by
+commercial considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an
+ambition to gain secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism
+was the outcome of its determination to secure the bank-business
+of the papacy; and its desire to extend its territory in Tuscany
+to the necessity for keeping open the land trade routes.
+Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the walls of the
+city, for no one of the <i>contado</i> nor any citizen of the subject
+towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the inhabitants
+of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.</p>
+
+<p>Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000
+inhabitants, of whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110
+churches, 39 religious houses; the shops of the <i>arte
+della lana</i> numbered over 200, producing cloth worth
+<span class="sidenote">Statistics.</span>
+1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were found
+all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
+service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic,
+derived chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000
+florins, whereas its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military
+matters and public buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already
+a centre of art and letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and
+libraries. But now that the <i>grandi</i> were suppressed politically,
+the lowest classes came into prominence, &ldquo;adventurers without
+sense or virtue and of no authority for the most part, who had
+usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest practices&rdquo; (Matteo
+Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.</p>
+
+<p>In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed
+the next year by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced,
+which carried off three-fifths of the population (according to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span>
+Villani). Yet in spite of these disasters the republic was
+<span class="sidenote">The Great Plague (1348).</span>
+by no means crushed; it soon regained the suzerainty of
+many cities which had broken off all connexion
+with it after the expulsion of the duke of Athens,
+and purchased the overlordship of Prato from Queen
+Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it from the
+duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and archbishop
+of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
+sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to
+<span class="sidenote">War with Milan (1351).</span>
+dominating Florence, the city made war on him, and in
+violation of its Guelph traditions placed itself under the
+protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for his lifetime.
+This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled
+the <i>grandi</i>, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still
+dominated the <i>parte Guelfa</i>, to reassert themselves. They had in
+1347 succeeded in enacting a very stringent law against all who
+were in any way tainted with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves
+being above suspicion in that connexion, enabled them to drive
+from office many members of the <i>popolo minuto</i>. In 1358 the
+<i>parte Guelfa</i> made these enactments still more stringent, punishing
+with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines held
+office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming
+condemnations might be passed for this offence without
+hearing the accused; even a non-proved charge or an <i>ammonizione</i>
+(warning not to accept office) might entail disfranchisement.
+Thus the <i>parte</i>, represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains,
+came to exercise a veritable reign of terror, and no one knew
+when an accusation might fall on him. The leader of the <i>parte</i>
+was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief rivals were the Ricci family.</p>
+
+<p>Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers
+of fortune. The first of these bands with whom Florence came
+<span class="sidenote">The condottieri.</span>
+into contact was the Great Company, commanded by
+the count of Lando, which twice entered Tuscany
+but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
+(1358-1359).</p>
+
+<p>In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of
+commercial differences, and because the former had acquired
+the lordship of Volterra. The Florentines were successful
+until Pisa enlisted Sir John Hawkwood&rsquo;s English company;
+the latter won several battles, but were at last defeated at
+Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side having gained
+much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
+1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban
+V., Queen Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots
+to humble the Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should
+join the league. This they refused to do and armed themselves
+for defence, but eventually satisfied the emperor with a money
+payment.</p>
+
+<p>The tyranny of the <i>parte Guelfa</i> still continued unabated,
+and the <i>capitani</i> carried an enactment by which no measure
+affecting the <i>parte</i> should be even discussed by the
+signory unless previously approved of by them. This
+<span class="sidenote">The parte Guelfa.</span>
+infamous law, however, aroused so much opposition
+that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in secret
+to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
+the Ricci having weakened the <i>parte</i>, a <i>balìa</i> of 56 was agreed
+upon. Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from
+office for five years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was
+created to defend the laws and protect the weak against the
+strong. The <i>parte Guelfa</i> and the Albizzi still remained very
+influential and the attempts to abolish admonitions failed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed
+how the old party divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The
+papal legate at Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet
+(d. 1394), although the church was then allied to
+<span class="sidenote">War with the church (1375-78).</span>
+Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to
+the Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines
+for grain from Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate
+their territory. Although a large part of the people disliked
+the idea of a conflict with the church, an alliance with Florence&rsquo;s
+old enemy Bernabò Visconti was made, war declared, and a
+<i>balìa</i> of 8, the <i>Otto della guerra</i> (afterwards called the &ldquo;Eight
+Saints&rdquo; on account of their good management) was created
+to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo
+and Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns,
+including Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory
+XI. placed Florence under an interdict, ordered the expulsion
+of all Florentines from foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious
+company of Bretons to invade the republic&rsquo;s territory. The
+Eight levied heavy toll on church property and ordered the
+priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the tables on
+the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
+order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope
+Clement VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna,
+their captains were bribed by the republic not to molest its
+territory. By 1378 peace was made, partly through the mediation
+of St Catherine of Siena, and the interdict was removed
+in consideration of the republic&rsquo;s paying a fine of 200,000 florins
+to the pope.</p>
+
+<p>During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the
+city, but now the <i>parte Guelfa</i>, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio
+and Piero degli Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself
+by illicit interference in the elections and by a liberal
+<span class="sidenote">Salvestro de&rsquo; Medici.</span>
+use of &ldquo;admonitions&rdquo; (<i>ammonizioni</i>). Salvestro de&rsquo;
+Medici, who had always opposed the <i>parte</i>, having been
+elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for
+the abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed
+(June 18, 1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired
+to break the power of the <i>parte</i> for good. Rioting occurred
+on the 21st of June, and the houses of the Albizzi and other
+nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile created a <i>balìa</i>
+of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the <i>parte</i>,
+and partly enfranchised the <i>ammoniti</i>. The people were still
+unsatisfied, the <i>arti minori</i> demanded further privileges, and
+the workmen insisted that their grievances against the <i>arti
+maggiori</i>, especially the wool trade by whom they were employed,
+<span class="sidenote">The riot of the ciompi (1378).</span>
+be redressed. A large body of <i>ciompi</i> (wool carders)
+gathered outside the city and conspired to subvert
+the signory and establish a popular government.
+Although the plot, in which Salvestro does
+not seem to have played a part, was revealed, a good
+deal of mob violence occurred, and on the 21st of July the
+populace seized the <i>podestà&rsquo;s</i> palace, which they made their
+headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for
+the <i>popolo minuto</i>, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso
+Strozzi, as spokesman of the <i>ciompi</i>, obliged the signory to
+resign their powers to the Eight. Once the people were in
+possession of the palace, a <i>ciompo</i> named Michele di Lando
+took the lead and put a stop to disorder and pillage. He remained
+master of Florence for one day, during which he reformed
+the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de&rsquo; Medici.
+Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
+from the <i>arti maggiori</i>, three from the <i>minori</i>, and three from
+the new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose
+the <i>gonfaloniere</i> of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele
+di Lando. This did not satisfy the <i>ciompi</i>, and the disorders
+provoked by them resulted in a new government which reformed
+the two councils so as to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy
+the people several of the <i>grandi</i>, including Piero degli Albizzi,
+were put to death, on charges of conspiracy, and many others
+were exiled. There was perpetual rioting and anarchy, and
+interference in the affairs of the government by the working
+men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
+owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last
+in 1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild
+companies. Again a new constitution was decreed by which
+the <i>gonfaloniere</i> and half the <i>priori</i> were to be chosen from the
+<i>arti maggiori</i> and the other half from the <i>minori</i>; on several
+other boards the former were to be in the majority, and the
+three new gilds were abolished. The demagogues were executed
+or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with great ingratitude
+was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the <i>ciompi</i>, largely
+of an economic character, were put down, and the Guelph
+families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive
+the odious system of <i>ammonizioni</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its
+position, and in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the
+lieutenant of Charles of Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo
+Visconti, having made himself master of a large part of northern
+Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and Siena. Florence,
+alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an army
+of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord
+of Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic
+strengthened by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian
+states. In 1393 Maso degli Albizzi was made <i>gonfaloniere</i>, and
+for many years remained almost master of Florence owing to his
+influential position in the <i>Arte della Lana</i>. A severe persecution
+was initiated against the Alberti and other families, who were
+disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and conspiracies against the
+merchant oligarchy continued, and although they were unsuccessful
+party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles caused
+the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
+states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian
+Galeazzo Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany,
+acquired the lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood
+being dead, Florence purchased aid from the emperor Rupert.
+The Imperialists were beaten; but just as the Milanese were about
+to march on Florence, Visconti died. His territories were then
+divided between his sons and his <i>condottieri</i>, and Florence,
+ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
+Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished
+to regain Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and
+the allies were successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his
+ends he made peace, leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In
+<span class="sidenote">Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6).</span>
+1404 their attempt to capture Pisa single-handed
+failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
+protection of the French king. The Florentines then
+made overtures to France, who had supported the
+anti-popes all through the great schism, and suggested that they
+too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict XIII., in exchange
+for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405 the
+city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel,
+but a few days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured
+it from the mercenaries. There was great consternation in
+Florence at the news, and every man in the city &ldquo;determined
+that he would go naked rather than not conquer Pisa&rdquo; (G.
+Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by Giovanni
+Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
+mouth of the Arno. After a six months&rsquo; siege Pisa surrendered
+on terms (9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked,
+many of the citizens were exiled and others forced to live in
+Florence, a depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence
+now acquired a great seaport and was at last able to develop a
+direct maritime trade.</p>
+
+<p>Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic
+had taken no definite side in the great schism which had divided
+the church since 1378, but in 1408 she appealed both
+to Pope Gregory XII. and the anti-pope Benedict
+<span class="sidenote">The council of Pisa (1408).</span>
+XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in
+favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within
+her own territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee
+of theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council
+promoted by Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates
+met at Pisa. This nearly led to war with King Ladislas of
+Naples, because he had seized Rome, which he could only hold
+so long as the church was divided. The council deposed both
+popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of June).
+But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
+alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with
+Siena, Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan
+throne, to drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto,
+Viterbo and other cities were recovered for Alexander, and in
+January 1410 Rome itself was captured by the Florentines under
+Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander having died in May before
+entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was elected as John
+XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
+Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased
+Cortona of the pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal
+states once more, driving John from Rome, and threatened
+Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and
+other enemies of the republic, he too died most opportunely
+(6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after
+leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put
+an end to the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V.
+The new pope came to Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained
+Rome, which was held by Francesco Sforza for Queen
+Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there until the following
+year.</p>
+
+<p>No important changes in the constitution took place during
+this period except the appointment of two new councils in 1411
+to decide on questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction
+headed by Maso degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had
+remained predominant, and at Maso&rsquo;s death in 1417 he was
+succeeded in the leadership of the party by Niccolò da Uzzano.
+In 1421 Giovanni de&rsquo; Medici was elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> of justice,
+an event which marks the beginning of that wealthy family&rsquo;s
+power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn from
+the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of &ldquo;Consuls
+of the Sea&rdquo; to superintend maritime trade. Although
+11,000,000 florins had been spent on recent wars Florence continued
+prosperous and its trade increased.</p>
+
+<p>In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering
+most of Lombardy, seized Forlì; this induced the
+Florentines to declare war on him, as they regarded his
+approach as a menace to their territory in spite of the
+<span class="sidenote">New war with the Visconti (1421-27).</span>
+opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de&rsquo;
+Medici. The campaign was anything but successful,
+and the Florentines were defeated several times, with the result
+that their credit was shaken and several important firms failed.
+The pope too was against them, but when they induced the
+Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and Visconti
+was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
+terms (1427).</p>
+
+<p>The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded
+to the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various
+loans made to the state were consolidated into one
+national debt (<i>monte</i>). Subsequently all extraordinary
+<span class="sidenote">Fiscal reforms (1427).</span>
+expenditure was met by forced loans (<i>prestanze</i>), but the
+method of distribution aroused discontent among the
+lower classes, and in 1427 a general <i>catasto</i> or assessment of all
+the wealth of the citizens was formed, and measures were devised
+to distribute the obligations according to each man&rsquo;s capacity,
+so as to avoid pressing too hardly on the poor. The <i>catasto</i> was
+largely the work of Giovanni de&rsquo; Medici, who greatly increased
+his popularity thereby. He died in 1429.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with
+Venice, into another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The
+mismanagement of the campaign brought about a
+quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by Rinaldo
+<span class="sidenote">Exile and return of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici (1433-34).</span>
+degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni
+de&rsquo; Medici&rsquo;s son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both
+had agreed to the war before it began. Rinaldo was
+determined to break the Medici party, and succeeded in getting
+Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen their position by
+conferring exceptional powers on the <i>capitano del popolo</i> and
+by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had a
+great hold on the populace. Rinaldo&rsquo;s proposal for a <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>
+met with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent
+the election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders
+of the party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of
+plotting against the state, to which he replied by collecting 800
+armed followers. A revolution was only averted through the
+intervention of Pope Eugenius IV., who was then in Florence.
+A <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, and the <i>balìa</i> appointed decreed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo degli Albizzi,
+Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolò Barbadori, and others, in spite of the
+feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of
+October 1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next
+three centuries the history of the city is identified with that of
+the house of Medici.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining
+nominally a private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him,
+and governed by means of the <i>balìe</i>, which, re-elected
+every five years, appointed all the magistrates and
+<span class="sidenote">Cosimo&rsquo;s rule.</span>
+acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and
+Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain,
+Niccolò Piccinino (<i>q.v.</i>), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine
+exiles in his train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the
+Florentines under Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the
+following year. The system of the <i>catasto</i>, which led to abuses,
+was abolished, and a progressive income-tax (<i>decima scalata</i>)
+was introduced with the object of lightening the burdens of the
+poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the expense of the rich;
+but as it was frequently increased the whole community came
+to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his own
+authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza
+to become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the
+war against Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick
+III. passed through Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome,
+and was received as a friend. During the last years of Cosimo&rsquo;s
+life, affairs were less under his control, and the <i>gonfaloniere</i> Luca
+Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, introduced many changes, such
+as the abasement of the authority of the <i>podestà</i> and of the
+<i>capitano</i>, which Cosimo desired but was glad to attribute to
+others.</p>
+
+<p>In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some
+opposition, by his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty.
+Various plots against him were hatched, the anti-Medicean
+faction being called the Del Poggio party
+<span class="sidenote">Piero de&rsquo; Medici (the Gouty).</span>
+because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill,
+while the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party
+because Piero&rsquo;s house was in the town below; the other opposition
+leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But
+Piero&rsquo;s unexpected energy upset the schemes of his enemies.
+The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of Milan,
+and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
+Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements,
+in 1468, through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died
+<span class="sidenote">Lorenzo the Magnificent.</span>
+in 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and
+Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at once assumed
+the reins of government and became ruler of Florence
+in a way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted;
+he established his domination by means of <i>balìe</i> consisting of the
+signory, the <i>accoppiatori</i>, and 240 other members, all Mediceans,
+to be renewed every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having
+arisen with Volterra on account of a dispute concerning the alum
+mines, Lorenzo sent an expedition against the city, which was
+sacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. Owing to a
+variety of causes an enmity arose between Lorenzo and Pope
+Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an accomplice, at all events
+had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (1478).
+The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano was murdered,
+Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or exiled
+numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus,
+who, together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against
+him; no great successes were registered on either side at first, but
+eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale
+(near Poggibonsi) and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo&rsquo;s
+position was critical, but by his boldness in going to Naples he
+succeeded in concluding a peace with the king, which led to a
+reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was received with
+enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute master
+of the situation. In April 1480 a <i>balìa</i> was formed, and its most
+important act was the creation at Lorenzo&rsquo;s instance of the
+Council of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became
+permanent, and all its members were Lorenzo&rsquo;s friends.
+From that time until his death the city was free from party strife
+under a <i>de facto</i> despotism, but after the Rinuccini conspiracy
+of that year the Council of Seventy passed a law declaring
+attempts on Lorenzo&rsquo;s life to be high treason. Owing to his
+political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business interests
+of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
+seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy,
+which was magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced
+loans necessary, and he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti,
+an insurance institution to provide dowries for girls.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general
+Italian war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile
+to Venice, and when peace was made in 1484 the republic
+gained some advantages. The following year a revolt of the
+Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand broke out, actively
+supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained neutral at
+first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of power
+and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended
+by giving him assistance in spite of the king&rsquo;s unpopularity in
+Florence. Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms
+in 1486, and in 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa
+had taken from Florence nine years previously. The general disorders
+and ceaseless intrigues all over Italy required Lorenzo&rsquo;s
+constant attention, and he succeeded in making Florence &ldquo;the
+<span class="sidenote">Savonarola.</span>
+needle of the balance of power in Italy.&rdquo; At this
+time the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (<i>q.v.</i>)
+was in Florence and aroused the whole city by his
+denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of that
+of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo&rsquo;s government as the
+source of the immorality of the people, and to some extent
+influenced public opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on
+Lorenzo, and Savonarola, whom he had summoned to his bedside,
+refused to give absolution to the destroyer of Florentine liberties.
+Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence had become one of the
+greatest centres of art and literature in Europe, died in 1492.</p>
+
+<p>He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father&rsquo;s
+capacity and made a number of political blunders. When
+Charles VIII. of France came to Italy to conquer Naples
+Piero decided to assist the latter kingdom, although the
+<span class="sidenote">Piero de&rsquo; Medici.</span>
+traditional sympathies of the people were for the French
+king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
+Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing
+him. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and
+other towns, which Piero granted, but on returning to Florence
+on the 8th of November 1494 he found the opposition greatly
+strengthened and his popularity forfeited, especially when the
+news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became known. He
+was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
+shout &ldquo;Popolo e libertà!&rdquo; in opposition to the Medicean cry of
+&ldquo;Palle, Palle!&rdquo; (from the Medici arms). With a small escort
+he fled from the city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni.
+<span class="sidenote">Expulsion of the Medici (1494).<br />Charles VIII. in Florence.</span>
+That same day Pisa rose in revolt against the Florentines,
+and was occupied by Charles. The expulsion of
+the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi
+(<i>q.v.</i>) and other prominent citizens succeeded in
+keeping the peace. Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola,
+were sent to treat with the French king, but no agreement was
+arrived at until Charles entered Florence on the 17th
+of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of
+their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at
+the seizure of Sarzana, and while they gave the king
+a splendid welcome, they did not like his attitude of conqueror.
+Charles was impressed with the wealth and refinement of the
+citizens, and above all with the solid fortress-like appearance of
+their palaces. The signory appointed Piero Capponi, a man of
+great ability and patriotism, and experienced in diplomacy,
+the <i>gonfaloniere</i> Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
+Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+syndics to conduct the negotiations with the French king.
+Charles&rsquo;s demands by no means pleased the citizens, and the
+arrogance and violence of his soldiers led to riots in which they
+were assailed with stones in the narrow streets. When the king
+began to hint at the recall of Piero de&rsquo; Medici, whose envoys had
+gained his ear, the signory ordered the citizens to be ready to
+fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but Charles demanded
+an immense sum of money before he would leave the city; long
+discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
+ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in
+<span class="sidenote">Piero Capponi.</span>
+a threatening tone, &ldquo;Then we shall sound our
+trumpets,&rdquo; whereupon Capponi tore up the document
+in his face and replied, &ldquo;And we shall ring our bells.&rdquo;
+The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean,
+at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000
+florins, agreeing to assume the title of &ldquo;Protector and Restorer
+of the liberty of Florence,&rdquo; and to give up the fortresses he had
+taken within two years, unless his expedition to Naples should
+be concluded sooner; the Medici were to remain banished, but
+the price on their heads was withdrawn. But Charles would not
+depart, a fact which caused perpetual disturbance in the city,
+and it was not until the 28th of November, after an exhortation
+by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he left Florence.</p>
+
+<p>It was now intended to re-establish the government on the
+basis of the old republican institutions, but it was found that
+sixty years of Medici rule had reduced them to mere
+shadows, and the condition of the government, largely
+<span class="sidenote">The revived republic.<br />Savonarola as a statesman.</span>
+controlled by a <i>balìa</i> of 20 <i>accoppiatori</i> and frequently
+disturbed by the summoning of the <i>parlamento</i>, was
+utterly chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of
+changing the constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer
+an upper class accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class
+was thoroughly demoralized. Many proposals were made, none
+of them of practical value, until Savonarola, who had
+already made a reputation as a moral reformer, began
+his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing
+confusion the people turned to him as their only hope,
+and gradually a new government was evolved, each law being
+enacted as the result of his exhortations. A Greater Council
+empowered to appoint magistrates and pass laws was formed,
+to which all citizens <i>netti di specchio</i> (who had paid their taxes)
+and <i>beneficiati</i> (<i>i.e.</i> who had sat in one of the higher magistracies
+or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had done
+so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200
+such citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months.
+The Greater Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens
+over forty years old, also to be changed every six months; this
+body, which the signory must consult once a week, together
+with the colleges and the signory itself, was to appoint
+ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
+confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished
+and a 10% tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a
+law of amnesty for political offenders enacted. Savonarola
+also proposed a court of appeal for criminal and political crimes
+tried by the <i>Otto di guardia e balìa</i>; this too was agreed to, but
+the right of appeal was to be, not to a court as Savonarola
+suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to grave
+abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions.
+The <i>parlamenti</i> were abolished and a <i>monte di pietà</i> to advance
+money at reasonable interest was created. But in spite of
+Savonarola&rsquo;s popularity there was a party called the <i>Bigi</i>
+(greys) who intrigued secretly in favour of the return of the
+Medici, while the men of wealth, called the <i>Arrabbiati</i>, although
+they hated the Medici, were even more openly opposed to the
+actual régime and desired to set up an aristocratic oligarchy.
+The adherents of Savonarola were called the <i>Piagnoni</i>, or
+snivellers, while the <i>Neutrali</i> changed sides frequently.</p>
+
+<p>A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain
+having been made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced
+to return to France. On his way back he passed through
+Florence, and; although the republic had refused to join the
+<span class="sidenote">League against Charles VIII.</span>
+league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero de&rsquo; Medici was in the
+king&rsquo;s train. Savonarola was again sent to the French camp,
+and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
+had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time
+Charles violated his promise by giving aid to the Pisans
+in their revolt against Florence, and did not restore the
+other fortresses. After the French had abandoned
+Italy, Piero de&rsquo; Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a
+number of mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the
+citizens, fired by Savonarola&rsquo;s enthusiasm, flew to arms and
+prepared for an energetic resistance; owing to Piero&rsquo;s incapacity
+and the exhaustion of his funds the expedition came to nothing.
+At the same time the conditions of the city were not prosperous;
+its resources were strained by the sums paid to Charles and by
+the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed, famine and
+plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was proceeding
+unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of
+one of its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi.
+The league now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI.
+<span class="sidenote">Alexander VI. against Florence.</span>
+hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy
+the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici temporarily
+and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians
+and Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was
+great misery in Florence. All this decreased Savonarola&rsquo;s
+popularity to some extent, but the enemy having been beaten
+at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the point of
+breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar&rsquo;s party
+was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were
+held, Savonarola&rsquo;s sermons against corruption and vice seemed
+to have temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival
+of 1497 remained famous for the burning of the &ldquo;vanities&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+indecent books and pictures and carnival masks and costumes).
+The friar&rsquo;s sermons against ecclesiastical corruption, and especially
+against the pope, resulted in his excommunication by the
+latter, in consequence of which he lost much of his influence
+and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero made
+another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots
+having been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent
+citizens were tried and put to death; but the party hostile
+to Savonarola gained ground and had the support of the
+Franciscans, who were hostile to the Dominican order. Pulpit
+warfare was waged between Savonarola and his opponents, and
+the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in a proposed
+ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
+again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him,
+but without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against
+the city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of
+Arrabbiati having been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola&rsquo;s
+opponents attacked the convent of St Mark where he resided,
+and he himself was arrested and imprisoned. The commission
+appointed to try him on charges of heresy and treason was composed
+<span class="sidenote">Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498).</span>
+of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had
+previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities
+were committed during the three trials, and
+the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The outgoing
+signory secured the election of another which was of
+their way of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola
+was condemned to death and executed the following day.</p>
+
+<p>The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence
+was less critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was
+renewed, and in 1499 the city might have been taken but for
+the dilatory tactics of the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli,
+who was consequently arrested on a charge of treason and put
+to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent an army into
+Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
+Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in
+Romagna, suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici
+in Florence, and the danger was only warded off by appointing
+him captain-general of the Florentine forces at a large salary
+(1501). The weakness of the government becoming every
+day more apparent, several constitutional changes were made,
+and many old institutions, such as that of the <i>podestà</i> and
+<i>capitano del popolo</i>, were abolished; finally in 1502, in order
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+to give more stability to the government, the office of <i>gonfaloniere</i>,
+with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was made a life
+appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini (1448-1522),
+<span class="sidenote">Piero Soderini.</span>
+an honest public-spirited man of no particular party,
+but lacking in strength of character. One useful
+measure which he took was the institution of a national
+militia at the suggestion of Niccolò Machiavelli (1505). In the
+meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without much headway
+being made. In 1503 both Piero de&rsquo; Medici and Alexander VI.
+had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who
+was at war with France over the partition of Naples, helped the
+Pisans as the enemies of Florence, France&rsquo;s ally (1501-1504),
+but when the war was over the Florentines were able to lay
+siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509 the city was driven by famine
+to surrender and became a dependency of Florence once more.</p>
+
+<p>Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai
+with France and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510,
+and raised the cry of &ldquo;Fuori i Barbari&rdquo; (out with the
+barbarians), with a view to expelling the French from
+<span class="sidenote">Schismatic council of Pisa (1510).</span>
+Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
+council so as to create a schism in the Church, and
+demanded that it be held in Florentine territory. After
+some hesitation the republic agreed to the demand, and the council
+was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope immediately placed
+Florence under an interdict. At the request of the Florentines
+the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them from
+the pope&rsquo;s wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona
+and accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de&rsquo; Medici and his brother
+Giuliano entered the republic&rsquo;s territory and demanded 100,000
+florins, the dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the
+Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Greater Council
+supported him and preparations for defence were made. In
+August the Spaniards took Prato by storm and committed
+hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence was in a panic,
+a group of the <i>Ottimati</i>, or nobles, forced Soderini to resign and
+leave the city, and Cardona&rsquo;s new terms were accepted, viz.
+the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an
+<span class="sidenote">Return of the Medici (1512).</span>
+alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512
+Giuliano and Giovanni de&rsquo; Medici, and their nephew
+Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish troops;
+a <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, and a packed <i>balìa</i>
+formed which abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution
+similar to that of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano
+became <i>de facto</i> head of the government, but he did not pursue
+the usual vindictive policy of his house, although he resorted
+to the Laurentian method of amusing the citizens with splendid
+festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., Giovanni de&rsquo;
+Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly enhanced
+the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano
+died, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke
+of Urbino. At his death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de&rsquo; Medici (son
+of the Giuliano murdered in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge
+of the government; he met with some opposition and had to
+play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he did not rule
+badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of freedom.
+In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his relatives
+Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
+under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was
+styled the <i>Magnifico</i> and destined to be ruler of the republic,
+but Cardinal Passerini&rsquo;s regency proved most unpopular, and the
+city was soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and
+Passerini showed himself quite unequal to coping with the
+situation. The Ottimati were mostly anti-Medicean, and by 1527
+the position was untenable. When Filippo Strozzi, and above
+<span class="sidenote">Second expulsion of the Medici (1527).</span>
+all his wife, threw their influence in the scales against
+the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion
+from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro
+left Florence (17th of May 1527). A <i>Consiglio
+degli Scelti</i> was summoned, and a constitution similar
+to that of Savonarola&rsquo;s time was established. The Greater
+Council was revived and Niccolò Capponi created <i>gonfaloniere</i>
+for a year. But Florence was torn by factions&mdash;the Ottimati
+who desired an oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally
+supported them, the Adirati who opposed Capponi for his
+moderation, the Arrabbiati who were strongly anti-Medicean,
+and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. &ldquo;It is almost
+impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as Florence
+then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
+chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted,
+their dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they
+would be hunted from their country or die of grief&rdquo; (Benedette
+Varchi). Capponi did his best to reform the city and save the
+situation, and while adopting Savonarola&rsquo;s tone in internal
+affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign situation, realizing that
+a reconciliation between the pope and the emperor Charles V.
+would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement would certainly
+seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power. Having
+been re-elected <i>gonfaloniere</i> in spite of much opposition in 1528,
+Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence
+with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high
+treason, and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave
+the city for six months. Francesco Carducci was elected <i>gonfaloniere</i>
+in his place, and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and
+the emperor concluded a treaty by which the latter agreed to
+re-establish the Medici in Florence. Carducci made preparations
+for a siege, but a large part of the people were against him,
+either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the Frateschi,
+as the believers in Savonarola&rsquo;s views were called, supported
+him strongly. A body called the <i>Nove della Milizia</i>, of whom
+Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the
+defence of the city, and Michelangelo (<i>q.v.</i>) himself superintended
+the strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate
+choice for the chief command of the army was the appointment
+of Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under
+Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on the city. In September
+Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities fell before the
+Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the pope were
+<span class="sidenote">The siege of Florence.</span>
+unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun.
+Although alone against papacy and empire, the citizens
+showed the greatest spirit and devotion, and were
+successful in many sorties. The finest figure produced
+by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (<i>q.v.</i>); by his
+defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and
+was appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid
+marches and counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the
+enemy unexpectedly, and harassing them continually. But
+Malatesta was a traitor at heart and hindered the defence of
+the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had recaptured Volterra,
+marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the Imperialists in
+the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of August,
+but in spite of Ferruccio&rsquo;s heroism he was defeated and killed;
+the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement.
+Malatesta contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous
+attack by the besieged. The sufferings from famine within the
+city were now very great, and an increasingly large part of the
+people favoured surrender. The signory, at last realizing that
+Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed him; but it was too late,
+and he now behaved as though he were governor of Florence;
+when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he turned
+his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that
+<span class="sidenote">Surrender of Florence (1530).</span>
+all hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don
+Ferrante Gonzaga, the new imperial commander.
+On the 12th the capitulation was signed: Florence
+was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici
+were to be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government,
+&ldquo;it being understood that liberty is to be preserved.&rdquo;
+Baccio Valori, a Medicean who had been in the imperialist camp,
+now took charge, and the city was occupied by foreign troops.
+A <i>parlamento</i> was summoned, the usual packed <i>balìa</i> created, and
+all opposition silenced. The city was given over to Pope Clement,
+who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, had Carducci
+and Girolami (the last <i>gonfaloniere</i>) hanged, and established
+Alessandro de&rsquo; Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino,
+as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+the signory was abolished, Alessandro created <i>gonfaloniere</i> for
+life, and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial
+patent. Thus Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital
+of the duchy (afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian
+Gastone in 1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis,
+duke of Lorraine. But it was governed by a regency
+until 1753, when it was conferred by the empress
+<span class="sidenote">The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany.</span>
+Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
+Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of
+Habsburg-Lorraine was driven from the throne, and Tuscany
+was annexed to the French empire in 1808. In 1809 Florence
+was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but after the fall of
+Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in 1833,
+and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
+revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a
+constitution. But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke
+returned under an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the
+Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, by a
+bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was expelled and
+Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy,
+but after the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the
+Franco-Prussian war, the capital was transferred to the Eternal City
+(1871).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The best complete history of Florence is Gino
+Capponi&rsquo;s <i>Storia della Repubblica di Firenze</i> (2 vols., Florence, 1875),
+which although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard
+work based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, <i>Histoire de
+Florence</i> (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see
+Pasquale Villari&rsquo;s <i>I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze</i> (Eng. ed.,
+London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Stadt Florenz</i>
+(Berlin, 1896); P. Villari&rsquo;s <i>Savonarola</i> (English ed., London, 1896) is
+invaluable for the period during which the friar&rsquo;s personality dominated
+Florence, and his <i>Machiavelli</i> (English ed., London, 1892) must
+be also consulted, especially for the development of political theories.
+Among the English histories of Florence, Napier&rsquo;s <i>Florentine History</i>
+(6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope&rsquo;s <i>History of the Commonwealth
+of Florence</i> (4 vols., London, 1865) are not without value
+although out of date. Francis Hyett&rsquo;s <i>Florence</i> (London, 1903) is
+more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat Medicean
+in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later history, A.
+von Reumont&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte von Toscana</i> (Gotha, 1876-1877) is one
+of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises and
+compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See
+also the bibliographies in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machiavelli</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Savonarola</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian
+and statesman of the same name (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in greater
+detail in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medici</a></span>, save for the periods from 1494 to 1512
+and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was restored. For
+the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuscany</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORES,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to
+Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop.
+(1900) 8137; area, 57 sq. m. Flores and the adjacent island
+of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.) constitute the westernmost
+group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly to belong to the
+archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely severed.
+They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to those
+who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good
+shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the
+cattle are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the
+abundance of the flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its
+capital is Santa Cruz das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the
+station of the English fleet before the famous sea fight between
+Sir R. Grenville&rsquo;s ship &ldquo;Revenge&rdquo; and a Spanish fleet of 53
+vessels. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Azores</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORES,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of
+the chain extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest
+breadth 37 m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate,
+chalk, and sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights
+stretching west and east, indicates a similar structure to that of
+the other islands of the chain. Several volcanoes are active.
+Among the loftier summits are, on the south coast, Gunong
+Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the lesser but constantly
+active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the
+south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior
+is little explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive
+rounded gulfs, where are situated the principal villages (<i>kampongs</i>).
+On the north coast are Bari, Reo, Maumer and Geliting;
+on the east, Larantuka; and on the south, Sikka and Endeh.
+The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to be unnavigable.
+The mean temperature is 77° to 80° F., and the yearly rainfall
+43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is divided
+into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government
+of Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and dependencies),
+attached to the residency of Timor. The population
+is estimated at 250,000. The people live by trade, fishing,
+salt-making, shipbuilding, and the cultivation of rice, maize,
+and palms in the plain, but there is little industry or commerce.
+Some edible birds&rsquo; nests, rice, sandalwood and cinnamon are
+exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of the
+coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines,
+who occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall
+and well-built, with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly.
+They are pure savages; their only religion is a kind of nature-worship.
+They consider the earth holy and inviolable; thus
+in severe droughts they only dig the river-beds for water as a
+last resource. Portugal claimed certain portions of the island
+until 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOREZ, ENRIQUE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was
+born at Valladolid on the 14th of February 1701. In his fifteenth
+year he entered the order of St Augustine, was afterwards
+professor of theology at the university of Alcala, and published
+a <i>Cursus theologiae</i> in five volumes (1732-1738). He afterwards
+devoted himself to historical studies. Of these the first-fruit
+was his <i>Clave Historial</i>, a work of the same class as the French
+<i>Art de vérifier les dates</i>, and preceding it by several years. It
+appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In 1747
+was published the first volume of <i>España Sagrada, teatro geografico-historico
+de la Iglesia de España</i>, a vast compilation of Spanish
+ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation,
+and of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author&rsquo;s
+lifetime. It was continued after his death by Manuel Risco
+and others, and further additions have been made at the expense
+of the Spanish government. The whole work in fifty-one volumes
+was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its value is considerably
+increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles and documents
+not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good numismatist,
+and published <i>Medallas de las Colonias</i> in 2 vols. (1757-1758), of
+which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was the
+<i>Memorias de las reynas Catolicas</i>, 2 vols. (1770). Florez led a
+retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid
+on the 20th of August 1773.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Mendez, <i>Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez</i>
+(Madrid, 1780).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIAN, SAINT,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In
+the 8th century Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb,
+and on the site was built the celebrated monastery of canons
+regular, St Florian, which still exists. His <i>Acta</i> are of considerable
+antiquity, but devoid of historical value. Their substance
+is borrowed from the <i>Acta</i> of St Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult
+of St Florian was introduced into Poland, together with the
+relics of the saint, which were brought thither in 1183 by Giles,
+bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a church
+at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially
+as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours
+out flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His
+day in the calendar is the 4th of May.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, <i>Scriptores rerum
+Merovingicarum</i>, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, <i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>,
+p. 490 (Paris, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1755-1794), French
+poet and romance writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at
+the château of Florian, near Sauve, in the department of Gard.
+His mother, a Spanish lady named Gilette de Salgues, died when
+he was quite a child. His uncle and guardian, the marquis of
+Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire, introduced him at
+Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the household of
+the duke of Penthièvre, who remained his friend throughout his
+life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at
+Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain&rsquo;s commission
+in a dragoon regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+a boisterous behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle,
+meditative character of his works. On the outbreak of the
+French Revolution he retired to Sceaux, but he was soon discovered
+and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment was short
+he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th
+of September 1794.</p>
+
+<p>Florian&rsquo;s first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle
+<i>Voltaire et le serf du Mont Jura</i> and an eclogue <i>Ruth</i> were crowned
+by the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In
+1782 also he produced a one-act prose comedy, <i>Le Bon Ménage</i>,
+and in the next year <i>Galatée</i>, a romantic tale in imitation of the
+<i>Galatea</i> of Cervantes. Other short tales and comedies followed,
+and in 1786 appeared <i>Numa Pompilius</i>, an undisguised imitation
+of Fénelon&rsquo;s <i>Télémaque</i>. In 1788 he became a member of the
+French Academy, and published <i>Estelle</i>, a pastoral of the same
+class as <i>Galatée</i>. Another romance, <i>Gonzalve de Cordoue</i>, preceded
+by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in 1791,
+and his famous collection of <i>Fables</i> in 1792. Among his posthumous
+works are <i>La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Mémoires d&rsquo;un jeune
+Espagnol</i> (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of <i>Don Quixote</i>,
+which, though far from being a correct representation of the
+original, had great and merited success.</p>
+
+<p>Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his
+style has all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the
+Gessnerian school. Perhaps the nearest example of the class
+in English literature is afforded by John Wilson&rsquo;s (Christopher
+North&rsquo;s) <i>Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life</i>. Among the best
+of his fables are reckoned &ldquo;The Monkey showing the Magic
+Lantern,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Blind Man and the Paralytic,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The
+Monkeys and the Leopard.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of Florian&rsquo;s <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> appeared in Paris
+in 16 volumes, 1820; his <i>&OElig;uvres inédites</i> in 4 volumes, 1824.</p>
+
+<p>See &ldquo;Vie de Florian,&rdquo; by L.F. Jauffret, prefixed to his <i>&OElig;uvres
+posthumes</i> (1802); A.J.N. de Rosny, <i>Vie de Florian</i> (Paris, An V.);
+Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. iii.; A. de Montvaillant, <i>Florian,
+sa vie, ses &oelig;uvres</i> (1879); and <i>Lettres de Florian à Mme de la Briche</i>,
+published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in <i>Mélanges</i>
+published (1903) by the Société des bibliophiles français.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIANOPOLIS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (formerly <i>Desterro</i>, <i>Nossa Senhora do
+Desterro</i> and <i>Santa Catharina</i>, and still popularly known under
+the last designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital
+of the state of Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore
+of a large island of the same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro,
+in 27° 30&prime; S., 48° 30&prime; W. Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many
+Germans; (1902, estimate) 16,000; of the municipality, including
+a large rural district and several villages (1890), 30,687.
+The harbour is formed by the widening of the strait separating
+the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 m. wide at this
+point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. and
+S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous
+and wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly
+storms. The surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical
+in character, but the town itself is poorly built and unattractive.
+Its public buildings include the president&rsquo;s official residence,
+arsenal, lyceum, hospital and some old churches. The climate
+is warm for the latitude, but the higher elevations of the vicinity
+are noted for their mild climate and healthfulness. There are
+some German colonies farther up the coast whose products find
+a market here, and a number of small settlements along the
+mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The
+more distant inland towns are partly supplied from this point,
+but difficult mountain roads tend to restrict the trade greatly.
+There is a considerable trade in market produce with Rio de
+Janeiro, but the exports are inconsiderable. Santa Catharina
+was formerly one of the well-known whaling stations of the
+South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military and naval
+station.</p>
+
+<p>The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the
+Spanish; Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched
+hence across country to Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish
+failed to establish a permanent colony, however, and the Portuguese
+took possession. The island was captured by a Spanish
+expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty
+of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa
+Catharina fell into the possession of revolutionists against the
+government of President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse
+of the revolution the city was occupied by the government forces,
+and its name was then changed to Florianopolis in honour of the
+president of the republic.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIDA,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the most southern of the United States of America,
+situated between 24° 30&prime; and 31° N. lat. and 79° 48&prime; and 87° 38&prime;
+W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the
+Atlantic Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it
+from Cuba, and by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama
+and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a chain of islands extending
+in a general south-westerly direction from Biscayne Bay, are
+included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key West, on
+an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe
+county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which
+3805 sq. m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that
+of any other state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m.
+on the Gulf Coast.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of &ldquo;Peninsula
+State.&rdquo; The average elevation of the surface of the state above
+the sea-level is less than that of any other state except Louisiana,
+but there is not the monotony of unbroken level which descriptions
+and maps often suggest. The N.W. portion of the state
+is, topographically, similar to south-eastern Alabama, being a
+rolling, hilly country; the eastern section is a part of the Atlantic
+coastal plain; the western coast line is less regular than the
+eastern, being indented by a number of bays and harbours,
+the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and
+Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along
+nearly the whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand
+reefs and narrow islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies
+of water, such as Indian river and Lake Worth&mdash;called rivers,
+lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours. In the central part of the
+state there is a ridge, extending N. and S. and forming a divide,
+separating the streams of the east coast from those of the west.
+Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300 ft. The central
+region is remarkable for its large number of lakes, approximately
+30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake Okeechobee.
+They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused
+by solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes
+are connected by subterranean channels, and a change in the
+surface of one lake is often accompanied by a change in the
+surface of another. By far the largest of these lakes, nearly
+all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee, a body of water about
+1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow, its depth
+seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing
+into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal
+outlet. Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George,
+Weir, Harris, Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and
+Istokpoga. The chief feature of the southern portion of the state
+is the Everglades (<i>q.v.</i>), the term &ldquo;Everglade State&rdquo; being
+popularly applied to Florida. Within the state there are many
+swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in the
+S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp,
+extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number
+of subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or
+less extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size.
+Silver Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and
+Orange City Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near
+Marianna in Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa
+in Hillsboro county, Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee
+Springs in Suwanee county, White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton
+county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange county, and Wakulla Spring,
+Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral Spring in Wakulla
+county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs have curative
+properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay county,
+discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per minute.
+Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea itself with
+such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as from a sunken
+reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake systems are
+usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the principal
+source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee,
+while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one
+of the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:820px; height:1132px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img540a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img540.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which
+flows N. from about the middle of the peninsula, empties into
+the Atlantic a short distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable
+for about 250 m. from its mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing
+in a general north-westerly direction from its source in the N.E.
+part of Polk county, and forming near its entrance into the Gulf
+of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus counties, and
+four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the Apalachicola,
+and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and
+traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of
+its sand reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the
+west coast. The most important harbours are at Fernandina,
+St Augustine, and Miami on the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key
+West and Pensacola on the W. coast.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They
+may be divided into three classes: the pine lands, which often have
+a surface of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam
+resting on a substratum of clay, marl or limestone&mdash;areas of such
+soil are found throughout the state; the &ldquo;hammocks,&rdquo; which have
+soil of similar ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands&mdash;large
+areas of this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando,
+Pasco, Gadsden, Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties;
+and the alluvial swamp lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest
+class, which require drainage to fit them for cultivation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more
+or less distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through
+Cedar Keys and Fernandina the climate is distinctly &ldquo;southern,&rdquo;
+similar to that of the Gulf states; from this line to another
+extending from the mouth of the Caloosahatchee to Indian
+river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and is well suited to the
+cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is sub-tropical,
+well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the semi-tropical
+and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the
+Gulf Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their temperatures
+are more uniform than those of the zones of southern
+climate; indeed, the extremes of heat (103° F.) and cold (13° F.)
+are felt in the region of southern climate. The mean annual
+temperature of the state is 70.8° F., greater in the sub-tropical
+than in the other climate zones, and the Atlantic coast is in
+general warmer than the Gulf Coast. The rainfall averages
+52.09 in. per annum. On account of its warm climate, Florida
+has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are especially
+popular in the season from January to April; the more
+important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach,
+Miami, Tampa, White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington
+Springs and Orange Springs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal
+minerals are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and
+river pebble phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the
+&ldquo;west coast&rdquo; about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to
+Lake Okeechobee. The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in
+Marion county, and pebble phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk,
+De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and Hernando counties. Although the
+economic value of the phosphate deposits was first realized about
+1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida produced, each year, more
+than half of all the phosphate rock produced in the whole United
+States, the yield of Florida (1,357,365 long tons) in 1907 being
+valued at $6,577,757; that of the whole country at $10,653,558.
+Florida is also the principal source in the United States for fuller&rsquo;s
+earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first discovered in 1893;
+and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some extent. Other
+minerals that have been discovered but have not been industrially
+developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack of a
+thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery
+of other minerals&mdash;certainly it is responsible for a late recognition
+of the economic value of the known mineral resources.</p>
+
+<p>The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North
+America; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation
+of North America and that of South America and the West Indies,
+for out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187
+are common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The
+forests cover approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern
+part of the state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine
+being predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress,
+found throughout the state, particularly abounds. About half of
+the varieties of forest trees in the United States are found, and
+among the peculiar species are the red bay or &ldquo;Florida Mahogany,&rdquo;
+satinwood and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both
+almost extinct. The lumber industry is important: in 1905 the
+total factory product of lumber and timber was valued at
+$10,901,650, and lumber and planing mill products were valued
+at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most valuable industry in
+the state; in 1905 it was second to the manufacture of tobacco.
+The fauna is similar in general to that of the southern United States.
+Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea cow), alligator and
+crocodile, but the number of these has been greatly diminished by
+hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild cats (lynx) are found,
+but in decreasing numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The fisheries are very valuable; the total number of species of
+fish in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on
+one coast are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are
+hunted for sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout,
+sheepshead and Spanish mackerel are of great economic value.
+The sponge and oyster fisheries are also important. The total
+product of the fisheries in 1902 was valued at about $2,000,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Industry and Commerce.</i>&mdash;The principal occupation is agriculture,
+in which 44% of the labouring population was engaged
+in 1900, but only 12.6% of the total land surface was enclosed
+in farms, of which only 34.6% was improved, and the total
+agricultural product for 1899 was valued at $18,309,104. As
+the number of farms increased faster than the cultivated area
+from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined from 444
+acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106.9 in 1900, the largest
+class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to
+50 acres. Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were
+cultivated by their owners, but the cash tenantry system showed
+an increase of 100% since 1890, being most extensively used
+in the cotton counties. One-third of the farms were operated by
+negroes, but one-half of these farms were rented, and the value
+of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of the entire
+farm property of the state. According to the state census of
+1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms,
+31,233 were worked by whites.</p>
+
+<p>Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for
+1907-8 of the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons,
+limes, grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes,
+figs, pecans, &amp;c.) was $6,160,299, according to the report of
+the State Department of Agriculture. The discovery of Florida&rsquo;s
+adaptability to the culture of oranges about 1875 may be taken
+as the beginning of the state&rsquo;s modern industrial development.
+But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887, 1894 and 1899
+(the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures for
+this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of
+the orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-raising,
+and to various agricultural products. Orange culture
+has recovered much of its importance, but it is carried on in
+the more southern counties of the state. The cultivation of
+pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is proving successful, the
+product far surpassing that of California, the only other state
+in the Union in which pineapples are grown. Grape-fruit, guavas
+and lemons are also successfully produced in this part of the
+state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables (cabbage,
+cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers,
+water-melons, celery, &amp;c.) for northern markets, and of orchard
+fruits, especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved
+successful. In 1907-8, according to the State Department of
+Agriculture, the total value of vegetable and garden products
+was $3,928,657. In 1903, according to the statistics of the
+United States Department of Agriculture, Indian corn ranked
+next to fruits (as given in the state reports), but its product
+as compared with that of various other states is unimportant&mdash;in
+1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is the only
+other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889,
+but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the
+Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product
+of rice in Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas,
+Louisiana, South Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally.
+Tobacco culture, which declined after 1860 on account of the
+competition of Cuba and Sumatra, has revived since 1885
+through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran seed; the
+product of 1907 (6,937,500 &#8468;) was more than six times that of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 &#8468;) being more than
+twice that of 1889 (470,443 &#8468;), which in turn was more
+than twenty times that for 1880 (21,182 &#8468;)&mdash;the smallest
+production recorded for many decades. In 1907 the average
+farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per &#8468; higher than that of
+any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in
+Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also
+become very valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900
+showed a decline in acreage and production of cotton. In 1907
+the acreage (265,000 acres) was less than in any cotton-growing
+state except Missouri and Virginia; the crop for 1907-1908
+was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high grade is grown
+in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the
+early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased.
+Pecan nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted
+after 1905. In 1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of
+land in the state unoccupied. The low lands of the South are
+being drained partly by the state and partly by private companies.
+Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by the orange growers, has been
+adopted by other farmers, especially the tobacco-growers of
+Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the droughts, so common
+from February to June, are avoided. The value of farm property
+in the southern counties, which have been developed very
+recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county
+surpassing the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according
+to the state Department of Agriculture, the total value of all
+field crops (cotton, cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet
+potatoes, &amp;c.) was $11,856,340, and the total value of all farm
+products (including live stock, $20,817,804, poultry and products,
+$1,688,433, and dairy products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other
+states, are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice
+the product in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments
+under the factory system only) was $50,298,290, <i>i.e.</i> 47.1%
+greater than in 1900. The most important industries were those
+that depended upon the forests, their product amounting to nearly
+45% of the entire manufactured product of the state. The lumber
+and timber products were valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost
+twice their valuation in 1890, and an increase of 1.2% over the
+product of 1900. The manufacture of turpentine and rosin, material
+for which is obtained from the pine forests, had increased greatly
+in importance between 1890 and 1900, the product in 1890 being
+valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at $6,469,605, and from the
+latter sum it increased in 1905 to $9,901,905, an increase of more
+than one-half. In 1900 the state ranked second and in 1905 first
+of all the states of the country in the value of this product; in 1905
+the state&rsquo;s product amounted to 41.4% of that of the entire country.
+The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars,
+few cigarettes being manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans
+at Key West and Tampa, also increased in importance between
+1890 and 1900, the products in the latter year being valued at
+$10,735,826, or more than one-quarter more than in 1890, and in
+1905 there was a further increase of 56.2%, the gross value being
+$16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total factory product of the
+state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the manufacture of tobacco
+among the states of the Union, being surpassed by New York,
+Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New York
+and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from
+Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has
+greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the
+raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida&rsquo;s
+aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at
+$1,590,371, an increase of 217.9% in five years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Florida&rsquo;s industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil
+War, for before that conflict a large part of the state was practically
+undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways.
+In 1880 the total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was
+2489 m.; in 1900, 3255 m., and in January 1909, 4,004.92 m. The
+largest system is the Atlantic Coast Line, the lines of which in
+Florida were built or consolidated by H.B. Plant (1819-1899) and
+once formed a part of the so-called &ldquo;Plant System&rdquo; of railways.
+The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product of one man&rsquo;s
+faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830). The
+Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville &amp; Nashville, and the Georgia
+Southern &amp; Florida are the other important railways. The
+Southern railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville,
+over the tracks of the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway
+commission, whose members are elected by the people, has power
+to enforce its schedule of freight rates except when such rates
+would not pay the operating expenses of the railway. In 1882
+the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation Co. was
+organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne
+Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and
+Halifax rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth,
+Hillsboro river, New river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this
+vast undertaking was completed. The development of marine
+commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours, but
+Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good.
+Since 1890 much has been done by the national Government,
+aided in many cases by the local authorities and by private
+enterprise, to improve the harbours and to extend the limits
+of river navigation. With the increase of trade between the
+United States and the West Indies following the Spanish-American
+War (1898), the business of the principal ports, notably
+of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493;
+in 1890, 391,422, an increase of 45.2%; and in 1900, 528,542,
+or a further increase of 35%; and in 1905, by a state census,
+614,845; and in 1910, 752,619. In 1900, 95.5% were native born,
+43.7% were coloured (including 479 Chinese, Japanese and
+Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were little altered. The
+Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely known, live
+in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the basis
+of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16.6% of the
+total in 1900 and 22.7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida,
+as for other Southern States, being small as compared with the
+percentage for most of the other states of the Union. In 1900
+there were 92, and, in 1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and
+villages; but only 14 (in 1905, 22) of these had a population
+of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a population of more than
+5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville (28,429); Pensacola
+(17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The eight
+in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola
+(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City
+(6409), Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine (5121). Tallahassee
+is the capital of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest
+religious denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while
+the Roman Catholic, Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal
+churches were of relatively minor importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;The present constitution was framed in 1885
+and was ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important
+feature, when compared with the previous constitution of 1868,
+is its provision for the choice of state officials other than the
+governor (who was previously chosen by election) by elections
+instead of by the governor&rsquo;s appointment, but the governor,
+who serves for four years and is not eligible for the next succeeding
+term, still appoints the circuit judges, the state attorneys
+for each judicial circuit and the county commissioners; he may
+fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with the Senate
+remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a
+member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being
+the attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and
+the commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state,
+attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of
+public instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a
+Board of Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a
+member of the Board of Education. The office of lieutenant-governor
+was abolished by the present constitution. The legislature
+meets biennially, the senators being chosen for four, the
+representatives for two years. By an amendment of 1896 the
+Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House of Representatives
+of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of
+members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor&rsquo;s
+veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the
+circuit court serve for six years, those of the county courts for
+four years, and justices of the peace (one for each justice district,
+of which the county commissioners must form at least two in
+each county) hold office for four years. The constitutional
+qualifications for suffrage are: the age of twenty-one years,
+citizenship in the United States or presentation of naturalization
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+certificates at registration centres, residence in the state one
+year and in the county six months, and registration. To these
+requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been added by
+legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized
+by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardianship
+are excluded by the constitution, and &ldquo;all persons convicted
+of bribery, perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall
+make or become directly or indirectly interested in any bet or
+wager the result of which shall depend upon any election,&rdquo; or
+who shall participate as principal, second or challenger in any
+duel, are excluded by legislative enactment.</p>
+
+<p>Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths
+vote of each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote
+of the people. A revision of the Constitution may be made
+upon a two-thirds vote of all members of both Houses of the
+legislature, if ratified by a majority vote of the people; a
+Constitutional Convention is then to be provided for by the
+legislature, such convention to meet within six months of the
+passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number equal to
+the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned
+among the counties, as are the members of this House.</p>
+
+<p>A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an incorporated
+town or city, owned by the head of a family residing
+in the state, with personal property to the value of $1000 and
+the improvements on the real estate, is exempt from enforced
+sale except for delinquent taxes, purchase money, mortgage
+or improvements on the property. The wife holds in her own
+name property acquired before or after marriage; the intermarriage
+of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the
+fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional
+provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living
+in adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces
+may be secured only after two years&rsquo; residence in the state and
+on the ground of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty,
+habitual indulgence in violent temper, habitual drunkenness,
+desertion for one year, previous marriage still existing, or such
+relationship of the parties as is within the degrees for which
+marriage is prohibited by law. Legitimacy of natural children
+can be established by subsequent marriage of the parents, and
+the age of consent is sixteen years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period
+(1865-1875). In 1871 7% 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000
+were issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the
+value of $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the
+Educational Fund at the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but
+$267,700 of the issue of 1871 had been retired and this amount was
+then refunded with 3% 50 year bonds which were taken by the
+Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800 of the 1873 issue was held
+by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by individuals. The first
+part of this claim was refunded by a new bond issue, also taken by
+the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an Indian war
+claim of $692,946, received from the United States government in
+1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United States
+government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus
+reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt,
+consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted
+to $601,567.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Penal System.</i>&mdash;There is no penitentiary; the convicts are
+hired to the one highest bidder who contracts for their labour,
+and who undertakes, moreover, to lease all other persons
+convicted during the term of the lease, and sub-leases the
+prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed under the care
+of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was amended
+so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will
+of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one
+state prison physician, and there are special laws designed to
+prevent abuses in the system. In 1908 the state received
+$208,148 from the lease of convicts. Decrepit prisoners were
+formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease excluded such as were
+thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women convicts
+were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convicts
+committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro
+males and 75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and
+27 were recaptured. The leased convicts are employed in the
+turpentine and lumber industries and in the phosphate works.
+The 1232 convicts &ldquo;on hand&rdquo; at the close of 1908 were held in
+38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum number,
+at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were
+maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are
+under the supervision of the governor and the supervisors of
+convicts. The state supervisors must inspect each state prison
+camp and each county prison camp every thirty days.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was
+made to form an adequate public school fund; the first real
+effort to establish a common school system for the territory was
+made after 1835; in 1840 there were altogether 18 academies
+and 51 common schools, and in 1849 the state legislature made
+an appropriation in the interest of the public instruction of white
+pupils, and this was supplemented by the proceeds of land
+granted by the United States government for the same purpose.
+In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860
+there were, according to a report of the United States census,
+2032 pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in
+&ldquo;academies and other schools.&rdquo; The Civil War, however, interrupted
+the early progress, and the present system of common
+schools dates from the constitution of 1868 and the school law
+of 1869. The school revenue derived from the interest of a
+permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and a
+poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita
+cost for each child of school age was $6.11 (white, $9.08;
+negro, $2.24), and the average school term was 108 days (112
+for whites, 99 for negroes). The state constitution prescribes
+that &ldquo;white and colored children shall not be taught in the same
+school, but impartial provision shall be made for both.&rdquo; The
+percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66;
+negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was
+70%,&mdash;68% for white and 74% for negro schools. Before
+1905 the state provided for higher education by the Florida
+State College, at Tallahassee, formerly the West Florida
+Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida, at Lake
+City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the
+Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida
+Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the
+normal school (for whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South
+Florida Military Institute at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature
+passed the Buckman bill abolishing all these state institutions
+for higher education and establishing in their place the university
+of the state of Florida and a state Agricultural Experiment
+Station, both now at Gainesville, and the Florida Female College
+at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for entrance and for
+graduation as the state university for men. Private educational
+institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De Land
+(Baptist); Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian),
+with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a
+school of expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and
+industrial arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901),
+at Sutherland (Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian
+College of Florida (1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute
+(1890), at Jasper, and the Florida Normal Institute at Madison.
+The negroes have facilities for advanced instruction in the
+Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman Institute (Methodist
+Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the Normal and
+Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park.
+There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St.
+Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a
+reform school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state,
+and a Confederate soldiers&rsquo; and sailors&rsquo; home at Tallahassee,
+which is partially supported by the state.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The earliest explorations and attempts at colonization
+of Florida by Europeans were made by the Spanish. The
+Council of the Indies claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships
+had gone to Florida, and Florida is shown on the Cantino map
+of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon (<i>c.</i> 1460-1521), who had
+been with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage and had
+later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant
+authorizing him to discover and settle &ldquo;Bimini,&rdquo;&mdash;a fabulous
+island believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+whose waters would restore to old men their youth or at least
+had wonderful curative powers. Soon after Easter Day he
+came in sight of the coast of Florida, probably near the mouth
+of the St Johns river. From the name of the day in the calendar,
+<i>Pascua Florida</i>, or from the fact that many flowers were found
+on the coast, the country was named Florida. De León seems
+to have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the
+peninsula, and to have turned homeward fully convinced that
+he had discovered an immense island. He returned to Spain
+in 1514, and obtained from the king a grant to colonize &ldquo;the
+island of Bimini and the island of Florida,&rdquo; of which he was
+appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another expedition,
+this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems
+to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account
+of the large number of turtles found there, and to have landed
+at several places, but many of his men succumbed to disease
+and he himself was wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon
+afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in 1516, another Spaniard,
+Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some distance along the
+west coast of the peninsula. The next important exploration
+of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed
+from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400),
+landed (early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola,
+and for six months remained in the country, he and his men
+suffering terribly from exposure, hunger and fierce Indian
+attacks. In September, his ships being lost and his force greatly
+reduced in number, he hastily constructed a crazy fleet, re-embarked
+probably at Apalachee Bay, and lost his life in a storm
+probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his men, including
+Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of Indian
+captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their
+way to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially
+explored by Ferdinando de Soto (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1539-1540. In the
+summer of 1559 another attempt at colonization was made by
+Tristan de Luna, who sailed from Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola
+Bay, and explored a part of Florida and (possibly) Southern
+Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make a
+permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his
+followers and gave up his attempt in 1561.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band
+of French Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then
+at the mouth of the St Johns river, which he called the river
+of May, and on behalf of France claimed the country, which
+he described as &ldquo;the fairest, fruitfullest and pleasantest of all
+the world&rdquo;; but he made his settlement on an island near what
+is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In 1564 René de Laudonnière
+(? -<i>c.</i> 1586), with another party of Huguenots, established
+Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony did
+not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonnière was about to return to
+France when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by
+Ribaut and about 300 men from France. On the same day that
+Ribaut landed, a Spanish expedition arrived in the bay of St
+Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
+(1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the Huguenot
+settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire
+garrison at Fort Caroline &ldquo;not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans,&rdquo;
+on the 20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon
+afterwards wrecked near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his
+followers surrendered to Menéndez and were executed. Menéndez
+then turned his attention to the founding of a settlement which
+he named St Augustine (<i>q.v.</i>); he also explored the Atlantic
+coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and established forts at
+San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St Helena. In
+1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.</p>
+
+<p>The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution
+of Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at
+the French court; but Dominique de Gourgues (<i>c.</i> 1530-1593),
+a friend of Ribaut but probably a Catholic, organized an expedition
+of vengeance, not informing his men of his destination
+until his three ships were near the Florida coast. With the
+co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba he captured
+Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where
+the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged
+his Spanish prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words,
+&ldquo;I do this not as unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers
+and murderers.&rdquo; Feeling unable to attack St Augustine, de
+Gourgues returned to France.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes.
+The Indians were hostile and the missionary efforts among them
+failed. In 1586 St Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir
+Francis Drake and it also suffered severely by an attack of
+Captain John Davis in 1665. <span class="correction" title="amended from no">Not</span> until the last decade of the
+17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the
+settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French
+explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their attention
+to the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When
+the English colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded,
+there was constant friction with Florida. The Spanish were
+accused of inciting the Indians to make depredations on the
+English settlements and of interfering with English commerce
+and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of
+the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were contending
+in Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish
+Succession, a force from South Carolina captured St Augustine
+and laid siege to the fort, but being unable to reduce it for lack
+of necessary artillery, burned the town and withdrew at the
+approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706 a Spanish and
+French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, failed,
+and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in
+1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Oglethorpe,
+governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made
+an unsuccessful attack upon St Augustine; two years later a
+Spanish expedition against Savannah by way of St Simon&rsquo;s
+Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe again appeared before
+the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the other
+centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied
+(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful
+history.</p>
+
+<p>By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England
+in return for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and
+West Florida were now formed, the boundaries of West Florida
+being 31° N. lat. (when civil government was organized in 1767,
+the N. line was made 32° 28&prime;), the Chattahoochee, and the
+Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Sound,
+Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the Mississippi
+river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of
+military government was instituted; immigration began;
+and Andrew Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of
+about 1500 Minorcans (1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation
+of indigo at New Smyrna. Roads were laid out, some of which
+yet remain; and in the last three years of English occupation
+the government spent $580,000 on the two provinces. Consequently,
+the people of Florida were for the most part loyal to
+Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In
+1776, the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the
+indigo plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine,
+where they were protected by the authorities. Several plans
+were made to invade South Carolina and Georgia, but none
+matured until 1778, when an expedition was organized which
+co-operated with British forces from New York in the siege
+of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having
+declared war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez
+(1756-1794), the Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most
+of the English forts in West Florida, and in 1781 captured
+Pensacola.</p>
+
+<p>By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and,
+no religious liberty being promised, many of the English inhabitants
+left East and West Florida. A dispute with the
+United States concerning the northern boundary was settled by
+the treaty of 1795, the line 31° N. lat. being established.</p>
+
+<p>The westward expansion of the United States made necessary
+American ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisition
+of West Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+aims of the negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase
+of 1803. After the cession of Louisiana to the United States,
+the people of West Florida feared that that province would be
+seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore, through a convention
+at Buhler&rsquo;s Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated plans for a
+more effective government. When it was found that the Spanish
+governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another convention
+was held on the 26th of September which declared
+West Florida to be an independent state, organized a government
+and petitioned for admission to the American Union. On the
+27th of October President James Madison, acting on a theory of
+Robert R. Livingston that West Florida was ceded by Spain to
+France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was therefore included
+by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United States in 1803,
+declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of the United
+States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the
+portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi
+rivers to Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of
+Louisiana), and that between the Pearl and the Perdido to the
+Mississippi Territory.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United
+States was imminent. The American government asked the
+Spanish authorities of East Florida to permit an American
+occupation of the country in order that it might not be seized
+by Great Britain and made a base of military operations. When
+the request was refused, American forces seized Fernandina in
+the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the American
+government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized
+in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to
+organize a government at St Mary&rsquo;s was made by American
+sympathizers, and a petty civil war began between the Americans,
+who called themselves &ldquo;Patriots,&rdquo; and the Indians, who were
+encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British troops landed
+at Pensacola to begin operations against the United States.
+In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but
+in a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then
+built a fort on the Apalachicola river, and there directed expeditions
+of Indians and runaway negroes against the American
+settlements, which continued long after peace was concluded
+in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing that the Spanish
+were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to attack
+the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of
+1819 Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United
+States; the treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States
+took formal possession, but civil government was not established
+until 1822.</p>
+
+<p>Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the
+new Territory of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have
+reached a stage of civilization somewhat similar to that of
+the Aztecs, were conquered and exterminated or absorbed by
+Creeks about the middle of the 18th century. There was a
+strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known
+as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne&rsquo;s Landing in 1832 and
+Fort Gibson in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their
+Florida lands for equal territory in the western part of the United
+States. But a strong sentiment against removal suddenly
+developed, and the efforts of the United States to enforce the
+treaty brought on the Seminole War (1836-42), which resulted
+in the removal of all but a few hundred Seminoles whose
+descendants still live in southern Florida.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On
+the 10th of January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which
+declared Florida to be a &ldquo;sovereign and independent nation,&rdquo;
+was adopted by a state convention, and Florida became one of
+the Confederate States of America. The important coast towns
+were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina, Pensacola
+and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an
+invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being
+repulsed in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864).
+In 1865 a provisional governor was appointed by President
+Andrew Johnson, and a new state government was organized.
+The legislature of 1866 rejected the Fourteenth Amendment
+to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards Florida was
+made a part of the Third Military District, according to the
+Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as
+voters by the military authorities, and another Constitutional
+Convention met in January and February 1868. A factional
+strife in the dominant party, the Republican, now began; fifteen
+delegates withdrew from the convention; the others framed a
+constitution, and then resolved themselves into a political
+convention. The seceding members with nine others then
+returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by
+General George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and
+was ratified by the electors, and Florida passed from under a
+quasi-military to a full civil government on the 4th of July 1868.</p>
+
+<p>The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a
+number of efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison
+Reed (1813-1899). The decisive year of the Reconstruction
+Period was 1876. The Canvassing Board, which published the
+election returns, cast out some votes, did not wait for the returns
+from Dade county, and declared the Republican ticket elected.
+George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for
+governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court
+restraining the board from going behind the face of the election
+returns; this was not obeyed and a similar mandamus was
+therefore obtained from the supreme court of Florida, which
+declared that the board had no right to determine the legality
+of a particular vote. According to the new count thus ordered,
+the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar process
+the board&rsquo;s decision in favour of the election of Republican
+presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors
+were declared the successful candidates; but the electoral
+commission, appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electoral Commission</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics.</p>
+
+<p class="sc center pt2">American Governors of Florida.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Territorial Governors.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Andrew Jackson</td> <td class="tcc">1821-1822</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">William P. Duval</td> <td class="tcc">1822-1834</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">John H. Eaton</td> <td class="tcc">1834-1835</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Richard K. Call</td> <td class="tcc">1835-1840</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Robert R. Reid</td> <td class="tcc">1840-1841</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Richard K. Call</td> <td class="tcc">1841-1844</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">John Branch</td> <td class="tcc">1844-1845</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">State Governors.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Moseley</td> <td class="tcl">1845-1849</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Thomas Brown</td> <td class="tcl">1849-1853</td> <td class="tcl">Whig</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">James E. Broome</td> <td class="tcl">1853-1857</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Madison S. Perry</td> <td class="tcl">1857-1861</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">John Milton</td> <td class="tcl">1861-1865</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">William Marvin</td> <td class="tcl">1865</td> <td class="tcl">Provisional</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">David S. Walker</td> <td class="tcl">1865-1868</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Harrison Reed</td> <td class="tcl">1868-1872</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ossian B. Hart</td> <td class="tcl">1873-1874</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Marcellus L. Stearns</td> <td class="tcl">1874-1877</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">George F. Drew</td> <td class="tcl">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Bloxham</td> <td class="tcl">1881-1885</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Edward A. Perry</td> <td class="tcl">1885-1889</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Francis P. Fleming</td> <td class="tcl">1889-1893</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Henry L. Mitchell</td> <td class="tcl">1893-1897</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">William D. Bloxham</td> <td class="tcl">1897-1901</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">William S. Jennings</td> <td class="tcl">1901-1905</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Napoleon B. Broward</td> <td class="tcl">1905-1909</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Albert W. Gilchrist</td> <td class="tcl">1909-</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bibliography.&mdash;Physical and economic conditions are discussed
+in a pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of
+Agriculture, <i>Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topography,
+Climate, Soil, &amp;c.</i> (Tallahassee, 1904); in <i>Climate, Soil and
+Resources of Florida</i> (United States Department of Agriculture,
+Washington, 1882); <i>A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida</i>
+(United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin
+13, 1898); C.L. Norton&rsquo;s <i>Handbook of Florida</i> (2nd edition, New
+York, 1892); the volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United
+States (for 1900) which treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and
+the Special Report on Mines and Quarries for 1902. J.N. MacGonigle&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Geography of Florida&rdquo; (<i>National Geographic Magazine</i>,
+vol. 7), T.D.A. Cockerell&rsquo;s &ldquo;West Indian Fauna in Florida&rdquo;
+(<i>Nature</i>, vol. 46), L.F. Pourtales&rsquo;s &ldquo;Flora and Fauna of the Florida
+Keys&rdquo; (<i>American Naturalist</i>, vol. 11), and C.F. Millspaugh&rsquo;s <i>Flora
+of the Sand Keys of Florida</i> (Chicago, 1907), a Field Columbian
+Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C.B. Cory&rsquo;s
+<i>Hunting and Fishing in Florida</i> (Boston, 1896) and A.W. and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+J.A. Dimock&rsquo;s <i>Florida Enchantments</i> (New York, 1908) are of interest.
+For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum&rsquo;s <i>Civil Government of
+Florida</i> (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the <i>Revised Statutes of
+Florida</i> (1892). The standard history is that by G.R. Fairbanks,
+<i>History of Florida</i> (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supplemented
+by D.G. Brinton&rsquo;s <i>Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its
+Literary History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities</i> (Philadelphia, 1859),
+which has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early explorations;
+Woodbury Lowery, <i>The Spanish Settlements within the
+Present Limits of the United States</i> (New York, vol. i., 1901; vol. ii.,
+sub-title <i>Florida</i>, 1905); R.L. Campbell&rsquo;s Historical Sketches of
+Colonial Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the
+history of Pensacola; H.E. Chambers&rsquo;s <i>West Florida and its
+Relation to the Historical Cartography of the United States</i> (Johns
+Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science, Series 16,
+No. 5); and Herbert B. Fuller&rsquo;s The <i>Purchase of Florida; its History
+and Diplomacy</i> (Cleveland, O., 1906). The only published collections
+of documents relating to the state are Buckingham Smith&rsquo;s <i>Colleccion
+de varios documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes</i>
+(London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French&rsquo;s <i>Historical Collections of
+Louisiana</i> (New York, 1846-1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous
+sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried the
+whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MOÑINO Y REDONDO,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Count of</span> (1728-1808), Spanish statesman, was born at Murcia
+in 1728. He was the son of a retired army officer, and received
+a good education, which he completed at the university of
+Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of law.
+For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired
+a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him
+by the marquis of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who
+sent him ambassador to Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his
+mission, he was soon after appointed by Charles III. successor
+to his patron, and his administration was one of the most brilliant
+Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of Madrid, reformed
+many abuses, projected canals, established many societies of
+agriculture and economy and many philanthropical institutions,
+and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine arts.
+Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing
+disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were
+settled. He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with
+Portugal by a double marriage between the members of the
+royal houses, designing by this arrangement to place ultimately
+a Spanish prince on the throne of Portugal. But in this he failed.
+Floridablanca was the right-hand man of King Charles III. in
+his policy of domestic reform, and was much under the influence
+of French <i>philosophes</i> and economic writers. Like other reformers
+of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal
+authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism.
+The French Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he
+advocated the support of the first coalition against France.
+He retained his office for three years under Charles IV.; but in
+1792, through the influence of the favourite Godoy, he was
+dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of Pampeluna. Here
+he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of his
+brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates,
+and remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He
+was then called by his countrymen to take the presidency of
+the central junta. But his strength failed him, and he died at
+Seville on the 20th of November of the same year. He left
+several short treatises on jurisprudence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Obras originales del Conde de Floridablanca</i>, edited, with biographical
+introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the <i>Biblioteca de
+Rivadeneyra</i>, vol. lix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIDOR<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Josias de Soulas</span>, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. <i>c</i>.
+1671), French actor, was born in Brie early in the 17th century,
+the son of a gentleman of German family who had moved to
+France, married there, and become a Roman Catholic. The son
+entered the French army, but after being promoted ensign,
+quitted the army for the theatre, where he took the name
+of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three
+years later he was called to the company at the Hôtel de Bourgogne,
+where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and
+comedy and became the head of his profession. He was a man
+of superb physique and excellent carriage, with a flexible and
+sonorous voice, and manners of rare distinction and elegance.
+He was much liked at court, and Louis XIV. held him in particular
+esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIN,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the name applied to several coins of the continent
+of Europe and to two coins struck in England at different times.
+The word comes through the Fr. <i>florin</i> from the Ital. <i>fiorino</i>,
+flower, Lat. <i>flos</i>, <i>florem</i>. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold
+coin issued at Florence in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains.
+This coin bore on the obverse a lily, from which it took its name
+of &ldquo;the flower,&rdquo; on the reverse the Latin name of the city
+<i>Florentia</i>, from which it was also known as a &ldquo;florence.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Florin&rdquo; and &ldquo;florence&rdquo; seem to have been used in English
+indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin
+was held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and
+similar coins were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy,
+France, &amp;c. The English gold florin was introduced by Edward
+III. in 1343, half and quarter florins being struck at the same
+time. This gold florin weighed 108 grains and was to be current
+for six shillings. It was found, however, to be overvalued in
+proportion to the silver currency and was demonetized the
+following year. The florin did not again appear in the English
+coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having
+a nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were
+struck. When first issued the &ldquo;Dei gratia&rdquo; was omitted from
+the inscription, and they were frequently referred to as the
+&ldquo;Godless&rdquo; or &ldquo;graceless&rdquo; florins. The D.G. was added in
+1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece was issued,
+but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of
+double florins issued during these years amounted to £533,125.
+(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIO, GIOVANNI<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1553?-1625), English writer, was born
+in London about 1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents
+being Waldenses who had fled from persecution in the Valtelline
+and taken refuge in England. His father, Michael Angelo
+Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant congregation in
+London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir
+William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He
+dedicated a book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert,
+and may have been a tutor in the family of William Herbert,
+earl of Pembroke. Anthony à Wood says that the Florios left
+England on the accession of Queen Mary, but returned after her
+death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was appointed,
+about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of Durham,
+then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published
+a work entitled <i>First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry
+Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings</i> (4to). This was
+accompanied by <i>A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English
+Tongues</i>. The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester.
+Three years later Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen
+College, and became a teacher of French and Italian in the university.
+In 1591 appeared his <i>Second Fruits, to be gathered of
+Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues of
+Italian and English men</i>; to which was annexed the <i>Garden of
+Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs</i> (4to). These
+manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of
+dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer
+extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio
+had many patrons; he says that he &ldquo;lived some years&rdquo; with
+the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also befriended
+him. His Italian and English dictionary, entitled
+<i>A World of Words</i>, was published in folio in 1598. After the
+accession of James I., Florio was named French and Italian
+tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of the
+privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he
+also instructed in languages. His <i>magnum opus</i> is the admirable
+translation of the <i>Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie
+Discourses of Lo. Michaell de Montaigne</i>, published in folio in
+1603 in three books, each dedicated to two noble ladies. A
+second edition in 1613 was dedicated to the queen. Special
+interest attaches to the first edition from the circumstance that
+of the several copies in the British Museum library one bears
+the autograph of Shakespeare&mdash;long received as genuine but
+now supposed to be by an 18th-century hand&mdash;and another that
+of Ben Jonson. It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is
+satirized by Shakespeare under the character of Holofernes, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+pompous pedant of <i>Love&rsquo;s Labour&rsquo;s Lost</i>, but it is much more likely,
+especially as he was one of the earl of Southampton&rsquo;s protégés,
+that he was among the personal friends of the dramatist, who
+may well have gained his knowledge of Italian and French from
+him. He had married the sister of the poet Daniel, and had
+friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben Jonson
+sent him a copy of <i>Volpone</i> with the inscription, &ldquo;To his loving
+father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson
+seals this testimony of his friendship and love.&rdquo; He is characterized
+by Wood, in <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, as a very useful man in
+his profession, zealous for his religion, and deeply attached to
+his adopted country. He died at Fulham, London, in the
+autumn of 1625.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORIS, FRANS,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or more correctly <span class="sc">Frans de Vriendt</span>,
+called <span class="sc">Floris</span> (1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large
+family trained to the study of art in Flanders. Son of a stonecutter,
+Cornelis de Vriendt, who died at Antwerp in 1538, he
+began life as a student of sculpture, but afterwards gave up
+carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to Liége
+and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse,
+whose travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish
+into that of a mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps
+of Mabuse, Lambert Lombard had visited Florence, and caught
+the manner of Salviati and other pupils of Michelangelo and
+Del Sarto. It was about the time when Schoreel, Coxcie and
+Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating the masterpieces
+of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute Dutch-Italian
+works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula
+itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua.
+Fired by these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across
+the Alps, and appropriated without assimilation the various
+mannerisms of the schools of Lombardy, Florence and Rome.
+Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how easy it would be to earn a
+livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for engravers and
+painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He came
+home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a
+school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris
+painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish
+nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to
+have illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and
+the liberal arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of
+Antwerp, and adorned the duke of Arschot&rsquo;s palace of Beaumont
+with fourteen colossal panels. Comparatively few of his works
+have descended to us, partly because they came to be contemned
+for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to perish, partly
+because they were soon judged by a different standard from
+that of the Flemings of the 16th century. The earliest extant
+canvas by Floris is the &ldquo;Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan&rdquo; in
+the Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a &ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; (1566)
+in the Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate
+works at Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence,
+Léau, Madrid, St Petersburg and Vienna display any charm
+of originality in composition or in form. Whatever boldness
+and force they may possess, or whatever principles they may
+embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian models spoiled
+in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution reveals
+a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and
+Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which
+his works were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and
+Theodore de Galle. Whilst Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion
+of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of equal size, for the grand prior
+of Spain, he was seized with illness, and died on the 1st of October
+1570 at Antwerp.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORUS,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan
+and Hadrian. He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch
+of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the
+closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus (25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The work,
+which is called <i>Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum
+DCC Libri duo</i>, is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style,
+and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, whose life
+is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood
+and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological
+details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the
+middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius
+Florus, Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From
+certain similarities of style he has been identified with Publius
+Annius Florus, poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author
+of a dialogue on the question whether Virgil was an orator or
+poet, of which the introduction has been preserved.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which
+contain the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English
+translation in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Classical Library</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORUS, JULIUS,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan
+age. His name has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated
+to him two of his <i>Epistles</i> (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would
+appear that he composed lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The
+statement of Porphyrion, the old commentator on Horace, that
+Florus himself wrote satires, is probably erroneous, but he may
+have edited selections from the earlier satirists (Ennius, Lucilius,
+Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his personality, except
+that he was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on
+his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been variously
+identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle
+of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (<i>Instit</i>. x.
+3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus,
+<i>Ann</i>. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (<i>Odes</i>, ii. 14)
+and even with the historian Florus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> Roman poet and rhetorician,
+identified by some authorities with the historian Florus (<i>q.v.</i>).
+The introduction to a dialogue called <i>Virgilius orator an poëta</i>
+is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as Publius
+Annius Florus) states that he was born in Africa, and at an
+early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol instituted
+by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the
+prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust,
+and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher
+of rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to
+return to Rome, for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus
+who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian&rsquo;s
+answer by Aelius Spartianus (<i>Hadrian</i> 16). Twenty-six trochaic
+tetrameters, <i>De qualitate vitae</i>, and five graceful hexameters,
+<i>De rosis</i>, are also attributed to him. Florus is important as
+being the first in order of a number of 2nd-century African
+writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature,
+and also the first of the <i>poëtae neoterici</i> or <i>novelli</i> (new-fashioned
+poets) of Hadrian&rsquo;s reign, whose special characteristic was the
+use of lighter and graceful metres (anapaestic and iambic
+dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The little poems will be found in E. Bährens, <i>Poëtae Latini minores</i>
+(1879-1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author
+of the <i>Pervigilium Veneris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">E.H.O. Müller</a></span>, De <i>P. Annio
+Floro poëta et de Pervigilio Veneris</i> (1855), and, for the poet&rsquo;s relations
+with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, <i>Hadrian und Florus</i> (1882);
+see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i. pt. 2 (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr</span>
+(1812-1883), German composer, was born on his father&rsquo;s estate
+at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg, on the 27th of April 1812.
+Destined originally for the diplomatic profession, his passion
+for music induced his father to send him to Paris to study
+under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830
+caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-music
+and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There
+he produced <i>Pierre et Cathérine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise</i>,
+but made his first real success with Le <i>Naufrage de la Méduse</i>
+at the Renaissance Théâtre in 1838. Greater, however, was the
+success which attended <i>Stradella</i> (1844) and <i>Martha</i> (1847),
+which made the tour of the world. In 1848 Flotow was again
+driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a few years
+he produced <i>Die Grossfürstin</i> (1850), <i>Indra</i> (1853), <i>Rübezahl</i>
+(1854), <i>Hilda</i> (1855) and <i>Albin</i> (1856). From 1856 to 1863
+he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the
+latter year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced
+<i>L&rsquo;Ombre</i>. From that time to the date of his death he lived in
+Paris or on his estate near Vienna. He died on the 24th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+January 1883. Of his concert-music only the <i>Jubelouvertüre</i>
+is now ever heard. His strength lay in the facility of his
+melodies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOTSAM, JETSAM<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> and <b>LIGAN</b>, in English law, goods lost
+at sea, as distinguished from goods which come to land, which
+are technically designated <i>wreck</i>. Jetsam (the same word as
+<i>jettison</i>, from Lat. <i>jactare</i>, to throw) is when goods are cast into
+the sea, and there sink and remain under water; flotsam (<i>floatson</i>,
+from <i>float</i>, Lat. <i>flottare</i>) is where they continue floating on the
+surface of the waves; ligan (or <i>lagan</i>, from <i>lay</i> or <i>lie</i>) is where
+they are sunk in the sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to
+be found again. Flotsam, jetsam and ligan belong to the
+sovereign in the absence only of the true owner. Wreck, on the
+other hand (<i>i.e.</i> goods cast on shore), was by the common law
+adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by
+the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original
+owner. This singular distinction which treated goods washed
+ashore as lost, and goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt
+to be explained by the primitive practice of plundering wrecked
+ships. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOUNDER,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a common term for flat-fish. The name is also
+more specially given to certain varieties, according to local
+usage. Thus the <i>Pleuronectes flesus</i> is the common flounder
+of English terminology, found along the coasts of northern
+Europe from the Bristol Channel to Iceland. It is particularly
+partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine as far as Cologne.
+It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of 1½ &#8468; In
+American terminology the principal fish of the name are the
+&ldquo;summer flounders&rdquo; or &ldquo;deep-sea flounders,&rdquo; also known
+in America as &ldquo;plaice&rdquo; (<i>Paralichthys dentatus</i>), as long as 3 ft.
+and as heavy as 15 &#8468;; the &ldquo;four-spotted flounders&rdquo; (<i>Paralichthys
+oblongus</i>); the &ldquo;common&rdquo; or &ldquo;winter&rdquo; flounder
+(<i>Pseudopleuronectes americanus</i>); the &ldquo;diamond flounder&rdquo;
+(<i>Hysopsetta guttulata</i>); and the &ldquo;pole flounder&rdquo; (<i>Glyptocephalus
+cynoglossus</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOUR<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> and <b>FLOUR MANUFACTURE.</b> The term &ldquo;flour&rdquo;
+(Fr. <i>fleur</i>, flower, <i>i.e.</i> the best part) is usually applied to the
+triturated farinaceous constituents of the wheat berry (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>); it is, however, also used of other cereals and even of
+leguminoids when ground into a fine powder, and of many other
+substances in a pulverulent state, though in these cases it is
+usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &amp;c. The flour obtained
+from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten
+flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17th centuries as
+meal, and up to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps
+later, the term mealing trade was not infrequently used of the
+milling trade.</p>
+
+<p>The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone
+about the size of a man&rsquo;s fist, with which grain or nuts were
+pounded and crushed into a rude meal. These stones
+are generally of hard sandstone and were evidently
+<span class="sidenote">Primitive grinding.</span>
+used against another stone, which by dint of continual
+hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher
+was used on the surface of rocks. St Bridget&rsquo;s stone, on the
+shore of Lough Macnean, is supposed to have been a primitive
+Irish mill; there are many depressions in the face of the table-like
+rock, and it is probable that round this stone several women
+(for in early civilization the preparation of flour was peculiarly
+the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather pound,
+meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in
+Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands,
+and it is on record that some of these stones have been used
+for flour-making within historic times. Richard Bennett in his
+<i>History of Corn Milling</i> remarks that the Seneca Indians to this
+day boil maize and crush it into a paste between loose stones.
+In the same way the Omahas pound this cereal in holes in the
+rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound the capsules
+of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by Herodotus
+in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the
+Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between
+a round stone or &ldquo;muller,&rdquo; and a cuplike hollow in the surface
+of a rock. Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging
+from the primitive ball-like implement to an elongated shape
+resembling the pestle of a mortar. Mullers of the latter type
+are not infrequent among prehistoric remains in America, while
+Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of the globular
+form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also among the
+ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived
+in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are
+now altogether extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive
+pounder, or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct
+ancestor of the millstones still used to some extent
+in the manufacture of flour. The saddle-stone, the
+<span class="sidenote">Saddle-stone.</span>
+first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone with
+a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and
+in and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into
+coarse meal. Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand
+caves of Italy, among the lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the
+dolmens of France, in the pit dwellings of the British Isles, and
+among the remains of primitive folk all the world over. The
+Romans of the classical period seem to have distinguished the
+saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the <i>mola
+trusatilis</i>, which may be translated &ldquo;the thrusting mill&rdquo;; this
+would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The
+<i>mola versatilis</i> evidently referred to the revolving millstone or
+quern. In primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not
+yet extinct, as for instance in Mexico. It is known as the <i>metata</i>,
+and is used both for grinding maize and for making the maize
+cakes known as tortillas. The same implement is apparently
+still in use in some parts of South America, notably in Chile.</p>
+
+<p>According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete
+milling machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability
+not older than the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This is, however,
+a controverted point. Querns are still used in most
+<span class="sidenote">Quern.</span>
+primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have altogether
+disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland.
+Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling.
+The rotary motion of millstones became the essential principle
+of the trituration of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the
+roller mill. The early quern appears to have differed from its
+descendants in that it was somewhat globular in shape, the
+lower stone being made conical, possibly with the idea that the
+ground flour should be provided with a downward flow to enable
+it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however, persist.
+Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the
+two stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone
+was a species of funnel, through which the grain passed as through
+a hopper, making its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the
+space between the running and the bed stone. The ground
+meal was discharged at the periphery. The runner, or upper
+stone, was provided with a wooden handle by which the stone
+was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan age
+may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have
+been a public <i>pistrinum</i> or mill, were found four pairs of millstones.
+The circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and
+1 ft. high, and upon it was fastened the <i>meta</i>, a blunt cone about
+2 ft. high, on which fitted the upper millstone or <i>catillus</i>, also
+conical. These mills were evidently rotated by slave labour,
+as there was no room for the perambulation of a horse or donkey,
+while the side-lugs in which the handle-bars were inserted are
+plainly visible. Slave labour was generally used up to the
+introduction of Christianity, but was finally abolished by the
+emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills continued
+to be driven by criminals.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans are credited by some authorities with having
+first applied power to the driving of millstones, which they
+connected with water-wheels by a horizontal spindle
+through the intervention of bevel gearing. But long
+<span class="sidenote">Use of power.</span>
+after millstones had been harnessed to water power
+slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The watermill
+of the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period
+into Britain. Domesday Book shows that England was covered
+by mills of a kind at the time of the Norman conquest, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
+mentions some 500 mills in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk
+alone. No doubt the <i>mola</i> of Domesday Book consisted of one
+pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a water-wheel.
+Windmills are said to have been introduced by the Crusaders,
+who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed
+to have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close
+of the 18th century, when Boulton &amp; Watt installed a steam
+engine in the Albion Flour Mills in London, erected under the
+care of John Rennie. Another great engineer, Sir William
+Fairbairn, in the early days of the 19th century, left the impress
+of his genius on the mill and all its accessories. He was followed
+by other clever engineers, and in the days immediately preceding
+the roller period many improvements were introduced as regards
+the balancing and driving of millstones. The introduction of
+the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a great step
+in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen or
+linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the 19th century, marked
+another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before
+the introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 4½ ft. in diameter
+by some 12 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous
+stone, known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry
+of La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, in France.</p>
+
+<p>Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the
+flour consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is,
+mills in which the wheat is broken and floured by
+means of rollers, some grooved in varying degrees
+<span class="sidenote">Roller milling.</span>
+of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded
+and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All
+roller mills worthy of the name are completely automatic, that
+is to say, from the time the raw material enters the mill warehouse
+till it is sacked, either in the shape of finished flour or of offals,
+it is touched by no human hand.</p>
+
+<p>The history of roller milling extends back to the first half
+of the 19th century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines
+fitted with rolls set either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely,
+for the grinding of corn, are said to have been used as far back
+as the 17th century, but if this be so it is certain that they were
+only used in a tentative manner. Towards the middle of the
+19th century the firm of E.R. &amp; F. Turner, of Ipswich, began to
+build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary to the
+conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls
+were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges,
+which must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments
+of the berry. These mills were built to the design of a German
+engineer, of the name of G.A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at
+the London exhibition of 1862, but they never came into general
+use. It has also been stated that as early as 1823 a French
+engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a roller mill, while
+five years later a certain Malar took out another French patent,
+the specification of which speaks of grooves and differential
+speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the present
+day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th
+century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus
+was rather cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it
+was fitted consumed a large amount of power relatively to the
+work effected. But the Pester Walz-Mühle, founded in 1839
+by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman, which took its
+name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by Sulzberger,
+was for many years a great success; some of its roller
+mills are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty
+years, and one at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.</p>
+
+<p>It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and
+well adapted for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction,
+as now understood, was more or less practised in
+Hungary, even before the introduction of roller
+<span class="sidenote">Hungarian practice.</span>
+milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used,
+yet the wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical
+low or flat grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive
+operations. In the first break the stones would be placed just
+wide enough apart to &ldquo;end&rdquo; the wheat, and in each succeeding
+operation the stones were brought closer together. But Hungarian
+milling was not then automatic in the sense in which
+British millers understand the word. For a long time a great
+deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of
+Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to
+another for further treatment. This practice may have been
+partly due to the cheap labour available, but it was also the
+deliberate policy of Hungarian millers to handle in this way the
+middlings and fine &ldquo;dunst,&rdquo; because it was maintained that
+only thus could certain products be delivered to the machine
+by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition.
+The results were good so far as the finished products were concerned,
+but in the light of modern automatic milling the system
+appears uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately
+large staff, but it further increased the labour bill by the demand
+it made on the number of sub-foremen who were occupied in
+classifying, largely by touch, the various products, and directing
+the labourers under them. Hungarian milling still differs
+widely from milling as practised in Great Britain in being a longer
+system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of products,
+a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour
+and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate
+varieties of middlings and &ldquo;dunst&rdquo; for which no corresponding
+terms are available in an English miller&rsquo;s vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three
+terms constantly used by millers, namely, <i>semolina</i>, <i>middlings</i>
+and <i>dunst</i>. These three products of roller mills are
+practically identical in composition, but represent
+<span class="sidenote">Semolina, middlings, dunst.</span>
+different stages in the process of reducing the endosperm
+of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered
+by several layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury
+kernel or endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to
+tear and break up. The largest of these more or less cubical
+particles are known as semolina, whilst the medium-sized are
+called middlings and the smallest sized termed dunst. The last
+is a German word, with several meanings, but is used in this
+particular sense by German and Austrian millers, from whom
+it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in
+England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour
+beside a sample of small dunst the two would be easy to distinguish,
+but place a magnifying glass over the flour and it
+would look very like the dunst. If we were to repeat this experiment
+on dunst and fine middlings, the former would under the
+glass present a strong resemblance to the middlings. The same
+effect would be produced by the putting side by side of large
+middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of
+semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are
+more apt to vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter
+is the product of the later stages of the milling process and
+represents small particles of the floury kernel tolerably free
+from such impurities as bran or fluff. The flour producing
+middlings must not be confounded with the variety of wheat
+offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings.
+This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with
+a certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only
+fit for feeding beasts.</p>
+
+<p>The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was
+undoubtedly accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls,
+by Friedrich Wegmann, a Swiss miller, which were
+brought into general use in the seventh decade of the
+<span class="sidenote">Porcelain rolls.</span>
+19th century, and are still widely employed. They are
+admirably fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and
+dunst into flour; and for reducing pure middlings, that is,
+middlings containing no bran or wheat husk, there is perhaps
+nothing that quite equals them. They were introduced into
+Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were used for several
+years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from British
+mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date
+they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep
+the rolls perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their inadaptability
+to over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and
+perhaps still more the American, miller is frequently obliged
+to resort. However, since the beginning of the 20th century
+some of the most advanced flour mills in England have again
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of their reduction
+process.</p>
+
+<p>The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to
+date from 1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer,
+erected a set of roller mills in the Tradeston Mills,
+in Glasgow. This was long before the introduction of
+<span class="sidenote">Roller milling in England.</span>
+automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the
+millstone system were not seriously disturbed till
+1877, when a party of leading British and Irish millers visited
+Vienna and Budapest with the object of studying roller milling
+in its native home. In 1878 J.H. Carter installed in the mill
+of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably the first complete
+automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom, and in
+1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
+London, showed the automatic roller system in complete operation.
+From that time the roller system made great progress.
+By 1885 many of the leading British millers had installed full
+roller plants, and in the succeeding ten years small roller plants
+were installed in many country mills. For a time there was a
+transition stage in which there was in operation a number of so-called
+&ldquo;combined&rdquo; plants, that is to say, mills in which the
+wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the middlings
+were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out
+of being.</p>
+
+<p>Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably
+the best fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear
+from comparison with their American competitors. It is true
+that American millers were rather quicker to copy Hungarian
+milling methods so far as gradual reduction was concerned.
+But from about 1880 the British miller was quite awake to his
+position and was straining every nerve to provide himself with
+a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has
+often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world.
+This is true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always
+command the exact kind of wheat he requires at the price
+required to meet foreign competition. Therein he is at a disadvantage.
+But engineers have done their best to meet this
+weak point, and by their assistance he is able to compete under
+almost all conditions with the millers of the whole world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Processes of Milling.</i>&mdash;Fully to appreciate the various processes
+of modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the
+wheat as delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and
+even more objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many
+light grains and seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient
+for the miller to be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most
+approved principles; he must also have at command the means
+of freeing it from foreign substances, and further of &ldquo;conditioning&rdquo;
+it, should it be damp or over dry and harsh. Again, his
+operations must be conducted with reference to the structure
+of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a seed, the
+actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body
+which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with
+the plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in
+roller milling easily separated from the rest of the berry, being
+flattened instead of crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted
+from the stock. The germ contains a good deal of fatty matter,
+which, if allowed to remain, would not increase the keeping
+qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish five skins on the
+berry&mdash;epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and embryous
+membrane&mdash;but for practical purposes the number of integuments
+may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the
+outer and second skins together, which are largely composed
+of woody fibre; it contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but
+although these are made up of a certain proportion of proteids,
+on account of the discolouring and diastasic action of the cerealin
+in flour they are best eliminated. The endosperm, or floury
+kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of starch granules
+which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a net. This
+network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes
+are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are
+usually finer and more dense near the husk than in the interior
+of the kernel. This glutinous portion is of great importance
+to the baker because on its quantity and quality depends the
+&ldquo;strength&rdquo; or rising power of the flour, and the aim of modern
+roller milling is to retain it as completely as possible, a matter
+of some difficulty owing to its close adherence to the husk,
+especially in the richest wheats. Another organ of the wheat
+berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the
+miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the
+berry with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the
+food which the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up
+the crease of the berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being
+protected on the outer side by the first and having the third
+or inner skin on its other side. A good deal of the matters
+filtered by the placenta are mineral in their nature, and such
+portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This is the
+matter which millers call &ldquo;crease dirt.&rdquo; It is highly discolouring
+to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end of the
+berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs
+are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture.
+They have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the old &ldquo;flat&rdquo; or &ldquo;low&rdquo; milling the object was to grind as
+perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the
+grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and
+outer skins constituting the bran. In &ldquo;high&rdquo; milling, on the other
+hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim
+being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the
+wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or
+&ldquo;breaking&rdquo; part of the process. It is impossible altogether to
+avoid the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and
+worked break-rolls will make as little as 15% of &ldquo;break-flour,&rdquo;
+which is of less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and
+also because it is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which
+adhere more readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, sometimes
+called Graham flour, consists of the entire grain ground up
+to a uniform mass.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good
+milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department
+of the mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery
+almost equal in range and variety to that in the mill
+<span class="sidenote">Dry cleaning.</span>
+itself. The wheat, drawn by an elevator from the barge,
+or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a machine known as a warehouse
+separator. This apparatus accomplishes its work by means
+of flat sieves, some of which will be of much coarser mesh than
+others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which is a more delicate
+task than might appear. The warehouse separator serves to free
+dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth, stones, straws and
+sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize, oats and barley.
+Great care has to be exercised in all operations of the screen house
+lest wheat should pass away with the screenings. Besides the
+warehouse separator, which is made in different types and sizes,
+grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and
+barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders
+are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch
+seeds which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or
+oats, which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be
+followed by machines known as scourers, the function of which is to
+free the wheat from adherent impurities. These machines are of
+different types, but all depend on percussive action. A vertical
+scourer consists of a number of steel or iron beaters attached to a
+vertical spindle which revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated
+casing, the whole being fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers
+with horizontal spindles are also in great favour. Not every wheat
+is suitable for scouring, but some wheats are so mingled with impurities
+that a severe action between the beaters and the perforated
+case is absolutely necessary. The most efficient scourer is that which
+frees the wheat from the greatest amount of impurity with a minimum
+of abrasion. The beaters should be adjustable to suit different
+kinds of wheat. Scourers are followed by brush machines which
+are similar to the last and are of three distinct types: solid, divided
+and cone brushes. In the solid variety the brush surface is continuous
+around the circumference of a revolving cylinder; in divided
+brushes there is often a set of beaters or bars covered with brush
+but leaving intermediate spaces; while the cone brush consists of
+beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones around a vertical
+spindle. The object of all these brushes, the cylinder containing
+them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to polish the wheat and
+remove adhering impurities which the percussive action of the
+scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the beard or
+fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the miller
+must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and unnecessarily
+abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his flour, the triturated
+bran breaking under the rolls and producing powder which
+will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic fragments
+as nails, pieces of wire, &amp;c., magnets are used. These may either
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
+be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at the head
+of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates set
+at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to
+place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they
+should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might
+otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves,
+and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also
+be made of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling
+value of the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same,
+though details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for
+a given weight of grain. As soon as the receiving hopper has
+poured through a valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at
+one end of a beam scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the
+weight hung at the other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is automatically
+cut off and the skip is discharged, automatically returning
+to take another charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded
+on a dial. In this way a record can be kept of the gross weight of
+the uncleaned wheat entering the warehouse and of the net weight
+of the cleaned wheat. The difference between the two weighings
+will, of course, represent the loss by cleaning. The percentage of
+flour obtained from a given wheat can be ascertained in the mill
+itself. In practice the second weigher is placed just before the
+first break.</p>
+
+<p>The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the
+close of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of
+England some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said
+that certain wheats are washed to free them from extraneous
+<span class="sidenote">Wet cleaning and conditioning.</span>
+matters such as adherent earth and similar impurities
+which could not be removed by dry cleaning without
+undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and
+hard Russians, and these require not only washing but also conditioning,
+by which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With
+another class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians,
+spring Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Californians
+and the harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by
+heat is also desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the
+moisture penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the
+kernel. In a third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many
+kinds of Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally
+admitted that while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from
+the application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class
+must be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing
+machines is to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign
+matters are washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off
+in the waste water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archimedean
+worm conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizontally
+or vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving
+in a tank partly filled with water. Another function of washing
+machines is to separate stones of the same size which are found in
+several varieties of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing
+a current of water as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not
+strong enough to carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity
+than wheat. This current may be led up an inclined worm or may
+flow horizontally over a revolving tray. The washer is followed
+by a whizzer, which is an apparatus intended to free the berry by
+purely mechanical means from superfluous moisture. The typical
+whizzer is a vertical column fed at the bottom and delivering at the
+top. The wet wheat ascends by centrifugal force in a spiral direction
+round the column to the top, and by the time it is discharged from
+the spout at the top it has thrown off from its outer skin almost
+all its moisture, the water escaping through the perforated cover
+of the machine. But there still remains a certain amount of water
+which has penetrated the integuments more or less deeply, and to
+condition the berry it is treated by a combination of hot and cold air.
+The wheat is passed between perforated metal plates and subjected
+to a draught first of hot and then of cold air. The perforated plates
+are usually built in the shape of a column, or leg as it is often called,
+and this is provided with two air chambers, an upper one serving
+as a reservoir for hot, and the lower for cold air. The air from both
+chambers is discharged by pressure through the descending layers
+of wheat, which should not be more than an inch thick; the air is
+drawn in by a steel-plate fan, which is often provided with a divided
+casing, one side being used for cold, and the other for hot air. Coupled
+with the hot air side is a heater consisting of a series of circulating
+steam-heated pipes. The temperature of the heated air can be
+regulated by the supply of steam to the heater. This process of
+washing and conditioning, one of the most important in a flour
+mill, is characteristically British; millers have to deal with wheats
+of the most varied nature, and one object of conditioning is to bring
+hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as nearly as possible to a
+common standard of condition before being milled. Wheat is sometimes
+washed to toughen the bran, an end which can also be attained
+by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes along an inclined
+worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass wheat through
+a heated cylinder, while again another process known as steaming
+consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a metal
+hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to warm
+and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but these
+processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and conditioning
+plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long immersion
+in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and drying
+are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard wheats
+already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer
+and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this
+necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the
+softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds
+is desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately
+and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters
+the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing.
+It is claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are
+positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably
+true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when
+native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant
+and cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be
+an excellent substitute.</p>
+
+<p>Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during
+harvest do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a
+question of the amount of moisture absorbed. But it
+must be remembered that it is not so much the water
+<span class="sidenote">Effect of damp.</span>
+itself which degrades the constituents of the wheat
+(starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness
+produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for
+damp wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by
+kiln or steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120° F., until the moisture
+has been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from
+wheat so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound.
+The practice of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before
+the roller milling period it was found that only flour which had been
+dried (in a kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially
+when the vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted
+that in the days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to
+produce good keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up
+and triturated in one operation, the flour necessarily contained a
+large proportion of branny particles in which cerealin, an active
+diastasic constituent, was present in very sensible proportions.
+Again, the elimination of the germ by the roller process is favourable
+to the production of a sounder flour, because the germ contains a
+large amount of oleaginous matter and has a strong diastasic action
+on imperfectly matured starches. The tendency of flours containing
+germ to become rancid is well marked. During the South African
+War of 1899-1902 the British army supply department had a
+practical proof of the diastasic action of branny particles in flour.
+Soldiers&rsquo; bread is not usually of white colour, and the military
+authorities not unnaturally believed that comparatively low-grade
+flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for use in the field bakeries.
+But in the climate of South Africa flour of this description soon
+developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the supply department
+gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and it is understood
+that the most suitable flour proved to be certain patents milled
+in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not only did they
+contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but they were
+also the driest that could be found.</p>
+
+<p>After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into
+increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or &ldquo;breaks.&rdquo; In the earlier
+years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks
+than is now the case. The first pair of break-rolls used
+<span class="sidenote">Break-rolls.</span>
+to be called the splitting rolls, because their function was
+supposed to be to split the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as
+to give the miller an opportunity of removing the dirt between the
+two lobes of the berry by means of a brush machine. The dirt was
+in many cases no more than the placenta already described, which
+shrivelling up took, like all vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat
+split along the crease was not, however, achieved in more than 10%
+of the berries so treated. Where such rolls are still in use they are
+really serving as a sort of adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system.
+Four or five breaks are now thought sufficient, but three breaks are
+not recommended, except in very short systems for small country
+mills. Rolls are now used up to 60 in. in length, though in one of
+the most approved systems they never exceed 40 in.; they are made
+of chilled iron, and for the breaking of wheat are provided with
+grooving cut at a slight twist, the spiral averaging ¼ in. to the foot
+length, though for the last set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran,
+the spiral is sometimes increased to ½ in. per foot. The grooves
+should have sharp edges because they do better work than when
+blunt, giving larger semolina and middlings, with bran adherent in
+big flakes; small middlings, that is, little pieces of the endosperm
+torn away by blunt grooves, and comminuted bran, make the production
+of good class flour almost impossible; cut bran, moreover,
+brings less money. The break-rolls should never work by pressure,
+but nip the material fed between them at a given point; to cut or
+shear, not to flatten and crush, is their function. Rolls may be set
+either horizontally or vertically; an oblique setting has also come
+into favour. The feed is of the utmost importance to the correct
+working of a roller mill. The material should be fed in an even
+stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of the roll uncovered.
+The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal speeds, 2½ to 1 being
+the usual ratio on the three first breaks, while the last break is often
+speeded at 3 to 1 or 3½ to 1; in one of the oblique mills the difference
+is obtained by making the diameter of one roll 13 and of the other 10
+in. and running them at equal speed. For break-rolls up to 36 in. in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the
+standard. To do good work rolls must run in perfect parallelism;
+otherwise some parts of the material will pass untouched, while
+others will be treated too severely.</p>
+
+<p>The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known
+as scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products
+for further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving
+reels or flat sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of
+<span class="sidenote">Scalpers.</span>
+scalper on account of its gentle action. Scalping requires a separating
+and sifting, not a scouring action. The break products are
+usually separated on a sieve covered with wire or perforated zinc
+plates. Generally speaking, two sieves are in one frame and are run
+at a slight incline. The throughs of the top sieve fall on the sieve
+below, while the rejections or overtails of the first sieve are fed to the
+next break. The &ldquo;throughs,&rdquo; or what has passed this sieve, are
+graded by the next sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the
+throughs may be freed from what flour adheres to them by a centrifugal
+dressing machine and then treated by another purifier. A
+form of scalper which has come into general use on the continent
+of Europe, and to a lesser extent in Great Britain and America, is
+known as the plansifter. This machine, of Hungarian origin, is
+simply a collection of superimposed flat sieves in one box, and will
+scalp or sort out any kind of break stock very efficiently. A system
+of grading the tailings, that is, the rejections of the scalpers, introduced
+by James Harrison Carter (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known
+as pneumatic sorting. Its object was to supplement the work of
+the scalpers by classifying the tailings by means of air-currents.
+To this end each scalper was followed by a machine arranged somewhat
+like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a current of air drawn
+through the casing of the sorter allowed the heaviest and best
+material to drop down straight, while the lighter stuff was deposited
+in one or other of further compartments formed by obliquely placed
+adjustable cant boards. So searching was this grading, that from
+the first sorter of a four-break plant four separations would be
+obtained, the first going to the second break, the second joining the
+first separation from the second sorter and being fed to the third
+break, while the third went with the best separation of the third
+sorter to the fourth break, and the last separation from all the
+sorters went straight into the bran sack. The work of the break-rolls
+was greatly simplified and reduced by this sorting process, as
+each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that pair of break-rollers
+for which it was suitable, instead of all the material being
+run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and thereby being
+cut up with the necessary result of increasing the production of
+small bran.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers
+have lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the
+semolina and middlings as much impure matter as possible,
+that those products may be pure, as millers say, for
+<span class="sidenote">Purifiers.</span>
+reduction to flour by the smooth rolls. The purifiers used in British
+mills take advantage of the fact that the more valuable portions of
+the wheat berry are heavier than the less valuable particles, such as
+bran and fibrous bodies, and a current of air is employed to weigh
+these fragments of the wheat berry as in a balance and to separate
+them while they pass over a silk-covered sieve. To this end the
+semolina or middlings are fed on a sieve vibrated by an eccentric
+and set at a slight downward angle. This sieve is installed in an
+air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber with glass windows on either
+side, through which the process of purifying can be watched. Upwards
+through this sieve a fan constantly draws a current of air,
+which, raising the stock upwards, allows the heavier and better
+material to remain below while the lighter particles are lifted off
+and fall on side platforms or channels, whence they are carried
+forward and delivered separately. The good material drops through
+the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a worm. It is usual to
+clothe the sieve in sections with several different meshes of silk so
+that stock of almost identical value, but differing size, may be
+treated with uniform accuracy. In good purifiers the strength of
+the current can be regulated at will in each section. The tailings of
+a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of the feed. The clothing
+of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to the clothing of the
+preceding machines. Repurification and even tertiary purification
+may be necessary under certain conditions. In Hungary and other
+parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use. Here the material
+is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle, while an air-current
+is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve may be arranged
+a series of inclined boards, the position of which can be varied
+as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist the
+current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried
+off to further divisions.</p>
+
+<p>From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may
+require other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made
+into flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise
+great care and discretion. Many of the remarks already
+<span class="sidenote">Smooth rolls.</span>
+made in regard to break-rolls apply to smooth rolls,
+notably in respect of parallelism. But instead of a cutting action,
+the smooth rolls press the material fed to them into flour. This
+pressure, however, must be applied with great discrimination, large
+semolina with impurities attached requiring quite different treatment
+from that called for by small pure middlings. The pressure on
+the stock must be just sufficient and no more. Reduction rolls are
+usually run at a differential speed of about 2 to 3. The feed must be
+carefully graded, because to pass stock of varying size through a
+pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good work. Scratch rolls very
+finely grooved are used for cracking impure semolina or for reducing
+the tailings of purifiers. The latter often hold fragments of bran,
+which are best detached by rolls grooved about 36 to the inch and
+run at a differential of 3 to 1. The reduction requires even more
+roll surface than the break system. To do first-class work a mill
+should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the breaks and 50 in. on the
+reduction for each sack of 280 &#8468; of flour per hour. Many engineers
+consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch and smooth rolls not
+too much.</p>
+
+<p>The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth
+rolls is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist
+of a slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal
+shaft on which are keyed a number of iron beaters that
+<span class="sidenote">Dressing.</span>
+run at a speed of about 200 revolutions a minute, and fling the feed
+against the silk clothing of the cylinder. What goes through the silk
+is collected by a worm conveyor at the bottom of the machine.
+Most centrifugals have so-called &ldquo;cut-off&rdquo; sheets, with internal
+divisions in the tail end; these are intended to separate some
+intermediate products, which, having been freed from floury particles,
+are treated on some other machine, such as a pair of rolls either
+direct or after a purifier. The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient
+flour separator, but the plansifters already mentioned are also good
+flour-dressers, especially in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have
+no centrifugals, except one or two at the tail end where the material
+gets more sticky and requires more severe treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to
+73% of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very
+small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various
+grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have
+been found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In millstone
+milling the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, but
+a certain proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of
+the flour yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of
+the kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class
+patents may be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight
+grade, <i>i.e.</i> a flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance
+as can be won from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale
+for rich offals, that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another
+there may be no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general
+principles of roller milling as given above hold good all over the
+country, yet in practice the work of each mill is varied more or less
+to suit the peculiarities of the local trade.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J.J.E. Poutet,
+discovered that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some
+fluid and semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow
+tinge and converting a considerable portion of their substance
+<span class="sidenote">Bleaching of flour.</span>
+into a white solid. The importance of this discovery,
+when the physical constitution of wheat is considered, is
+obvious, but it was years before any attempt was made to bleach
+flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have been made on
+the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a process was
+patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and about
+1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of electrolysed
+sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating
+grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was proposed
+to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric
+currents. In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour
+by means of fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another inventor
+proposed to employ the Röntgen rays for the same purpose.
+In 1898 Emile Frichot took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized
+air for flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by
+J. &amp; S. Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve
+greatly if kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the
+invention it covered was to bring about this improvement or conditioning
+not only immediately after grinding, but also to a greater
+extent than can be effected by keeping. The process consisted in
+subjecting the flour to the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing
+medium; the inventors preferred air carrying a minute quantity
+of nitric acid or peroxide of nitrogen, but they did not confine themselves
+to those compounds, having found that chlorine, bromine
+and other substances capable of liberating oxygen were also more
+or less efficacious. They claimed that while exercising no deleterious
+action their treatment made the flour whiter, improved its baking
+qualities, and rendered it less liable to be attacked by mites or other
+organisms. Under the patent, No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J.N.
+Alsop of Kentucky the flour was treated with atmospheric air
+which had been subjected to the action of an arc or flaming discharge
+of electricity, with the purpose of purifying it and improving
+its nutritious properties. The Andrews and Alsop patents
+became the objects of extended litigation in the English courts,
+and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was
+substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though
+produced electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the
+Alsop process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various
+other patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken
+out.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOURENS, GUSTAVE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1838-1871), French revolutionist
+and writer, a son of J.P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist,
+was born at Paris on the 4th of August 1838. In 1863 he undertook
+for his father a course of lectures at the Collège de France,
+the subject of which was the history of mankind. His theories
+as to the manifold origin of the human race, however, gave
+offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from delivering a
+second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published
+his lectures under the title of <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;homme</i> (1863); he
+next visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan
+insurrection of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article
+of his in the <i>Popolo d&rsquo;Italia</i> caused his arrest and imprisonment,
+and finally, having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a
+duel with Paul de Cassagnac, editor of the <i>Pays</i>. In Paris he
+devoted his pen to the cause of republicanism, and at length,
+having failed in an attempt to organize a revolution at Belleville
+on the 7th of February 1870, found himself compelled to flee
+from France. Returning to Paris on the downfall of Napoleon, he
+soon placed himself at the head of a body of 500 tirailleurs. On
+account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was taken prisoner
+at Créteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional government, and
+confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was released
+by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of
+March he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of
+the commune by the 20th arrondissement, and was named colonel.
+He was one of the most active leaders of the insurrection, and in
+a sortie against the Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd
+of April was killed in a hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near
+Malmaison. Besides his <i>Science de l&rsquo;homme</i> (Paris, 1869), Gustave
+Flourens was the author of numerous fugitive pamphlets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Prolès, <i>Les Hommes de la révolution de 1871</i> (Paris, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1794-1867), French
+physiologist, was born at Maureilhan, near Béziers, in the department
+of Hérault, on the 15th of April 1794. At the age of fifteen
+he began the study of medicine at Montpellier, where in 1823
+he received the degree of doctor. In the following year he
+repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from A.P. de
+Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him
+kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens
+engaged in physiological research, occasionally contributing to
+literary publications; and in 1821, at the Athénée there, he
+gave a course of lectures on the physiological theory of the
+sensations, which attracted much attention amongst men of
+science. His paper entitled <i>Recherches expérimentales sur les
+propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux dans les animaux
+vertébrés</i>, in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to
+assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadrigemina
+and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory
+report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences
+in 1822. He was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a
+course of lectures on natural history at the Collège de France,
+and in the same year became, in succession to L.A.G. Bosc, a
+member of the Institute, in the division &ldquo;Économie rurale.&rdquo;
+In 1830 he became Cuvier&rsquo;s substitute as lecturer on human
+anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the
+post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship
+of comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the
+Jardin the same year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the
+dying request of Cuvier, was appointed a perpetual secretary of
+the Academy of Sciences; and in 1838 he was returned as a
+deputy for the arrondissement of Béziers. In 1840 he was elected,
+in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J.F. Michaud at the
+French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of
+the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France.
+In March 1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy
+of Sciences to the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals.
+On the revolution of 1848 he withdrew completely from political
+life; and in 1855 he accepted the professorship of natural history
+at the Collège de France. He died at Montgeron, near Paris,
+on the 6th of December 1867.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens published&mdash;<i>Essai
+sur quelques points de la doctrine de la révulsion et de la dérivation</i>
+(Montpellier, 1813); <i>Expériences sur le système nerveux</i> (Paris,
+1825); <i>Cours sur la génération, l&rsquo;ovologie, et l&rsquo;embryologie</i> (1836);
+<i>Analyse raisonnée des travaux de G. Cuvier</i> (1841); <i>Recherches sur le
+développement des os et des dents</i> (1842); <i>Anatomie générale de la peau
+et des membranes muqueuses</i> (1843); <i>Buffon, histoire de ses travaux
+et de ses idées</i> (1844); <i>Fontenelle, ou de la philosophie moderne relativement
+aux sciences physiques</i> (1847); <i>Théorie expérimentale de la
+formation des os</i> (1847); <i>&OElig;uvres complètes de Buffon</i> (1853); <i>De la
+longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe</i> (1854), numerous
+editions; <i>Histoire de la découverte de la circulation du sang</i> (1854);
+<i>Cours de physiologie comparée</i> (1856); <i>Recueil des éloges historiques</i>
+(1856); <i>De la vie et de l&rsquo;intelligence</i> (1858); <i>De la raison, du génie,
+et de la folie</i> (1861); <i>Ontologie naturelle</i> (1861); <i>Examen du livre de
+M. Darwin sur l&rsquo;Origine des Espèces</i> (1864). For a list of his papers
+see the Royal Society&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1831-1899), English
+biologist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November
+1831. Choosing medicine as his profession, he began his studies
+at University College, London, where he showed special aptitude
+for physiology and comparative anatomy and took his M.B.
+degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and
+went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal
+with four clasps. On his return to England he became a member
+of the surgical staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in
+1861 succeeded J.T. Quekett as curator of the Hunterian
+Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 1870
+he also became Hunterian professor, and in 1884, on the death
+of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the directorship of the
+Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died in
+London on the 1st of July 1899. He made valuable contributions
+to structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete
+and accurate measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls,
+and as a comparative anatomist he ranked high, devoting
+himself especially to the study of the mammalia. He was also
+a leading authority on the arrangement of museums. The greater
+part of his life was spent in their administration, and in consequence
+he held very decided views as to the principles upon
+which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the
+importance of distinguishing between collections intended for
+the use of specialists and those designed for the instruction of the
+general public, pointing out that it was as futile to present
+to the former a number of merely typical forms as to provide
+the latter with a long series of specimens differing only in the
+most minute details. His ideas, which were largely and successfully
+applied to the museums of which he had charge, gained wide
+approval, and their influence entitles him to be looked upon as a
+reformer who did much to improve the methods of museum
+arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original
+papers, he was the author of <i>An Introduction to the Osteology of the
+Mammalia</i> (1870); <i>Fashion in Deformity</i> (1881); <i>The Horse:
+a Study in Natural History</i> (1890); <i>Introduction to the Study of
+Mammals, Living and Extinct</i> (1891); <i>Essays on Museums and
+other Subjects</i> (1898). He also wrote many articles for the ninth
+edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOWER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flos</i>, <i>floris</i>; Fr. <i>fleur</i>), a term popularly used
+for the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the
+fairest, choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various
+technical senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical
+interest. It is impossible to give a rigid botanical definition
+of the term &ldquo;flower.&rdquo; The flower is a characteristic feature of
+the highest group of the plant kingdom&mdash;the flowering plants
+(Phanerogams)&mdash;and is the name given to the association of
+organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are concerned with
+the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical works
+the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta).
+As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized
+by the pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are
+two, viz. the pollen-bearer or <i>stamen</i> and the ovule-bearer or
+<i>carpel</i>. These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known
+in comparative morphology as sporophylls, because they bear
+the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are
+developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the megaspore,
+which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.</p>
+
+<p>In Gymnosperms (<i>q.v.</i>), which represent the more primitive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+type of seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally
+associated, often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which
+the term &ldquo;flower&rdquo; has been applied. But there is considerable
+difference of opinion as to the relation between these cones
+and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the
+flower in the higher group of seed-plants&mdash;the Angiosperms (<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;and
+it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer
+in using the term &ldquo;flower.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:469px" src="images/img554a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Proliferous Rose.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>s</i>, Sepals transformed into
+    leaves.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Petals multiplied at the
+    expense of the stamens,
+    which are reduced in
+    number.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Coloured leaves representing
+    abortive carpels.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Axis prolonged, bearing an
+    imperfect flower at its
+    apex.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots
+arise from leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance
+to each other as regards the arrangement and the development
+of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and
+other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases,
+would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to a flower-bud. A
+flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power of
+extension by the continuous development
+of its apex. In this
+respect it differs from a leaf-bud.
+In some cases, however, of monstrosity,
+especially seen in the rose
+(fig. 1), the central part is prolonged,
+and bears leaves or flowers.
+In such cases the flowers, so far as
+their functional capabilities are
+concerned, are usually abortive.
+This phenomenon is known as proliferation
+of the floral axis.</p>
+
+<p>Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are
+produced in the axil of leaves,
+which are called <i>bracts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>bract</i> is properly applied
+to the leaf from which the primary
+floral axis, whether
+simple or branched,
+arises, while the leaves which arise
+on the axis between the bract and
+the outer envelope of the flower
+<span class="sidenote">Bracts.</span>
+are <i>bracteoles</i> or <i>bractlets</i>. Bracts
+sometimes do not differ from
+the ordinary leaves, as in <i>Veronica
+hederifolia</i>, <i>Vinca</i>, <i>Anagallis</i> and
+<i>Ajuga</i>. In general as regards their
+form and appearance they differ
+from ordinary leaves, the difference
+being greater in the upper than
+in the lower branches of an inflorescence.
+They are distinguished
+by their position at the base of
+the flower or flower-stalk. Their
+arrangement is similar to that of
+the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are often
+applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with
+it, as in the order Malvaceae and species of <i>Dianthus</i> and winter
+aconite (<i>Eranthis</i>), where they have received the name of <i>epicalyx</i>
+or <i>calyculus</i>. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present,
+due to the formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In
+many cases bracts act as protective organs, within or beneath
+which the young flowers are concealed in their earliest stage of
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>When bracts become coloured, as in <i>Amherstia nobilis</i>,
+<i>Euphorbia splendens</i>, <i>Erica elegans</i> and <i>Salvia splendens</i>, they
+may be mistaken for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes
+mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped,
+giving rise to the <i>ebracteate</i> inflorescence of Cruciferae and some
+Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds
+being produced in their axil. A series of empty coloured bracts
+terminates the inflorescence of <i>Salvia Horminum</i>. The smaller
+bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a
+branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus
+anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally
+persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the
+peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling off early
+by an articulation. In some instances they form part of the
+fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the cones
+of firs and the stroboli of the hop are composed of a series of
+spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the scales
+on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same nature. At the
+base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl of
+bracts often exists, called a <i>general involucre</i>, and at the base
+of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl
+called an <i>involucel</i> or <i>partial involucre</i>. In some instances, as in
+fool&rsquo;s-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an
+involucel; while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15),
+neither involucre nor involucel is developed. In Compositae
+the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the head
+of flowers (fig. 2, <i>i</i>), as in marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke.
+This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets,
+which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths,
+and often lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The
+leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (<i>Dipsacus</i>),
+and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or verticillate
+bracts generally remain separate (<i>polyphyllous</i>), but may be
+united by cohesion (<i>gamophyllous</i>), as in many species of <i>Bupleurum</i>
+and in <i>Lavatera</i>. In Compositae besides the involucre
+there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each
+flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each
+flower. These structures are of the nature of an epicalyx. In
+the acorn the <i>cupule</i> or cup (fig. 3) is formed by a growing
+upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower,
+upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of the
+nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of
+the hazel-nut.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:524px; height:307px" src="images/img554b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Head (capitulum) of
+Marigold (<i>Calendula</i>), showing
+a congeries of flowers, enclosed
+by rows of bracts, <i>i</i>, at the base,
+which are collectively called an
+involucre.</td>
+
+<td class="tcl f80" style="width: 50%;">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>,
+by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><br /><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Cupule of <i>Quercus Aegilops</i>.
+<i>cp</i>, Cupule; <i>gl</i>, fruit. (After
+Duchartre.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several
+rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers,
+that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated
+scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the
+membranous white scales or bracts (<i>paleae</i>) forming the choke
+attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced.
+The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capitula,
+and give rise to the hen-and-chickens daisy. In place of developing
+flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in
+proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf-buds.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:256px; height:363px" src="images/img555a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Flowers of Narcissus
+(<i>Narcissus Tazetta</i>) bursting from
+a sheathing bract <i>b</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:340px" src="images/img555b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Spikelet of Oat (<i>Avena sativa</i>)
+laid open, showing the sterile bracts <i>gl, gl</i>,
+or empty glumes; <i>g</i>, the fertile or floral
+glume, with a dorsal awn <i>a</i>; <i>p</i>, the pale;
+<i>fs</i>, an abortive flower.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:253px; height:151px" src="images/img555c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Peduncle of Fig
+(<i>Ficus Carica</i>), ending in a
+hollow receptacle, enclosing
+numerous male and female
+flowers.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called
+a <i>spathe</i>. It is common among Monocotyledons, as <i>Narcissus</i>
+(fig. 4), snow-flake, <i>Arum</i> and palms. In some palms it is 20
+ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers. It is often associated
+with that form of inflorescence termed the <i>spadix</i>, and may be
+coloured, as in <i>Anthurium</i>, or white, as in arum lily (<i>Richardia
+aethiopica</i>). When the spadix is compound or branching, as in
+palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts of
+the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their young
+state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+in a withered form, as in some palms, <i>Typha</i> and <i>Pothos</i>. In
+grasses the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile
+bracts (fig. 5, <i>gl</i>); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs
+of reproduction. Bracts are
+frequently changed into complete
+leaves. This change is
+called <i>phyllody</i> of bracts, and
+is seen in species of <i>Plantago</i>,
+especially in the variety of
+<i>Plantago media</i>, called the
+rose-plantain in gardens,
+where the bracts become leafy
+and form a rosette round the
+flowering axis. Similar changes
+occur in <i>Plantago major</i>, <i>P.
+lanceolata</i>, <i>Ajuga reptans</i>,
+dandelion, daisy, dahlia and
+in umbelliferous plants. The
+conversion of bracts into
+stamens (<i>staminody</i> of bracts)
+has been observed in the case
+of <i>Abies excelsa</i>. A lengthening
+of the axis of the female
+strobilus of Coniferae is not
+of infrequent occurrence in
+<i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>, larch (<i>Larix europaea</i>), &amp;c., and this is
+usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and
+sometimes even with
+the development of
+leaf-bearing shoots in
+place of the scales.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of
+the flowers on the axis,
+or the ramification of
+the floral axis, is called
+the <i>inflorescence</i>. The
+primary axis of the
+inflorescence is sometimes
+called the <i>rachis</i>;
+its branches, whether
+terminal or lateral,
+which form the stalks
+supporting flowers or
+clusters of flowers, are
+<i>peduncles</i>, and if small
+branches are given off
+by it, they are called
+<i>pedicels</i>. A flower
+having a stalk is called
+<i>pedunculate</i> or <i>pedicellate</i>;
+one having no stalk is <i>sessile</i>. In describing a branching
+inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the <i>primary</i>
+floral axis, its branches as the <i>secondary</i> floral axes, their divisions
+as the <i>tertiary</i> floral axes,
+and so on; thus avoiding any
+confusion that might arise from
+the use of the terms <i>rachis</i>, <i>peduncle</i>
+and <i>pedicel</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>peduncle</i> is simple, bearing
+a single flower, as in primrose;
+or branched, as in London-pride.
+It is sometimes succulent, as in
+the cashew, in which it forms the
+large coloured expansion supporting
+the nut; spiral, as in
+<i>Cyclamen</i> and <i>Vallisneria</i>; or
+spiny, as in <i>Alyssum spinosum</i>. When the peduncle proceeds
+from radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened
+as to bring the leaves close together in the form of a cluster, as
+in the primrose, auricula or hyacinth, it is termed a <i>scape</i>.
+The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, convex
+or concave form, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the artichoke,
+daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis sometimes appears as
+if formed by several peduncles
+united together, constituting a
+fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb,
+in which the flowers form
+a peculiar crest at the apex of
+the flattened peduncles. Adhesions
+occasionally take place
+between the peduncle and the
+bracts or leaves of the plant, as
+in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The
+adhesion of the peduncles to the
+stem accounts for the extra-axillary
+position of flowers, as
+in many Solanaceae. When this
+union extends for a considerable
+length along the stem, several
+leaves may be interposed between
+the part where the peduncle
+becomes free and the leaf
+whence it originated, and it may
+be difficult to trace the connexion.
+The peduncle occasionally
+becomes abortive, and in
+place of bearing a flower, is transformed
+into a tendril; at other
+times it is hollowed at the apex,
+so as apparently to form the
+lower part of the outer whorl of
+floral leaves as in <i>Eschscholtzia</i>.
+The termination of the peduncle,
+or the part on which the whorls
+of the flower are arranged, is
+called the <i>thalamus</i>, <i>torus</i> or <i>receptacle</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:243px; height:575px" src="images/img555d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:143px; height:510px" src="images/img555e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f80" style="width: 50%;">(From Vines&rsquo;
+<i>Students&rsquo; Text-Book
+of Botany</i>, by permission
+of Swan
+Sonnenschein &amp; Co.)<br /><br /></td>
+<td class="f80" style="width: 50%;">(From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch
+der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav
+Fischer.)<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence of the
+Lime (<i>Tilia platyphyllos</i>) (nat.
+size).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Raceme of <i>Linaria
+striata</i>. <i>d</i>, bract.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><p><i>a</i>, Branch.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Petiole with axillary bud.
+Attached to the peduncle
+is the bract (<i>h</i>).</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Calyx.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Corolla.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Stamens.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Ovary.</p>
+<p><i>kn</i>, Flower-bud.</p></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:150px" src="images/img555f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Head of flowers (capitulum)
+of <i>Scabiosa atropurpurea</i>. The inflorescence
+is simple and indeterminate,
+and the expansion of the flowers centripetal,
+those at the circumference
+opening first.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">There are two distinct types of
+inflorescence&mdash;one in which the
+flowers arise as lateral shoots
+from a primary axis, which goes
+on elongating, and the lateral
+shoots never exceed in their development the length of the
+<span class="sidenote">Inflorescence.</span>
+primary axis beyond their
+point of origin. The flowers
+are thus always <i>axillary</i>.
+Exceptions, such as in cruciferous
+plants, are due to the non-appearance
+of the bracts. In the other
+type the primary axis terminates
+in a single flower, but lateral axes are
+given off from the axils of the bracts,
+which again repeat the primary axis;
+the development of each lateral axis
+is stronger than that of the primary
+axis beyond its point of origin. The
+flowers produced in this inflorescence
+are thus <i>terminal</i>. The first kind
+of inflorescence is <i>indeterminate</i>,
+<i>indefinite</i> or <i>axillary</i>. Here the axis is either elongated,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first
+(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers
+expand first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus
+<i>centripetal</i>, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference
+to centre.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:234px; height:409px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Plant of <i>Ranunculus
+bulbosus</i>, showing determinate
+inflorescence.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second kind of inflorescence is <i>determinate</i>, <i>definite</i> or
+<i>terminal</i>. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary
+flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are
+produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre;
+or the axis is shortened and flattened,
+producing a number of
+separate floral axes, the central
+one expanding first, while the
+others are developed in succession
+farther from the centre. The expansion
+of the flowers is in this
+case <i>centrifugal</i>, that is, from apex
+to base, or from centre to circumference.
+It is illustrated in fig. 10,
+<i>Ranunculus bulbosus</i>; <i>a</i>&prime; is the
+primary axis swollen at the base in
+a bulb-like manner <i>b</i>, and with
+roots proceeding from it. From
+the leaves which are radical proceeds
+the axis ending in a solitary
+terminal flower <i>f</i>&prime;. About the
+middle of this axis there is a leaf
+or bract, from which a secondary
+floral axis <i>a</i>&Prime; is produced, ending
+in a single flower <i>f</i>&Prime;, less advanced
+than the flower <i>f</i>&prime;. This secondary
+axis bears a leaf also, from which
+a tertiary floral axis <i>a</i>&Prime;&prime; is produced,
+bearing an unexpanded solitary flower <i>f</i>&Prime;&prime;. From this
+tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of formation. Here <i>f</i>&prime; is the
+termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first,
+while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate
+axes.</p>
+
+<p>A third series of inflorescences, termed <i>mixed</i>, may be recognized.
+In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging
+to the opposite type from that of the branches, or vice versa.
+According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral
+shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences
+result.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral
+shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant
+ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond,
+as in <i>Veronica hederifolia</i>, <i>Vinca minor</i> and <i>Lysimachia nemorum</i>.
+The flower in this case is <i>solitary</i>, and the ordinary leaves become
+bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their
+number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite,
+varying with the vigour of the plant. Usually, however, the
+floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract,
+instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears
+numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles are produced,
+and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way.
+Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very
+complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary
+peduncle or floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off
+pedicels, ending in single flowers, a <i>raceme</i> is produced, as in
+currant, hyacinth and barberry. If the secondary floral axes
+give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a
+<i>panicle</i>, as in <i>Yucca gloriosa</i>. If in a raceme the lower flower-stalks
+are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all
+the flowers are nearly on a level, a <i>corymb</i> is formed, which may be
+simple, as in fig. 11, where the primary axis <i>a</i>&prime; gives off secondary
+axes <i>a</i>&Prime;, <i>a</i>&Prime;, which end in single flowers; or branching, where
+the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are very short
+or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a <i>spike</i> is produced, as
+in <i>Plantago</i> and vervain (<i>Verbena officinalis</i>) (fig. 12). If the
+spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig. 13), it is an
+<i>amentum</i> or <i>catkin</i>, hence such trees are called <i>amentiferous</i>; at
+other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers,
+surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes
+a <i>spadix</i>, which may be simple, as in <i>Arum maculatum</i> (fig. 14),
+or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers only,
+and covered with scales, is a <i>strobilus</i>, as in the hop. In grasses
+there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small
+spikes, called <i>locustae</i> or <i>spikelets</i>, which are either set closely
+along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by
+the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term
+panicle is applied.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:345px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Corymb of <i>Cerasus Mahaleb</i>, terminating an abortive
+branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales,
+<i>e</i>. <i>a</i>&prime;, Primary axis; <i>a</i>&Prime;, secondary axes bearing flowers; <i>b</i>, bract in
+the axils of which the secondary axes arise.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Spike of Vervain (<i>Verbena officinalis</i>), showing sessile
+flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the
+spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full
+bloom, and those at the top are only in bud.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Amentum or catkin of Hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>), consisting
+of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales,
+each of which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen
+projecting beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating
+from the branch by an articulation.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:88px; height:256px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:308px; height:262px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">(From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch
+der Botanik</i>, by permission of
+Gustav Fischer.)<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Spadix of
+<i>Arum maculatum</i>. (After
+Wossidlo.) <i>a</i>, Female
+flowers; <i>b</i>, male flowers;
+<i>c</i>, hairs representing
+sterile flowers.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Compound umbel of Common
+Dill (<i>Anethum graveolens</i>), having
+a primary umbel <i>a</i>, and secondary
+umbels <i>b</i>, without either involucre or
+involucel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted,
+it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the
+axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common
+point, and spread out as <i>radii</i> of nearly equal length, each ending
+in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner,
+an <i>umbel</i> is produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral
+axis a the secondary axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like
+manner, and end in small umbels <i>b</i>, which are called <i>partial
+umbels</i> or <i>umbellules</i>. This inflorescence is seen in hemlock and
+other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous. If
+there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly
+concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+<i>capitulum</i> (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other
+composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious (fig. 9) and teazel.
+In the American button-bush the heads are globular, in some
+species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite
+plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold,
+they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly
+hollowed, or convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle
+be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave
+receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose
+a number of flowers that are generally unisexual. This gives rise
+to the peculiar inflorescence of <i>Dorstenia</i>, or to that of the fig
+(fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner surface of the
+hollow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles. This inflorescence
+has been called a <i>hypanthodium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we have what are called <i>compound indefinite</i> inflorescences.
+In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally
+upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which
+floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement
+similar to that on the mother shoot, or it may be different. Thus
+we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner
+on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound
+raceme, as in <i>Astilbe</i>. In the same way we may have compound
+umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound
+spike, as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some
+palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens
+daisy. Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group
+of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in <i>Petasites</i>, a
+raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflorescence
+being indefinite in disposition. In <i>Eryngium</i> the shortening
+of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is
+seen in <i>Anemone nemorosa</i> and in gentianella (<i>Gentiana acaulis</i>),
+where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers
+being produced upon the plant. This is a <i>solitary terminal</i>
+inflorescence. If other flowers were produced, they would arise
+as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first-formed flower.
+The general name of <i>cyme</i> is applied to the arrangement of a
+group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A <i>cymose</i> inflorescence
+is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before
+terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral
+axes which repeat the process&mdash;the development being only
+limited by the vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus
+centrifugally developed. The cyme, according to its development,
+has been characterized as <i>biparous</i> or <i>uniparous</i>. In fig. 16
+the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering branch of
+<i>Cerastium</i>. Here the primary axis <i>t</i> ends in a flower, which has
+passed into the state of fruit. At its base two leaves are produced,
+in each of which arise secondary axes <i>t&prime;</i> <i>t&prime;</i>, ending in single flowers,
+and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced,
+giving rise to tertiary axes <i>t&Prime;</i> <i>t&Prime;</i>, ending in single flowers, and
+so on. The term <i>dichasium</i> has also been applied to this form
+of cyme.</p>
+
+<p>In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial
+form of inflorescence is very general. In some members of the
+order, as <i>Dianthus barbatus</i>, <i>D. carthusianorum</i>, &amp;c., in which
+the peduncles are short, and the flowers closely approximated,
+with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a
+contracted dichasium, and receives the name of <i>fascicle</i>. When
+the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more
+complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence
+can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers.
+In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle (<i>Lamium</i>), the flowers are
+produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant,
+and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers.
+But on examination it is found that there is a central flower
+expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring
+bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal.
+The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers
+being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters are called <i>verticillasters</i>
+(fig. 17). Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium,
+owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the
+plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the other
+remaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral,
+and further development is arrested. In addition to the dichasial
+form there are others where more than two lateral axes are
+produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn
+produces numerous axes. To this form the terms <i>trichasial</i> and
+<i>polychasial cyme</i> have been applied; but these are now usually
+designated <i>cymose umbels</i>. They are well seen in some species
+of <i>Euphorbia</i>. Another term, <i>anthela</i>, has been used to distinguish
+such forms as occur in several species of <i>Luzula</i> and
+<i>Juncus</i>, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary
+axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:464px" src="images/img557a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">(From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of <i>Cerastium collinum</i>;
+<i>t-t&Prime;"</i>, successive axes. (After Duchartre.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:455px" src="images/img557b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle (<i>Lamium
+album</i>). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, and
+produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called
+verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a centrifugal
+manner.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively
+developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive
+generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only
+one. The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become
+much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight line,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+and thus collectively form an apparent or false axis or <i>sympodium</i>,
+and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the true
+raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succession
+a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as
+lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the
+floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but
+in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal
+portions of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the
+opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently
+arises (fig. 18). The bract is not, however, the one from which
+the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced
+upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion
+of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies
+the angle between this bract and its parent axis&mdash;the bract
+from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down
+upon the same side of the axis with itself. The uniparous cyme
+presents two forms, the <i>scorpioid</i> or <i>cicinal</i> and the <i>helicoid</i> or
+<i>bostrychoid</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:638px" src="images/img558.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 18.&mdash;Helicoid cyme of a species of <i>Alstroemeria</i>. <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">4</span>,
+&amp;c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the corresponding
+bracts <i>b</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>b</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>b</i><span class="su">4</span>, &amp;c., and ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">2</span>, <i>f</i><span class="su">3</span>, <i>f</i><span class="su">4</span>, &amp;c. The
+whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the
+internodes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 19.&mdash;Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (<i>Myosotis
+palustris</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 20.&mdash;Diagram of definite floral axes <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 21.&mdash;Flowering stalk of Ragwort (<i>Senecio</i>). The flowers are
+in heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an
+indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other
+hand, taken collectively, expand centrifugally&mdash;the central one a
+first.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a
+double row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts
+when developed forming a second double row on the opposite
+side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a
+scorpion&rsquo;s tail, hence its name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic
+sketch of this arrangement. The false axis, <i>a b c d</i>, is
+formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers
+being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row;
+had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar
+double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole
+inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence
+in the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid
+cymes.</p>
+
+<p>In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the
+basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed
+in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix
+round the false axis. In <i>Alstroemeria</i>, as represented in fig. 18,
+the axis <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span> ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf.
+From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary
+axis <i>a</i><span class="su">1</span> arises a secondary axis <i>a</i><span class="su">2</span>, ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">2</span>, and
+producing a leaf about the middle. From the axil of this leaf
+a tertiary floral axis <i>a</i><span class="su">3</span>, ending in a flower <i>f</i><span class="su">3</span>, takes origin.
+In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one
+side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, so as
+to form an elongated spiral round it.</p>
+
+<p>Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common,
+but in <i>Streptocarpus polyanthus</i> and in several calceolarias
+we probably have examples. Here there are <i>scorpioid cymes of
+pairs of flowers</i>, each pair consisting of an older and a younger
+flower.</p>
+
+<p>Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite
+and indefinite types are represented&mdash;<i>mixed</i> inflorescences.
+Thus in Composite plants, such as hawk weeds (<i>Hieracia</i>)
+and ragworts (<i>Senecio</i>, fig. 21), the <i>heads</i> of flowers,
+<span class="sidenote">Mixed inflorescence.</span>
+taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the
+terminal head first, while the <i>florets</i>, or small flowers
+on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference
+first. So also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (<i>Lamium</i>), the
+different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally,
+while the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed
+character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where
+the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become
+bracts, and thus might lead to the supposition of the whole
+series of flowers being one inflorescence. In such cases the cymes
+are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, according to
+circumstances. In <i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i> (London-pride) and in
+the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes;
+in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often
+called a glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of
+dichasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in <i>Vernonia
+scorpioides</i>. The so-called catkins of the birch are, in reality,
+spikes of contracted dichasial cymes. In the bell-flower (<i>Campanula</i>)
+there is a racemose uniparous cyme. In the privet
+(<i>Ligustrum vulgare</i>) there are numerous racemes of dichasia
+arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflorescence
+thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes,
+and has been called a <i>thyrsus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Tabular View of Inflorescences</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<p class="noind">A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.</p>
+<p>&ensp;I. Flowers solitary, axillary. <i>Vinca</i>, <i>Veronica hederifolia</i>.</p>
+<p>II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+         <p>1. Elongated form (Raceme), <i>Hyacinth</i>, <i>Laburnum</i>, <i>Currant</i>.
+                  (Corymb), <i>Ornithogalum</i>.</p>
+         <p>2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), <i>Cowslip</i>,
+              <i>Astrantia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>III. Flowers in groups, sessile.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+         <p>1. Elongated form (Spike), <i>Plantago</i>.<br />
+                 &emsp;&emsp; (Spikelet), <i>Grasses</i>.<br />
+                 &emsp;&emsp; (Amentum, Catkin), <i>Willow</i>, <i>Hazel</i>.<br />
+                 &emsp;&emsp; (Spadix) <i>Arum</i>, some <i>Palms</i>.<br />
+                 &emsp;&emsp; (Strobilus), <i>Hop</i>.</p>
+         <p>2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), <i>Daisy</i>, <i>Dandelion</i>,
+            <i>Scabious</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+        <p><i>a</i>. Compound Spike, <i>Rye-grass</i>.</p>
+        <p><i>b</i>. Compound Spadix, <i>Palms</i>.</p>
+        <p><i>c</i>. Compound Raceme, <i>Astilbe</i>.</p>
+        <p><i>d</i>. Compound Umbel, <i>Hemlock</i> and most <i>Umbelliferae</i>.</p>
+        <p><i>e</i>. Raceme of Capitula, <i>Petasites</i>.</p>
+        <p><i>f</i>. Raceme of Umbels, <i>Ivy</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.</p>
+<p>&ensp;I. Flowers solitary, terminal. <i>Gentianella</i>, <i>Tulip</i>.</p>
+<p>II. Flowers in Cymes.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+         <p>1. Uniparous Cyme.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+              <p><i>a</i>. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).<br />
+                  Elongated form, <i>Alstromeria</i>.<br />
+                  Contracted form, <i>Witsenia corymbosa</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p>
+             <p><i>b</i>. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows).<br />
+                Elongated form, <i>Forget-me-not</i>, <i>Symphytum</i>,
+                  <i>Henbane</i>.<br />
+                Contracted form, <i>Erodium</i>, <i>Alchemilla arvensis</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+        <p>2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5 chotomous
+               Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+            <p><i>a</i>. Elongated form, <i>Cerastium</i>, <i>Stellaria</i>.</p>
+            <p><i>b</i>. Contracted form (Verticillaster), <i>Dead-nettle</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+        <p>3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. <i>Streptocarpus polyanthus</i>,
+               many <i>Calceolarias</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">C. Mixed Inflorescence.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+          <p>&emsp; Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, <i>Horse-chestnut</i>.</p>
+          <p>&emsp; Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, <i>Vernonia scorpioides</i>.</p>
+          <p>&emsp; Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, <i>Laurustinus</i>.</p>
+          <p>&emsp; Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus),
+             <i>Sea-pink</i>.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:247px; height:611px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 22.&mdash;Flower of <i>Sedum
+rubens</i>. <i>s</i>, Sepals; <i>p</i>, petals; <i>a</i>,
+stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 23.&mdash;Diagram of a completely
+symmetrical flower, consisting
+of four whorls, each of
+five parts, <i>s</i>, Sepals; <i>p</i>, petals;
+<i>a</i>, stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 24.&mdash;Monochlamydeous
+(apetalous) flower of Goosefoot
+(<i>Chenopodium</i>), consisting
+of a single perianth (calyx) of five
+parts, enclosing five stamens,
+which are opposite the divisions
+of the perianth, owing to the
+absence of the petals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 25.&mdash;Stamen, consisting
+of a filament (stalk) <i>f</i> and an
+anther <i>a</i>, containing the pollen <i>p</i>,
+which is discharged through slits
+in the two lobes of the anther.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 26.&mdash;The pistil of Tobacco
+(<i>Nicotiana Tabacum</i>), consisting
+of the ovary <i>o</i>, containing
+ovules, the style <i>s</i>, and the
+capitate stigma <i>g</i>. The pistil is
+placed on the receptacle <i>r</i>, at the
+extremity of the peduncle.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:236px" src="images/img559a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Calyx
+and pistil of Fraxinella
+(<i>Dictamnus
+Fraxinella</i>). The
+pistil consists of
+several carpels,
+which are elevated
+on a stalk or <i>gynophore</i>
+prolonged
+from the receptacle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls
+(stamens and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes.
+The axis is usually very much
+contracted, no internodes
+being developed,
+and the portion
+bearing the floral leaves, termed
+<span class="sidenote">The flower.</span>
+the <i>thalamus</i> or <i>torus</i>, frequently
+expands into a conical, flattened
+or hollowed expansion; at other
+times, though rarely, the internodes
+are developed and it is
+elongated. Upon this torus the
+parts of the flower are arranged
+in a crowded manner, usually
+forming a series of verticils, the
+parts of which alternate; but
+they are sometimes arranged
+spirally especially if the floral
+axis be elongated. In a typical
+flower, as in fig. 22, we recognize
+four distinct whorls of leaves:
+an outer whorl, the <i>calyx</i> of
+<i>sepals</i>; within it, another whorl,
+the parts alternating with those
+of the outer whorl, the <i>corolla</i> of
+<i>petals</i>; next a whorl of parts
+alternating with the parts of
+the corolla, the <i>androecium</i> of
+<i>stamens</i>; and in the centre the
+<i>gynoecium</i> of <i>carpels</i>. Fig. 23 is
+a diagrammatic representation
+of the arrangement of the parts
+of such a flower; it is known as
+a <i>floral diagram</i>. The flower is
+supposed to be cut transversely,
+and the parts of each whorl
+are distinguished by a different
+symbol. Of these whorls the
+two internal, forming the sporophylls,
+constitute the <i>essential</i>
+organs of reproduction; the two
+outer whorls are the protective
+coverings or floral <i>envelopes</i>. The
+sepals are generally of a greenish
+colour; their function is mainly
+protective, shielding the more
+delicate internal organs before
+the flower opens. The petals are
+usually showy, and normally
+alternate with the sepals. Sometimes,
+as usually in monocotyledons,
+the calyx and corolla are
+similar; in such cases the term
+<i>perianth</i>, or <i>perigone</i>, is applied.
+Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily,
+hyacinth, we speak of the parts of the perianth, in place of
+calyx and corolla, although in these plants there is an outer
+whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner (corolla), of a
+similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of
+the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be
+<i>petaloid</i>, as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the
+appearance of sepals, then they are <i>sepaloid</i>, as in Juncaceae.
+In plants, as <i>Nymphaea alba</i>, where a spiral arrangement of the
+floral leaves occurs, it is not easy to say where the calyx ends
+and the corolla begins, as these two whorls pass insensibly into
+each other. When both calyx and corolla are present, the plants
+are <i>dichlamydeous</i>; when one only is present, the flower is
+termed <i>monochlamydeous</i> or <i>apetalous</i>, having no petals (fig. 24).
+Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is <i>achlamydeous</i>,
+or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential
+organs, collectively termed the <i>androecium</i>, is composed of the
+microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or <i>stamens</i>. In
+their most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the
+<i>filament</i> (fig. 25, <i>f</i>), supporting at its summit the anther
+(<i>a</i>), consisting of the pollen-sacs which contain the powdery
+<i>pollen</i> (<i>p</i>), the microspores, which is ultimately discharged
+therefrom. The <i>gynoecium</i> or <i>pistil</i> is the central portion
+of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It consists of one
+or more <i>carpels</i> (megasporophylls), either separate (fig. 22, <i>c</i>)
+or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the pistil
+are the <i>ovary</i> (fig. 26, <i>o</i>), which is the lower portion enclosing
+the <i>ovules</i> destined to become seeds, and the <i>stigma</i> (<i>g</i>), a portion
+of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the pollen
+is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary,
+as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion
+called the <i>style</i> (<i>s</i>). The androecium and gynoecium are not
+present in all flowers. When both are present the flower is
+<i>hermaphrodite</i>; and in descriptive botany such a flower is
+indicated by the symbol &#9791;. When only one of those organs
+is present the flower is <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i>, and is either male
+(<i>staminate</i>), &#9793;; or female (<i>pistillate</i>), &#9792;. A flower then normally
+consists of the four series of leaves&mdash;calyx, corolla, androecium
+and gynoecium&mdash;and when these are all present the flower is
+<i>complete</i>. These are usually densely crowded
+upon the thalamus, but in some instances,
+after apical growth has ceased in the axis,
+an elongation of portions of the receptacle
+by intercalary growth occurs, by which
+changes in the position of the parts may be
+brought about. Thus in <i>Lychnis</i> an elongation
+of the axis betwixt the calyx and the
+corolla takes place, and in this way they are
+separated by an interval. Again, in the
+passion-flower (<i>Passiflora</i>) the stamens are
+separated from the corolla by an elongated
+portion of the axis, which has consequently
+been termed the <i>androphore</i>, and in <i>Passiflora</i>
+also, fraxinella (fig. 27), Capparidaceae,
+and some other plants, the ovary is
+raised upon a distinct stalk termed the
+<i>gynophore</i>; it is thus separated from the
+stamens, and is said to be <i>stipitate</i>. Usually
+the successive whorls of the flower, disposed
+from below upwards or from without inwards
+upon the floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or
+are a multiple of the same number of parts, those of one whorl
+alternating with those of the whorls next it.</p>
+
+<p>In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or
+less convex, and the series of organs follow in regular succession,
+culminating in the carpels, in the formation of which the growth
+of the axis is closed (fig. 28). This arrangement is known as
+hypogynous, the other series (calyx, corolla and stamens) being
+beneath (<i>hypo-</i>) the gynoecium. In other cases, the apex of the
+growing point ceases to develop, and the parts below form a cup
+around it, from the rim of which the outer members of the flower
+are developed around (<i>peri-</i>) the carpels, which are formed from
+the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. This
+arrangement is known as <i>perigynous</i> (fig. 29). In many cases
+this is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+by the carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring
+from the edge of the receptacle which is immediately above the
+ovary (epigynous), hence the term epigyny (fig. 30).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:443px; height:156px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 28</span>, 29 and 30.&mdash;Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, perigyny
+and epigyny of the flower. <i>a</i>, Stamens; <i>c</i>, carpels; <i>p</i>, petals;
+<i>s</i>, sepals.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:365px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span> &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; <span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, by permission of Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 31</span> and 32.&mdash;White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32,
+successive stages, <i>a-f</i>, in the transition from petals to stamens.
+(After Wossidlo.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:260px; height:468px" src="images/img560c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic section
+of a symmetrical pentamerous
+flower of Stone-crop (<i>Sedum</i>), consisting
+of five sepals (<i>s</i>), five petals
+(<i>p</i>) alternating with the sepals, ten
+stamens (<i>a</i>) in two rows, and five
+carpels (<i>c</i>) containing ovules. The
+dark lines (<i>d</i>) on the outside of the
+carpels are glands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower
+of Flax (<i>Linum</i>), consisting of five
+sepals (<i>s</i>), five petals (<i>p</i>), five
+stamens (<i>a</i>), and five carpels (<i>c</i>),
+each of which is partially divided
+into two. The dots represent a
+whorl of stamens which has disappeared.
+It is pentamerous, complete,
+symmetrical and regular.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower
+of Heath (<i>Erica</i>), a regular tetramerous
+flower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the trimerous
+symmetrical flower of Iris.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the symmetrical
+trimerous flower of Fritillary
+(<i>Fritillaria</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower
+of Saxifrage (<i>Saxifraga tridactylites</i>).
+The calyx and corolla consist of
+five parts, the stamens are ten in
+two rows, while the pistil has only
+two parts developed.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said
+to be <i>cyclic</i>, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts
+and are alternate it is <i>eucyclic</i> (figs. 22, 23). In
+contrast to the cyclic flowers are those, as in Magnoliaceae,
+<span class="sidenote">Symmetry of the flower.</span>
+where the parts are in spirals (<i>acyclic</i>). Flowers
+which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at another,
+as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed <i>hemicyclic</i>. In spiral
+flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually
+there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to
+staminal parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs.
+31, 32), although in some plants there is no such distinction, the
+parts being all petaloid, as in <i>Trollius</i>. Normally, the parts of
+successive whorls alternate; but in some cases we find the parts
+of one whorl opposite or <i>superposed</i> to those of the next whorl.
+In some cases, as in the vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems
+to be the ordinary mode of development, but the superposition
+of the stamens on the sepals in many plants, as in the pink family,
+Caryophyllaceae, is due to the suppression or abortion of the
+whorl of petals, and this idea is borne out by the development,
+in some plants of the order, of the suppressed whorl. As a rule,
+whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on those of
+another we may suspect some abnormality.</p>
+
+<p>A flower is said to be <i>symmetrical</i> when each of its whorls
+consists of an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any
+one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical
+flower may have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and
+five carpels, or the number of any of these parts may be ten,
+twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a
+symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, alternating
+with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower
+of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten
+stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the
+staminal whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case
+the additional five parts form a second row alternating with
+the others. In the staminal whorl especially it is common to
+find additional rows. Fig. 34 shows a symmetrical flower, with
+five parts in the three outer rows, and ten divisions in the inner.
+In this case it is the gynoecium which has an additional number
+of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with four divisions
+of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four
+divisions of the pistil. In fig.
+36 there are three parts in
+each whorl; and in fig. 37
+there are three divisions of
+the calyx, corolla and pistil,
+and six stamens in two rows.
+In all these cases the flower
+is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons
+it is usual for the
+staminal whorl to be double,
+it rarely having more than
+two rows, whilst amongst
+dicotyledons there are often
+very numerous rows of
+stamens. The floral envelopes
+are rarely multiplied. Flowers
+in which the number of parts
+in each whorl is the same, are
+<i>isomerous</i> (of equal number);
+when the number in some of
+the whorls is different, the
+flower is <i>anisomerous</i> (of unequal
+number). The pistillate
+whorl is very liable to
+changes. It frequently
+happens that when it is fully
+formed, the number of its
+parts is not in conformity
+with that of the other whorls.
+In such circumstances, however,
+a flower has been called
+symmetrical, provided the
+parts of the other whorls are
+normal,&mdash;the permanent state
+of the pistil not being taken
+into account in determining
+symmetry. Thus fig. 38 shows
+a pentamerous symmetrical
+flower, with dimerous pistil.
+Symmetry, then, in botanical
+language, has reference to a
+certain definite numerical
+relation of parts. A flower
+in which the parts are
+arranged in twos is called
+<i>dimerous</i>; when the parts of
+the whorls are three, four or
+five, the flower is <i>trimerous</i>,
+<i>tetramerous</i> or <i>pentamerous</i>,
+respectively. The symmetry
+which is most commonly met with is trimerous and pentamerous&mdash;the
+former occurring generally among monocotyledons, the
+latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous symmetry
+occur also among dicotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation
+to the axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one
+sepal is next the axis, and is called <i>superior</i> or <i>posterior</i>; another
+is next the bract, and is <i>inferior</i> or <i>anterior</i>, and the other two
+are <i>lateral</i>; and certain terms are used to indicate that position.
+A plane passing through the anterior and posterior sepal and
+through the floral axis is termed the <i>median plane</i> of the flower;
+a plane cutting it at right angles, and passing through the lateral
+sepals, is the <i>lateral plane</i>; whilst the planes which bisect the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+angles formed by the lateral and median planes are the <i>diagonal
+planes</i>, and in these flowers the petals which alternate with the
+sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:102px; height:113px" src="images/img561a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:177px; height:146px" src="images/img561b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Diagram of flower
+of Sweet-pea (<i>Lathyrus</i>), showing
+five sepals (<i>s</i>), two superior, one
+inferior, and two lateral; five
+petals (<i>p</i>), one superior, two inferior,
+and two lateral; ten
+stamens in two rows (<i>a</i>); and
+one carpel (<i>c</i>).</td>
+<td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Flower of Pea
+(<i>Pisum sativum</i>), showing a papilionaceous
+corolla, with one
+petal superior (st) called the
+standard (vexillum), two inferior
+(car) called the keel (carina),
+and two lateral (<i>a</i>) called wings
+(alae). The calyx is marked c.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the
+calyx of Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in
+the calyx of Leguminosae (fig. 39)&mdash;the reverse, by the law of
+alternation, being the case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom
+of the pea (figs. 39, 40), the odd petal (vexillum) <i>st</i> is superior,
+while the odd sepal is inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae
+one of the two carpels is posterior and the other anterior, whilst
+in Convolvulaceae the carpels are arranged laterally. Sometimes
+the twisting of a part makes a change in the position of other
+parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the ovary changes
+the position of the labellum.</p>
+
+<p>When the different members of each whorl are like in size and
+shape, the flower is said to be <i>regular</i>; while differences in the
+size and shape of the parts of a whorl make the flower <i>irregular</i>,
+as in the papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a
+flower can be divided by a single plane into two exactly similar
+parts; then it is said to be <i>zygomorphic</i>. Such flowers as Papilionaceae,
+Labiatae, are examples. In contrast with this are
+<i>polysymmetrical</i> or actinomorphic flowers, which have a radial
+symmetry and can be divided by several planes into several
+exactly similar portions; such are all regular, symmetrical
+flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or some
+multiple of the others, then the flower is <i>asymmetrical</i>. This
+want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways.
+Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement as well as in the
+completeness and regularity of flowers has been traced to <i>suppression</i>
+or the <i>non-development</i> of parts, <i>degeneration</i> or imperfect
+formation, <i>cohesion</i> or union of parts of the same whorl, <i>adhesion</i>
+or union of the parts of different whorls, <i>multiplication</i> of parts,
+and <i>deduplication</i> (sometimes called <i>chorisis</i>) or splitting of parts.</p>
+
+<p>By <i>suppression</i> or non-appearance of a part at the place where
+it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry
+or completeness of the flower is disturbed. This suppression
+when confined to the parts of certain verticils makes the flower
+asymmetrical. Thus, in many Caryophyllaceae, as <i>Polycarpon</i>
+and <i>Holosteum</i>, while the calyx and corolla are pentamerous,
+there are only three or four stamens and three carpels; in
+<i>Impatiens Noli-me-tangere</i> the calyx is composed of three parts,
+while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are
+five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and
+in <i>Tropaeolum pentaphyllum</i> there are five sepals, two petals,
+eight stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of
+symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the
+last-mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said
+that there are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position
+of the two remaining ones; there are two rows of stamens,
+in each of which one is wanting; and there are two carpels
+suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards
+suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally
+some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower.
+By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the
+carpels, flowers become <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i>, and by the
+suppression of one or both of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous
+and achlamydeous flowers are produced. The suppression
+of parts of the flower may be carried so far that at last a flower
+consists of only one part of one whorl. In the Euphorbiaceae we
+have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of parts,
+where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to
+one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms
+where two of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which
+the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or
+three bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous),
+and only one or two stamens are produced. And finally,
+we find flowers consisting of a single stamen with a bract. There
+is thus traced a <i>degradation</i>, as it is called, from a flower with
+three stamens and three divisions of the calyx, to one with a
+single bract and a single stamen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Degeneration</i>, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise
+either to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in
+form. In unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges
+of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or
+scales. In double flowers transformations of the stamens and
+pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In <i>Canna</i>,
+what are called petals are in reality metamorphosed stamens.
+In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find the florets
+converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may appear
+as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae
+and <i>Valeriana</i>. In <i>Scrophularia</i> the fifth stamen appears as a
+scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in <i>Pentstemon</i>,
+it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place
+of an anther.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cohesion</i>, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and <i>adhesion</i>,
+or the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes
+of change both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in <i>Cucurbita</i>
+the stamens are originally five in number, but subsequently
+some cohere, so that three stamens only are seen in the mature
+flower. Adhesion is well seen in the <i>gynostemium</i> of orchids,
+where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In Capparidaceae
+the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the axis
+is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens
+are united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Multiplication</i>, or an increase of the number of parts, gives
+rise to changes. We have already alluded to the interposition
+of new members in a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the
+staminal whorl, but usually the additional parts produced form
+a symmetrical whorl with the others. In some instances,
+however, this is not the case. Thus in the horse-chestnut there
+is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven stamens are
+formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.</p>
+
+<p>Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of <i>deduplication</i>,
+or <i>chorisis</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the splitting of a part so that two or more
+parts are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous
+plants the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens
+and two short ones (<i>tetradynamous</i>). The symmetry in the flower
+is evidently dimerous, and the abnormality in the androecium,
+where the four long stamens are opposite the posterior sepals,
+takes place by a splitting, at a very early stage of development,
+of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases of what was considered
+chorisis are in reality due to the development of stipules
+from the staminal leaf. Thus in <i>Dicentra</i> and <i>Corydalis</i> there
+are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle
+alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther,
+and are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching
+of stamens also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus,
+in the so-called polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there
+are really only five stamens which give off numerous branches,
+but the basal portion remaining short, the branches have the
+appearance of separate stamens, and the flower thus seems
+asymmetrical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation</i> has a great effect in causing changes in the various
+parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and
+adhesion of parts are due to the art of the horticulturist. The
+changes in the colour and forms of flowers thus produced are
+endless. In the dahlia the florets are rendered quilled, and are
+made to assume many glowing colours. In pelargonium the
+flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and such is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+also the case with the <i>Ranunculus</i>, the auricula and the carnation.
+Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state,
+as columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and
+others, as <i>Linaria</i>, in which one petal only is usually spurred,
+are altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present
+what are called <i>pelorian</i> varieties.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:171px" src="images/img562a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the
+Nettle (<i>Urtica</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in
+which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned
+inwards at the edges.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the
+parts of the flower, <i>floral formulae</i> have been devised. Several
+modes of expression are employed. The following is a very
+simple mode which has been proposed:&mdash;The several whorls
+are represented by the letters S (sepals), P (petals), St (stamens),
+C (carpels), and a figure marked after each indicates the number
+of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span>St<span class="su">5</span>C<span class="su">5</span> means that
+the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the whorls
+being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would
+be represented by the formula S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span>St<span class="su">5+5</span>C<span class="su">5</span>, where St<span class="su">5+5</span> indicates
+that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each.
+A flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be
+expressed S<span class="su">4</span>P<span class="su">0</span>St<span class="su">4</span>C<span class="su">0</span>. When no other mark is appended the
+whorls are supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark
+the position of the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus,
+to express the superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is
+drawn between them, <i>e.g.</i> the symbol S<span class="su">5</span>P<span class="su">5</span> | St<span class="su">5</span>C<span class="su">5</span> is the formula
+of the flower of Primulaceae.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:488px; height:174px" src="images/img562b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned outwards
+at the edges.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in
+which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn,
+and are twisted on their axis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in
+which the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that
+1 and 2 are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly
+external and partly overlapped by 1.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:287px; height:205px" src="images/img562c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Diagram to illustrate imbricated
+aestivation, in which the
+parts are arranged in a spiral cycle,
+following the order indicated by the
+figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a papilionaceous
+flower, showing vexillary
+aestivation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1 and 2, The alae or wings.</p>
+
+<p>3, A part of the carina or keel.</p>
+
+<p>4, The vexillum or standard, which,
+in place of being internal, as
+marked by the dotted line, becomes
+external.</p>
+
+<p>5, The remaining part of the keel.</p>
+
+<p>The order of the cycle is indicated
+by the figures.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud
+with respect to each other before opening is the <i>aestivation</i> or
+<i>praefloration</i>. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud
+in the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive
+names have been given to the different arrangements exhibited,
+both by the leaves individually and in their relations to each
+other. As regards each leaf of the flower, it is either spread out,
+as the sepals in the bud of the lime-tree, or folded upon itself
+(conduplicate), as in the petals of some species of <i>Lysimachia</i>,
+or slightly folded inwards or outwards at the edges, as in the
+calyx of some species of clematis and of some herbaceous plants,
+or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or folded transversely,
+becoming <i>crumpled</i> or <i>corrugated</i>, as in the poppy.
+When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are
+applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping
+or being folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel,
+the aestivation is <i>valvate</i> (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts
+may be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case
+the aestivation is <i>induplicate</i> (fig. 43), in the latter case <i>reduplicate</i>
+(fig. 44). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a circle,
+each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one of its
+sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in like
+manner by that standing next to it, the aestivation is <i>twisted</i>
+or <i>contorted</i> (fig. 45). This arrangement is characteristic of the
+flower-buds of Malvaceae and Apocynaceae, and it is also seen
+in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae. When the flower
+expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but sometimes,
+as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation
+are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under
+<i>circular</i> aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different
+arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of <i>Camellia japonica</i>
+cover each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation
+is <i>imbricate</i>. At other times, as in the petals of <i>Camellia</i>, the
+parts envelop each other completely, so as to become <i>convolute</i>.
+This is also seen in a transverse section of the calyx of <i>Magnolia
+grandiflora</i>, where each of the three leaves embraces that within
+it. When the parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many
+dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that there are two
+parts external, two internal, and a fifth which partially covers
+one of the internal parts by
+its margin, and is in its
+turn partially covered by
+one of the external parts,
+the aestivation is <i>quincuncial</i>
+(fig. 46). This quincunx
+is common in the
+corolla of Rosaceae. In
+fig. 47 a section is given
+of the bud of <i>Antirrhinum
+majus</i>, showing the imbricate
+spiral arrangement.
+In this case it will be seen
+that the part marked 5 has,
+by a slight change in position,
+become overlapped by
+1. This variety of imbricate
+aestivation has been
+termed <i>cochlear</i>. In flowers
+such as those of the pea
+(fig. 40), one of the parts,
+the vexillum, is often large
+and folded over the others,
+giving rise to <i>vexillary</i>
+aestivation (fig. 48), or the
+carina may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is
+<i>carinal</i>, as in the Judas-tree (<i>Cercis Siliquastrum</i>). The parts of
+the several verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation.
+Thus, in Malvaceae the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate,
+or reduplicate; in St John&rsquo;s-wort the calyx is imbricate, and
+the corolla contorted. In Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is
+twisted, and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbricate,
+and exhibits a spiral arrangement. In <i>Guazuma</i> the calyx
+is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular aestivation
+is generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla, while the
+spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as well as with
+regular forms.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sepals</i> are sometimes <i>free</i> or separate from each other,
+at other times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the
+former case, the calyx is <i>polysepalous</i>, in the latter
+<i>gamosepalous</i> or <i>monosepalous</i>. The divisions of the
+<span class="sidenote">Calyx.</span>
+calyx present usually the characters of leaves, and in some cases
+of monstrosity they are converted into leaf-like organs, as not
+infrequently happens in primulas. They are usually entire,
+but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in the rose;
+they are rarely stalked. Sepals are generally of a more or less
+oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their apices either blunt or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span>
+acute. In their direction they are erect or reflexed (with their
+apices downwards), spreading outwards (<i>divergent</i> or <i>patulous</i>),
+or arched inwards (<i>connivent</i>). They are usually of a greenish
+colour (<i>herbaceous</i>); but sometimes they are coloured or
+<i>petaloid</i>, as in the fuchsia, trop&#257;eolum, globe-flower and
+pomegranate. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope
+of the flower is considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles
+sometimes form a prominent rib, which indicates the middle of
+the sepal; at other times they form several ribs. The venation
+is useful as pointing out the number of leaves which constitute
+a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx the number
+of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus,
+a calyx which has three sepals is <i>trisepalous</i>; one with five sepals
+is <i>pentasepalous</i>. The sepals occasionally are of different forms
+and sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet
+(<i>galeate</i>). In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in
+various ways, sometimes very slightly, and their number is
+marked by the divisions at the apex. These divisions either
+are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse teeth
+(fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about half-way,
+the calyx being <i>trifid</i> (three-cleft), <i>quinquefid</i> (five-cleft), &amp;c.,
+according to their number; or they reach to near the base in the
+form of partitions, the calyx being <i>tripartite</i>, <i>quadripartite</i>,
+<i>quinquepartite</i>, &amp;c. The union of the parts may be complete,
+and the calyx may be quite entire or <i>truncate</i>, as in some Correas,
+the venation being the chief indication of the different parts.
+The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a
+greater extent than others; thus a two-lipped or <i>labiate</i> calyx
+is formed. The upper lip is often composed of three parts,
+which are thus posterior or next the axis, while the lower has
+two, which are anterior. The part formed by the union of the
+sepals is called the <i>tube</i> of the calyx; the portion where the sepals
+are free is the <i>limb</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:386px" src="images/img563a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der
+Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav
+Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (<i>Lychnis</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fig. 50.</i>&mdash;Obsolete calyx (<i>c</i>) of Madder (<i>Rubia</i>) adherent to the
+pistil, in the form of a rim.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fig. 51.</i>&mdash;Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel
+(<i>Senecio vulgaris</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;Caducous calyx (<i>c</i>) of Poppy. There are two sepals
+which fall off before the petals expand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent
+calyx (<i>s</i>), surrounding the berry (<i>fr</i>), derived from the ovary. (After
+Duchartre.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked
+enlargement. In the violet the calycine segments are prolonged
+downwards beyond their insertions, and in the Indian cress
+(<i>Tropaeolum</i>) this prolongation is in the form of a spur (<i>calcar</i>),
+formed by three sepals; in Delphinium it is formed by one.
+In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is adherent to
+the flower-stalk. In <i>Potentilla</i> and allied genera an <i>epicalyx</i> is
+formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, which
+form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with
+the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the
+bracteoles. Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it
+becomes dry, scaly and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses),
+as in the rushes (Juncaceae); hairy, as in Compositae; or a
+mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and Acanthaceae, and in
+Madder (<i>Rubia tinctorum</i>, fig. 50), when it is called <i>obsolete</i> or
+<i>marginate</i>. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and Valerianaceae
+the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is developed in
+the form of hairs called <i>pappus</i> (fig. 51). This pappus is either
+simple (<i>pilose</i>) or feathery (<i>plumose</i>). In <i>Valeriana</i> the superior
+calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it is shown
+to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft
+the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower
+expands, as in poppies, and is <i>caducous</i> (fig. 52); or along with
+the corolla, as in <i>Ranunculus</i>, and is <i>deciduous</i>; or it remains
+after flowering (<i>persistent</i>) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae,
+and Boraginaceae; or its base only is persistent, as in <i>Datura
+Stramonium</i>. In <i>Eschscholtzia</i> and <i>Eucalyptus</i> the sepals remain
+united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base
+or middle, so as to come off in the form of a lid or funnel. Such
+a calyx is <i>operculate</i> or <i>calyptrate</i>. The existence or non-existence
+of an articulation determines the deciduous or persistent nature
+of the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the
+pistil, and enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the
+apple, pear, &amp;c. In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at
+the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after
+flowering, and encloses the fruit without being incorporated
+with it, becoming <i>accrescent</i>, as in various species of <i>Physalis</i>
+(fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered or <i>marcescent</i>
+form, as in <i>Erica</i>; sometimes it becomes <i>inflated</i> or <i>vesicular</i>,
+as in sea campion (<i>Silene maritima</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral
+envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present
+in the greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ
+more from ordinary leaves than sepals do, and are
+<span class="sidenote">Corolla.</span>
+much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases,
+however, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and
+occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil They are
+seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as
+in some species of <i>Cobaea</i>, <i>Hoya viridiflora</i>, <i>Gonolobus viridiflorus</i>
+and <i>Pentatropis spiralis</i>. As a rule they are highly coloured,
+the colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue
+or red flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow
+flowers, or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish
+flowers. The attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or
+in part to surface markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a
+pelargonium, when viewed with a ½ or ¼-in. object-glass, shows
+beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are ornamented with
+several inflected loops in the sides of the cells.</p>
+
+<p>Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some
+instances, hairs are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs,
+though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the same
+arrangement as those which occur on the leaves; thus, in
+Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen on the
+petals of <i>Menyanthes</i>, and on the segments of the perianth of
+<i>Iris</i>. They serve various purposes in the economy of the flower,
+often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower
+to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of
+pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate
+in their texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy,
+as in <i>Stapelia</i> and <i>Rafflesia</i>; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and
+stiff, as in <i>Xylopia</i>. A petal often consists of two portions&mdash;the
+lower narrow, resembling the petiole of a leaf, and called the
+<i>unguis</i> or <i>claw</i>; the upper broader, like the blade of a leaf, and
+called the <i>lamina</i> or <i>limb</i>. These parts are seen in the petals
+of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often wanting, as in the
+crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are then <i>sessile</i>.
+According to the development of veins and the growth of cellular
+tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. Thus
+the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These
+teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+petal becomes <i>fimbriated</i>, as in the pink; or <i>laciniated</i>, as in
+<i>Lychnis Flos-cuculi</i>; or <i>crested</i>, as in <i>Polygala</i>. Sometimes the
+petal becomes pinnatifid, as in <i>Schizopetalum</i>. The median vein
+is occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in
+the form of a long process, as in <i>Strophanthus hispidus</i>, where
+it extends for 7 in.; or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards
+or inflexed, as in Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches
+the base. The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, or
+hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the petals become folded
+in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in aconite (fig. 58)
+some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, supported
+on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57),
+snapdragon and <i>Centranthus</i>, one or all of them are prolonged
+in the form of a spur, and are <i>calcarate</i>. In <i>Valeriana</i>, <i>Antirrhinum</i>
+and <i>Corydalis</i>, the spur is very short, and the corolla
+or petal is said to be <i>gibbous</i>, or <i>saccate</i>, at the base. These spurs,
+tubes and sacs serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing
+of nectar.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:370px" src="images/img564a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus
+Cheiri</i>). <i>c</i>, The claw or unguis; <i>l</i>, the blade or lamina.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;Petal of Crowfoot (<i>Ranunculus</i>), without a claw, and
+thus resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous
+scale is seen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;Tubular petal of Hellebore (<i>Helleborus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>). Longitudinal section of flower;
+<i>v</i>, bracteole on the peduncle; <i>l</i>, sepals; <i>ls</i>, appendage of sepal; <i>c</i>,
+petals; <i>cs</i>, spur of the lower petals; <i>fs</i>, glandular appendage of the
+lower stamens; <i>a</i>, anthers. (After Sachs.)<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="f90">(From Vines&rsquo; Students&rsquo; <i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein
+&amp; Co.)<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;Part of the flower of Aconite (<i>Aconitum Napellus</i>), showing
+two irregular horn-like petals (<i>p</i>) supported on grooved stalks (<i>o</i>).
+These serve as nectaries, <i>s</i>, the whorl of stamens inserted on the
+thalamus and surrounding the pistil.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">A corolla is <i>dipetalous</i>, <i>tripetalous</i>, <i>tetrapetalous</i> or <i>pentapetalous</i>
+according as it has two, three, four or five separate petals. The
+general name of <i>polypetalous</i> is given to corollas having separate
+petals, while <i>monopetalous</i>, <i>gamopetalous</i> or <i>sympetalous</i> is applied
+to those in which the petals are united. This union generally
+takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the
+apex; in <i>Phyteuma</i> the petals are united at their apices also.
+In some polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are
+separate at the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals
+are equal as regards their development and size, the corolla is
+<i>regular</i>; when unequal, it is <i>irregular</i>. When a corolla is gamopetalous
+it usually happens that the lower portion forms a
+tube, while the upper parts are either free or partially united,
+so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the two
+portions being the <i>throat</i>, which often exhibits a distinct constriction
+or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla
+can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth,
+crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the
+corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal
+among the parts, or some may unite more than others.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:136px" src="images/img564b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;Rosaceous
+corolla (<i>c</i>) of the Strawberry
+(<i>Fragaria vesca</i>),
+composed of five petals
+without claws.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the
+<i>rosaceous</i> corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading
+petals, having no claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry
+and <i>Potentilla</i>; the <i>caryophyllaceous</i> corolla, in which there are
+five petals with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the
+pink tribe; the <i>cruciform</i>, having four
+petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite
+in the form of a cross, as seen in wallflower,
+and in other plants called <i>cruciferous</i>.
+Of irregular polypetalous corollas
+the most marked is the <i>papilionaceous</i>
+(fig. 40), in which there are five petals:&mdash;one
+superior (posterior), st, placed
+next to the axis, usually larger than the
+rest, called the <i>vexillum</i> or <i>standard</i>;
+two lateral, a, the <i>alae</i> or wings; two
+inferior (anterior), partially or completely
+covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their
+lower margins, so as to form a single keel-like piece, <i>car</i>, called
+<i>carina</i>, or keel, which embraces the essential organs. This form
+of corolla is characteristic of British leguminous plants.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:326px; height:229px" src="images/img564c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Campanula medium</i>;
+<i>d</i>, bract; <i>v</i>, bracteoles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes <i>campanulate</i> or
+<i>bell-shaped</i>, as in (<i>Campanula</i>) (fig. 60); <i>infundibuliform</i> or
+<i>funnel-shaped</i>, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the
+limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; <i>hypocrateriform</i>
+or <i>salver-shaped</i>, when there is a straight tube surmounted
+by a flat spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); <i>tubular</i>,
+having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the
+limb, as in <i>Spigelia</i> and comfrey; <i>rotate</i> or <i>wheel-shaped</i>, when
+the tube is very short, and the limb flat and spreading, as in
+forget-me-not, <i>Myosotis</i> (when the divisions of the rotate corolla
+are very acute, as in <i>Galium</i>, it is sometimes called <i>stellate</i> or
+<i>star-like</i>); <i>urceolate</i> or <i>urn-shaped</i>, when there is scarcely any
+limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the
+middle, as in bell-heath (<i>Erica cinerea</i>). Some of these forms
+may become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more
+developed than others. Thus, in <i>Veronica</i>, the rotate corolla
+has one division much smaller than the rest, and in foxglove
+(<i>Digitalis</i>) there is a
+slightly irregular
+companulate corolla.
+Of irregular
+gamopetalous corollas
+there may be
+mentioned the <i>labiate</i>
+or <i>lipped</i> (fig. 62),
+having two divisions
+of the limb in the
+form of lips (the
+upper one, <i>u</i>, composed
+usually of two
+united petals, and
+the lower, <i>l</i>, of three),
+separated by a gap.
+In such cases the tube varies in length, and the parts in their
+union follow the reverse order of what occurs in the calyx, where
+two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper.
+When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the
+lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called <i>ringent</i> (fig. 62). The
+labiate corolla characterizes the natural order Labiatae. When
+the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a
+chink between them, the corolla is said to be <i>personate</i>, as in
+snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas
+the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in
+calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what
+occurs in the labellum of some orchids, as <i>Cypripedium</i>. When a
+tubular corolla is split in such a way as to form a strap-like process
+on one side with several tooth-like projections at its apex, it
+becomes <i>ligulate</i> or <i>strap-shaped</i> (fig. 63). This corolla occurs
+in many composite plants, as in the florets of dandelion, daisy
+and chicory. The number of divisions at the apex indicates the
+number of united petals, some of which, however, may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become more united
+than others, and then the corolla assumes a <i>bilabiate</i> or <i>two-lipped</i>
+form, as seen in the division of Compositae called Labiatiflorae.</p>
+
+<p>Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole
+corolla is absent. In <i>Amorpha</i> and <i>Afzelia</i> the corolla is reduced to
+a single petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely
+wanting. In the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such
+as <i>Ranunculus</i>, globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and
+corolla, while others, such as clematis, anemone and <i>Caltha</i>, have
+only a coloured calyx. Flowers become double by the multiplication
+of the parts of the corolline whorl; this arises in general
+from a metamorphosis of the stamens.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:292px" src="images/img565a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 61.&mdash;Flower of cowslip (<i>Primula
+veris</i>) cut vertically. <i>s</i>, Sepals
+joined to form a gamosepalous calyx;
+<i>c</i>, corolla consisting of tube and spreading
+limb; <i>a</i>, stamens springing from
+the mouth of the tube; <i>p</i>, pistil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 62.&mdash;Irregular gamopetalous
+labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle
+(<i>Lamium album</i>). The upper lip <i>u</i> is
+composed of two petals united, the
+lower lip (<i>l</i>) of three. Between the
+two lips there is a gap. The throat is
+the part where the tube and the labiate
+limb join. From the arching of the
+upper lip this corolla is called ringent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 63.&mdash;Irregular gamopetalous
+ligulate flower of Ragwort (<i>Senecio</i>).
+It is a tubular floret, split down on one
+side, with the united petals forming a
+straplike projection. The lines on the
+flat portion indicate the divisions of the
+five petals. From the tubular portion
+below, the bifid style projects slightly.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which
+received in former days the name of <i>nectaries</i>. The term nectary
+was very vaguely applied
+by Linnaeus to any part
+of the flower which presented
+an unusual aspect,
+as the crown (<i>corona</i>) of
+narcissus, the fringes of
+the Passion-flower, &amp;c. If
+the name is retained it
+ought properly to include
+only those parts which
+secrete a honey-like substance,
+as the glandular
+depression at the base of
+the perianth of the fritillary,
+or on the petal of
+<i>Ranunculus</i> (fig. 55), or on
+the stamens of Rutaceae.
+The honey secreted by
+flowers attracts insects,
+which, by conveying the
+pollen to the stigma,
+effect fertilization. The
+horn-like nectaries under
+the galeate sepal of
+aconite (fig. 58) are modified
+petals, so also are the
+tubular nectaries of hellebore
+(fig. 56). Other
+modifications of some part
+of the flower, especially
+of the corolla and stamens,
+are produced either by
+degeneration or outgrowth,
+or by <i>chorisis</i>,
+or <i>deduplication</i>. Of this nature are the scales on the petals in
+<i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Silene</i> and <i>Cynoglossum</i>, which are formed in the same
+way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus,
+the scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered
+stamens. In <i>Narcissus</i> the appendages are united to form a
+crown, consisting of a membrane similar to that which unites
+the stamens in <i>Pancratium</i>. It is sometimes difficult to say
+whether these structures are to be referred to the corolline or to
+the staminal row.</p>
+
+<p>Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base.
+When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals
+fall off either immediately after expansion (<i>caducous</i>) or after
+fertilization (<i>deciduous</i>). A corolla which is continuous with the
+axis and not articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths,
+may be persistent, and remain in a withered or marcescent state
+while the fruit is ripening. A gamopetalous corolla falls off in
+one piece; but sometimes the base of the corolla remains persistent,
+as in <i>Rhinanthus</i> and <i>Orobanche</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>stamens</i> and the <i>pistil</i> are sometimes spoken of as the
+essential organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required
+in order that perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions
+the stamen represents a leaf which has been specially
+developed to bear the pollen or microspores, it is spoken of in
+comparative morphology as a microsporophyll; similarly the
+carpels which make up the pistil are the megasporophylls (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>). <i>Hermaphrodite</i> or <i>bisexual</i> flowers are those
+in which both these organs are found; <i>unisexual</i> or <i>diclinous</i>
+are those in which only one of these organs appears,&mdash;those
+bearing stamens only, being <i>staminiferous</i> or &ldquo;male&rdquo;; those
+having the pistil only, <i>pistilliferous</i> or &ldquo;female.&rdquo; But even in
+plants with hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided
+against by the structure of the parts or by the period of
+ripening of the organs. For instance, in <i>Primula</i> and <i>Linum</i>
+some flowers have long stamens and a pistil with a short style,
+the others having short stamens and a pistil with a long style.
+The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed primroses (fig. 61),
+the latter in the &ldquo;pin-eyed.&rdquo; Such plants are called <i>dimorphic</i>.
+Other plants are <i>trimorphic</i>, as species of <i>Lythrum</i>, and proper
+fertilization is only effected by combination of parts of equal
+length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before the
+pistil; these are called <i>proterandrous</i>, as in <i>Ranunculus repens</i>,
+<i>Silene maritima</i>, <i>Zea Mays</i>. In other plants, but more rarely,
+the pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in <i>Potentilla argentea</i>,
+<i>Plantago major</i>, <i>Coix Lachryma</i>, and they are termed <i>proterogynous</i>.
+Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs
+are called <i>dichogamous</i>. When in the same plant there are
+unisexual flowers, both male and female, the plant is said to be
+<i>monoecious</i>, as in the hazel and castor-oil plant. When the male
+and female flowers of a species are found on separate plants,
+the term <i>dioecious</i> is applied, as in <i>Mercurialis</i> and hemp; and
+when a species has male, female and hermaphrodite flowers
+on the same or different plants, as in <i>Parietaria</i>, it is <i>polygamous</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:328px; height:275px" src="images/img565b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Paeonia peregrina</i>, in
+longitudinal section. <i>k</i>, Sepal; <i>c</i>, petal; <i>a</i>,
+stamens; <i>g</i>, pistil. (½ nat. size.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the
+petals, with which they generally alternate, forming one or more
+whorls, which collectively constitute the <i>androecium</i>.
+Their normal position is below the pistil, and when
+<span class="sidenote">Stamens.</span>
+they are so placed (fig. 64, <i>a</i>) upon the thalamus they are <i>hypogynous</i>.
+Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or are
+<i>epipetalous</i>, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar,
+so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent
+of the calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous
+or epigynous (fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur,
+especially amongst Saxifragaceae, where the parts are <i>half superior</i>
+or <i>half inferior</i>. Where the stamens become adherent to the
+pistil so as to form a column, the flowers are said to be <i>gynandrous</i>,
+as in <i>Aristolochia</i> (fig.
+66). These arrangements
+of parts are of
+great importance in
+classification. The
+stamens vary in number
+from one to many
+hundreds. In acyclic
+flowers there is often
+a gradual transition
+from petals to
+stamens, as in the
+white water-lily (fig.
+31). When flowers become
+double by cultivation,
+the stamens
+are converted into
+petals, as in the
+paeony, camellia,
+rose, &amp;c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are
+usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are
+arranged opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter.
+The flower is then <i>isostemonous</i>. When the stamens are not
+equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is <i>anisostemonous</i>.
+When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the
+parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl
+preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication
+of parts than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of
+stamens is <i>haplostemonous</i>. If the stamens are double the sepals
+or petals as regards number, the flower is <i>diplostemonous</i>; if
+more than double, <i>polystemonous</i>. The additional rows of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+stamens may be developed in the usual centripetal (acropetal)
+order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be interposed between
+the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, <i>i.e.</i> develop
+centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the
+flower is said to be <i>obdiplostemonous</i>. When the stamens are
+fewer than twenty they are said to be <i>definite</i>; when above
+twenty they are <i>indefinite</i>, and are represented by the symbol &infin;.
+The number of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals
+prefixed to the term <i>androus</i>; thus a flower with one stamen
+is <i>monandrous</i>, with two, three, four, five, six or many stamens,
+di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or polyandrous, respectively.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:154px; height:121px" src="images/img566a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:395px" src="images/img566b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Flower of
+Aralia in vertical section.
+<i>c</i>, Calyx; <i>p</i>, petal;
+<i>e</i>, stamen; <i>s</i>, stigmas.
+The calyx, petals and
+stamens spring from
+above the ovary (<i>o</i>) in
+which two chambers
+are shown each with a
+pendulous ovule; <i>d</i>, disc
+between the stamens
+and stigmas.</td>
+<td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;Flowers of <i>Aristolochia Clematitis</i>
+cut through longitudinally. I. Young
+flower in which the stigma (<i>N</i>) is receptive
+and the stamens (<i>S</i>) have not yet opened;
+II. Older flower with the stamens (<i>S</i>)
+opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs
+on the corolla dried up.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The function of the stamen is the development and distribution
+of the pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted
+portion, often thread-like, termed the <i>filament</i> (fig. 25 <i>f</i>),
+and a broader portion, usually of two lobes, termed the <i>anther</i> (<i>a</i>),
+containing the powdery <i>pollen</i> (<i>p</i>), and supported upon the end
+of the filament. That
+portion of the filament
+in contact with the
+anther-lobes is termed
+the <i>connective</i>. If the
+anther is absent the
+stamen is abortive,
+and cannot perform
+its functions. The
+anther is developed
+before the filament,
+and when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in
+the mistletoe.</p>
+
+<p>The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-like,
+and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit.
+It is often, however, thickened, compressed and flattened in
+various ways, becoming <i>petaloid</i> in <i>Canna</i>, <i>Marania</i>, water-lily
+(fig. 32); <i>subulate</i> or slightly broadened at the base and drawn
+out into a point like an awl, as in <i>Butomus umbellatus</i>; or
+clavate, that is, narrow below and broad above, as in <i>Thalictrum</i>.
+In some instances, as in <i>Tamarix gallica</i>, <i>Peganum Harmala</i>,
+and <i>Campanula</i>, the base of the filament is much dilated, and
+ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases
+the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in <i>Allium</i>
+and <i>Alyssum calycinum</i>. The filament varies much in length
+and in firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that
+of the pistil, and to the position of the flower, whether erect or
+drooping. The filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support
+the anther in an erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses,
+and other wind-pollinated flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like,
+so that the anther is pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is
+generally continuous from one end to the other, but in some
+cases it is bent or jointed, becoming <i>geniculate</i>; at other times,
+as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is colourless, or of different
+colours. Thus in fuchsia and <i>Poinciana</i>, it is red; in <i>Adamia</i>
+and <i>Tradescantia virginica</i>, blue; in <i>Oenothera</i> and <i>Ranunculus
+acris</i>, yellow.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:228px; height:228px" src="images/img566c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;Spikelet of Reed
+(<i>Phragmites communis</i>) opened
+out. <i>a, b</i>, Barren glumes; <i>c</i>,
+fertile glumes, each enclosing one
+flower with its pale, <i>d</i>; the zigzag
+axis (<i>rhachilla</i>) bears long
+silky hairs.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are sometimes
+times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (<i>Tradescantia
+virginica</i>) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or
+necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation
+of the protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the
+thalamus or torus, and the stamens fall off after fertilization;
+but in <i>Campanula</i> and some other plants they are continuous
+with the torus, and the stamens remain persistent, although in a
+withered state. Changes are produced in the whorl of stamens
+by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less extent, while
+the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the androecium
+may unite, forming a tube
+round the pistil, or a central
+bundle when the pistil is abortive,
+the stamens becoming
+<i>monadelphous</i>, as occurs in
+plants of the Mallow tribe; or
+they may be arranged in two
+bundles, the stamens being
+<i>diadelphous</i>, as in <i>Polygala</i>,
+<i>Fumaria</i> and Pea; in this case
+the bundles may be equal or
+unequal. It frequently happens,
+especially in Papilionaceous
+flowers, that out of ten stamens
+nine are united by their filaments,
+while one (the posterior
+one) is free (fig. 68). When
+there are three or more bundles
+the stamens are <i>triadelphous</i>, as in <i>Hypericum aegyptiacum</i>, or
+<i>polyadelphous</i>, as in <i>Ricinus communis</i> (castor-oil). In some
+cases, as in papilionaceous flowers, the stamens cohere, having
+been originally separate, but in most cases each bundle is produced
+by the branching of a single stamen. When there are
+three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral ones
+as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect
+stamens, each having at the base of the filament two abortive
+stamens or staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules.
+Filaments sometimes are adherent to the pistil, forming a column
+(<i>gynostemium</i>), as in <i>Stylidium</i>, Asclepiadaceae, <i>Rafflesia</i>, and
+Aristolochiaceae (fig. 66); the flowers are then termed <i>gynandrous</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:351px" src="images/img566d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (<i>Lathyrus</i>). The
+stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments
+(<i>f</i>), while one of them (<i>e</i>) is free; <i>st</i>, stigma; <i>c</i>, calyx.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (<i>Cheiranthus</i>).
+<i>ce</i>, Exothecium; <i>cf</i>, endothecium; highly magnified.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering
+Rush (<i>Butomus umbellatus</i>). The anther entire (<i>a</i>) with its filament;
+section of anther (<i>b</i>) showing the four loculi.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The <i>anther</i> consists of lobes containing the minute powdery
+pollen grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure
+or opening of some sort. There is a double covering
+of the anther&mdash;the outer, or <i>exothecium</i>, resembles the
+<span class="sidenote">The anther.</span>
+epidermis, and often presents stomata and projections of
+different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or <i>endothecium</i>, is formed by a
+layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, <i>cf</i>), the cells of which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the wall.
+The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner
+towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears
+entirely. The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that
+when the anther attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and
+these by their elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The
+anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile in
+the first instance, and sometimes continues so. It appears at
+first as a simple cellular papilla of meristem, upon which an
+indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon these projections
+the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, usually four
+in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation takes
+place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer
+of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells.
+Those central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the
+small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium,
+the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.</p>
+
+<p>In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for
+each anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete
+it is a <i>quadrilocular</i> or <i>tetrathecal</i> anther (fig. 70). Sometimes,
+however, only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of
+the sacs in each lobe, in which case the anther is said to be <i>bilocular</i>
+or <i>dithecal</i>. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and
+becomes <i>unilocular</i>, or <i>monothecal</i>, or <i>dimidiate</i>, either by the
+disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the
+abortion of one of its lobes, as in <i>Styphelia laeta</i> and <i>Althaea
+officinalis</i> (hollyhock). Occasionally there are numerous cavities
+in the anther, as in <i>Viscum</i> and <i>Rafflesia</i>. The form of the
+anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a more or less oval
+or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as in <i>Mercurialis
+annua</i>; at other times linear or clavate: curved, flexuose, or
+sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of
+union of the lobes and the unequal development of different
+parts of their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced.
+That part of the anther to which the filament is attached is the
+<i>back</i>, the opposite being the <i>face</i>. The division between the lobes
+is marked on the face of the anther by a groove or <i>furrow</i>, and
+there is usually on the face a <i>suture</i>, indicating the line of dehiscence.
+The suture is often towards one side in consequence of
+the valves being unequal. The stamens may cohere by their
+anthers, and become <i>syngenesious</i>, as in composite flowers, and in
+lobelia, jasione, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The anther-lobes are united to the <i>connective</i>, which is either
+continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the
+filament is continuous with the connective, and is
+prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be united
+<span class="sidenote">The connective.</span>
+to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition
+to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said to be <i>adnate</i> or
+<i>adherent</i>; when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then
+the latter is <i>innate</i> or <i>erect</i>. In these cases the anther is to a
+greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is
+very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are movable
+(<i>versatile</i>) and are easily turned by the wind, as in <i>Tritonia</i>,
+grasses (fig. 105), &amp;c., where the filament is attached only to the
+middle of the connective. The connective may unite the anther-lobes
+completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short
+and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or
+free. At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes,
+assuming various forms, as in <i>Acalypha</i> and oleander; or it is
+extended backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71),
+forming a nectar-secreting spur. In <i>Salvia officinalis</i> the connective
+is attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as
+to separate the two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which
+contains pollen, the other being imperfectly developed and sterile.
+The connective is joined to the filament by a movable joint
+forming a lever which plays an important part in the pollination-mechanism.
+In <i>Stachys</i> the connective is expanded laterally,
+so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and bring them into
+a horizontal line.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:503px" src="images/img567.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;Two stamens of
+Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), with
+their two anther-lobes and the
+connectives (<i>p</i>) extending beyond
+them. One of the stamens
+has been deprived of its spur,
+the other shows its spur <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;Anther of <i>Salvia
+officinalis</i>. <i>lf</i>, fertile lobe full
+of pollen; <i>ls</i>, barren lobe without
+pollen; <i>e</i>, connective; <i>f</i>,
+filament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;Stamen of Lady&rsquo;s
+Mantle (<i>Alchemilla</i>), with the
+anther opening transversely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Stamen of a species
+of Nightshade (<i>Solanum</i>),
+showing the divergence of the
+anther-lobes at the base, and
+the dehiscence by pores at the
+apex.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;The stamen of the
+Barberry (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>),
+showing one of the valves of
+the anther (<i>v</i>) curved upwards,
+bearing the pollen on its inner
+surface.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The opening or <i>dehiscence</i> of the anthers to discharge their
+contents takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores.
+When the anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the
+line of the suture&mdash;<i>longitudinal dehiscence</i> (fig. 25). At other
+<span class="sidenote">Antherdehiscence.</span>
+times the slit is horizontal, from the connective to the
+side, as in <i>Alchemilla arvensis</i> (fig. 73) and in <i>Lemna</i>;
+the dehiscence is then <i>transverse</i>. When the anther-lobes
+are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the connective,
+then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear
+to be transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole
+length of the anther-lobe at once,
+but often for a time it extends
+only partially. In other instances
+the opening is confined
+to the base or apex, each loculament
+opening by a single pore,
+as in <i>Pyrola</i>, <i>Tetratheca juncea</i>,
+Rhododendron, <i>Vaccinium</i> and
+<i>Solanum</i> (fig. 74), where there are
+two, and <i>Poranthera</i>, where there
+are four; whilst in the mistletoe
+the anther has numerous pores
+for the discharge of the pollen.
+Another mode of dehiscence is
+the valvular, as in the barberry
+(fig. 75), where each lobe opens
+by a valve on the outer side of
+the suture, separately rolling up
+from base to apex; in some of
+the laurel tribe there are two
+such valves for each lobe, or four
+in all. In some Guttiferae, as
+<i>Hebradendron cambogioides</i> (the
+Ceylon gamboge plant), the
+anther opens by a lid separating
+from the apex (<i>circumscissile</i>
+dehiscence).</p>
+
+<p>The anthers dehisce at different
+periods during the process of
+flowering; sometimes in the bud,
+but more commonly when the
+pistil is fully developed and the
+flower is expanded. They either
+dehisce simultaneously or in succession.
+In the latter case individual
+stamens may move in
+succession towards the pistil and
+discharge their contents, as in
+<i>Parnassia palustris</i>, or the outer
+or the inner stamens may first
+dehisce, following thus a centripetal
+or centrifugal order. These
+variations are intimately connected
+with the arrangements
+for transference of pollen. The
+anthers are called <i>introrse</i> when
+they dehisce by the surface next
+to the centre of the flower; they
+are <i>extrorse</i> when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they
+dehisce by the sides, as in <i>Iris</i> and some grasses, they are
+<i>laterally</i> dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature,
+anthers originally introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower
+and <i>Oxalis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great
+variety in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in
+the poppy and tulip, orange in <i>Eschscholtzia</i>, &amp;c. The colour
+and appearance of the anthers often change after they have
+discharged their functions.</p>
+
+<p>Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or
+non-development of the anthers, when they are known as
+<i>staminodia</i>, or rudimentary stamens. In <i>Scrophularia</i> the fifth
+stamen appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons
+it is reduced to a filament with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at
+the apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are
+converted into petals; this is also probably the case with such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+plants as <i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, where there is a multiplication
+of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in <i>Canna</i>, one of the
+anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is
+produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla.
+Some are enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in <i>Cinchona</i>
+(<i>included</i>); others are <i>exserted</i>, or extend beyond the flower,
+as in <i>Littorella</i> or <i>Plantago</i>. Sometimes the stamens in the early
+state of the flower project beyond the petals, and in the progress
+of growth become included, as in <i>Geranium striatum</i>. Stamens
+also vary in their relative lengths. When there is more than one
+row or whorl in a flower, those on the outside are sometimes
+longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times those in the interior
+are longest, as in <i>Luhea</i>. When the stamens are in two rows,
+those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those which
+alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single
+stamen is longer than
+all the rest. A definite
+relation, as regards
+number, sometimes
+exists between the long
+and the short stamens.
+Thus, in some flowers
+the stamens are <i>didynamous</i>,
+having only
+four out of five stamens
+developed, and the
+two corresponding to
+the upper part of the
+flower longer than the
+two lateral ones. This
+occurs in Labiatae and
+Scrophulariaceae (fig.
+76). Again, in other
+cases there are six
+stamens, whereof four
+long ones are arranged
+in pairs opposite to each
+other, and alternate
+with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to <i>tetradynamous</i>
+flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their direction,
+may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In the
+last-mentioned case they are called <i>declinate</i>, as in amaryllis,
+horse-chestnut and fraxinella.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:153px; height:191px" src="images/img568a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:110px; height:282px" src="images/img568b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.&mdash;Corolla
+of foxglove (<i>Digitalis
+purpurea</i>), cut
+in order to show
+the didynamous
+stamens (two long
+and two short)
+which are attached
+to it.</td>
+<td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s
+<i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>,
+by permission of Gustav
+Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.&mdash;Tetradynamous
+stamens
+(four long and two
+short) of wallflower
+(<i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist
+of small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled
+mother-cells formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia)
+of the young anther. These mother-cells are either
+separated from one another and float in the granular fluid which
+fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, or are not so isolated. A
+division takes place, by which four cells are formed in each, the
+exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
+These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase
+in size and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into
+an outer cuticular layer, or <i>extine</i>, and an inner layer, or <i>intine</i>.
+Then the walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-grains
+float freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually
+disappears, and the mature grains form a powdery mass within
+the anther. They then either remain united in fours, or multiples
+of four, as in some acacias, <i>Periploca graeca</i> and <i>Inga anomala</i>,
+or separate into individual grains, which by degrees become
+mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane of the mother-cell is
+not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in a
+viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagraceae.
+In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses,
+or <i>pollinia</i> (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids each
+of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (<i>caudicle</i>) which
+adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (<i>rostellum</i>)
+by means of a viscid gland (<i>retinaculum</i>) which is either naked
+or covered. The term <i>clinandrium</i> is sometimes applied to the
+part of the column in orchids where the stamens are situated.
+In some orchids, as <i>Cypripedium</i>, the pollen has its ordinary
+character of separate grains. The number of pollinia varies;
+thus, in <i>Orchis</i> there are usually two, in <i>Cattleya</i> four, and in
+<i>Laelia</i> eight. The two pollinia in <i>Orchis Morio</i> contain each
+about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small masses, when
+bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In Asclepiadaceae
+the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), belonging
+to two contiguous anther-lobes&mdash;each pollen-mass having a
+caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of
+which they are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia
+are also provided with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80).
+The <span class="correction" title="amended from extine">exine</span> is a firm membrane, which
+defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and
+gives colour to it. It is either smooth, or
+covered with numerous projections (fig. 81),
+granules, points or crested reticulations.
+The colour is generally yellow, and the surface
+is often covered with a viscid or oily
+matter. The intine is uniform in different
+kinds of pollen, thin and transparent,
+and possesses great power of extension.
+In some aquatics, as <i>Zostera</i>, <i>Zannichellia</i>, <i>Naias</i>, &amp;c., only one
+covering exists.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:280px" src="images/img568c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 78.&mdash;Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (<i>g</i>) or
+viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (<i>p</i>)
+are supported on stalks or caudicles (<i>c</i>). These masses are easily
+detached by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 79.&mdash;Pistil of <i>Asclepias</i> (<i>a</i>) with pollen-masses (<i>p</i>) adhering
+to the stigma (<i>s</i>). <i>b</i>, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united
+by a gland-like body. Enlarged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 80.&mdash;Stamen of <i>Asclepias</i>, showing filament f, anther a, and
+appendages p. Enlarged.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:103px; height:100px" src="images/img568d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:250px; height:152px" src="images/img568e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:167px; height:146px" src="images/img568f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 81.&mdash;Pollen of
+Hollyhock (<i>Althaea rosea</i>), highly magnified.</td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>From Vines&rsquo; Students&rsquo; Text-Book of
+Botany</i>, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein
+&amp; Co.<br /><br /></td>
+<td class="tcl f90" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 83.&mdash;Male flower of
+Pellitory (<i>Parietaria officinalis</i>),
+having four stamens with in-curved
+elastic filaments, and
+an abortive pistil in the centre.
+When the perianth (<i>p</i>) expands,
+the filaments are thrown
+out with force as at <i>a</i>, so as to
+scatter the pollen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 82.&mdash;Germinating pollen-grain
+of Epilobium (highly mag.)
+bearing a pollen-tube <i>s</i>; <i>e</i>, exine;
+<i>i</i>, intine; <i>abc</i>, the three spots
+where the exine is thicker in
+anticipation of the formation of
+the pollen-tube developed in this
+case at <i>a</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Pollen-grains vary from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">300</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">700</span> of an inch or less in diameter.
+Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is
+ellipsoidal, more or less narrow at the extremities, which are
+called its <i>poles</i>, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from
+the extremities, which is its equator. Pollen-grains are also
+spherical; cylindrical and curved, as in <i>Tradescantia virginica</i>;
+polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and Compositae; nearly triangular in
+section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae (fig. 82). The surface of the
+pollen-grain is either uniform and homogeneous, or it is marked
+by folds formed by thinnings of the membrane. There are also
+rounded portions of the membrane or pores visible in the pollen-grain;
+these vary in number from one to fifty, and through one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination of
+the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only
+one, while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards;
+when numerous, the pores are either scattered irregularly, or
+in a regular order, frequently forming a circle round the equatorial
+surface. Sometimes at the place where they exist, the outer
+membrane, in place of being thin and transparent, is separated
+in the form of a lid, thus becoming <i>operculate</i>, as in the passion-flower
+and gourd. Within the pollen-grain is the granular
+protoplasm with some oily particles, and occasionally starch.
+Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes place in the pollen-grain
+into a vegetative cell or cells, from which the tube is
+developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides to
+form the male cells (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the
+pollen is shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the
+pollen must be conveyed to the stigma of the pistil.
+This process, termed <i>pollination</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pollination</a></span>),
+<span class="sidenote">Pollination.</span>
+is promoted in various ways,&mdash;the whole form and
+structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some
+plants, as <i>Kalmia</i> and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity
+of the filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants
+pollination is effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees,
+grasses, &amp;c., and in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are
+produced. These plants are <i>anemophilous</i>. But the common
+agents for pollination are insects. To allure and attract them
+to visit the flower the odoriferous secretions and gay colours
+are developed, and the position and complicated structure of
+the parts of the flower are adapted to the perfect performance
+of the process. It is comparatively rare in hermaphrodite flowers
+for self-fertilization to occur, and the various forms of dichogamy,
+dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent this.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:260px" src="images/img569a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;Flower of Tree
+Paeony (<i>Paeonia Moutan</i>),
+deprived of its corolla, and
+showing the disk in the form
+of a fleshy expansion (<i>d</i>)
+covering the ovary.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Under the term <i>disk</i> is included every structure intervening
+between the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures
+that the name of <i>nectary</i> was applied by old authors.
+It presents great varieties of form, such as a ring, scales,
+<span class="sidenote">Disk.</span>
+glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &amp;c., and in the progress of
+growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus becoming truly
+nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by degeneration
+or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of
+processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens,
+and thus representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be
+opposite to the stamens. In some
+flowers, as <i>Jatropha Curcas</i>, in which
+the stamens are not developed, their
+place is occupied by glandular
+bodies forming the disk. In Gesneraceae
+and Cruciferae the disk consists
+of tooth-like scales at the base
+of the stamens. The parts composing
+the disk sometimes unite and
+form a glandular ring, as in the
+orange; or they form a dark-red
+lamina covering the pistil, as in
+<i>Paeonia Moutan</i> (fig. 84); or a
+waxy lining of the hollow receptacle,
+as in the rose; or a swelling at the
+top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae,
+in which the disk is said to be
+epigynous. The enlarged torus
+covering the ovary in <i>Nymphaea</i>
+(<i>Castalia</i>) and <i>Nelumbium</i> may be regarded as a form of disk.</p>
+
+<p>The pistil or <i>gynoecium</i> occupies the centre or apex of the
+flower, and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes
+when these are present. It constitutes the innermost
+whorl, which after flowering is changed into the fruit
+<span class="sidenote">The pistil.</span>
+and contains the seeds. It consists essentially of two parts, a
+basal portion forming a chamber, the <i>ovary</i>, containing the ovules
+attached to a part called the <i>placenta</i>, and an upper receptive
+portion, the <i>stigma</i>, which is either seated on the ovary (<i>sessile</i>),
+as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called the
+<i>style</i>, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil
+consists of one or more modified leaves, the <i>carpels</i> (or <i>megasporophylls</i>).
+When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is <i>simple</i> or
+monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several carpels,
+more or less united, it is <i>compound</i> or <i>polycarpellary</i> (fig. 86).
+In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are
+synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when
+present), and stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded
+leaf, the upper surface of which is turned inwards towards the
+axis, and the lower outwards, while from its margins are developed
+one or more <i>ovules</i>. This comparison is borne out by an examination
+of the flower of the double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit
+is produced, and the pistil consists merely of sessile leaves,
+the limb of each being green and folded, with a narrow prolongation
+upwards, as if from the midrib, and ending in a thickened
+portion. In <i>Cycas</i> the carpels are ordinary leaves, with ovules
+upon their margin.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:359px" src="images/img569b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Strasburger&rsquo;s
+<i>Lehrbuch der Botanik</i>,
+by permission of Gustav
+Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 85.&mdash;Pistil of Broom (<i>Cytisus</i>) consisting of ovary <i>o</i>, style <i>s</i>,
+and stigma <i>t</i>. It is formed by a single carpel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 86.&mdash;Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (<i>Helleborus
+niger</i>). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct
+carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite,
+and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 87.&mdash;Fruit of the Strawberry (<i>Fragaria vesca</i>), consisting of
+an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small
+dry seed-like fruits (achenes).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 88.&mdash;Fruit of <i>Rosa alba</i>, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis
+s´, the persistent sepals s, and the carpels <i>fr</i>. The stamens (<i>c</i>) have
+withered. (After Duchartre.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 89.&mdash;Pistil of <i>Ranunculus</i>. <i>x</i>, Receptacle with the points of
+insertion of the stamens <i>a</i>, most of which have been removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 90.&mdash;Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (<i>Linum</i>), consisting of five
+carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are
+separate.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels
+may be arranged either at the same or nearly the same height
+in a verticil, or at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they
+remain separate and distinct, thus showing at once the composition
+of the pistil, as in <i>Caltha, Ranunculus</i>, hellebore (fig. 86), and
+<i>Spiraea</i>, the term <i>apocarpous</i> is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 22)
+the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels <i>o</i>, alternating with
+the stamens <i>e</i>. In magnolia and <i>Ranunculus</i> (fig. 89) the separate
+carpels are numerous and are arranged in a spiral cycle upon an
+elongated axis or receptacle. In the raspberry the carpels are
+on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on a swollen succulent
+one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a hollow one. When
+the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and chickweed,
+the pistil becomes <i>syncarpous</i>. The number of carpels in a pistil
+is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple
+pistil is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three
+carpels, trigynous, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete;
+it may take place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and
+stigmas remain free (fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries
+form apparently a single body, the organ receives the name of
+<i>compound</i> ovary; or the union may take place by the ovaries
+and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or by the stigmas
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate states
+exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where
+they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as
+in Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base;
+but in Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and
+in Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When
+the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound
+pistil may be determined by the number of styles and
+stigmas; when complete, the external venation, the grooves
+on the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary indicate
+the number.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:201px; height:280px" src="images/img570a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;Pistil of Pea
+after fertilization of the
+ovules, developing to form
+the fruit. <i>f</i>, Funicle or
+stalk of ovule (<i>ov</i>); <i>pl</i>, placenta;
+<i>s</i>, withered style and
+stigma; <i>c</i>, persistent calyx.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:170px" src="images/img570b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;Trilocular ovary of the Lily (<i>Lilium</i>), cut transversely.
+<i>s</i>, Septum; <i>o</i>, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle
+of each chamber. Enlarged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed
+of five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet
+in the centre forming the septa, <i>s</i>. The ovules (<i>o</i>) are attached to a
+central placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures.
+Dorsal suture, <i>l</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in
+which the edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules <i>o</i>, are
+not folded inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules
+appear sessile on the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:435px" src="images/img570c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 95.&mdash;Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in
+which the septa (<i>s</i>) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the
+placentas and ovules (<i>o</i>). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the
+placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, <i>l</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 96.&mdash;Pistil of Pansy (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), enlarged. 1, Vertical;
+2, horizontal section; <i>c</i>, calyx; <i>d</i>, wall of ovary; <i>o</i>, ovules; <i>p</i>,
+placenta; <i>s</i>, stigma.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 97.&mdash;Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (<i>Cucumis
+Melo</i>), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The
+three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From
+the centre, processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas
+bearing the ovules.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 98.&mdash;Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary,
+in which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (<i>o</i>) are
+attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with
+the walls of the ovary.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The ovules are attached to the <i>placenta</i>, which consists of a
+mass of cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels
+pass to the ovule. The placenta is usually formed on
+the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig. 91)&mdash;<i>marginal</i>.
+<span class="sidenote">The placenta.</span>
+In many cases, however, the placentas are formations
+from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary
+leaves. In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing
+the placenta is the <i>inner</i> or <i>ventral
+suture</i>, corresponding to the margin
+of the folded carpellary leaf, while
+the <i>outer</i> or <i>dorsal suture</i> corresponds
+to the midrib of the carpellary leaf.
+As the placenta is formed on each
+margin of the carpel it is essentially
+double. This is seen in cases where
+the margins of the carpel do not
+unite, but remain separate, and consequently
+two placentas are formed in
+place of one. When the pistil is
+formed by one carpel the inner margins
+unite and form usually a common
+marginal placenta, which may extend
+along the whole margin of the ovary
+as far as the base of the style (fig. 91),
+or may be confined to the base or
+apex only. When the pistil consists
+of several separate carpels, or is
+apocarpous, there are generally separate
+placentas at each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil,
+on the other hand, the carpels are so united that the edges of
+each of the contiguous ones, by their union, form a <i>septum</i> or
+<i>dissepiment</i>, and the number of these septa consequently indicates
+the number of carpels in the compound pistil (fig. 92). When the
+dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided
+into cavities or <i>cells</i>, and it may be <i>bilocular</i>, <i>triloculur</i> (fig. 92),
+<i>quadrilocular</i>, <i>quinquelocular</i>, or <i>multilocular</i>, according as it is
+formed by two, three, four, five or many carpels, each carpel
+corresponding to a single cell. In these cases the marginal
+placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a single <i>central</i>
+one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the central angle of
+the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do not fold
+inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the walls
+of the ovary, then the ovary is <i>unilocular</i> (fig. 95) and the
+placentas are <i>parietal</i>, as in <i>Viola</i> (fig. 96). In these instances
+the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous
+leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be
+united, each developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of
+the carpels, which fold in to the centre, split there into two
+lamellae, each of which is curved outwards and projects into the
+loculament, dilating at the end into a placenta. This is well
+seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), <i>Pyrola</i>, &amp;c. The carpellary leaves
+may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be applied in a
+valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the placentas
+then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or thickenings
+along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas
+are not connected with the
+walls of the ovary, and form
+what is called a <i>free central
+placenta</i> (fig. 98). This is seen
+in many of the Caryophyllaceae
+and Primulaceae (figs.
+99, 100). In Caryophyllaceae,
+however, while the placenta
+is free in the centre, there are
+often traces found at the base
+of the ovary of the remains of
+septa, as if rupture had taken
+place, and, in rare instances,
+ovules are found on the
+margins of the carpels. But
+in Primulaceae no vestiges of
+septa or marginal ovules can
+be perceived at any period of
+growth; the placenta is
+always free, and rises in the
+centre of the ovary. Free
+central placentation, therefore,
+has been accounted for in two ways: either by supposing
+that the placentas in the early state were formed on the margins of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development these
+leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules
+free in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not
+<i>marginal</i> but <i>axile</i> formations, produced by an elongation of the
+axis, and the carpels verticillate leaves, united together around
+the axis. The first of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae,
+the second to Primulaceae.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:256px" src="images/img570d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 99.&mdash;Pistil of <i>Cerastium
+hirsutum</i> cut vertically. <i>o</i>, Ovary;
+<i>p</i>, free central placenta; <i>g</i>, ovules;
+<i>s</i>, styles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 100.&mdash;The same cut horizontally,
+and the halves separated
+so as to show the interior of the
+cavity of the ovary <i>o</i>, with the free
+central placenta <i>p</i>, covered with
+ovules <i>g</i>.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:340px" src="images/img571a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 101.&mdash;Carpel of Lady&rsquo;s-mantle
+(<i>Alchemilla</i>) with lateral style <i>s</i>; <i>o</i>,
+ovary, <i>st</i>, stigma. Enlarged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 102.&mdash;Pistil of Primrose (<i>Primula</i>)
+composed of five carpels which are completely
+united; <i>o</i>, ovary; <i>s</i>, style; <i>st</i>,
+stigma. Enlarged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 103.&mdash;Gynoecium of the Flower-de-Luce
+(<i>Iris</i>), consisting of an inferior
+ovary (<i>o</i>) and a style which divides into
+three petaloid segments (<i>s</i>), each bearing
+a stigma (<i>st</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 104.&mdash;Capsule of Poppy, opening
+by pores (<i>p</i>), under the radiating peltate
+stigma (<i>s</i>).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not
+formed by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called
+<i>spurious dissepiments</i>. They are often horizontal, as in <i>Cathartocarpus
+Fistula</i>, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations
+from the walls of the ovary, only developed after
+fertilization, and therefore more properly noticed under fruit.
+At other times they are vertical, as in <i>Datura</i>, where the ovary,
+in place of being two-celled, becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae,
+where the prolongation of the placentas forms a vertical partition;
+in <i>Astragalus</i> and <i>Thespesia</i>, where the dorsal suture is folded
+inwards; and in <i>Oxytropis</i>, where the ventral suture is folded
+inwards.</p>
+
+<p>The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form,
+sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times
+hairy and grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions
+between the carpels and correspond to the dissepiments. The
+dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection or by a
+superficial groove. When the ovary is situated on the centre
+of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its base is
+above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed <i>superior</i>, as in
+<i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Primula</i> (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. 28).
+When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying
+with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion
+of the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary
+leaves alone closing in the apex, the ovary is <i>inferior</i>, as in
+pomegranate, aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see
+fig. 30). In some plants,
+as many Saxifragaceae,
+there are intermediate
+forms, in which the term
+<i>half-inferior</i> is applied to
+the ovary, whilst the
+floral whorls are <i>half-superior</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>style</i> proceeds
+from the summit of the
+carpel (fig.
+102), and is
+traversed by a narrow
+canal, in which there are
+some loose projecting
+cells, a continuation of
+the placenta, constituting
+what is called conducting
+tissue, which ends in
+the stigma. This is particularly
+abundant when
+<span class="sidenote">The style.</span>
+the pistil is ready for
+fertilization. In some
+cases, owing to more
+rapid growth of the
+dorsal side of the ovary,
+the style becomes <i>lateral</i>
+(fig. 101); this may so
+increase that the style
+appears to arise from
+near the base, as in the
+strawberry, or from the base, as in <i>Chrysobalanus Icaco</i>, when
+it is called <i>basilar</i>. In all these cases the style still indicates
+the organic apex of the ovary, although it may not be the
+apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the style of each
+carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were
+depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression
+in the midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus.
+Such a style is <i>gynobasic</i>, and is well seen in Boraginaceae.
+The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or less filiform
+and simple; sometimes it is grooved on one side, at other times
+it is flat, thick, angular, compressed and even petaloid, as in <i>Iris</i>
+(fig. 103) and <i>Canna</i>. In Goodeniaceae it ends in a cuplike
+expansion, enclosing the stigma. It sometimes bears hairs,
+which aid in the application of the pollen to the stigma, and are
+called <i>collecting hairs</i>, as in <i>Campanula</i>, and also in <i>Aster</i> and other
+Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth of the
+style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and
+carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the
+mature stigma of other flowers. In <i>Vicia</i> and <i>Lobelia</i> the hairs
+frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous
+pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they
+alternate with the septa; when united completely, the style is
+said to be <i>simple</i> (fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of
+each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. Each
+division of the tricarpellary ovary of <i>Jatropha Curcas</i> has a
+<i>bifurcate</i> or forked style, and the ovary of <i>Emblica officinalis</i> has
+three styles, each of which is twice forked. The length of the
+style is determined by the relation which should subsist between
+the position of the stigma and that of the anthers, so as to allow
+the proper application of the pollen. The style is deciduous or
+persists after fertilization.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>stigma</i> is the termination of the conducting tissue of the
+style, and is usually in direct communication with the placenta.
+It consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid
+matter which detains the pollen, and causes it to
+<span class="sidenote">The stigma.</span>
+germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly speaking,
+the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the
+divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated.
+The stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous
+pistil, or, in other words, corresponds with the back of the
+loculaments; but in some cases it would appear that half the
+stigma of one carpel unites with half that of the contiguous
+carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepiments, that is,
+alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:189px; height:271px" src="images/img571b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 105.&mdash;Flower of a grass
+with glumes removed, showing
+three stamens and two
+feathery styles. <i>p</i>, Pale; <i>l</i>,
+lodicules. Enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which
+compose the pistil. Thus in <i>Campanula</i> a five-cleft stigma
+indicates five carpels; in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and
+Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or bilamellar stigma indicates a
+bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in Gramineae, the
+stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be terminal
+or lateral. In <i>Iris</i> it is situated on a cleft on the back of the
+petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as
+those of <i>Mimulus</i>, present sensitive flattened laminae, which
+close when touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may
+be globular, as in <i>Mirabilis Jalapa</i>; orbicular, as in <i>Arbutus
+Andrachne</i>; umbrella-like, as in
+<i>Sarracenia</i>, where, however, the
+proper stigmatic surface is beneath
+the angles of the large expansion
+of the apex of the style; ovoid, as
+in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral;
+radiating, as in the poppy
+(fig. 104), where the true stigmatic
+rays are attached to a sort of <i>peltate</i>
+or shield-like body, which may
+represent depressed or flattened
+styles; <i>cucullate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> covered by a
+hood, in calabar bean. The lobes
+of a stigma are flat and pointed as
+in <i>Mimulus</i> and <i>Bignonia</i>, fleshy
+and blunt, smooth or granular, or
+they are feathery, as in many
+grasses (fig. 105) and other wind-pollinated
+flowers. In Orchidaceae
+the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column
+beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are
+united to the face of the anthers, and along with them form
+a solid mass.</p>
+
+<p>The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become
+the seed. Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
+the carpellary leaves, but are also formed over the whole
+surface of the leaf, as in <i>Butomus</i>. In other instances they rise
+<span class="sidenote">The ovule.</span>
+from the floral axis itself, either terminal, as in Polygonaceae
+and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in Primulaceae
+and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary,
+and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed
+<i>angiospermous</i>; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no
+proper ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being
+denominated <i>gymnospermous</i>. In <i>Cycas</i> the altered leaf, upon
+the margin of which the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales,
+from which they are pendulous in <i>Zamia</i>, are regarded by all
+botanists as carpellary leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion
+has arisen regarding the morphology of parts in many
+genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a
+way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the
+ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In <i>Leontice thalictroides</i>
+(Blue Cohosh), species of <i>Ophiopogon</i>, <i>Peliosanthes</i> and <i>Stateria</i>,
+the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules
+are exposed; and in species of <i>Cuphea</i> the placenta ultimately
+bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing
+the exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either
+directly, when it is <i>sessile</i>, or by means of a prolongation <i>funicle</i>
+(fig. 110, <i>f</i>). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after
+fertilization. The part by which the ovule is attached to the
+placenta or cord is its <i>base</i> or <i>hilum</i>, the opposite extremity being
+its <i>apex</i>. The latter is frequently turned round in such a way
+as to approach the base. The ovule is sometimes embedded in
+the placenta, as in <i>Hydnora</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:496px; height:195px" src="images/img572a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 106 and 107.&mdash;Successive stages in the development of an
+ovule. <i>n</i>, Nucellus; <i>i</i>, inner; <i>o</i>, outer integument in section; <i>m</i>,
+micropyle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 108.&mdash;Orthotropous ovule of <i>Polygonum</i> in section, showing
+the embryo-sac <i>s</i>, in the nucellus <i>n</i>, the different ovular coverings,
+the base of the nucellus or chalaza <i>ch</i>, and the apex of the ovule with
+its micropyle <i>m</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 109.&mdash;Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine
+(<i>Pinus austriaca</i>), showing the nucellus <i>a</i>, consisting of delicate
+cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac <i>b</i>.
+The micropyle <i>m</i> is very wide.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from
+the placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or
+less enlarged ovate form constituting what has been called the
+<i>nucellus</i> (fig. 106, <i>n</i>), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This
+nucellus may remain naked, and alone form the ovule, as in
+some orders of parasitic plants such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae,
+&amp;c.; but in most plants it becomes surrounded by certain
+coverings or integuments during its development. These appear
+first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the nucellus,
+which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In some
+cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous
+dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also
+in walnut, &amp;c. But usually besides the single covering another
+is developed subsequently (fig. 106, <i>o</i>), which gradually extends
+over that first formed, and ultimately covers it completely,
+except at the apex. There are thus two integuments to the
+nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do not
+completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed
+the <i>micropyle</i> is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex
+of the ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to
+form the <i>embryo-sac</i> or megaspore (fig. 108, <i>s</i>). This embryo-sac
+increases in size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the
+nucellus until it is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it
+may actually extend at the apex beyond it, as in <i>Phaseolus</i>
+and <i>Alsine media</i>; or it may pass into the micropyle, as in
+<i>Santalum</i>. In Gymnosperms it usually remains deep in the
+nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue (fig.
+109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore,
+and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization
+is formed the embryo, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:209px" src="images/img572b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 110.&mdash;Campylotropous ovule of
+wall-flower (<i>Cheiranthus</i>), showing the
+funicle <i>f</i>, which attaches the ovule to the
+placenta; <i>p</i>, the outer, <i>s</i>, the inner coat,
+<i>n</i>, the nucellus, <i>ch</i>, the chalaza. The
+ovule is curved upon itself, so that the
+micropyle is near the funicle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 111.&mdash;Anatropous ovule of Dandelion
+(<i>Taraxacum</i>), <i>n</i>, nucellus, which is
+inverted, so that the chalaza <i>ch</i>, is removed
+from the base or hilum <i>h</i>, while
+the micropyle <i>f</i> is near the base. The
+connexion between the base of the ovule
+and the base of the nucellus is kept up
+by means of the raphe <i>r</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The point where the integuments are united to the base of
+the nucellus is called the <i>chalaza</i> (figs. 111, 112). This is often
+coloured, is of a denser
+texture than the surrounding
+tissue, and is
+traversed by fibro-vascular
+bundles, which
+pass from the placenta
+to nourish the ovule.</p>
+
+<p>When the ovule is
+so developed that the
+chalaza is at the
+hilum (next the placenta),
+and the micropyle
+is at the opposite
+extremity, there being
+a short funicle, the
+ovule is <i>orthotropous</i>.
+This form is well seen in
+Polygonaceae (fig. 112),
+Cistaceae, and most
+gymnosperms. In such
+an ovule a straight line
+drawn from the hilum
+to the micropyle passes
+along the axis of the
+ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one side than on the
+other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is curved upon
+itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and ultimately
+is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the ovule is
+<i>campylotropous</i> (fig. 110). Curved ovules are found in Cruciferae,
+and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or <i>anatropous</i> ovule (fig. 111)
+is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the
+apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment
+of the funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated
+at the opposite extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the
+side usually next the placenta, coalesces with the ovule and
+constitutes the <i>raphe</i> (<i>r</i>), which often forms a ridge. The
+anatropous ovule arises from the placenta as a straight or only
+slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, gradually
+becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the integuments
+(cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round
+it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes
+adherent to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument
+be formed it covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not
+form on the side to which the raphe is adherent. These may be
+taken as the three types of ovule; but there are various intermediate
+forms, such as <i>semi-anatropous</i> and others.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When
+there is a single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached
+to the placenta at the base of the ovary (<i>basal placenta</i>), and is
+then <i>erect</i>, as in Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be
+inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its
+apex upwards, and then is <i>ascending</i>, as in <i>Parietaria</i>. It may
+hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its
+apex being directed downwards, and is <i>inverted</i> or <i>pendulous</i>,
+as in <i>Hippuris vulgaris</i>; or from a parietal placenta near the
+summit, and then is <i>suspended</i>, as in <i>Daphne Mezereum</i>, Polygalaceae
+and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle arises
+from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and
+there bending over suspends the ovule, as in <i>Armeria</i> (sea-pink);
+at other times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the
+ovule becomes <i>horizontal</i>. When there are two ovules in the
+same cell, they may be either <i>collateral</i>, that is, placed side by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+side (fig. 92), or the one may be erect and the other inverted,
+as in some species of <i>Spiraea</i> and <i>Aesculus</i>; or they may be
+placed one above another, each directed similarly, as is the case
+in ovaries containing a moderate or definite number of ovules.
+Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the ovules, o,
+are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the
+other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each
+margin of the carpel. When the ovules are <i>definite</i> (<i>i.e.</i> are
+uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attachment
+so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When
+the ovules are very numerous (<i>indefinite</i>), while at the same time
+the placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great
+variation, some being directed upwards, others downwards,
+others transversely; and their form is altered by pressure into
+various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it frequently happens
+that some of the ovules are arrested in their development and
+become abortive.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:248px; height:486px" src="images/img573a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Strasburger&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der
+Botanik</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 112.</span>&mdash;Ovary of <i>Polygonum
+Convolvulus</i> in longitudinal
+section during fertilization.
+(× 48.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>fs</i>, Stalk-like base of ovary.</p>
+<p><i>fu</i>, Funicle.</p>
+<p><i>cha</i>, Chalaza.</p>
+<p><i>nu</i>, Nucellus.</p>
+<p><i>mi</i>, Micropyle.</p>
+<p><i>ii</i>, inner, ie, outer integument.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Embryo-sac.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>ek</i>, Nucleus of embryo-sac.</p>
+<p><i>ei</i>, Egg-apparatus.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Antipodal cells.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Style.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Stigma.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Pollen-grains.</p>
+<p><i>ps</i>, Pollen-tubes.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:102px; height:154px" src="images/img573b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 113.</span>&mdash;Vertical section of
+the ovule of the Scotch Fir (<i>Pinus
+sylvestris</i>) in May of the second
+year, showing the enlarged embryo-sac
+b, full of endosperm
+cells, and pollen-tubes c, penetrating
+the summit of the nucellus
+after the pollen has entered the
+large micropyle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes
+ready for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and
+the pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angiosperms,
+or the summit of the nucellus in gymnosperms,
+<span class="sidenote">Fertilization.</span>
+it is detained there, and the viscid secretion from the
+glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the nucellus in
+the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a pollen-tube
+through the pores of the grain.
+The pollen-tube or tubes pass
+down the canal (fig. 112),
+through the conducting tissue
+of the style when present, and
+reach the interior of the ovary
+in angiosperms, and then pass
+to the micropyle of the ovule,
+one pollen-tube going to each
+ovule. Sometimes the micropyle
+lies close to the base of
+the style, and then the pollen-tube
+enters it at once, but
+frequently it has to pass some
+distance into the ovary, being
+guided in its direction by various
+contrivances, as hairs,
+grooves, &amp;c. In gymnosperms
+the pollen-grain resting on the
+apex of the nucellus sends out
+its pollen-tubes, which at once
+penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113).
+In angiosperms when the pollen-tube
+reaches the micropyle it
+passes down into the canal, and this portion of it increases
+considerably in size. Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in
+contact with the tip of the embryo-sac and perforates it. The
+male cells in the end of the pollen-tube are then transmitted to
+the embryo-sac and fertilization is effected. Consequent upon
+this, after a longer or shorter period, those changes commence
+in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the embryo
+plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into
+the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of
+nutriment for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization
+confined to the ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant.
+The ovary enlarges, and, with the seeds enclosed, constitutes
+the fruit, frequently incorporated with which are other parts
+of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &amp;c. In gymnosperms the
+pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down the
+tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer
+or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are
+discussed in a separate article&mdash;<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> Imitations of natural flowers are
+sometimes made for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass
+flowers at Harvard University, which illustrates the flora of the
+United States), but more often as articles of decoration and
+ornament. A large variety of materials have been used in their
+manufacture by different peoples at different times&mdash;painted
+linen and shavings of stained horn by the Egyptians, gold and
+silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese, silkworm
+cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South
+America, wax, small tinted shells, &amp;c. At the beginning of the
+18th century the French, who originally learnt the art from the
+Italians, made great advances in the accuracy of their reproductions,
+and towards the end of that century the Paris manufacturers
+enjoyed a world-wide reputation. About the same
+time the art was introduced into England by French refugees,
+and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The industry
+is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of
+operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes
+may be distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various
+fabrics and materials employed into shapes suitable for forming
+the leaves, petals, &amp;c.; this may be done by scissors, but more
+often stamps are employed which will cut through a dozen or
+more thicknesses at one blow. The veins of the leaves are next
+impressed by means of a die, and the petals are given their
+natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various shapes.
+The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the
+flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the
+fourth is to mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron
+wire wrapped round with suitably coloured material, and to
+fasten on the leaves required to complete the spray.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOYD, JOHN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in
+Cambridgeshire in 1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when
+at Rome in 1592 and is also known as Daniel à Jesu, Hermannus
+Loemelius, and George White, the names under which he published
+a score of controversial treatises. He had considerable
+fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently arrested
+in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died
+at St Omer on the 15th of September 1649. His brother Edward
+Floyd was impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for
+speaking disparagingly of the elector palatine.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1807-1863), American politician,
+was born at Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He
+was the son of John Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in
+Congress from 1817 to 1829 and governor of Virginia from
+1830 to 1834. After graduating at South Carolina College in 1826,
+the son practised law in his native state and at Helena, Arkansas,
+and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia, which in
+1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state legislature.
+Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governor of Virginia,
+in which position he recommended to the legislature the enactment
+of a law laying an import tax on the products of such states
+as refused to surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters.
+In March 1857 he became secretary of war in President
+Buchanan&rsquo;s cabinet, where his lack of administrative ability
+was soon apparent. In December 1860, on ascertaining that
+Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government contractors
+in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested
+his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for
+malversation in office, but the indictment was overruled on
+technical grounds. There is no proof that he profited by
+these irregular transactions; in fact he went out of the office
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+financially embarrassed. Though he had openly opposed secession
+before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that event,
+especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion,
+and he was accused of having sent large stores of government
+arms to Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In
+the last days of his term he apparently had such an intention,
+but during the year 1860 the Southern States actually received
+less than their full quota of arms. After the secession of Virginia
+he was commissioned a brigadier-general in the Confederate
+service. He was first employed in some unsuccessful operations
+in western Virginia, and in February 1862 became commander
+of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which he fled
+with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the
+night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to
+surrender to General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis
+relieved him of his command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia,
+on the 26th of August 1863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLOYER, SIR JOHN<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1649-1734), English physician and
+author, was born at Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated
+at Oxford. He practised in Lichfield, and it was by his advice
+that Dr Johnson, when a child, was taken by his mother to be
+touched by Queen Anne for the king&rsquo;s evil on the 30th of March
+1714. He died on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was an
+advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the
+rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the pathological
+changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings include:&mdash;<span class="grk" title="Pharmako-Basanos">&#934;&#945;&#961;&#956;&#945;&#954;&#959;-&#914;&#940;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>: <i>or the Touchstone of
+Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and Animals,
+by their Tastes and Smells</i> (2 vols., 1687); <i>The praeternatural State of
+animal Humours described by their sensible Qualities</i> (1696); <i>An
+Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the hot, cold and temperate
+Baths in England</i> (1697); <i>A Treatise of the Asthma</i> (1st ed., 1698);
+<i>The ancient</i> <span class="grk" title="Psychrolousia">&#936;&#965;&#967;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span> <i>revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing
+both safe and useful</i> (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged,
+Manchester, 1844, 12mo); <i>The Physician&rsquo;s Pulse-watch</i> (1707-1710);
+<i>The Sibylline Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and compared
+with the sacred Prophecies</i> (1st ed., 1713); <i>Two Essays: the
+first Essay concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of
+good and bad Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System
+of the World</i> (Nottingham, 1717); <i>An Exposition of the Revelations</i>
+(1719); <i>An Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism</i>
+(1722); <i>Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old
+Men&rsquo;s Healths</i> (1st ed., 1724); <i>A Comment on forty-two Histories
+described by Hippocrates</i> (1726).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUDD,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Flud</span>, <b>ROBERT</b> [<span class="sc">Robertus de Fluctibus</span>] (1574-1637),
+English physician and mystical philosopher, the son of
+Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France
+and the Low Countries, was born at Milgate, Kent. After
+studying at St John&rsquo;s College, Oxford, he travelled in Europe
+for six years, and became acquainted with the writings of
+Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a
+member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ultimately
+became a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised
+in London with success, though it is said that he combined with
+purely medical treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following
+Paracelsus, he endeavoured to form a system of philosophy
+founded on the identity of physical and spiritual truth. The
+universe and all created things proceed from God, who is the
+beginning, the end and the sum of all things, and to him they
+will return. The act of creation is the separation of the active
+principle (light) from the passive (darkness) in the bosom of the
+divine unity (God). The universe consists of three worlds;
+the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm
+(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both
+sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is
+possible for man (and even for the mineral and the plant)
+to undergo transformation and to win immortality. Fludd&rsquo;s
+system may be described as a materialistic pantheism, which,
+allegorically interpreted, he put forward as containing the real
+meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam by God himself,
+handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs, and revealed
+a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the
+honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne.
+Though rapt in mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied
+attainments. He did not disdain scientific experiments, and is
+thought by some to be the original inventor of the barometer.
+He was an ardent defender of the Rosicrucians, and De Quincey
+considers him to have been the immediate, as J.V. Andreä
+was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the 8th
+of September 1637.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.B. Craven, <i>Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian</i> (1902),
+where a list of his works is given; A.E. Waite, <i>The Real History
+of the Rosicrucians</i> (1887); De Quincey, <i>The Rosicrucians and Freemasons</i>;
+J. Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i> (1870), i. 240 seq.
+His works were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1802-1870), German
+orientalist, was born at Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802.
+He received his early education at the gymnasium of his native
+town, and studied theology and philology at Leipzig. Gradually
+he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental languages, which he
+studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became professor at the
+<i>Fürstenschule</i> of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health compelled him
+to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to Vienna,
+where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and
+Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden
+on the 5th of July 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Flügel&rsquo;s chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and encyclopaedic
+lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols.,
+London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition
+of the Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed <i>Concordantiae
+Corani arabicae</i> (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); <i>Mani,
+seine Lehren und seine Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1862); <i>Die grammatischen
+Schulen der Araber</i> (Leipzig, 1862); and <i>Ibn Kutlûbugas Krone der
+Lebensbeschreibungen</i> (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of <i>Kitâb-al-Fihrist</i>,
+prepared by him, was published after his death.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLÜGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1788-1855), German lexicographer,
+was born at Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of
+November 1788. He was originally a merchant&rsquo;s clerk, but
+emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a special study
+of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819,
+was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the university
+of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and
+subsequently representative and correspondent of the Smithsonian
+Institution at Washington and several other leading
+American literary and scientific institutions. He died at Leipzig
+on the 24th of June 1855.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fame of Flügel rests chiefly on the <i>Vollständige englisch-deutsche
+und deutsch-englische Wörterbuch</i>, first published in 2 vols.
+(Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation not only
+in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was
+assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition, edited by
+his son Felix Flügel (1820-1904), was published at Brunswick (1890-1892).
+Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel
+Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London &amp; New York)
+in 1906. Among his other works are&mdash;<i>Vollständige engl. Sprachlehre</i>
+(1824-1826); <i>Triglotte, oder kaufmännisches Wörterbuch in drei
+Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Französisch</i> (1836-1840); <i>Kleines
+Kaufmännisches Handwörterbuch in drei Sprachen</i> (1840); and
+<i>Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz</i> (1827, 9th ed.
+1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition,
+Flügel also published in the English language: <i>A series of Commercial
+Letters</i> (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in
+1874 under the title <i>Practical Mercantile Correspondence</i> and a
+<i>Practical Dictionary of the English and German Languages</i> (2 vols.,
+Hamburg and Leipzig, 1847-1852; 15th ed., Leipzig, 1891). The
+last was continued and re-edited by his son Felix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUKE<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (probably connected with the Ger. <i>flach</i>, flat), a name
+given to several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the
+common flounder; also the name of a trematoid worm, resembling
+a flounder in shape, which as a parasite infects the liver
+and neighbouring organs of certain animals, especially sheep,
+and causes liver-rot. The most common is the <i>Fasciola hepatica</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trematodes</a></span>). It is also the name of a species of kidney
+potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish,
+&ldquo;fluke&rdquo; is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in
+shape, at the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular
+extremities of the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang
+expression for a lucky accident appears to have been first applied
+in billiards to an unintentional scoring shot.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUME<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (through an O. Fr. word <i>flum</i>, from the Lat. <i>flumen</i>,
+a river), a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly
+for the tail of a mill-race. It is used in America for a very
+narrow gorge running between precipitous rocks, with a stream
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+at the bottom, but more frequently is applied to an artificial
+channel of wood or other material for the diversion of a stream
+of water from a river for purposes of irrigation, for running a sawmill,
+or for various processes in the hydraulic method of gold-mining
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUMINI MAGGIORE,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a town of the province of Cagliari,
+Sardinia, 10 m. by road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast.
+Pop. (1901) town 3908; commune 9647. It is the centre of
+a considerable lead and zinc mining district. Three miles to the
+S. are the ruins of a temple erected probably in the time of
+Commodus (<i>Corpus inscr. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, No. 7539).
+They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on the
+coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining
+district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found
+two ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian&rsquo;s name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUORANTHENE,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">10</span>, also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon
+occurring with phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other
+substances in &ldquo;Stupp&rdquo; fat (the fat obtained in working up the
+mercury ores in Idria), and also in the higher boiling fractions
+of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered by R. Fittig in 1878,
+who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its constitution
+(see <i>Ann.</i>, 1879, 200, p. 1). The hydrocarbons are separated
+from the &ldquo;Stupp&rdquo; by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on
+distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene
+and fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be
+fractionally precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated
+from most of the pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial
+vacuum. In either case the two hydrocarbons are finally
+separated by fractional crystallization of their picrates, which
+are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene crystallizes
+in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at 109-110°
+C. and boiling at 250-251° C. (60 mm.). It is easily soluble in hot
+alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with chromic
+acid it forms a quinone, C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and an &alpha;-diphenylene ketocarboxylic
+acid <img style="width:120px; height:38px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img575a.jpg" alt="" /> The picrate melts at 182-183° C.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUORENE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (&alpha;-diphenylene methane), C<span class="su">13</span>H<span class="su">10</span> or (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>,
+a hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher
+boiling fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene,
+by fractional distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340° C.
+being taken. The fluorene is separated from this by placing it in
+a freezing mixture, and is then redistilled or crystallized from
+glacial acetic acid, or purified by means of its picrate. It may
+be prepared by distilling diphenylene ketone over zinc dust,
+or by heating it with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 150-160°
+C.; and also by passing the vapour of diphenyl methane through
+a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless plates, possessing
+a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113° and boiling at 293-295°
+C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution,
+it is converted into diphenylene ketone (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CO; whilst on
+heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 250-260° C. it
+gives a hydro derivative of composition C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">22</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUORESCEIN,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Resorcin-Phthalein</span>, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, in
+chemistry, a compound discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by
+the condensation of phthalic anhydride with resorcin at 195-200°
+C. (<i>Ann.</i>, 1876, 183, p. 1). The two reacting substances are either
+heated alone or with zinc chloride for some hours, and the melt
+obtained is boiled out with water, washed by dilute alcohol,
+extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so
+obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well
+washed with water and then dried. By repeating this process
+two or three times, the fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure
+condition. It forms a yellow amorphous powder, insoluble in
+water but soluble in alcohol, and crystallizing from the alcoholic
+solution in small dark red nodules. It is readily soluble in solutions
+of the caustic alkalis, the solution being of a dark red colour
+and showing (especially when largely diluted with water) a
+brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of this
+last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid
+solution, <i>eosin</i> (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same
+compound being formed by heating 3.5-dibrom-2.4-dioxybenzoylbenzoic
+acid above its melting point (R. Meyer, <i>Ber.</i>,
+1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes from alcohol in yellowish red
+needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted cotton a fine pink
+colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields dibromresorcin
+and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding
+iodo compound is known as <i>erythrosin</i>. Fluorescein is readily
+nitrated, yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to
+conditions. The entrance of the negative nitro group into the
+molecule weakens the central pyrone ring in the fluorescein
+nucleus and the di- and tetra-nitro compounds readily yield
+hydrates (see J.T. Hewitt and B.W. Perkins, <i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>,
+1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines the di-nitro
+fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F. Reverdin,
+<i>Ber</i>., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from fluorescein
+are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and rose
+Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, and monoresorcin phthalein (dioxybenzoylbenzoic
+acid), (HO)<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>·CO·C H<span class="su">4</span>·COOH. With zinc dust and caustic
+soda it yields fluorescin. By warming fluorescein with excess of
+phosphorus pentachloride it yields fluorescein chloride, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span>
+(A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from alcohol in small prisms, melting
+at 252° C. When heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride,
+fluorescein yields a colourless anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, <i>Ber</i>.,
+1893, 26, p. 2236), which is readily methylated by methyl iodide
+and potash to a fluoresceinanilidedimethyl ether, which when heated
+for six hours to 150° C. with acetic and hydrochloric acids, is hydrolysed
+and yields a colourless fluoresceindimethyl ether, which melts
+at 198° C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic
+potash, methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow)
+dimethyl ether, melting at 208° C. is obtained (Fischer and Hepp).
+By heating the coloured dimethyl ether with caustic soda, the
+monomethyl ether is obtained (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, <i>Ber</i>., 1895,
+28, p. 397); this crystallizes in triclinic tables, and melts at 262° C.
+It is to be noted that the colourless monomethyl ether fluoresces
+strongly in alkaline solution, the dimethyl ether of melting point
+208° fluoresces only in neutral solution (<i>e.g.</i>, in alcoholic solution),
+and the dimethyl ether of melting point 198° C. only in concentrated
+hydrochloric or sulphuric acid solution (Fischer and Hepp). Considerable
+discussion has taken place as to the position held by the
+hydroxyl groups in the fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (<i>Ber</i>., 1895,
+28, p. 28) asserting that they were in the ortho position to the linking
+carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller (<i>Ber</i>.,
+1895, 28, p. 312), however, showed that monoresorcin-phthalein
+when brominated in glacial acetic acid gives a dibrom derivative
+which, with fuming sulphuric acid, yields dibromxanthopurpurin
+(1.3-dioxy-2.4-dibromanthraquinone), a reaction which is only
+possible if the fluorescein (from which the monoresorcin-phthalein
+is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in the para position to the
+linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:230px" src="images/img575b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">FLUORESCENCE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>. In a paper read before the Royal Society
+of Edinburgh in 1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable
+phenomenon he had discovered to which he gave the name of
+&ldquo;internal dispersion.&rdquo; On admitting a beam of sunlight, condensed
+by a lens, into a solution of chlorophyll, the green colouring
+matter of leaves (see fig. 1), he was surprised to find that the
+path of the rays within the fluid
+was marked by a bright light of a
+blood-red colour, strangely contrasting
+with the beautiful green of the
+fluid when seen in moderate thickness.
+Brewster afterwards observed
+the same phenomenon in various
+vegetable solutions and essential
+oils, and in some solids, amongst
+which was fluor-spar. He believed
+this effect to be due to coloured
+particles held in suspension. A few
+years later, Sir John Herschel independently
+discovered that if a
+solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted
+light, appears colourless and transparent like water, were
+illuminated by a beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue
+colour was seen in a thin stratum of the fluid adjacent to
+the surface by which the light entered. The blue light was
+unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of the
+fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the
+stratum from which the blue light came, was not sensibly
+enfeebled or coloured, but yet it had lost the power of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+producing the characteristic blue colour when admitted into a
+second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam of light modified
+in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel &ldquo;epipolized.&rdquo;
+Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case of
+internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays
+capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:166px; height:177px" src="images/img576a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken
+up by Sir G.G. Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present
+knowledge of the subject is due. Stokes&rsquo;s first paper &ldquo;On the
+Change of the Refrangibility of Light&rdquo; appeared in 1852. He
+repeated the experiments of Brewster and Herschel, and considerably
+extended them. These experiments soon led him to
+the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had
+imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but
+that the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from
+the light which excited it. He therefore termed it &ldquo;true internal
+dispersion&rdquo; to distinguish it from the scattering of light, which
+he called &ldquo;false internal dispersion.&rdquo; As this name, however,
+is apt to suggest Brewster&rsquo;s view of the phenomenon, he afterwards
+abandoned it as unsatisfactory, and substituted the word
+&ldquo;fluorescence.&rdquo; This term, derived from fluor-spar after the
+analogy of opalescence from opal, does not presuppose any theory.
+To examine the nature of the fluorescence produced by quinine,
+Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun&rsquo;s rays in the usual
+manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine
+sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum
+and then gradually moved along the spectrum to the other
+extremity. No fluorescence was observed as long as the tube
+remained in the more luminous portion, but as soon as the violet
+was reached, a ghost-like gleam of blue light shot right across
+the tube. On continuing to move the tube, the blue light at
+first increased in intensity and afterwards died away, but not
+until the tube had been moved a considerable distance into the
+ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first
+appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before
+disappearing it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side
+at which the exciting rays entered. Stokes varied this experiment
+by placing a vessel filled with the dilute solution in a
+spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The appearance is
+illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part of the
+light passed freely as if through water,
+but from about half-way between the
+Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond
+the extreme violet, the incident rays
+gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour,
+which emanated in all directions from
+the portion of the fluid (represented
+white in fig. 2) which was under the
+influence of the incident rays. The
+anterior surface of the blue space coincided,
+of course, with the inner surface
+of the glass vessel. The posterior surface
+marked the distance to which the incident rays were able
+to penetrate before they were absorbed. This distance was at
+first considerable, greater than the diameter of the vessel, but
+decreased with great rapidity as the refrangibility of the incident
+light increased, so that from a little beyond the extreme violet
+to the end, the blue space was reduced to an excessively thin
+stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to the ultra-violet
+rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part of
+the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather
+planes, intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the
+fluorescent light is not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident
+rays to a narrow band of homogeneous light, and examining the
+dispersed beam through a prism, he found that the blue light
+consisted of rays extending over a wide range of refrangibility,
+but not into the ultra-violet.</p>
+
+<p>Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in
+examining different substances for fluorescence, was as follows.
+Two coloured media were prepared, one of which transmitted
+the upper portion of the spectrum and was opaque to the lower
+portion, while the second was opaque to the upper and transparent
+to the lower part of the spectrum. These were called by
+Stokes &ldquo;complementary absorbents.&rdquo; No pair could be found
+which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition
+was approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses
+or solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue
+solution of ammioniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass
+coloured with silver. The two media together were almost
+opaque. The light of the sun being admitted through a hole in
+the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet was laid on a shelf
+fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel containing the blue
+solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the tablet was
+viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered the
+eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid
+on the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs
+of complementary absorbents were required according to the
+colour of the fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly
+that the light which passed through the first absorbent and
+which would have been stopped by the second gave rise in the
+fluorescent substance to rays of a different wave-length which
+were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered light,
+with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was
+eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second
+absorbent.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:339px; height:197px" src="images/img576b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Fig. 3.</i>&mdash;Spectrum of Chlorophyll.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:197px" src="images/img576c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Fig. 4.</i>&mdash;Spectrum of Aesculin.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton&rsquo;s method of
+crossed prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light.
+A spectrum was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit
+being horizontal instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow
+spectrum was projected on a white paper moistened with a
+fluorescent solution, and viewed through a second prism with its
+refracting edge perpendicular
+to that of
+the first prism. In
+addition to the sloping
+spectrum seen
+under ordinary circumstances,
+another
+spectrum due to the
+fluorescent light
+alone, made its
+appearance, as seen
+in figs. 3 and 4. In
+this spectrum the
+colours do not run
+from left to right,
+but in horizontal
+lines. Thus the dark
+lines of the solar
+spectrum lie across
+the colours. The
+spectra in figs. 3 and
+4 were obtained by
+V. Pierre with an
+improved arrangement
+of Stokes&rsquo;s method. It will be seen that, in the case
+of chlorophyll, the whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet,
+gives rise to a short range of red fluorescent light, while
+the effective part of the exciting light in the case of aesculin
+(a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark) begins a little
+above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers a wide
+range extending from orange to blue.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number
+of vegetable extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly
+fluorescent. Stokes found that most organic substances show
+signs of fluorescence. Green fluor-spar from Alston Moor
+exhibits a violet, uranium glass a yellowish-green fluorescence.
+Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a greenish light, and the extract
+of seeds of <i>Datura stramonium</i> a pale green light. Ordinary
+paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium platinocyanide, which is
+much used in the fluorescent screens employed in work with the
+Röntgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with ordinary
+light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the
+remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+the colour and plane of polarization depending on the position
+of the crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized
+light is used, on the plane of polarization of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stokes&rsquo;s Law.</i>&mdash;In all the substances examined by Stokes, the
+fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the
+light which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this
+lowering of the refrangibility of the light was a general law which
+held for all substances. This is known as Stokes&rsquo;s law. It has
+been shown, however, by E. Lommel and others, that this law
+does not hold generally. Lommel distinguishes two kinds of
+fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the first kind are those
+which possess strong absorption bands, of which only one remains
+appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are always
+strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids)
+surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the
+fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption.
+Stokes&rsquo;s law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be produced
+by means of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility
+than a great part of the fluorescent light. The second kind of
+fluorescence is the most common, and is exhibited by bodies which
+show absorption only in the upper part of the spectrum, <i>i.e.</i>
+they are usually yellow or brown or (if the absorption is in the
+ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also are different
+from those of substances of the first kind, for they readily disappear
+on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by those
+substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of Fluorescence.</i>&mdash;No complete theory of fluorescence
+has yet been given, though various attempts have been made to
+explain the phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to
+phosphorescence (<i>q.v.</i>), the difference consisting in the duration
+of the effect after the exciting cause is removed. Liquids which
+fluoresce only do so while the exciting light is falling on them,
+ceasing immediately the exciting light is cut off. In the case
+of solids, on the other hand, such as fluor-spar or uranium glass,
+the effect, though very brief, does not die away quite instantaneously,
+so that it is really a very brief phosphorescence. The
+property of phosphorescence has been generally attributed to
+some molecular change taking place in the bodies possessing it.
+That some such change takes place during fluorescence is rendered
+probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state
+of the sensitive substance; some bodies, such as barium platinocyanide,
+fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while
+others, such as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluorescence
+is always associated with absorption, but many bodies are
+absorbent without showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory
+would have to account for these facts as well as for the production
+of waves of one period by those of another, and the non-homogeneous
+character of the fluorescent light. Quite recently W.
+Voigt has sought to give a theory of fluorescence depending on
+the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory assumes that the
+electrons which constitute the molecule of the sensitive body
+can exist in two or more different configurations simultaneously,
+and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the molecule
+in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different
+periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would
+happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with
+that of the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter,
+and if they then underwent a transformation into a different
+configuration with a different period, this absorbed energy
+would be given out in waves of a period corresponding to that of
+the new configuration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Applications of Fluorescence.</i>&mdash;The phenomenon of fluorescence
+can be utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of reflection
+and refraction in lecture experiments since the path of
+a ray of light through a very dilute solution of a sensitive substance
+is rendered visible. The existence of the dark lines in the
+ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum can also be demonstrated
+in a simple manner. In addition to the foregoing
+applications, Stokes made use of this property for studying the
+character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different sources of
+illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property
+would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a
+small quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture.
+Fluorescent screens are largely used in work with Röntgen rays.
+There appears to be some prospect of light being thrown on the
+question of molecular structure by experiments on the fluorescence
+of vapours. Some very interesting experiments in this
+direction have been performed by R.W. Wood on the fluorescence
+of sodium vapour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;Sir G.G. Stokes, <i>Mathematical and Physical
+Papers</i>, vols. iii. and iv.; Müller-Pouillet, <i>Lehrbuch der Physik</i>, Bd. ii.
+(1897); A. Wullner, <i>Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik</i>, Bd. iv.
+(1899); A.A. Winkelmann, <i>Handbuch der Physik</i>, Bd. vi. (1906);
+R.W. Wood, <i>Physical Optics</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUORINE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element
+of the halogen group. It is never found in the uncombined
+condition, but in combination with calcium as fluor-spar CaF<span class="su">2</span>
+it is widely distributed; it is also found in cryolite Na<span class="su">3</span>AlF<span class="su">6</span>,
+in fluor-apatite, CaF<span class="su">2</span>·3Ca<span class="su">3</span>P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, and in minute traces in sea-water,
+in some mineral springs, and as a constituent of the enamel
+of the teeth. It was first isolated by H. Moissan in 1886 by the
+electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid containing
+dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic vessel
+and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium,
+the limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar,
+and fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases
+evolved. Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus
+is kept at a constant temperature of &minus;23° C. by means of liquid
+methyl chloride. The fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at
+the anode, is passed through a well cooled platinum vessel,
+in order to free it from any acid fumes that may be carried over,
+and finally through two platinum tubes containing sodium
+fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric acid; it is
+then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar plates.
+B. Brauner (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained fluorine
+by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF·HF·PbF<span class="su">4</span>. At 200° C.
+this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between
+230-250° C. fluorine is liberated.</p>
+
+<p>Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell;
+its specific gravity is 1.265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied,
+the liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at -187° C.
+It is the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact
+with hydrogen combination takes place between the two gases
+with explosive violence, even in the dark, and at as low a temperature
+as &minus;210° C; finely divided carbon burns in the gas,
+forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is decomposed even at
+ordinary temperatures, with the formation of hydrofluoric acid
+and &ldquo;ozonised&rdquo; oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus melt
+and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides,
+and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides;
+it does not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds
+are rapidly attacked by the gas.</p>
+
+<p>Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known,
+namely <i>hydrofluoric acid</i>, HF or H<span class="su">2</span>F<span class="su">2</span>, which was first obtained
+by C. Scheele in 1771 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated
+sulphuric acid, a method still used for the commercial preparation
+of the aqueous solution of the acid, the mixture being distilled
+from leaden retorts and the acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha
+bottles. The perfectly anhydrous acid is a very volatile colourless
+liquid and is best obtained, according to G. Gore (<i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>, 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the double fluoride of
+hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum retort fitted
+with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing mixture, and
+having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be prepared
+in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen
+over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most
+dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly
+diluted with air having an exceedingly injurious action on the
+respiratory organs, whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is
+followed by death. The anhydrous acid boils at 19°.5 C. (H.
+Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid mass at &minus;102°.5 C,
+which melts at &minus;92°.3 C. (K. Olszewski, <i>Monats. für Chemie</i>,
+1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in the
+anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and
+dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is
+that it rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass
+to form gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for
+etching. T.E. Thorpe (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1889, 55, p. 163)
+determined the vapour density of hydrofluoric acid at different
+temperatures, and showed that there is no approach to a definite
+value below about 88° C. where it reaches the value 10.29
+corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at temperatures
+below 88° C. the value increases rapidly, showing that the
+molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see
+J.N. Friend, <i>The Theory of Valency</i> (1909), p. 111.) The aqueous
+solution behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen
+acids; E. Deussen (<i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408;
+1906, 49, p. 297) found the solution of constant boiling point
+to contain 43.2% HF and to boil at 110° (750 mm.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as <i>fluorides</i> and are
+easily obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides,
+hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of
+silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those
+of the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of
+the alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of
+hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative
+elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other
+metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power
+of etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid; or by warming
+them in a glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a
+moistened glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently
+gelatinizes owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed.
+The atomic weight of fluorine has been determined by the conversion
+of calcium, sodium and potassium fluorides into the corresponding
+sulphates. J. Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride
+into silver chloride, obtained the value 19.44, and by analysing
+calcium fluoride the value 19.16; the more recent work of H.
+Moissan gives the value 19.05.</p>
+
+<p>See H. Moissan, <i>Le Fluor et ses composes</i> (Paris, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUOR-SPAR,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> native calcium fluoride (CaF<span class="su">2</span>), known also
+as <span class="sc">Fluorite</span> or simply <span class="sc">Fluor</span>. In France it is called fluorine,
+whilst the term fluor is applied to the element (F). All these
+terms, from the Lat. <i>fluere</i>, &ldquo;to flow,&rdquo; recall the fact that the spar
+is useful as a flux in certain metallurgical operations. (Cf. its
+Ger. name <i>Flussspat</i> or <i>Fluss</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:449px; height:256px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img578.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in
+cubes, either alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic
+dodecahedron, four-faced cube, &amp;c. The four-faced cube has
+been called the fluoroid. In fig. 1, <i>a</i> is the cube (100), <i>d</i> the
+rhombic dodecahedron (110), and <i>f</i> the four-faced cube (310).
+Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of interpenetrant cubes.
+The crystals are sometimes polysynthetic, a large octahedron,
+<i>e.g.</i>, being built up of small cubes. The faces are often etched or
+corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the
+octahedron.</p>
+
+<p>Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife,
+though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3.2.
+The colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral
+is too soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome
+material for vases, &amp;c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed
+in bands, regularly following the contour of the crystal. As the
+colour is usually expelled, or much altered, by heat, it is believed
+to be due to an organic pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons
+has been detected in many specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and
+other observers. H.W. Morse (<i>Proc. Amer. Acad.</i>, 1906, p. 587)
+obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen
+and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by
+heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decomposition
+of an organic colouring matter, which has, however, no
+connexion with the fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of
+the mineral. Certain crystals from Cumberland are beautifully
+fluorescent, appearing purple with a bluish internal haziness
+by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted light. Fluor-spar,
+though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double refraction,
+probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar are
+thermo-luminescent, <i>i.e.</i> they glow on exposure to a moderate
+heat, and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety
+which exhibits a green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces
+under the Röntgen rays. Cavities containing liquid occasionally
+occur in crystals of fluor-spar, notably in the greasy green cubes
+of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet fluor-spar from Wölsendorf
+in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when struck, and has
+been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a violet fluor-spar
+from Quincié, dep. Rhône, France. In both cases the spar
+evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.</p>
+
+<p>Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially
+in lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and
+ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries,
+and has been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in
+the reduction of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric
+acid, which it evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The
+mineral is also used in the production of opal glass and enamel
+ware. In consequence of its low refractive and dispersive power,
+colourless pellucid fluor-spar is valuable in the construction of
+apochromatic lenses, but this variety is rare. The dark violet
+fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as &ldquo;Blue John,&rdquo; is
+prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively at
+Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the
+workmen &ldquo;bull beef,&rdquo; may be changed, by heat, to a rich
+amethystine tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult
+to work on the lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin.
+F. Corsi, the eminent Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was
+the material of the famous murrhine vases.</p>
+
+<p>Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the
+finest crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous
+Limestone series in the north of England, especially at Weardale,
+Allendale and Alston Moor. It is also found in the lead and
+copper-mines of Cornwall and S. Devon, notably near Liskeard,
+where fine crystals have been found, with faces of the six-faced
+octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In Cornwall fluor-spar
+is known to the miners as &ldquo;cann.&rdquo; Fine yellow fluor-spar
+occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red
+octahedra are found in the Alps, near Göschenen. Many
+localities in the United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked
+commercially in a few places, notably at Rosiclare in southern
+Illinois.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUSHING,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly a township and a village of Queens county,
+New York, U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing
+Bay, since the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of
+Queens, New York City. Flushing is served by the Long Island
+railroad and by electric lines. It was settled in 1644 by a company
+of English non-conformists who had probably been residents of
+Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its name.
+Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in
+1672 George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the
+War of Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich
+New Yorkers and colonial officials.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUSHING<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Vlissingen</i>), a fortified seaport in the
+province of Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of
+Walcheren, at the mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt,
+4 m. by rail S. by W. of Middelburg, with which it is also connected
+by steam tramway and by a ship canal. There is a steam
+ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the coast of Zeeland-Flandres.
+Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval station
+and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the
+care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial
+port. In 1872 the railway was opened which, in conjunction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+with the regular day and night service of steamers to Queenborough
+in the county of Kent, forms one of the main routes
+between England and the east of Europe. In 1873 the great
+harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the
+navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or
+Antwerp, the tonnage being in 1899 about 7.9% of that of the
+kingdom. As a summer resort, however, Flushing has acquired
+considerable popularity, sea-baths and a large modern hotel
+being situated on the fine beach about three-quarters of a mile
+north-west of the town. It possesses a town hall, containing a
+collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an exchange, an academy
+of sciences and a school of navigation. The Jakobskerk, or
+Jacob&rsquo;s church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to Admiral
+de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786),
+who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town
+are connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery,
+the state railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron
+and steel works&rsquo; depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture.
+The chief imports are colonial produce and wine, wood and coal.
+The exports include agricultural produce (wheat and beans),
+shrimps and meat.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUTE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a word adapted from O. Fr. <i>fleüte</i>, modern <i>flûte</i>; from
+O. Fr. have come the Span. <i>flauta</i>, Ital. <i>flauto</i> and Ger. <i>Flöte</i>.
+The <i>New English Dictionary</i> dismisses the derivations suggested
+from Lat. <i>flatuare</i> or <i>flavitare</i>; ultimately the word must be
+referred to the root seen in &ldquo;blow,&rdquo; Lat. <i>flare</i>, Ger. <i>blasen</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>1. In music &ldquo;flute&rdquo; is a general term applied to wood-wind
+instruments consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and
+blown directly through the mouthpiece without the intervention
+of a reed. The flute family is classified according to the mouthpiece
+used to set in vibration the column of air within the tube:
+<i>i.e.</i> (1) the simple lateral mouth-hole or embouchure which
+necessitates holding the instrument in a transverse position;
+(2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows the performer
+to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There is a
+third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no mouthpiece
+of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration by
+blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the
+ancient Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (<i>q.v.</i>). The
+transverse flute has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which
+has survived only in the so-called penny whistle, in the &ldquo;flute-work&rdquo;
+of the organ (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the French flageolet.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Transverse Flute</i> or <i>German Flute</i> (Fr. <i>flûte traversière</i>,
+<i>flûte allemande</i>: Ger. <i>Flöte</i>, <i>Querflöte</i>, <i>Zwerchpfeiff</i>, <i>Schweitzerpfeiff</i>;
+Ital. <i>flauto traverso</i>) includes the <i>concert flute</i> known both
+as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (<i>q.v.</i>) or octave flute,
+and the fife (<i>q.v.</i>). The modern flute consists of a tube open at
+one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug
+or cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one
+giving the consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a
+stretched string. The primitive flute was made in one piece,
+but the modern instrument is composed of three adjustable
+joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the upper end and containing
+at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole or embouchure.
+This embouchure, always open when the instrument
+is being played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an
+acoustical sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys
+necessary to produce the scale which gave the flute its original
+designation of D flute, the head and body together, when the
+holes are closed, giving the fundamental note D. Before the
+invention of keys, this fundamental note and the notes obtained
+by the successive opening of the six holes produced the diatonic
+scale of D major. All other semitones were obtained by what
+is known as cross fingering (Fr. <i>doigté fourchu</i>; Ger. <i>Gabelgriffe</i>).
+It became usual to consider this the typical fingering nomenclature,
+whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute,
+and to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the
+six lateral holes are covered by the fingers. The result is
+that the tonality is always a tone lower than the name of
+the instrument indicates. Thus the D flute is really in C,
+the F flute is E&#9837;, &amp;c. (3) The foot-joint or tail-joint containing
+the two additional keys for C&#9839; and C which extend the
+compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C in the
+fundamental octave.</p>
+
+<p>The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with
+chromatic semitones from <img style="width:84px; height:50px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img579.jpg" alt="" /> The sound is produced
+by holding the flute transversely with the embouchure
+turned slightly outwards, the lower lip resting on the nearer
+edge of the embouchure, and blowing obliquely across, not
+into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the lips, known
+as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the
+embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces
+in the stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsations
+or vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rarefaction
+of the air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional
+to the length of the stationary column, which is practically
+somewhat longer than the length of the tube.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The length of this
+column is varied by opening the lateral finger-holes. The current
+or air-reed thus acts upon the air column within the flute, without
+passing through the tube, as a plectrum upon a string, setting it
+in vibration. The air column of the flute is the sound-producer,
+whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the vibrating
+reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air column,
+acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed by
+vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> at which the
+current of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure
+be made less acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same
+time increased, the frequency of the alternate pulses of compression
+and rarefaction within the tube will be increased two,
+three or fourfold, forming a corresponding number of nodes and
+loops which results in harmonics or upper partials, respectively
+the octave, the twelfth, the double octave. By this means sounds
+of higher pitch are produced without actually shortening the
+length of the column of air by means of lateral holes. The
+acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which
+there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be
+treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult
+the works of Rockstro,<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Helmholtz,<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and others.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The effect of
+boring lateral holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of
+the air column, which may be regarded as being effective only
+between the hole in question and the mouthpiece. In order to
+obtain this result the diameter of the hole should be equal to that
+of the bore; as long as the holes were covered by the fingers,
+this was obviously impossible. The holes, therefore, being smaller
+than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be placed proportionally
+nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening the pitch
+and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by wind-instrument
+makers of classic Greece (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clarinet</a></span>),
+and has been explained by Chladni<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and Gottfried Weber.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:612px; height:45px" src="images/img580a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Captain Day&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue, &amp;c.</i>, by permission of Messrs. Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:809px; height:61px" src="images/img580b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Messrs. Rudall, Carte &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably
+cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century
+a modification took place, the head joint alone remaining
+cylindrical while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone
+having its smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+conoidal bore greatly improved the quality of tone and the
+production of the higher harmonics of the third octave. Once
+the conical bore had been adopted, the term flute was exclusively
+applied to the new instruments, the smaller flutes, then
+cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife (<i>q.v.</i>). At
+the present day in England, France and America, the favourite
+mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm,
+and known as the &ldquo;cylinder flute with the parabolic head,&rdquo;
+of which more will be said further on. The successive opening
+of the holes and keys on the flute produces the chromatic scale
+of the first or fundamental octave. By increasing the pressure
+of the breath and slightly altering the position of the lips over
+the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes of the
+fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave
+of the compass is obtained by the production of the higher
+harmonics (Fr. <i>sons harmoniques</i>; Ger. <i>Flageolettöne</i>), of the
+fundamental scale, facilitated by the opening of certain of the
+finger-holes as &ldquo;vent holes.&rdquo; The quality of tone depends
+somewhat on the material of which the flute is made; silver and
+gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite delicacy suitable for solo
+music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow tone of considerable
+power suitable for orchestral music. The tone differs further
+in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough, the medium
+sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The
+proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air
+chamber situated between it and the embouchure are mainly
+influential in giving the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre,
+due to the paucity of the upper partials of which according to
+Helmholtz<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> only the octave and twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+states, however, that when the fundamental D is played, he can
+discern the seventh partial. The technical capabilities of the
+flute are practically unlimited to a good player who can obtain
+sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic and chromatic
+scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps,
+turns, shakes, &amp;c. By the articulation with the tongue of the
+syllables <i>te-ke</i> or <i>ti-ke</i> repeated quickly for groups of double notes,
+or of <i>te-ke-ti</i> for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced,
+known respectively as <i>double</i> or <i>triple tonguing</i>, a device understood
+early in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin
+Agricola,<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a> who gives the syllables as <i>de</i> for sustained notes,
+di-ri for shorter notes, and <i>tel-lel-lel</i> for staccato passages in
+quick tempo.<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is
+set in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air
+directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice
+serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The
+Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of
+blowing from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long
+pipe held obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its
+upper extremity; it was known as <i>Saïb-it</i><a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and was frequently
+figured on the monuments. The same instrument, called &ldquo;nay,&rdquo;
+is still used in Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the
+Greeks, plagiaulos,<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a> was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first
+blown from the end as described above,<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a> since we know that the
+Greeks were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx
+or pan-pipe. The instruments preserved at the British Museum<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a>
+having lateral embouchures show, however, that they were also
+acquainted&mdash;probably through the Hindus&mdash;with the transverse
+flute, although in the case of these specimens a reed must
+have been inserted into the mouth-hole or no sound would
+have been obtained.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:380px" src="images/img580c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> From the
+Tope at Amar&#257;bati, British Museum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe
+is generally admitted; the flute evidently penetrated
+from the East at some period not yet determined. A
+transverse flute is seen on Indian
+sculptures of the Gandhara
+school showing Greek influence,
+and dating from the beginning
+of our era (fig. 3). But although
+the transverse flute was evidently
+known to the Greeks and
+Romans, it did not find the same
+favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no
+evidence of the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the
+Roman empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources
+during the early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a
+group of caskets<a name="fa16f" id="fa16f" href="#ft16f"><span class="sp">16</span></a> of Italo-Byzantine work of the 9th or 10th century,
+while of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+MSS.<a name="fa17f" id="fa17f" href="#ft17f"><span class="sp">17</span></a> preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere.
+There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev<a name="fa18f" id="fa18f" href="#ft18f"><span class="sp">18</span></a> an orchestra
+depicted on frescoes said to date from the 11th century; among
+the musicians is a flautist.</p>
+
+<p>The first essentially western European trace of the transverse
+flute occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated
+<i>Hortus deliciarum</i> of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg.<a name="fa19f" id="fa19f" href="#ft19f"><span class="sp">19</span></a> Fol. 221
+shows a syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad
+explains in a legend as <i>tibia</i>; in the vocabulary the latter is translated
+swegel. In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of
+the fifty-one musicians in the beautiful MS. <i>Las Cantigas de Santa
+Maria</i> in the Escorial, Madrid.<a name="fa20f" id="fa20f" href="#ft20f"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Eustache Deschamps, a French
+poet of the 14th century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the
+&ldquo;flute traversaine,&rdquo; and we are justified in supposing that he refers
+to the transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in
+the 15th century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Virdung&rsquo;s
+celebrated work,<a name="fa21f" id="fa21f" href="#ft21f"><span class="sp">21</span></a> where it is called &ldquo;Zwerchpfeiff,&rdquo; and, with
+the drums, it already constituted the principal element of the
+military music. Agricola (<i>op. cit.</i>) alludes to it as the &ldquo;Querchpfeiff&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Schweizerpfeiff,&rdquo; the latter designation dating, it is
+said, from the battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops
+used it for the first time in war.</p>
+
+<p>From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family,
+said to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass&mdash;<img style="width:257px; height:52px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581a.jpg" alt="" /> respectively.
+Praetorius<a name="fa22f" id="fa22f" href="#ft22f"><span class="sp">22</span></a> designates
+the transverse flute as
+&ldquo;Flauta traversa&rsquo; Querpfeiff&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Querflöt,&rdquo; and gives the
+pitch of
+the bass
+in
+<img style="width:78px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581b.jpg" alt="" />
+the tenor
+and alto
+in
+<img style="width:79px; height:41px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581c.jpg" alt="" />
+and the
+discant
+in
+<img style="width:75px; height:42px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581d.jpg" alt="" />
+as varieties
+then
+in use. A
+flute concert at that time included two discants, four altos or
+tenors, and two basses. The same author distinguishes between the
+&ldquo;Traversa&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Schweizerpfeiff&rdquo; or fife (which he also calls
+&ldquo;Feldpfeiff,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> military flute), although the construction was the
+same. There were
+two kinds of
+&ldquo;Feldpfeiff,&rdquo; in
+<img style="width:77px; height:42px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581f.jpg" alt="" />
+and
+<img style="width:79px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581g.jpg" alt="" />
+respectively; they were
+employed exclusively
+with the military drum.</p>
+
+<p>Mersenne&rsquo;s<a name="fa23f" id="fa23f" href="#ft23f"><span class="sp">23</span></a> account of the transverse flute, then designated &ldquo;flûte
+d&rsquo;Allemagne&rdquo; or &ldquo;flûte allemande&rdquo; in France, and an &ldquo;Air de Cour&rdquo;
+for four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in
+use in France
+the soprano
+flute in
+<img style="width:79px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581g.jpg" alt="" />
+the tenor
+or alto
+flute in
+<img style="width:78px; height:51px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581h.jpg" alt="" />
+and the bass
+flute descending
+to
+<img style="width:82px; height:31px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581i.jpg" alt="" />.
+The museum of the Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses
+specimens of all these varieties except the last. All of them are
+laterally pierced with six finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore,
+and are fashioned out of a single piece of wood. Their compass consists
+of two octaves and a fifth. Mersenne&rsquo;s tablature for fingering
+the flute differs but little from those of Hotteterre-le-Romain<a name="fa24f" id="fa24f" href="#ft24f"><span class="sp">24</span></a> and
+Eisel<a name="fa25f" id="fa25f" href="#ft25f"><span class="sp">25</span></a> for the diatonic scale; he does not give the chromatic semitones
+and the flute had as yet no keys.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:584px" src="images/img581k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4. <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Bass Flute.
+From Museo Civico,
+Verona (facsimile).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Bass Flute.
+Brussels Museum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in
+<img style="width:74px; height:30px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581j.jpg" alt="" />
+at the French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per
+second. It measures 0.95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to
+the lower extremity of the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes
+is such that it is impossible to cover them with the fingers if the
+flute is held in the ordinary way. The instrument
+must be placed against the mouth
+in an almost vertical direction, inclining the
+extremity of the tube either to the right or
+the left. This inconvenient position makes
+it necessary that the instrument should be
+divided into two parts, enabling the player
+to turn the head joint that the embouchure
+may be most commodiously approached by
+the lips, which is not at all easy. The first
+and fourth of the six lateral holes are
+double in order to accommodate both right- and
+left-handed players, the holes not in
+use being stopped up with wax. The bass
+flute shown in fig. 4 is the facsimile of an
+instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona.
+The original, unfortunately no longer fit for
+use, is nevertheless sufficiently well preserved
+to allow of all its proportionate
+measurements being given. The lowest
+note, E&#9837;, is obtained with a remarkable
+amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very
+prevalent opinion that it is impossible to
+produce by lateral insufflation sounds which
+go a little lower than the ordinary limit
+downwards of the modern orchestral flute.<a name="fa26f" id="fa26f" href="#ft26f"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The bass flute cited by Mersenne should
+not differ much from that of the Museo
+Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have
+been in <img style="width:82px; height:31px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581l.jpg" alt="" />, and that it was furnished
+with an open key like that which was
+applied to the recorders (<i>flûtes douces</i>) of
+the same epoch, the function of the key
+being to augment by another note the compass
+of the instrument in the lower part. A
+bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5
+is figured and described in Diderot and
+D&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s encyclopaedia <a name="fa27f" id="fa27f" href="#ft27f"><span class="sp">27</span></a> (1751). According
+to Quantz,<a name="fa28f" id="fa28f" href="#ft28f"><span class="sp">28</span></a> it was in France and
+about the middle of the 17th century that
+the first modifications were introduced in
+the manufacture of the flute. The improvements
+at this period consisted of the
+abandonment of the cylindrical bore in
+favour of a conical one, with the base of the cone forming the
+head of the instrument. At the same time the flute was
+made of three separate pieces called head, body, and tail or foot,
+which were ultimately further subdivided. The body or middle
+joint was divided into two pieces, so that the instrument could be
+tuned to the different pitches then in use by a replacement with
+longer or shorter pieces. It was probably about 1677, when Lully
+introduced the German flute into the opera, that recourse was had
+for the first time to keys, and that the key of D# was applied to the
+lower part of the instrument.<a name="fa29f" id="fa29f" href="#ft29f"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The engraving of B. Picart, dated
+1707, given in Hotteterre&rsquo;s book, represents the flute as having
+reached the stage of improvement of which we have just spoken. In
+1726 Quantz,<a name="fa30f" id="fa30f" href="#ft30f"><span class="sp">30</span></a> finding himself in Paris, had a second key applied to
+the flute, placed nearly at the same height as the first, that of the
+<img style="width:81px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img581m.jpg" alt="" />, intended to differentiate the D# and the E&#9837;.<a name="fa31f" id="fa31f" href="#ft31f"><span class="sp">31</span></a> This
+innovation was generally well received in Germany, but
+does not appear to have met with corresponding success
+in other countries. In France and England manufacturers adopted
+it but rarely; in Italy it was declared useless.<a name="fa32f" id="fa32f" href="#ft32f"><span class="sp">32</span></a> About the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
+time flutes were constructed with the lower extremity lengthened
+sufficiently to produce the fundamental C, and furnished with a
+supplementary key to produce the C&#9839;. This innovation, spoken of
+by Quantz,<a name="fa33f" id="fa33f" href="#ft33f"><span class="sp">33</span></a> did not meet with a very favourable reception, and was
+shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing mention may be made of
+the drawing of a flute with a C key in the <i>Music-Saal</i> of J.F.B.
+Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45.</p>
+
+<p>The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected
+by changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or
+shorter upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences
+in the pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion
+of it were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the
+different parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications
+in the length, it was conceived that the just relation could be re-established
+by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key.
+These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was
+asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened proportionately
+to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus improved took
+the name of &ldquo;flûtes à registre.&rdquo; The register system was, about
+1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint<a name="fa34f" id="fa34f" href="#ft34f"><span class="sp">34</span></a> and, the embouchure
+section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable to the performer,
+according to the opinion of this professor, to lower the pitch
+of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other lengthening
+pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.</p>
+
+<p>The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice,
+is closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork
+depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is
+in its right place when the accompanying octaves <img style="width:108px; height:58px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582a.jpg" alt="" /> are
+true. Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions
+the use of a nut-screw to give the required position to
+the cork.<a name="fa35f" id="fa35f" href="#ft35f"><span class="sp">35</span></a> He does not name the inventor of this appliance,
+but, according to Tromlitz,<a name="fa36f" id="fa36f" href="#ft36f"><span class="sp">36</span></a> the improvement was due to
+Quantz himself. The invention goes back to 1726.</p>
+
+<p>When the <i>Method</i> of Quantz appeared there were still in use,
+besides the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the
+low fourth flute in A, and the flûte d&rsquo;amour a note higher; in
+France they had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave).
+A bass flute in D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When
+Ribock published his <i>Bemerkungen über die Flöte</i><a name="fa37f" id="fa37f" href="#ft37f"><span class="sp">37</span></a> the flute
+had already the five keys here shown. <img style="width:186px; height:44px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582b.jpg" alt="" />
+This author states that the inventor of these
+new keys is not known to him, but that
+either Kusder, a musical instrument-maker in London, or Johann
+Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was the originator, since he has not been
+able to trace those keys on the flutes of any other maker. Although
+Tromlitz does not claim for himself the invention of the keys for F,
+G&#9839; and B&#9837;, he states that &ldquo;he had occupied himself for several years
+in applying these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing,
+but on the contrary to render the handling of them as easy as
+possible.&rdquo;<a name="fa38f" id="fa38f" href="#ft38f"><span class="sp">38</span></a> In the later work published in 1800,<a name="fa39f" id="fa39f" href="#ft39f"><span class="sp">39</span></a> however, he
+seems to attribute the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of
+London; he says that he has never yet been fortunate enough to
+come across a good flute by that maker&mdash;&ldquo;the flute has certainly
+gained by the addition of the keys for F, G&#9839; and B&#9837;, but this is not
+everything, for on such a flute much must perforce be left unattempted....
+Only a flute with eight keys according to my invention
+is capable of everything.&rdquo; It would seem, moreover, from
+circumstantial evidence stated clearly and on good authority by
+Rockstro<a name="fa40f" id="fa40f" href="#ft40f"><span class="sp">40</span></a> that the keys for F, G&#9839; and B&#9837; must have been used
+first in England and made by Richard Potter before 1774. The
+higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz, we believe to have
+been first recommended by Ribock (1782).<a name="fa41f" id="fa41f" href="#ft41f"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Tromlitz in <i>Über
+Flöten</i> describes at length what may be termed the first systematic
+effort to overcome the difficulties created by the combination of
+open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the question
+by determining the positions of the holes according to the exigencies
+of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more arbitrary
+theories connected with the musical scale.</p>
+
+<p>In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz&rsquo;s slide applied to the
+head joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system
+of tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document<a name="fa42f" id="fa42f" href="#ft42f"><span class="sp">42</span></a>
+describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the
+holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the
+keys. Potter&rsquo;s patent conical valves were an adaptation of the
+contrivance first invented by J.F. Boie or Boye of Göttingen,<a name="fa43f" id="fa43f" href="#ft43f"><span class="sp">43</span></a>
+who used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The
+keys mentioned in the patent were four&mdash;D&#9839;, F, G&#9839;, A&#9839;. The idea
+of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up again
+about the same time by two players of the flute in London named
+Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C
+and C#, and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In
+Dr Arnold&rsquo;s <i>New Instructions for the German Flute</i> occurs a tablature,
+the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century, and
+bears the following title, &ldquo;A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale
+and Description of Tacet and Florio&rsquo;s new invented German Flute,
+with all the additional keys explained.&rdquo; It explains the use of six
+keys&mdash;C, C&#9839;, D&#9839;, F, G&#9839;, A&#9839;&mdash;that are not always figured, because
+the employment of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz
+himself, who, however, made flutes with nine keys&mdash;adding E&#9837;,
+another F, and C&#9838;, declared that he was not in favour of so great
+a complication, and that he preferred the flute with only two keys,
+D&#9839; and E&#9837;, with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the
+head joint. This instrument met all requirements. He was always
+much opposed to the use of the old keys for C&#9838; and C&#9839;, because they
+altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When
+Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become
+modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flûte
+d&rsquo;amour a minor third lower, a &ldquo;third&rdquo; flute a minor third higher,
+and, finally, the little octave flute.</p>
+
+<p>While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of
+augmenting the compass of the flute downwards by employing open
+keys for C&#9838; and C&#9839;, an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi,<a name="fa44f" id="fa44f" href="#ft44f"><span class="sp">44</span></a> increased
+the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of five
+new keys, viz. B, B&#9837;, A, A&#9837;, and G. At the same time that he
+produced this invention <a name="fa45f" id="fa45f" href="#ft45f"><span class="sp">45</span></a> he conceived the plugging of the lateral
+holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But
+it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral
+holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there
+were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of
+Orazi proved a failure.</p>
+
+<p>In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan,<a name="fa46f" id="fa46f" href="#ft46f"><span class="sp">46</span></a> of Stratford, near London,
+conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring,
+permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was
+being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the
+embryo of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the
+system of the flute. Two years later Macgregor,<a name="fa47f" id="fa47f" href="#ft47f"><span class="sp">47</span></a> a musical-instrument
+maker in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower
+than the ordinary flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the
+existence of the bass flute mentioned above. The difference between
+the two instruments lies in the mechanism of the keys. That employed
+by Macgregor consisted of a double lever, a contrivance
+dating from before the middle of the 18th century, of which the
+application is seen in an oboe of large dimensions preserved in the
+National Museum at Munich.<a name="fa48f" id="fa48f" href="#ft48f"><span class="sp">48</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra D[natural] hole
+and key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern
+construction.<a name="fa49f" id="fa49f" href="#ft49f"><span class="sp">49</span></a></p>
+
+<p>About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more
+keys, those of F&#9839; and C&#9839;, and a key, called
+&ldquo;de cadence,&rdquo; to facilitate the accompanying
+shakes.</p>
+
+<p>To increase the number of keys, to improve
+their system of plugging, and to extend the <img style="width:172px; height:79px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img582c.jpg" alt="" />
+scale of the instrument in the lower region,&mdash;these
+had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in
+the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose
+labours we have called attention, had as yet devoted his attention
+to the rational division of the column of air by means of the
+lateral holes. In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to
+be in London, was struck with the power of tone the celebrated
+English performer Charles Nicholson drew from his instrument.
+Boehm learned, and not without astonishment, that his English
+colleague obtained this result by giving the lateral holes a much
+greater diameter than was then usually admitted. About the
+same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an amateur player
+named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he had
+bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a
+key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These innovations
+set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span>
+instrument.<a name="fa50f" id="fa50f" href="#ft50f"><span class="sp">50</span></a> He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832
+he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument
+is distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger
+holes disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.</p>
+
+<p>Boehm&rsquo;s system had preserved the key of G&#9839; open; Coche,<a name="fa51f" id="fa51f" href="#ft51f"><span class="sp">51</span></a> a
+professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet
+the younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified
+Boehm&rsquo;s flute by closing the G&#9839; with a key, wishing thus to render
+the new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a
+key, facilitating the shake upon C&#9839; with D&#9839;, and brought about
+some other changes in the instrument of less importance.</p>
+
+<p>Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had
+been conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however,
+he made further experiments, and the results obtained were put in
+practice by the construction of a new instrument, of which the body
+was given a cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was
+modified at the embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic
+(see fig. 2). The inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in
+the tones of the lower octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect
+accuracy of intonation, by establishing the more exact proportions
+which a column of air of cylindrical form permitted.</p>
+
+<p>The priority of Boehm&rsquo;s invention was long contested, his detractors
+maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the
+flute was due to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindicates
+the claim of the former to the invention of the large lateral
+holes.<a name="fa52f" id="fa52f" href="#ft52f"><span class="sp">52</span></a> His greatest title to fame is the invention of the mechanism
+which allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
+intermediate between the fundamental note and its first harmonic
+by means of eleven holes so disposed that in opening them successively
+they shorten the column of air in exact proportional
+quantities.<a name="fa53f" id="fa53f" href="#ft53f"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Boehm (<i>Essays</i>, &amp;c.) published a diagram or scheme to
+be adopted in determining the position of the note-holes of wind
+instruments for every given pitch. This diagram gives the position
+of the intermediate holes which he had been enabled to
+establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of the lengths
+of strings.</p>
+
+<p>The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection
+it has reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there
+are players who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering
+required for some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derangement
+of the mechanism, have something to do with this. In England
+especially, the ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to
+the improvements introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in
+1845 (Patent No. 10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A
+lower, and covered them with open keys. He added some keys, and
+made a better disposition of the other lateral holes, of which he
+increased the diameter, producing thus a sonorousness almost equal
+to that of the Boehm flute, while yet preserving the old fingering
+for the notes of the first two octaves. But in spite of these improvements
+the old flute will not bear an impartial comparison with that
+of Boehm.</p>
+
+<p>A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signor Carlo
+Tommaso Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of
+the instrument on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal
+features of this flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper
+extremity of the tube instead of at the side, which allows the instrument
+to be held in a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is required.
+There are eleven holes mathematically placed in the tube
+which give the semitones of the scale; there are no keys. The
+eleven holes are fingered by the fingers and thumbs, the C&#9839; hole
+being closed by the side of the left fore-finger. All the notes are
+obtained by means of simple fingering as far as G&#9839; of the third
+octave, the remaining notes of which are produced by cross-fingering.
+For the convenience of players with short fingers keys can be added,
+and the head of the Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute.
+The compass of the Georgi flute is almost the same as that of
+the concert flute; viz. <img style="width:105px; height:79px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img583.jpg" alt="" /> If the lower C and C&#9839; are
+required, extra holes and keys can be added.
+Everything that is possible on the Boehm flute is
+possible on the Georgi and more, owing to the simplicity
+of the fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform,
+all trills are equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant
+and sympathetic.<a name="fa54f" id="fa54f" href="#ft54f"><span class="sp">54</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The old English <i>fipple flute</i>, or <i>flûte à bec</i>, is described under the
+headings <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Recorder</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flageolet</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(V. M.; K. S.)</div>
+
+<p>2. In architecture the name &ldquo;flute&rdquo; is given to the vertical
+channels (segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal
+section) employed on the shafts of columns in the classic styles.
+The flutes are separated one from the other by an &ldquo;arris&rdquo; in
+the Doric order and by a &ldquo;fillet&rdquo; in the Ionic and Corinthian
+orders. The earliest fluted columns are those in Egypt, at first
+with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at Karnac
+(1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about
+one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one
+of the &ldquo;beehive&rdquo; tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and
+are the earliest Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric
+temples at Metapontum and Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the
+flutes are also segmental, but in later examples in order to
+emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs and are known
+as &ldquo;false ellipses,&rdquo; and this applies to nearly all the fluting in
+Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or
+Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52
+in the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52
+flutes in the Persian columns according to the diameter of the
+column. In the Greek Doric column 20 is the usual number, but
+there are 16 only in the temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and
+the temple of Apollo at Syracuse; 18 in one of the temples of
+Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse, and 24 in the temple
+of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also varies;
+in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of
+the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius
+of the central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the
+smaller arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar
+accentuation is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where
+the flutes are separated by fillets, and their section is always
+elliptical in Greek work, the depth of the flute, however, being
+always greater than in the Doric order. Thus, in the temple of
+Ilissus and the Ionic column in the cella of the temple at Bassae,
+the depth is about one-quarter of the width, in the Propylaea
+at Priene it is about one-third, and in the Erechtheum and other
+examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more than one-half.
+The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one quarter of
+the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek
+Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian
+orders, the flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth
+being about one third of the width in the Doric column, and in all
+Ionic, Corinthian and Composite columns half the width of the
+flute. The fillet also is much broader in Roman examples, being
+about one-third of the width of the flute. In Roman columns
+sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the shaft, about one-third
+of the height, are partly filled with a convex moulding,
+&ldquo;cabling&rdquo; being the usual term applied to this treatment.
+The French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this
+decorative feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the
+Louvre carved a series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian
+buildings, instead of the fluting of the column being vertical,
+it twines round the column and is known as spiral fluting; a fine
+example is found in the Bevilacqua palace at Verona by San
+Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into capitals, as in
+the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at Cnidos,
+the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one
+of the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which
+are sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many
+of the Roman temples were carved with flutes. In medieval
+buildings, fluting was occasionally introduced in imitation of
+Roman work, as in the churches of central Syria and of Autun and
+Langres in France, but in the south of Italy and Sicily it would
+seem to have been brought in as a variety of treatment, in the
+decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of cloisters, as at
+Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and St Paul-outside-the-Walls
+at Rome.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See E.F.F. Chladni, <i>Die Akustik</i> (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sonreck, &ldquo;Über die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung
+der Luftsäule in offenen und gedeckten Röhren,&rdquo; <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1876,
+vol. 158.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>The Flute</i> (London, 1890), § 90-105, pp. 34-40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Röhren mit offenen Enden</i>
+(Berlin, 1896). Ostwald&rsquo;s <i>Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften</i>,
+No. 80.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> V.C. Mahillon, <i>Experimental Studies on the Resonance of Trunco-Conical
+and Cylindrical Air Columns</i>, translated by F.A. Mahan
+(London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, <i>Acoustics in Relation to Wind
+Instruments</i> (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und
+die musikalischen Instrumente, &amp;c.</i> (Giessen, 1855); <i>idem.</i> &ldquo;Sur le
+mouvement vibratoire de l&rsquo;air dans les tuyaux,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>,
+1855, vol. 41, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, § 73, pp. 87-88, note 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> &ldquo;Akustik der Blasinstrumente,&rdquo; <i>Allgem. musikal. Zeit.</i> (Leipzig,
+1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, <i>Zur
+Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert</i>. Inaugural
+Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität. (Berlin, 15th of
+March 1899), p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Lehre von der Tonempfindung</i> (Braunschweig, 1877).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See additions by D. J. B. to article &ldquo;Flute&rdquo; in Grove&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Musica instrumentalis deutsch</i> (Wittenberg, 1528).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See also L&rsquo;Artusi, <i>Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna</i>
+(Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cäcilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See &ldquo;Les Anciennes Flûtes égyptiennes,&rdquo; by Victor Loret in
+<i>Journal asiatique</i> (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two careful
+articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still extant. See
+also Lauth, &ldquo;Über die ägyptische Instrumente,&rdquo; <i>Sitzungs. der philos.,
+philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu München</i> (1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Albert A. Howard, &ldquo;The Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard Studies</i>,
+iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Representations of flutes blown as here described have been
+found in Europe. See <i>Comptes rendus de la commission impériale
+archéologique</i> (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same
+date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, <i>Wandgemälde</i>,
+No. 7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18;
+Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, <i>Les Figurines</i>, p. 136.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9
+and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood
+encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head
+of a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube.
+This hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The
+pipe is stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern
+flute. There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus
+in the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in <i>History
+of Discoveries at Halicarnassus</i> (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre
+has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing
+satyrs playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles
+have been restored, especially in the details affecting our present
+subject, and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another
+statue representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum.
+The instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but
+erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which
+the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the intervention
+of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column of
+air.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze,
+<i>Catalogo</i> (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in
+<i>Gallerie nazionali italiane</i>, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263,
+L&rsquo;Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, &ldquo;Antike Vorlagen
+byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs,&rdquo; in <i>Jahrb. d. K. Preuss. Kunst-Sammlungen</i>
+(Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven, &ldquo;Ein
+Reliquienkästchen aus Pirano,&rdquo; id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Greek MS. 510, Grégoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliothèque
+Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, <i>L&rsquo;Épopée
+byzantine à la fin du dizième siècle</i> (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i.
+p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b.
+written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A
+cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being
+uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol.
+72a, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, &ldquo;Der Bilderkreis des
+griechischen Physiologus,&rdquo; in <i>Byzantinisches Archiv</i> (Leipzig, 1899),
+Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art byzantin</i> (Paris,
+1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; &ldquo;Kuseyr&rsquo; Amra,&rdquo; issued by <i>K. Akad. d.
+Wissenschaften</i> (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18f" id="ft18f" href="#fa18f"><span class="fn">18</span></a> A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes
+has been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue,
+sect. &ldquo;Academies,&rdquo; St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab.
+1325a).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century,
+was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
+during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in
+facsimile published by the <i>Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
+historiques d&rsquo;Alsace</i>. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller
+(Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, <i>Herrad von
+Landsperg und ihr Werk</i> (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1818), twelve
+plates.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in <i>Critical and Bibliographical Notes
+on Early Spanish Music</i> (London, 1887), p. 119.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22f" id="ft22f" href="#fa22f"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Organographia</i> (Wolfenbüttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23f" id="ft23f" href="#fa23f"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), <i>Livre</i> v. p. 241.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24f" id="ft24f" href="#fa24f"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Principes de la flûte traversière ou flûte d&rsquo;Allemagne, de la flûte
+à bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25f" id="ft25f" href="#fa25f"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Musicus <span class="grk" title="autodidaktos">&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#948;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span> oder der sich selbst informirende Musicus</i>
+(Erfurt, 1738), p. 85.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26f" id="ft26f" href="#fa26f"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Fétis, <i>Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique à
+l&rsquo;Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27f" id="ft27f" href="#fa27f"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See <i>Recueil de planches</i>, vol. iv., and article &ldquo;Basse de flûte
+traversière,&rdquo; vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also <i>The Flute</i>, by R.S.
+Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced
+together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the
+Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted French
+maker Delusse.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28f" id="ft28f" href="#fa28f"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen</i> (Berlin,
+1752).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29f" id="ft29f" href="#fa29f"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in describing
+the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute in D,
+which is considered to be typical of the family.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30f" id="ft30f" href="#fa30f"><span class="fn">30</span></a> &ldquo;Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
+entworfen,&rdquo; in the <i>Historisch-Kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der
+Musik</i>, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor
+of the flute to Frederick the Great.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31f" id="ft31f" href="#fa31f"><span class="fn">31</span></a> See Johann Georg Tromlitz, <i>Ausführlicher und gründlicher
+Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen</i> (Leipzig, 1791), 1, § 7, and <i>Über Flöten
+mit mehrern Klappen</i> (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. § 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32f" id="ft32f" href="#fa32f"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Antonio Lorenzoni, <i>Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso</i>
+(Vicenza, 1779).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33f" id="ft33f" href="#fa33f"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See <i>Anweisung</i>, i. § 15.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34f" id="ft34f" href="#fa34f"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See <i>Lebenslauf</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 248, where Quantz states that he invented
+the adjustable head for the flute.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35f" id="ft35f" href="#fa35f"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See <i>Anweisung</i>, i. §§ 10-13 and iv. § 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36f" id="ft36f" href="#fa36f"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Ausführlicher und gründlicher Unterricht die Flöte zu spielen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. § 20. Compare Schilling, <i>Univ.-Lexikon</i>
+(Leipzig, 1835).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37f" id="ft37f" href="#fa37f"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R.,
+see p. 2).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38f" id="ft38f" href="#fa38f"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Kurze Abhandlung von Flötenspielen</i> (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39f" id="ft39f" href="#fa39f"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Über Flöten</i>, &amp;c., pp. 133 and 134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40f" id="ft40f" href="#fa40f"><span class="fn">40</span></a> See <i>The Flute</i>, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft41f" id="ft41f" href="#fa41f"><span class="fn">41</span></a> See <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 51 and 62.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft42f" id="ft42f" href="#fa42f"><span class="fn">42</span></a> English patent, No. 1499.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft43f" id="ft43f" href="#fa43f"><span class="fn">43</span></a> See Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft44f" id="ft44f" href="#fa44f"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico che
+ha i suoni bassi del violino</i> (Rome, 1797).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft45f" id="ft45f" href="#fa45f"><span class="fn">45</span></a> The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by Trexler
+of Vienna, who called it the &ldquo;panaulon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft46f" id="ft46f" href="#fa46f"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
+diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 273-274.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft47f" id="ft47f" href="#fa47f"><span class="fn">47</span></a> Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
+diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 273-274.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft48f" id="ft48f" href="#fa48f"><span class="fn">48</span></a> Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775,
+and called &ldquo;Basse de Musette,&rdquo; may be seen in the Museum of the
+Paris Conservatoire.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft49f" id="ft49f" href="#fa49f"><span class="fn">49</span></a> See account of Capeller&rsquo;s inventions by Carl Maria von Weber
+in <i>Allgem. musikal. Zeit.</i> (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation
+of which is given by Rockstro, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 279 and 280.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft50f" id="ft50f" href="#fa50f"><span class="fn">50</span></a> See <i>Über den Flötenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen desselben</i>
+(Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, <i>An Essay on the Construction
+of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm, published with the
+addition of Correspondence and other Documents</i> (London, 1882).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft51f" id="ft51f" href="#fa51f"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Examen critique de la flûte ordinaire comparée à la flûte Boehm</i>
+(Paris, 1838).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft52f" id="ft52f" href="#fa52f"><span class="fn">52</span></a> They existed long before, however, in the Chinese <i>Ty</i> and the
+Japanese <i>Fuye</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft53f" id="ft53f" href="#fa53f"><span class="fn">53</span></a> The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Boehm Flute</i> (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating
+to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
+impartiality.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft54f" id="ft54f" href="#fa54f"><span class="fn">54</span></a> For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments
+of the Orchestra</i>, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is given,
+and Paul Wetzger, <i>Die Flöte</i> (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24, and Tafel
+iv. No. 20.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLUX<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fluxus</i>, a flowing; this being also the meaning
+of the English term in medicine, &amp;c.), in metallurgy, a substance
+introduced in the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to
+remove objectionable impurities in the form of a slag. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+substances in commonest use are:&mdash;lime or limestone, to slag
+off silica and silicates, fluor-spar for lead, calcium and barium
+sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica for removing basic
+substances such as limestone. Other substances are also used,
+but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium
+and potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica;
+mixed with potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable
+oxidizing fusion mixture; &ldquo;black flux&rdquo; is a reducing flux
+composed of finely divided carbon and potassium carbonate, and
+formed by deflagrating a mixture of argol with ¼ to ½ its weight
+of nitre. Borax is very frequently employed; it melts to a clear
+liquid and dissolves silica and many metallic oxides. Potassium
+bisulphate is useful in the preliminary treatment of refractory
+aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used in silver and
+gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any metallic oxides
+present.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. <i>fleugan</i>,
+to fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of
+many insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lepidoptera</a></span>), dragon-fly (<i>q.v.</i>), may-fly (<i>q.v.</i>), caddis-fly (<i>q.v.</i>),
+&amp;c.; also specially employed by entomologists to mean any
+species of the two-winged flies, or Diptera (<i>q.v.</i>). In ordinary
+parlance <i>fly</i> is often used in the sense of the common house-fly
+(<i>Musca domestica</i>); and by English colonists and sportsmen
+in South Africa in that of a species of tsetse-fly (<i>Glossina</i>), or a
+tract of country (&ldquo;belt&rdquo;) in which these insects abound (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the house-fly proper (<i>Musca domestica</i>), which in
+England is the usual one, several species of flies are commonly
+found in houses; <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i>, or stable-fly;
+<i>Pollenia rudis</i>, or cluster-fly; <i>Muscina stabulans</i>, another stable-fly;
+<i>Calliphora erythrocephala</i>, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly,
+with smaller sorts of blue-bottle, <i>Phormia terraenovae</i> and
+<i>Lucilia caesar</i>; <i>Homalomyia canicularis</i> and <i>brevis</i>, the small
+house-fly; <i>Scenopinus fenestralis</i>, the black window-fly, &amp;c.
+But <i>Musca domestica</i> is far the most numerous, and in many
+places, especially in hot weather and in hot climates, is a regular
+pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau of Entomology
+U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in 1900
+he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different parts
+of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808
+were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is
+of the widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard
+filth, so great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially
+cholera and typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent
+source of danger; and various sanitary regulations have been
+made, or precautions suggested, for getting rid of it. These are
+discussed by Mr Howard in the paper referred to, but in brief
+they all amount to measures of general hygiene, and the isolation,
+prompt removal, or proper sterilization of the animal or human
+excrement in which these flies breed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYCATCHER<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray,
+being a translation of the <i>Muscicapa</i> of older authors, and
+applied by Pennant to an extremely common English bird, the
+<i>M. grisola</i> of Linnaeus. It has since been used in a general and
+very vague way for a great many small birds from all parts of the
+world, which have the habit of catching flies on the wing. Ornithologists
+who have trusted too much to this characteristic and
+to certain merely superficial correlations of structure, especially
+those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill and a gape beset
+by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the title of
+<i>Muscicapidae</i> an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of
+forms much reduced in number by later systematists. Great
+advance has been made in establishing as independent families
+the <i>Todidae</i> and <i>Eurylaemidae</i>, as well as in excluding from it
+various members of the <i>Ampelidae</i>, <i>Cotingidae</i>, <i>Tyrannidae</i>,
+<i>Vireonidae</i>, <i>Mniotiltidae</i>, and perhaps others, which had been
+placed within its limits. These steps have left the <i>Muscicapidae</i>
+a purely Old-World family of the order <i>Passeres</i>, and the chief
+difficulty now seems to lie in separating it from the <i>Campephagidae</i>
+and the <i>Laniidae</i>. Only a very few of the forms of flycatchers
+(which, after all the deductions above mentioned, may be
+reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps
+250 species) can here be even named.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens
+to be the type of the Linnaean genus <i>Muscicapa</i>&mdash;the spotted
+or grey flycatcher (<i>M. grisola</i>). It is a common summer visitant
+to nearly the whole of Europe, and is found throughout Great
+Britain, though less abundant in Scotland than in England, as
+well as in many parts of Ireland, where, however, it seems to be
+but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one of the latest
+migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands till the
+latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
+bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever
+and anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap
+of its bill some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot
+it has quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as
+before. It has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note,
+uttered from time to time with a jerking gesture of the
+wings and tail. It makes a neat nest, built among the small twigs
+which sprout from the bole of a large tree, fixed in the branches
+of some plant trained against a wall, or placed in any hole of
+the wall itself that may be left by the falling of a brick or stone.
+The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale greenish-blue,
+closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and inconspicuous
+as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the closest
+vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost everybody.
+A second British species is the pied flycatcher (<i>M. atricapilla</i>),
+a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except in the
+hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to Cumberland,
+and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere.
+It is not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed
+in Ireland. More of a woodland bird than the former, the
+brightly-contrasted black and white plumage of the cock,
+together with his agreeable song, readily attracts attention
+where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all western Europe,
+but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly allied species
+(<i>M. collaris</i>) in which the white of the throat and breast extends
+like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species (<i>M.
+parva</i>), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
+also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west
+of England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range,
+which has received generic recognition under the name of <i>Erythrosterna</i>,
+and it has several relations in Asia and particularly in
+India, while the allies of the pied flycatchers (<i>Ficedula</i> of Brisson)
+are chiefly of African origin, and those of the grey or spotted
+flycatcher (<i>Muscicapa</i> proper<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a>) are common to the two continents.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable groups of <i>Muscicapidae</i> is that
+known as the paradise flycatchers, forming the genus <i>Tchitrea</i> of
+Lesson. In nearly all the species the males are distinguished by
+the growth of exceedingly long feathers in their tail, and by their
+putting on, for some part of the year at least, a plumage generally
+white, but almost always quite different from that worn by the
+females, which is of a more or less deep chestnut or bay colour,
+though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy steel-blue. They are
+found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical Asia to Japan,
+and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than the open
+country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian <i>T.
+paradisi</i>; but the Chinese <i>T. incii</i>, and the Japanese <i>T. princeps</i>,
+from being very commonly represented by the artists of those
+nations on screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the
+cock of the last named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+eyes surrounded by bare skin of the same colour&mdash;though these
+are characters possessed in some degree by all the species&mdash;seems
+to be the most beautiful of the genus. <i>T. bourbonnensis</i>,
+which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius and Réunion,
+appears to be the only species in which the outward difference of
+the sexes is but slight. In <i>T. corvina</i> of the Seychelles, the adult
+male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers are not only
+very long but very broad. In <i>T. mutata</i> of Madagascar, some
+of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
+elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates
+over the whole body; but whether this sex is here
+actually dimorphic, or whether the one dress is a passing phase
+of the other, is at present undetermined. Some of the African
+species, of which many have been described, seem always to
+retain the rufous plumage, but the long tail-feathers serve to
+mark the males.</p>
+
+<p>A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they
+exhibit, as <i>Myiagra azurea</i>, and others as <i>Monarcha</i> (or <i>Arses</i>)
+<i>chrysomela</i> by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned
+to the <i>Muscicapidae</i> are very varied. <i>Sisura inquieta</i> has some
+of the habits of a water-wagtail (<i>Motacilla</i>), and hence has received
+the name of &ldquo;dishwasher,&rdquo; bestowed in many parts of
+England on its analogue; and the many species of <i>Rhipidura</i>
+or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in various parts of the
+Australian Region, have manners still more singular&mdash;turning
+over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as they catch their
+prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority of the
+<i>Muscicapidae</i>, and especially of the numerous African forms,
+hardly anything is known.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his
+<i>Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers</i>
+(published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the <i>Muscicapidae</i> at
+all, and one of them, <i>Todus</i>, not even to the order <i>Passeres</i>. It is
+perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose substance
+so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson wrote it filled
+with faith in the so-called &ldquo;Quinary System&rdquo;&mdash;that fanciful theory,
+invented by W.S. Macleay, which misled and kept back so many of
+the best English zoologists of his generation from the truth,&mdash;and,
+unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was warped to fit
+his hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> By some writers this section is distinguished as <i>Butalis</i> of Boie,
+but to do so seems contrary to rule.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYGARE-CARLÉN, EMILIE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1807-1892), Swedish novelist,
+was born in Strömstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father,
+Rutger Smith, was a retired sea-captain who had settled down
+as a small merchant, and she often accompanied him on the
+voyages he made along the coast. She married in 1827 a doctor
+named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live in the province
+of Småland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her old home
+and published in 1838 her first novel, <i>Waldemar Klein</i>. In the
+next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the
+jurist and poet, Johan Gabriel Carlén (1814-1875). Her house
+became a meeting-place for Stockholm men of letters, and for
+the next twelve years she produced one or two novels annually.
+The premature death of her son Edvard Flygare (1829-1853),
+who had already published three books, showing great promise,
+was followed by six years of silence, after which she resumed her
+writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are <i>Rosen på
+Tistelön</i> (1842; Eng. trans. <i>The Rose of Tistelön</i>, 1842);
+<i>Enslingen på Johannesskäret</i> (1846; Eng. trans. <i>The Hermit</i>,
+4 vols., 1853); and <i>Ett Köpemanshus i skärgården</i> (1859; <i>The
+Merchant&rsquo;s House on the Cliffs</i>). Fru Carlén published in 1878
+<i>Minnen af svenskt författarlif</i> 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888
+three volumes of <i>Efterskörd från en 80- årings författarbana</i>,
+containing her last tales. She died at Stockholm on the 5th of
+February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlén (1836-1883), was
+also a popular novelist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Emilie Flygare-Carlén&rsquo;s novels were collected in thirty-one
+volumes (Stockholm, 1869-1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYING BUTTRESS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, in architecture, the term given to a
+structural feature employed to transmit the thrust of a vault
+across an intervening space, such as an aisle, chapel or cloister,
+to a buttress built outside the latter. This was done by throwing
+a semi-arch across to the vertical buttress. Though employed
+by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it was generally
+masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but in
+the 12th century it was recognized as rational construction and
+emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in
+the cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims,
+&amp;c. Sometimes, owing to the great height of the vaults, two
+semi-arches were thrown one above the other, and there are
+cases where the thrust was transmitted to two or even three
+buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical buttress,
+placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to
+thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical
+buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built
+outside the chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical
+buttresses are, as a rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to
+give them greater power of resistance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYING COLUMN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> in military organization, an independent
+corps of troops usually composed of all arms, to which a particular
+task is assigned. It is almost always composed in the course of
+operations, out of the troops immediately available. Mobility
+being its <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i>, a flying column is when possible composed
+of picked men and horses accompanied with the barest minimum
+of baggage. The term is usually, though not necessarily, applied
+to forces under the strength of a brigade. The &ldquo;mobile columns&rdquo;
+employed by the British in the South African War of 1899-1902,
+were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a
+battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry&mdash;almost exactly
+half that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in
+savage or guerrilla warfare.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&ldquo;FLYING DUTCHMAN,&rdquo;<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a spectre-ship popularly believed to
+haunt the waters around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend
+has several variants, but the commonest is that which declares
+that the captain of the vessel, Vanderdecken, was condemned for
+his blasphemy to sail round the cape for ever, unable to &ldquo;make&rdquo;
+a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the ghost of the Dutch
+seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the &ldquo;Flying Dutchman&rdquo;
+is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German
+legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that
+he is condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship
+without helm or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with
+the devil. Sir Walter Scott says the &ldquo;Flying Dutchman&rdquo; was
+originally a vessel laden with bullion. A murder was committed
+on board, and thereafter the plague broke out among the crew,
+which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft. The legend has been
+used by Wagner in his opera <i>Der fliegende Holländer</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYING-FISH,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> the name given to two different kinds of fish.
+The one (<i>Dactylopterus</i>) belongs to the gurnard family (<i>Triglidae</i>),
+and is more properly called flying gurnard; the other (<i>Exocoetus</i>)
+has been called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the
+gar-pike than to the herring. Some other fishes with long
+pectoral fins (<i>Pterois</i>) have been stated to be able to fly, but this
+has been proved to be incorrect.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:272px" src="images/img585.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>Dactylopterus volitans.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the <i>Exocoeti</i>
+with regard to individuals as well as species, there being only
+three or four species known of the former, whilst more than fifty
+have been described of the latter, which, besides, are found in
+numerous shoals of thousands. The <i>Dactylopteri</i> may be readily
+distinguished by a large bony head armed with spines, hard
+keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &amp;c. The <i>Exocoeti</i> have thin,
+deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the ventrals placed
+far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have long
+barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly
+prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in
+many species of <i>Exocoetus</i> the ventral fins are similarly enlarged,
+and evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes.
+Flying-fishes are found in the tropical and sub-tropical seas only,
+and it is a singular fact that the geographical distribution of the
+two kinds is nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+observed in rough weather and in a disturbed sea than during
+calms; they dart out of the water when pursued by their
+enemies or frightened by an approaching vessel, but frequently
+also without any apparent cause, as is also observed in many
+other fishes; and they rise without regard to the direction of
+the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended, without
+any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air
+whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of
+the wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship
+going 10 m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not
+extending beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer
+when the fishes fly against, than with or at an angle to, the wind.
+Any vertical or horizontal deviation from a straight line is not
+caused at the will of the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they
+retain a horizontally straight course when flying with or against
+the wind, but are carried towards the right or left whenever the
+direction of the wind is at an angle with that of their flight.
+However, it sometimes happens that the fish during its flight
+immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a stroke of its tail
+turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line of their flight is
+always also vertically straight or rather parabolic, like the course
+of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough sea,
+when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then
+frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the
+pressure of the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of
+vessels, but this never happens during a calm or from the lee side,
+but during a breeze only and from the weather side. In day time
+they avoid a ship, flying away from it, but during the night
+when they are unable to see, they frequently fly against the
+weather board, where they are caught by the current of the air,
+and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the surface of the
+water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep close to it.
+All these observations point clearly to the fact that any deflection
+from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and not
+to voluntary action on the part of the fish.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:176px" src="images/img586a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;<i>Exocoetus callopterus.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been
+discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water
+flying-fish. It has been named <i>Pantodon buchholzi</i>. It has very
+large pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached
+to the inner ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the
+Congo region, and has been caught in its flight above the water
+in a butterfly-net.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYING-FOX,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or, more correctly, <span class="sc">Fox-Bat</span>. The first name
+is applied by Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the
+genus <i>Pteropus</i>, which contains more than half the family
+(<i>Pteropidae</i>). This genus is confined to the tropical regions of the
+Eastern hemisphere and Australia. It comprises numerous
+species, a considerable proportion of which occur in the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes are the largest of
+the bats, the kalong of Java (<i>Pteropus edulis</i>) measuring about
+a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane
+measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal
+bats, suspending themselves during the day head-downwards
+by thousands from the branches of trees, where with their wings
+gathered about them, they bear some resemblance to huge
+shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of some peculiar fruit. In
+Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend themselves chiefly
+from the branches of dead trees, where they are easily caught
+or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home in
+basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices,
+and &ldquo;are really very good eating, something like hare.&rdquo; Towards
+evening these bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies
+to the village plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit,
+and so numerous and voracious are they that no garden crop
+has much chance of being gathered which is not specially protected
+from their attacks. The flying-fox of India (<i>Pteropus
+medius</i>) is a smaller species, but is found in great numbers
+wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:540px" src="images/img586b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel
+(<i>Idiurus zenkeri</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">FLYING-SQUIRREL,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> properly the name of such members of
+the squirrel-group of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like
+expansion of the skin of the flanks, with attachments to the
+limbs, by means of which they are able to take long flying-leaps
+from tree to tree. The parachute is supported by a cartilage
+attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the lateral
+membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front
+of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third
+(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long
+tail. Of the two widely distributed genera, <i>Pteromys</i> includes
+the larger and <i>Sciuropterus</i>
+the smaller species.
+The two differ in certain
+details of dentition, and
+in the greater development
+in the former of the
+parachute, especially the
+interfemoral portion,
+which in the latter is
+almost absent. In <i>Pteromys</i>
+the tail is cylindrical
+and comparatively thin,
+while in <i>Sciuropterus</i> it is
+broad, flat and laterally
+expanded, so as to compensate
+for the absence
+of the interfemoral membrane
+by acting as a
+supplementary parachute.</p>
+
+<p>In general appearance
+flying-squirrels resemble
+ordinary squirrels,
+although they are even
+more beautifully coloured.
+Their habits,
+food, &amp;c., are also very
+similar to those of the
+true squirrels, except that
+they are more nocturnal,
+and are therefore less
+often seen. The Indian flying-squirrel (<i>P. oral</i>) leaps with its
+parachute extended from the higher branches of a tree, and
+descends first directly and then more and more obliquely, until
+the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a horizontal
+direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch or
+trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these
+rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. <i>Sciuropterus</i>
+is represented by <i>S. velucella</i> in eastern Europe and
+northern Asia, and by a second species in North America, but the
+other species of this genus and all those of <i>Pteromys</i> are Indo-Malayan.
+A third genus, <i>Eupetaurus</i>, typified by a very large,
+long-haired, dark-grey species from the mountains to the north-west
+of Kashmir (<i>Eu. cinereus</i>), differs from all other members of
+the squirrel-family by its tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a
+total length of 37 in., of which 22 are taken up by the tail.</p>
+
+<p>In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members
+of a very different family of rodents, the <i>Anomaluridae</i>, which are
+provided with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is
+absent in some members of the family, the most distinctive
+character is the presence of a double row of spiny scales on the
+under surface of the tail, which apparently aid in climbing.
+The flying species are also distinguished from ordinary flying-squirrels
+by the circumstance that the additional bone serving
+for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane rises
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is
+represented by two flying genera, <i>Anomalurus</i> and <i>Idiurus</i>; the
+latter containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut)
+characterized by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the
+species are West African. In habits these rodents appear to be
+very similar to the true flying-squirrels. The species without a
+parachute constitutes the genus <i>Zenkerella</i>, and looks very like
+an ordinary squirrel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied
+to such marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals
+which naturalists prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marsupialia</a></span>)</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLYSCH,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> in geology, a remarkable formation, composed
+mainly of sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending
+from S.W. Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone
+to the Vienna basin, whence it may be followed round the
+northern flanks of the Carpathians into the Balkan peninsula.
+It is represented in the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Caucasus
+and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like deposits are related
+to the Himalayas as the European formations are to the Alps.
+The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the
+western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong
+to the Eocene period, but the principal development is of
+Oligocene age; as it is traced eastward we find in the east Alps
+that it descends into the upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna
+region and the Carpathians it contains intercalations which clearly
+indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon for the lower parts. It
+appears indeed that this type of formation was in progress of
+deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated
+above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of
+fossils from enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation
+with other formations difficult; often the only indications
+of organisms are the abundant markings supposed to represent
+Algae (Chondrites, &amp;c.), which have given rise to the term
+&ldquo;Hieroglyphic-sandstone.&rdquo; The most noteworthy exceptions
+are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene nummulitic
+beds in Calabria, and the <i>Aptychus</i> beds of Waidhofen.
+Local phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is
+the &ldquo;Vienna&rdquo; or &ldquo;Carpathian&rdquo; sandstone of those regions;
+the &ldquo;macigno&rdquo; (a soft sandstone with calcareous cement) of
+the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the &ldquo;scagliose&rdquo; (scaly clays)
+and &ldquo;alberese&rdquo; (limestones) of the same places are portions of
+this formation. The <i>gris de Menton</i>, the <i>gris d&rsquo;Annot</i> of the
+Basses Alps, and the <i>gris d&rsquo;Embrun</i> of Chaillot appear in Switzerland
+as the <i>gris de Taveyannaz</i>. At several places the upper
+layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Léman
+and at the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the &ldquo;Red-Flysch.&rdquo;
+Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &amp;c., occur
+in the Flysch in Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of
+granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates
+are found near Vienna, near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near Lake Thun
+(Wild Flysch) and at other points, which have been variously
+regarded as indications of glaciation or of coastal conditions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FO&#268;A<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Fáwtcha</i>), a town of Bosnia, situated at
+the confluence of the Drina and &#268;ehotina rivers, and encircled
+by wooded mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the headquarters
+of a thriving industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid
+weapons, for which it was famous. With its territories enclosed
+by the frontiers of Montenegro and Novi Bazar, Fo&#269;a, then
+known as <i>Chocha</i>, was the scene of almost incessant border
+warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this period
+are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful mosques,
+which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining
+towns of Fo&#269;a, Gora&#382;da and Ustikolina were trading-stations
+of the Ragusans in the 14th century, if not earlier. In the 16th
+century, Benedetto Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the
+Porte, described the town, in his <i>Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi</i>,
+as <i>Cozza</i>, &ldquo;a large settlement, with good houses in Turkish style,
+and many shops and merchants. Here dwells the governor of
+Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the whole of Servia.
+Through this place all goods must pass, both going and returning,
+between Ragusa and Constantinople.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOCHABERS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the
+Spey, about 9 m. E. by S. of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of
+the Highland railway connecting at Orbliston Junction with the
+main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was rebuilt in its
+present situation at the end of the 18th century, when its earlier
+site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon Castle,
+in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead at
+right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are
+held. The public buildings include a library and reading-room,
+the court-house and the Milne school, named after Alexander
+Milne, who endowed it with a legacy of £20,000. Adjoining the
+town, surrounded by a park containing many magnificent old
+trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the duke of
+Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The antiquary
+George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William
+Marshall (1748-1833) were natives of the burgh.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOCSHANI<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Rumanian <i>Foc&#351;ani</i>, sometimes incorrectly written
+<i>Fokshani</i> or <i>Fokshan</i>), the capital of the department of Putna,
+Rumania; on the river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier
+of the former principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop.
+(1900) 23,783; of whom 6000 were Jews. The chief buildings
+are the prefecture, schools, synagogues, and many churches,
+including those of the Armenians and Protestants. Focshani
+is a commercial centre of some importance, the chief industries
+being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large wine trade
+is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to Galatz. The
+annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government explorations
+in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in minerals,
+such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line Focshani-Galatz
+is covered by a very strong line of fortifications, known
+as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish
+diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbourhood
+the Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and
+Russians in 1789.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOCUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Latin for &ldquo;hearth&rdquo; or &ldquo;fireplace&rdquo;), a point at which
+converging rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from
+which diverging rays are directed; in the latter case called
+the virtual focus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Microscope</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telescope</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lens</a></span>). In
+geometry the word is used to denote certain points (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conic Section</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perspective</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOG,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid
+particles in the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders
+surrounding objects notably indistinct or altogether invisible
+according to their distance. In its more intense forms it hinders
+and delays travellers of all kinds, by sea or land, by railway, road
+or river, or by the mountain path. It is sometimes so thick as
+to paralyse traffic altogether. According to the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> the word &ldquo;appears to be&rdquo; a back formation from
+the adjective &ldquo;foggy,&rdquo; a derivative of &ldquo;fog&rdquo; used with its old
+meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain,
+of &ldquo;moss.&rdquo; Such a formation would be reasonable, because
+wreaths of fog in the atmospheric sense are specially characteristic
+of meadows and marshes where fog, in the more ancient
+sense, grows.</p>
+
+<p>Two other words, <i>mist</i> and <i>haze</i>, are also in common use with
+reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface
+layers of the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and
+in ordinary literature the three words are used almost according
+to the fancy of the writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction
+between mist and haze that would be fairly well supported by
+usage. Mist may be defined as a cloud of water particles at the
+surface of land or sea, and would only occur when the air is nearly
+or actually saturated, that is, when there is little or no difference
+between the readings of the dry and wet bulbs; the word haze,
+on the other hand, may be reserved for the obscuration of the
+surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.</p>
+
+<p>It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this
+distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic
+code of the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for
+mist and haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had
+no separate letter for haze (now indicated by <i>z</i>), though it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+distinguished between
+<i>f</i>, fog, and <i>m</i>, mist. It is
+possible, however, that
+these practices may
+arise, not from confusion
+of idea, but from
+economy of symbols,
+when the meaning can
+be made out from a
+knowledge of the associated
+observations.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the distinction
+between mist
+and fog, careful consideration
+of a number
+of examples leads to the conclusion that the word &ldquo;fog&rdquo; is
+used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological
+nature of the obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers
+whether on land or sea. It is, generally speaking, &ldquo;in a
+fog&rdquo; that a traveller loses himself, and indeed the phrase
+has become proverbial in that sense. A &ldquo;fog-bell&rdquo; or &ldquo;fog-horn&rdquo;
+is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that the aid of
+sound is required for navigation. A vessel is &ldquo;fog-logged&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;fog-bound&rdquo; when it is stopped or detained on account of
+thick atmosphere. A &ldquo;fog-signal&rdquo; is employed on railways
+when the ordinary signals are obliterated within working
+distances. A &ldquo;fog-bow&rdquo; is the accompaniment of conditions
+when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his way.</p>
+
+<p>These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the
+cloud which interferes with effective vision and necessitates the
+special provision; the word &ldquo;mist&rdquo; is seldom used in similar
+connexion. We may thus define a fog as a surface cloud sufficiently
+thick to cause hindrance to traffic. It will be a <i>thick mist</i>
+if the cloud consists of water particles, a <i>thick haze</i> if it consists
+of smoke or dust particles which would be persistent even in a
+dry atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use
+of the word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm
+weather, and that the obscurity of the atmosphere
+when it is blowing hard and perhaps raining hard
+as well should be indicated by the terms &ldquo;thick
+weather&rdquo; or &ldquo;very thick weather&rdquo; and not by
+&ldquo;fog&rdquo;; but the term &ldquo;fog&rdquo; would be quite correctly
+used on such occasions from the point of view of
+cautious navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or
+heavy rain cause such obscurity that passing ships
+are not visible within working distances the sounding
+of a fog-horn becomes a duty.</p>
+
+<p>The number of occasions upon which fog and
+mist may be noted as occurring with winds of different strengths
+may be exemplified by the following results of thirty years for
+St Mary&rsquo;s, Scilly Isles, where the observations have always
+been made by men of nautical experience.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Wind Force.</td> <td class="tccm allb">0 &amp; 1</td> <td class="tccm allb">2</td> <td class="tccm allb">3</td> <td class="tccm allb">4</td> <td class="tccm allb">5</td> <td class="tccm allb">6</td> <td class="tccm allb">7</td> <td class="tccm allb">8-12</td> <td class="tccm allb">All<br />Winds.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Number of occasions of fog per 1000 observations</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">&lt;1</td> <td class="tcc rb">&lt;1</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Number of occasions of mist per 1000 observations</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">84</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The use of the word &ldquo;fog&rdquo; in the connexion &ldquo;high fog,&rdquo;
+to describe the almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally
+noted in London and other large cities due to the persistent
+opaque cloud in the upper air without serious obscuration of the
+surface layers, is convenient but incorrect.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding &ldquo;fog&rdquo; as a word used to indicate the state of the
+atmosphere as regards transparency considered with reference to
+its effect upon traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced
+for use on land or at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is
+indicated by the numbers 1 to 5 in the table following. At
+sea or in the country a fog, as a rule, is white and consists of
+a cloud of minute water globules, of no great vertical thickness,
+which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection but is fully
+translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or coloured
+fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the
+Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns
+the fog cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some
+cases may be regarded as due entirely to the smoke.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Description of Effects.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Name.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On Land.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On Sea.</td> <td class="tcc allb">On River.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb">Slight Fog or Mist</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Objects indistinct, but<br />&emsp;traffic by rail or road<br />&emsp;unimpeded</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb">Horizon invisible, but<br />&emsp;lights and landmarks<br />&emsp;visible at working<br />&emsp;distances </td>
+ <td class="tcl rb">Objects indistinct, but<br />&emsp;navigation unimpeded</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb cl">Moderate Fog</td> <td class="tcc rb cl">2<br /><br />3</td> <td class="tcl rb cl">Traffic by rail requires<br />&emsp;additional caution <br />Traffic by rail or road<br />&emsp;impeded</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb cl">Lights, passing vessels<br />&emsp;and landmarks generally<br />&emsp;indistinct under<br />&emsp;a mile. Fog signals<br />&emsp;are sounded</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb cl">Navigation impeded,<br />&emsp;additional caution<br />&emsp;required</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb">Thick Fog</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4<br /><br />5</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Traffic by rail or road<br />&emsp;impeded<br />Traffic by rail or road<br />&emsp;totally disorganized</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb bb">Ships&rsquo; lights and vessels<br />&emsp;invisible at ¼ mile or<br />&emsp;less</td>
+  <td class="tcl rb bb">Navigation suspended</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles
+are complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account
+for the formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth&rsquo;s
+surface; and the process of cloud-formation which is probably
+most usual in nature, namely, the cooling of air by <span class="correction" title="amended from rarefraction">rarefaction</span>
+due to the reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked,
+except in the case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills,
+which are perhaps not fairly included. We have to fall back upon
+the only other process hitherto recognized as causing cloudy
+condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the mixing of
+masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is
+brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow
+motion is probably essential to the phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia,
+round by the Azores.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb tb">Successive Temperatures of sea</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">59°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">54° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Successive Temperatures of air</td> <td class="tcc rb">68°</td> <td class="tcc rb">70°</td> <td class="tcc rb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb">60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">56° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Successive States of the atmosphere</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">clear</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">shower</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">mist</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>&mdash;<i>Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb tb">Successive Temperatures of sea</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">67°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">63°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">54° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Successive Temperatures of air</td> <td class="tcc rb">66°</td> <td class="tcc rb">64°</td> <td class="tcc rb">53° F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Successive State of atmosphere</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">fair</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">shower</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">mist with shower</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a
+surface layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The
+amount of motion of the air must be sufficient to prevent the
+condensation taking place at the sea surface without showing
+itself as a cloud. In a research on the Life History of Surface Air
+Currents the changes incidental to the movement of the air over
+the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great care, and the
+above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72
+of the work referred to are typical of the formation
+of sea fog by the cooling of a relatively warm
+current passing over cold water.</p>
+
+<p>In conformity with this suggestion we find that
+fog is most liable to occur over the open ocean
+in those regions where, as off the Newfoundland
+banks, cold-water currents underlie warm
+air, and that it is most frequent at the season of the year when the
+air temperature is increasing faster than the water temperature.
+But it is difficult to bring this hypothesis always to bear upon
+actual practice, because the fog is representative of a temperature
+difference which has ceased to exist. One cannot therefore
+observe under ordinary circumstances both the temperature
+difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only the
+initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which
+favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and
+consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog,
+the characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+the conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the
+mast-head than it is on deck.</p>
+
+<p>One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm
+sea surface would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air
+and hence cause cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers
+rather than surface fog, but one cannot resist the conclusion that
+sea fog is sometimes formed by slow transference of cold air over
+relatively warm water, giving rise to what may be called a
+&ldquo;steaming-pot&rdquo; fog. In such a case the actual surface layer in
+contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog would
+be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour
+is more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in
+comparison with the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold
+current over warm water were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current
+of warm air over cold water appears to be, the geographical
+distribution of notable fog would be much more widespread than
+it actually is, and the seasonal distribution of fog would also be
+other than it is.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more
+complicated process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases
+mistiness amounting to fog arises from the replacement of cold
+surface air which has chilled the earth and the objects thereon
+by a warm current. But this process can hardly give rise to
+detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary land or valley
+fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the combination
+of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of
+air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more
+particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow
+(in the absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower
+levels following roughly the course of the natural water drainage
+of the land, and thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation
+from warm moist soil or from the relatively warm water surface
+of river or lake. In this way steaming-pot fog gradually forms
+and is carried downward by the natural though slow descent of
+the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and banks in the lowest
+parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled with a cloud
+of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is minutely
+described by J.B. Cohen (<i>Q.J. Roy. Met. Soc.</i> vol. 30, p. 211,
+1904).</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances
+favourable for fog formation are (1) a site near the bottom level of
+the drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an evening
+or night of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant
+moisture in the surface-soil. These conditions define with
+reasonable accuracy the circumstances in which fog is actually
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable
+when one considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however
+small they may be, must be continually sinking through the air
+which holds them, and that unless some upward motion of the
+air keeps at least a balance against this downward fall, the
+particles of the cloud must reach the earth or water and to that
+extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys it is easy
+to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and
+colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers displaced
+from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the
+result of the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface
+cloud gets thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and
+persistence of land fog seems too great to be accounted for by
+persistent radiation cooling. For example, in the week before
+Christmas of 1904 the whole of England south of the Humber
+was covered with fog for several days. It is of course possible
+that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the sides of
+mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the fog,
+as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but
+without more particulars such a statement seems almost incredible.
+Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems
+capricious and unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-formation,
+so that one is tempted to invoke the aid of electrification
+of the particles or some other abnormal condition to account
+for the persistence of fog. The observations at Kew observatory
+show that the electrical potential is abnormally high during fog,
+but whether that is the cause or the result of the presence of the
+water particles, we are not yet in a position to say. It must be
+remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as being,
+generally speaking, <i>in process of formation</i> by mixing. Observations
+upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show
+that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still
+for only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear.
+The apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due
+to the fact that mixing is still going on in the persistent ones,
+but is completed in the disappearing ones.</p>
+
+<p>One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness
+of the foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun&rsquo;s
+rays falling upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable
+example may be quoted from the case of London, which was under
+fog all day on 28th January 1909. The maximum temperature
+only reached 31° F., whereas at Warlingham in Surrey from which
+the fog lifted it was as high as 46° F.</p>
+
+<p><i>A priori</i> we might suppose that the formation of fog would
+arrest cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a
+protection of plants against frost. The condensation of water
+evaporated from wet ground, which affords the material for making
+fog, does apparently act as a protection, and heavy watering is
+sometimes used to protect plants from frost, but the same cannot
+be said of fog itself&mdash;cooling appears to go on in spite of the formation
+of fog.</p>
+
+<p>A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a
+cloud from above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls
+for remark. In so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules
+of clouds and rain and are therefore independent of surface
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with
+advantage in relation to the geographical distribution of fog.
+Statistics on this subject are not very satisfactory on account of
+the uncertainty of the distinction between fog and mist, but a
+good deal may be learned from the distribution of fog over the
+north Atlantic Ocean and its various coasts as shown in the
+Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north Atlantic issued by
+the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of the North
+Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog,
+which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent
+in the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most
+extensive and frequent in the spring and summer. By June the
+fog area has extended from the Great Banks over the ocean to
+the British Isles, in July it is most intense, and by August it has
+notably diminished, while in November, which is proverbially a
+foggy month on land, there is hardly any fog shown over the
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in
+London were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council
+by Captain A. Carpenter and Mr R.G.K. Lempfert, based upon
+special observations made in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1902-1903
+in order to examine the possibility of more precise forecasts
+of fog.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially
+important for large towns in consequence of the economic and
+hygienic results which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The
+fogs of London in particular have long been a subject of inquiry.
+It is difficult to get trustworthy statistics on the subject in consequence
+of the vagueness of the practice as regards the classification
+of fog. For large towns there is great advantage in using a
+fog scale such as that given above, in which one deals only with
+the practical range of vision irrespective of the meteorological
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog
+and haze or mist, but not between the two latter terms, as
+equivalent to specifying fog when the thickness amounts to the
+figure 2 or more on the fog scale, we are enabled to compare the
+frequency of fog in London by the comparison of the results at
+the London observing stations. The comparison was made by
+Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal Meteorological Society
+(<i>Quarterly Journal</i>, vol. 31, p. 15), and it appears therefrom
+that in recent years there has been a notable diminution of fog
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+frequency, as indicated in the following table of the total number
+of days of fog in the years from 1871:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1872.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1873.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1874.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1875.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1876.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1877.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1878.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1879.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1882.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1883.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1884.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1886.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1887.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1888.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1889.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">42</td> <td class="tcc allb">35</td> <td class="tcc allb">75</td> <td class="tcc allb">53</td> <td class="tcc allb">49</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">46</td> <td class="tcc allb">63</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">74</td> <td class="tcc allb">59</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">61</td> <td class="tcc allb">53</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">86</td> <td class="tcc allb">83</td> <td class="tcc allb">62</td> <td class="tcc allb">75</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1892.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1893.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1894.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1908.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">65</td> <td class="tcc allb">69</td> <td class="tcc allb">68</td> <td class="tcc allb">31</td> <td class="tcc allb">51</td> <td class="tcc allb">48</td> <td class="tcc allb">43</td> <td class="tcc allb">48</td> <td class="tcc allb">47</td> <td class="tcc allb">56</td> <td class="tcc allb">13</td> <td class="tcc allb">45</td> <td class="tcc allb">42</td> <td class="tcc allb">26</td> <td class="tcc allb">44</td> <td class="tcc allb">19</td> <td class="tcc allb">16</td> <td class="tcc allb">37</td> <td class="tcc allb">19</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog
+it must not be understood that the atmosphere of London is
+approaching that of the surrounding districts as regards transparency.
+Judged by the autographic records it is still almost
+opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the card of the
+recorder during the winter months.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to
+fog, mist and haze in the <i>Bibliography of Meteorology</i> (part ii.)
+of the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among
+more recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in
+the text, may be mentioned:&mdash;Köppen, &ldquo;Bodennebel,&rdquo; <i>Met. Zeit.</i>
+(1885); Trabert, <i>Met. Zeit.</i> (1901), p. 522; Elias in <i>Ergebnisse des
+aëronautischen Observatoriums bei Berlin</i>, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott,
+<i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i> xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, &ldquo;Fog Studies,&rdquo; <i>Amer.
+Inv.</i> ix. (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, &ldquo;Fogs on the
+Coasts of Scotland,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Scot. Met. Soc.</i> xii. p. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. N. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), Italian novelist and
+poet, was born at Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate
+Zanella, one of the best of the modern Italian poets, whose
+tender, thoughtful and deeply religious spirit continued to
+animate his literary productions. He began his literary career
+with <i>Miranda</i>, a poetical romance (1874), followed in 1876
+by <i>Valsolda</i>, which, republished in 1886 with considerable additions,
+constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which
+is not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and
+D&rsquo;Annunzio&rsquo;s impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes
+a Wordsworthian simplicity and pathos, contributing to modern
+Italian literature wholesome elements of which it would otherwise
+be nearly destitute. His novels, <i>Malombra</i> (1882), <i>Daniele
+Cortis</i> (1887), <i>Misterio del Poeta</i> (1888), obtained considerable
+literary success upon their first publication, but did not gain
+universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by
+French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious,
+and a new work, <i>Piccolo Mondo antico</i> (1896), which critics far
+from friendly to Fogazzaro&rsquo;s religious and philosophical ideas
+pronounced the best Italian novel since <i>I Promessi Sposi</i>, went
+through numerous editions. Even greater sensation was caused
+by his novel <i>Il Santo</i> (<i>The Saint</i>, 1906), on account of its being
+treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and Fogazzaro&rsquo;s sympathy
+with the Liberal Catholic movement&mdash;his own Catholicism
+being well known&mdash;made this novel a centre of discussion in the
+Roman Catholic world.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the biography by Molmenti (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOGELBERG, BENEDICT<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bengt</span>) <b>ERLAND</b> (1786-1854),
+Swedish sculptor, was born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August
+1786. His father, a copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited
+taste for design, sent him in 1801 to Stockholm, where
+he studied at the school of art. There he came much under the
+influence of the sculptor Sergell, who communicated to him his
+own enthusiasm for antique art and natural grace. Fogelberg
+worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his instinct
+for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality
+of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a
+government pension enabled him to travel. He studied from
+one to two years in Paris, first under Pierre Guérin, and afterwards
+under the sculptor Bosio, for the technical practice of
+sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg realized a dream of his life in
+visiting Rome, where the greater part of his remaining years
+were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and the careful
+study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his native
+country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great
+enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence
+of those remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural
+beauty to which he had been so long accustomed. Returning
+to Italy, he died suddenly of apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd
+of December 1854. The subjects of Fogelberg&rsquo;s earlier works
+are mostly taken
+from classic mythology.
+Of these,
+&ldquo;Cupid and
+Psyche,&rdquo; &ldquo;Venus
+entering the
+Bath,&rdquo; &ldquo;A
+Bather&rdquo; (1838),
+&ldquo;Apollo Citharede,&rdquo; &ldquo;Venus and Cupid&rdquo; (1839) and &ldquo;Psyche&rdquo;
+(1854) may be mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian
+mythology Fogelberg showed, perhaps for the first time, that he
+had powers above those of intelligent assimilation and imitation.
+His &ldquo;Odin&rdquo; (1831), &ldquo;Thor&rdquo; (1842), and &ldquo;Balder&rdquo; (1842), though influenced
+by Greek art, display considerable power of independent
+imagination. His portraits and historical figures, as those of
+Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles XII. (1851), of Charles XIII.
+(1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm (1853),
+are faithful and dignified works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Casimir Leconte, <i>L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre de Fogelberg</i> (Paris, 1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOGGIA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level,
+in the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E.
+of Ancona and 123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town,
+49,031; commune, 53,134. The name is probably derived from
+the pits or cellars (<i>foveae</i>) in which the inhabitants store their
+grain. The town is the medieval successor of the ancient Arpi,
+3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after conquering the district from
+the Eastern empire, gave it its first importance. The date of the
+erection of the cathedral is probably about 1179; it retains some
+traces of Norman architecture, and the façade has a fine figured
+cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals of
+the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much
+altered after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace
+of the emperor Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia)
+is also preserved. Here died his third wife, Isabella, daughter
+of King John of England. Charles of Anjou died here in 1284.
+After his son&rsquo;s death, it was a prey to internal dissensions and
+finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who converted the
+pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445, and
+made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be
+paid and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town
+are modern. Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance
+for the produce of the surrounding country, and is also a considerable
+railway centre, being situated on the main line from
+Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where this is joined by the line
+from Benevento and Caserta. There are also branches to
+Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza,
+or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FÖHN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Ger., probably derived through Romansch <i>favongn</i>,
+<i>favoign</i>, from Lat. <i>favonius</i>), a warm dry wind blowing down the
+valleys of the Alps from high central regions, most frequently
+in winter. The Föhn wind often blows with great violence.
+It is caused by the indraft of air from the elevated region to
+areas of low barometric pressure in the neighbourhood, and the
+warmth and dryness are due to dynamical compression of the
+air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local winds occur
+in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes of the
+Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Föhn
+wind is often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different
+from the true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes
+from the Sahara dies hard; and still finds expression in some
+textbooks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full account of these winds see Hann, <i>Lehrbuch der Meteorologie</i>,
+p. 594.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FÖHR,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a German island in the North Sea, belonging to
+the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast.
+Pop. 4500. It comprises an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by
+a regular steamboat service from Husum and Dagebüll on the
+mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort on the E. coast of
+the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the Sandwall, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. Föhr,
+the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally
+marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous
+pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of
+which the most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum.
+The inhabitants are mainly engaged in the fishing
+industry, and are known as excellent sailors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOIL.<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. <i>folium</i>, a leaf, modern
+Fr. <i>feuille</i>), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names,
+such as the &ldquo;trefoil&rdquo; clover; and hence applied to anything resembling
+a leaf. In architecture, the word appears for the small
+leaf-like spaces formed by the cusps of tracery in windows or
+panels, and known, according to the number of such spaces, as
+&ldquo;quatrefoil,&rdquo; &ldquo;cinquefoil,&rdquo; &amp;c. The word is also found in
+&ldquo;counterfoil,&rdquo; a leaf of a receipt or cheque book, containing
+memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the
+receiver or drawer as a &ldquo;counter&rdquo; or check. &ldquo;Foil&rdquo; is particularly
+used of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape
+as much as in thinness. In thickness foil comes between &ldquo;leaf&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;sheet&rdquo; metal. In jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper,
+sometimes known as Dutch foil, is used as a backing for paste
+gems, or stones of inferior lustre or colour. This is coated with
+a mixture of isinglass and translucent colour, varying with the
+stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is required, left uncoloured,
+but highly polished. From this use of &ldquo;foil,&rdquo; the
+word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by
+contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive
+qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The
+commonest &ldquo;foil&rdquo; is that generally known as &ldquo;tinfoil.&rdquo; The
+ordinary commercial &ldquo;tinfoil&rdquo; usually consists chiefly of lead,
+and is used for the wrapping of chocolate or other sweetmeats,
+tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese variegated foil gives the
+effect of &ldquo;damaskeening.&rdquo; A large number of thin plates of
+various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with alloys of
+different metals are soldered together in a particular order,
+a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is
+hammered or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then
+appearing in the order in which the various metals were placed.</p>
+
+<p>2. (From an O. Fr. <i>fuler</i> or <i>foler</i>, modern <i>fouler</i>, to tread or
+trample, to &ldquo;full&rdquo; cloth, Lat. <i>fullo</i>, a fuller), an old hunting
+term, used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks,
+to confuse the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in
+wrestling, of a &ldquo;throw.&rdquo; Thus comes the common use of the
+word, in a figurative sense, with reference to both these meanings,
+of baffling or defeating an adversary, or of parrying an attack.</p>
+
+<p>3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Foil-Fencing</a></span>)
+the word is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based
+on a supposed similar use of Fr. <i>fleuret</i>, literally a &ldquo;little flower,&rdquo;
+for the weapon, is that foil means a leaf, and must be referred
+in origin to Lat. <i>folium</i>. A second suggestion is that it means
+&ldquo;blunted,&rdquo; and is the same as (2). A third is that it is an
+adaptation of an expression &ldquo;at foils,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;parrying.&rdquo; Of
+these suggestions, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, the
+first has nothing to support it, the second is not supported by
+any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to blunt.
+The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that
+the word is an alteration of an old word &ldquo;foin,&rdquo; meaning a
+thrust with a pointed weapon. The origin of this word is
+probably an O. Fr. <i>foisne</i>, from the Lat. <i>fuscina</i>, a three-pronged
+fork.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOIL-FENCING,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil.
+The word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &amp;c.) by the
+English writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in
+the sense of a weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of
+a real weapon. Blunt swords for practice in fencing have been
+used in all ages. For the most part these were of wood and flat in
+general form, but when, towards the close of the 17th century, all
+cutting action with the small-sword was discarded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fencing</a></span>),
+foil-blades were usually made of steel, and either round, three-cornered
+or four-cornered in form, with a button covering the
+point. The foil is called in French <i>fleuret</i>, and in Italian
+<i>fioretto</i> (literally &ldquo;bud&rdquo;) from this button. The classic small-sword
+play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the
+present time by fencing with the <i>épée de combat</i> (fighting-rapier),
+which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a
+button (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Épée-de-Combat</a></span>), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing
+is a conventional art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule
+that no hits except those on the body shall be considered good,
+and not even those unless they be given in strict accordance with
+certain standard precepts. In épée-fencing on the contrary,
+a touch on any part of the person, however given, is valid.
+Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as practice is concerned,
+of all sword-play, whether with foil, épée or sabre.</p>
+
+<p>There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and
+the Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted
+everywhere except in Italy, is described in this article, reference
+being made to the important differences between the two schools.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Foil.</i>&mdash;The foil consists of the &ldquo;blade&rdquo; and the &ldquo;handle.&rdquo;
+The blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section,
+consists of two parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard
+to the button, and the &ldquo;tongue,&rdquo; which runs through the handle
+and is joined to the pommel. The blade proper is divided into
+the &ldquo;forte,&rdquo; or thicker half (next the handle), and the &ldquo;foible&rdquo;
+or thinner half. Some authorities divide the blade proper into
+three parts, the &ldquo;forte,&rdquo; &ldquo;middle&rdquo; and &ldquo;foible.&rdquo; The handle
+is comprised of the &ldquo;guard,&rdquo; the &ldquo;grip&rdquo; and the &ldquo;pommel.&rdquo;
+The guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr.
+<i>lunettes</i>, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of
+the same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a
+hollow piece of wood, usually wound with twine, through which
+the tongue of the blade passes. The pommel is a piece of metal,
+usually pear-shaped, to which the end of the tongue is joined and
+which forms the extremity of the handle. The blade from guard
+to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), though a somewhat shorter
+and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. The handle is
+about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.</p>
+
+<p>The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the
+blade a trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the
+handle, which consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from
+4 to 5 in. in diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining
+the grip with the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends
+slightly on each side. Of late years many Italian masters use
+French blades and even discard the cross-bar, retaining, however,
+the bell-guard.</p>
+
+<p>In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex
+surface of the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than
+the top and bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other
+three sides. This is the position of &ldquo;supination,&rdquo; or thumb-up.
+&ldquo;Pronation&rdquo; is the reverse position, with the knuckles up.
+The French lay stress upon holding the foil lightly, the necessary
+pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb and forefinger, the
+other fingers being used more to guide the direction of the executed
+movements. This is in order to give free scope to the
+<i>doigté</i> (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil
+by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility
+of changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying,
+the end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even
+less, of the guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near
+the pommel as possible, in order to gain additional length.
+It will be seen that <i>doigté</i> is impossible with the Italian foil,
+in holding which the forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar,
+preventing any movement of the hand. The lightness of
+grasp inculcated by the French is illustrated by the rule of the
+celebrated master Lafaugère: &ldquo;Hold your sword as if you had
+a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent its escape, yet
+not so firmly as to crush it.&rdquo; This lightness has for a consequence
+that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the French
+school.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Come on Guard.</i>&mdash;The position of &ldquo;on guard&rdquo; is that in
+which the fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence.
+It is taken from the position of &ldquo;attention&rdquo;; the feet together
+and at right angles with each other, head and body erect, facing
+forward in the same direction as the right foot, left arm and hand
+hanging in touch with the body, and the right arm and foil
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+forming a straight line so that the button is about 1 yd. in
+front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this position the
+movements to come &ldquo;on guard&rdquo; are seven in number:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary
+(or master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.</p>
+
+<p>2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from
+the floor.</p>
+
+<p>3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally
+backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers
+of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and
+along the blade.</p>
+
+<p>4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above
+the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept
+horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.</p>
+
+<p>5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position,
+the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring
+the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from
+it; keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed
+towards the opponent&rsquo;s eye.</p>
+
+<p>6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without
+moving the feet.</p>
+
+<p>7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the
+right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the height
+of the fencer).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right
+arm fully extended, the body more effaced, <i>i.e.</i> the left shoulder
+thrown farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At
+the present time, however, many of the best Italian fencers have
+adopted the guard with crooked sword-arm, owing to their
+abandonment of the old long-foil blade.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Recover</i> (at the close of the lesson or assault).&mdash;To recover
+&ldquo;in advance&rdquo;: extend the right arm at right angles with the
+body, drop the left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the
+rear foot up to the one in advance. To recover &ldquo;to the rear&rdquo;:
+extend the right arm and drop the left as before, and straighten
+the legs by drawing the forward foot back to that in the rear.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Salute</i> always follows the recover, the two really forming
+one man&oelig;uvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a
+position just in front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical
+with point upwards; then lower and extend the arm with nails
+up until the point is 4 in. from the floor and slightly to the right.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Advance.</i>&mdash;Being on guard, take a short step forward with
+the right foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same
+distance, the position of the body not being changed. However
+the step, or series of steps, is made, the right foot should always
+move first.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Retreat.</i>&mdash;This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot
+always moving first.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Calls</i> (<i>deux appels</i>).&mdash;Being on guard, tap the floor twice
+with the right foot without altering the position of any other
+part of the person. The object of the calls is to test the
+equilibrium of the body, and they are usually executed as a preliminary
+to the recover.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lunge</i> is the chief means of attack. It is immediately
+preceded by the movement of &ldquo;extension,&rdquo; in fact the two
+really form one combined movement. Extension is executed by
+quickly extending the right arm, so that point, hand and shoulder
+shall have the same elevation; no other part of the person is
+moved. The &ldquo;lunge&rdquo; is then carried out by straightening the
+left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that it shall
+be planted as far forward as possible without losing the equilibrium
+or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard.
+The left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is
+advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand
+open and thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the
+position of guard is accomplished by smartly throwing the body
+back by the exertion of the right leg, until its weight rests again
+on the left leg, the right foot and arms resuming their on-guard
+positions. The point upon which the French school lays most
+stress is, that the movement of extension shall, if only by a
+fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the right
+foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge,
+<i>i.e.</i> the direction of the point.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gain.</i>&mdash;This consists in bringing up the left foot towards
+the right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In
+this manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can
+be made without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common
+stratagem of fencers whose reach is short.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence.</i>&mdash;For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the
+fencer&rsquo;s jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters,
+the two upper ones being called the &ldquo;high lines,&rdquo; and the two
+lower ones the &ldquo;low lines.&rdquo; Thus a thrust directed at the upper
+part of the breast is called an attack in the high lines. In like
+manner the parries are named from the different quarters they
+are designed to protect. There are four traditional parries
+executed with the hand in supination, and four others, practically
+identical in execution, made with the hand held in pronation.
+Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of the
+jacket are &ldquo;sixte&rdquo; (sixth; with the hand in supination) and
+&ldquo;tierce&rdquo; (third; hand in pronation). Those defending the
+upper left-hand quarter are &ldquo;quarte&rdquo; (fourth; in supination)
+and &ldquo;quinte&rdquo; (fifth; in pronation). Those defending the lower
+right-hand quarter are &ldquo;octave&rdquo; (eighth; in supination) and
+&ldquo;seconde&rdquo; (second; in pronation). Those defending the lower
+left-hand quarter are &ldquo;septime&rdquo; (seventh; in supination),
+more generally called &ldquo;demicircle,&rdquo; or &ldquo;half-circle&rdquo;; and
+&ldquo;prime&rdquo; (first; in pronation).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Parries.</i>&mdash;The tendency of the French school has always
+been towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present
+day the parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although
+recognized and taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong
+adversary in foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in
+turning the hand. The theory of parrying is to turn aside the
+opponent&rsquo;s foil with the least possible expenditure of time and
+exertion, using the arm as little as possible while letting the hand
+and wrist do the work, and opposing the &ldquo;forte&rdquo; of the foil
+to the &ldquo;foible&rdquo; of the adversary&rsquo;s. The foil is kept pointed
+as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the parries are
+made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. The
+slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent&rsquo;s blade is
+the most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, &ldquo;simple,&rdquo;
+in which the attack is warded off by a single movement, and
+&ldquo;counter,&rdquo; in which a narrow circle is described by the point of
+the foil round that of the opponent, which is thus enveloped and
+thrown aside. There are also complex parries, composed of
+combinations of two or more parries, which are used to meet
+complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into simple
+parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simple Parries.</i>&mdash;The origin of the numerical nomenclature of
+the parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that
+they received their names from the positions assumed in the process
+of drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position
+of the hand and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard
+on the left side, is practically that of the first, or &ldquo;prime,&rdquo; parry.
+To go from &ldquo;prime&rdquo; to &ldquo;seconde&rdquo; it is only necessary to drop
+the hand and carry it across the body to the left side; thence
+to &ldquo;tierce&rdquo; is only a matter of raising the point of the sword, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Prime</i> (to ward off attacks on the&mdash;usually lower&mdash;left-hand
+side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite
+the left eye and the point directed towards the opponent&rsquo;s knee.
+This parry is now regarded more as an elegant evolution than a
+sound means of defence, and is little employed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Seconde</i> (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side).
+This is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand
+downwards and slightly to the right, knuckles up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Tierce</i> (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side).
+A quick, dry beat on the adversary&rsquo;s &ldquo;foible&rdquo; is given, forcing
+it to the right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the
+middle of the right breast. This parry has been practically
+discarded in favour of &ldquo;sixte.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Quarte</i> (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side).
+This parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing
+the adversary&rsquo;s blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in
+supination, opposite the left breast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Quinte</i> (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like
+&ldquo;quarte&rdquo;). This is practically a low &ldquo;quarte,&rdquo; and is little
+used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Sixte</i> (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side).
+This parry is, together with &ldquo;quarte,&rdquo; the most important of all.
+It is executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right
+breast, a quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary&rsquo;s
+blade to the right.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Septime or Half-Circle</i> (against thrusts at the lower
+left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the
+foil a small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand
+moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parry of Octave</i> (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side)
+is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle
+downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few
+inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Counter Parries</i> (Fr. <i>contre</i>).&mdash;Although the simple parries
+are theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived
+by feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in
+which the blade describes narrow circles, following that of the
+adversary and meeting and turning it aside; thus the point
+describes a complete circle while the hand remains practically
+stationary. Each simple parry has its counter, made with the
+hand in the same position and on the same side as in the simple
+parry. The two most important are the &ldquo;counter of quarte&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;counter of sixte,&rdquo; while the counters of &ldquo;septime&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;octave&rdquo; are less used, and the other four at the present
+time practically never.</p>
+
+<p><i>Counter of Quarte.</i>&mdash;Being on guard in quarte (with your
+adversary&rsquo;s blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under
+and thrusts in sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe
+a narrow circle with your point round his blade, downward to the
+right and then up over to the left, bringing hand and foil back to
+their previous positions and catching and turning aside his blade
+on the way. The &ldquo;Counter of Sixte&rdquo; is executed in a similar
+manner, but the circle is described in the opposite direction,
+throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The &ldquo;Counters of
+Septime and Octave&rdquo; are similar to the other two but are
+executed in the low lines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Complex or Combined Parries</i> are such as are composed of two
+or more parries executed in immediate succession, and are made
+in answer to feint attacks by the adversary (see below); <i>e.g.</i>
+being on guard in quarte, should the adversary drop his point
+under and feint at the right breast but deflect the point again
+and really thrust on the left, it is evident that the simple parry
+of sixte would cover the right breast but would leave the real
+point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The sixte parry
+is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by the
+parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are
+numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.</p>
+
+<p><i>Engagement</i> is the junction of the blades, the different engagements
+being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in
+the position of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte.
+To engage in another line (Change of Engagement) <i>e.g.</i> from
+quarte to sixte, the point is lowered and passed under the
+adversary&rsquo;s blade, which is pressed slightly outward, so as to be
+well covered (called &ldquo;opposition&rdquo;). &ldquo;Double Engagement&rdquo;
+is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in succession
+in the high lines, the last with opposition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attack.</i>&mdash;The attack in fencing comprises all movements the
+object of which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary&rsquo;s
+breast, body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space
+upon which hits count is called the &ldquo;target&rdquo; and differs according
+to the rules prevailing in the several countries, but is usually
+as above stated. In Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones
+count, while in America the target is only the left breast between
+the median line and a line running from the armpit to the belt.
+The reason for this limitation is to encourage accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Attacks are either &ldquo;primary&rdquo; or &ldquo;secondary.&rdquo; <i>Primary
+Attacks</i> are those initiated by a fencer before his adversary has
+made any offensive movement, and are divided into &ldquo;Simple,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Feint&rdquo; and &ldquo;Force&rdquo; attacks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simple Attacks</i>, the characteristic of which is pace, are those
+made with one simple movement only and are four in number,
+viz. the &ldquo;Straight Lunge,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Disengagement,&rdquo; the
+&ldquo;Counter-disengagement&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Cut-over.&rdquo; The Straight-Lunge
+(<i>coup droit</i>), used when the adversary is not properly
+covered when on guard, is described above under &ldquo;Lunge.&rdquo;
+The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil
+under the opponent&rsquo;s blade and executing a straight lunge on the
+other side. It is often used to take an opponent unawares or
+when he presses unduly hard on your blade. The Counter-disengagement
+is used when the adversary moves his blade, <i>i.e.</i>
+changes the line of engagement, upon which you execute a narrow
+circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original line. The
+Cut-over (<i>coupé</i>) is a disengagement executed by passing the
+point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the
+opposite line. The preliminary movement of raising the point
+is made by the action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn
+back.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feint Attacks</i>, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded
+by one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the
+adversary into thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple
+extension, often with a slight movement of the body, threatening
+the adversary in a certain line, for the purpose of inducing him
+to parry on that side and thus leave the other open for the real
+thrust. At the same time any movement of the blade or any
+part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in regard to the
+nature of the attack about to follow, must also be considered a
+species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the &ldquo;One-Two,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;One-Two-Three&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Double.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;One-Two&rdquo; is a feint in one line, followed (as the
+adversary parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement.
+Thus, being engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the
+adversary&rsquo;s blade and extend your arm as if to thrust at his left
+breast, but instead of doing this, the instant he parries you
+move your point back again and lunge in quarte, <i>i.e.</i> on the
+side on which you were originally engaged. In feinting it is
+necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so
+complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a
+part of a real thrust in that line.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;One-Two-Three&rdquo; consists of two feints, one at each
+side, followed by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the
+original engagement. Thrusts preceded by three feints are also
+sometimes used. It is evident that the above attacks are useless
+if the adversary parries by a counter (circular parry), which must
+be met by a &ldquo;Double.&rdquo; This is executed by feinting and, upon
+perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular parry, by
+following the circle described by his point with a similar circle,
+deceiving (<i>i.e.</i> avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting
+home.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Double,&rdquo; which is a favourite man&oelig;uvre in fencing, is
+a combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Force-Attacks</i>, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent
+by assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones
+being the &ldquo;Beat,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Press,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Glide&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Bind.&rdquo;
+The &ldquo;Beat&rdquo; is a quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon
+the foible of the adversary&rsquo;s, for the purpose of opening a way
+for a straight lunge which follows instantly. The blow is made
+with the hand only. A &ldquo;false beat&rdquo; is a lighter blow made for
+the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting the opponent, and is
+often followed by a disengagement. The &ldquo;Press&rdquo; is similar in
+character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse blade,
+a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy
+to force it aside and allow one&rsquo;s own blade to be thrust home. A
+&ldquo;false press&rdquo; may be used to entice the adversary into a too
+heavy responsive pressure, which may then be taken advantage
+of by a disengagement. The &ldquo;Traverse&rdquo; (Fr. <i>froissé</i>, Ital.
+<i>striscio</i>) is a prolonged press carried sharply down the adverse
+blade towards the handle. The &ldquo;Glide&rdquo; (&ldquo;Graze,&rdquo; Fr. <i>coulé</i>)
+is a stealthy sliding of one&rsquo;s blade down that of the adversary,
+without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made inside
+his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The
+&ldquo;Bind&rdquo; (<i>liement</i>) consists in gaining possession of the adversary&rsquo;s
+foible with one&rsquo;s forte, and pressing it down and across
+into the opposite low line, when one&rsquo;s own point is thrust home,
+the adversary&rsquo;s blade being still held by one&rsquo;s hilt. It may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+also carried out from a low line into a high one. The bind is
+less used in the French school than in the Italian. The &ldquo;Flanconnade&rdquo;
+is a bind made by capturing the adversary&rsquo;s blade
+in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the outside
+line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by
+means of a twist and thrust is the &ldquo;Cross&rdquo; (<i>croisé</i>), which is
+executed when the adversary&rsquo;s blade is held low by passing one&rsquo;s
+point over his wrist and forcing down both blades into seconde
+with a full extension of the arm. The result is to create a sudden
+and wide opening, and often disarms the adversary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary Attacks</i> are those made (1) just as your adversary
+himself starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the
+completion of his attack if it fails.</p>
+
+<p>1. &ldquo;Attacks on the Preparation&rdquo; are a matter of judgment
+and quickness. They are usually attempted when the adversary
+is evidently preparing a complicated attack, such as the &ldquo;one-two-three&rdquo;
+or some other man&oelig;uvre, involving one or more
+preliminary movements. At such a time a quick thrust will
+often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for preparation
+attacks are often given when the adversary attempts
+a beat preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an
+&ldquo;absence of the blade,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> your blade is made to avoid
+contact with his by a narrow movement, and your point
+thrust home into the space left unguarded by the force of
+his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an
+&ldquo;absence&rdquo; by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades,
+in the hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will
+fly off to one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared
+for his &ldquo;absence&rdquo; a straight thrust will score.</p>
+
+<p>2. The chief &ldquo;Attacks on the Development,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Counter
+Attacks,&rdquo; are the &ldquo;Stop Thrust&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Time Thrust,&rdquo;
+both made while the adversary is carrying out his own attack.
+The &ldquo;Stop Thrust&rdquo; (<i>coup d&rsquo;arrêt</i>) is one made after the adversary
+has actually begun an attack involving two or more movements,
+and is only justified when it can be brought off without
+your being hit by the attacking adversary&rsquo;s point on any part of
+the person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree
+that the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this
+and attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his
+opponent while totally avoiding the latter&rsquo;s point. Should he,
+however, be touched, even on the foot or mask, by the adversary,
+his touch, however good, is invalid. If both touches are good,
+that of the original attacker only counts. Stop thrusts are
+employed mostly against fencers who attack wildly or without
+being properly covered. The &ldquo;Time Thrust&rdquo; is delivered with
+opposition upon the adversary&rsquo;s composite attack (one involving
+several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the
+original attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer
+employing it is touched on any part of the person.</p>
+
+<p>3. &ldquo;Attacks on the Completion&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> of the adversary&rsquo;s
+attack) are &ldquo;Ripostes,&rdquo; &ldquo;Counter-ripostes,&rdquo; &ldquo;Remises&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Renewals of Attack.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Riposte</i> (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately
+after parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm,
+the body remaining immovable. The &ldquo;counter-riposte&rdquo; is a
+riposte made after parrying the adversary&rsquo;s riposte, and generally
+from the position of the lunge, or while recovering from it,
+since one must have attacked with a full lunge if the adversary
+has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. There are three
+kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a pause.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;direct <i>riposte</i>&rdquo; may be made instantly after parrying
+the adversary&rsquo;s thrust by quitting his blade and straightening
+the arm, so that the point will touch his body on the nearest
+and most exposed part; or by not quitting his blade but running
+yours quickly down his and at the same time keeping a strong
+opposition (&ldquo;riposte d&rsquo;opposition&rdquo;). The quickest direct riposte
+is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a right-hand fencer),
+and is called by the French the riposte of &ldquo;<i>tac-au-tac</i>,&rdquo; imitative
+of the sudden succession of the click of the parry and the tap of
+the riposting fencer&rsquo;s point on his adversary&rsquo;s breast. In making
+&ldquo;ripostes with a feint&rdquo; the point is not jabbed on to the opponent&rsquo;s
+breast immediately after the parry, but one or more
+preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a
+disengagement, a cut-over or a double.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ripostes</i> with a pause (<i>à temps perdu</i>, with lost time) are made
+after a second&rsquo;s hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers
+are too near for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the
+adversary time to make a quick parry, which is then deceived.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>remise</i> is a thrust made after one&rsquo;s first thrust has been
+parried and in the same line; it must be made in such a way
+that the adversary&rsquo;s justified riposte is at the same time parried
+by opposition or completely avoided. It is really a renewal of
+the attack in the original line, while the so-called &ldquo;renewal of
+attack&rdquo; (&ldquo;<i>redoublement d&rsquo;attaque</i>&rdquo;) is a second thrust which
+ignores the adversary&rsquo;s riposte, but made in a different line.
+Both the remise and the renewal are valid only when the
+adversary&rsquo;s riposte does not hit.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;False Attacks&rdquo; are broad movements made for the purpose
+of drawing the adversary out or of disconcerting him. They
+may consist of an advance, an extension, a change of engagement,
+an intentional uncovering by taking a wide guard (called
+&ldquo;invitation guard&rdquo;), or any movement or combination of
+movements tending to make the adversary believe that a real
+attack is under way.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Assault&rdquo; is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in
+public, while formal fencing in private is called &ldquo;loose play&rdquo;
+or a &ldquo;friendly bout.&rdquo; Bouts between fencers take place on a
+platform about 24 ft. long and 6 ft. wide (in the United States
+20 × 3 ft.). Formal bouts are usually for a number of touches,
+or for a certain number of minutes, the fencer who touches
+oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) are sometimes
+empowered to score one or more points against a competitor
+for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space
+limits. In the United States bouts are for four minutes, with
+a change of places after two minutes, and the competitors are
+not interrupted, the winner being indicated by a vote of the
+judges, who take into account touches and style. In all countries
+contestants are required to wear jackets of a light colour, so
+that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of all
+touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered
+to be a fencer&rsquo;s duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great
+Britain under the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association,
+and in the United States under those of the Amateur Fencers&rsquo;
+League of America.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Fencing Terms</i> (not mentioned above): &ldquo;<i>Cavazione</i>,&rdquo; Ital. for
+disengagement. &ldquo;Contraction, Parries of,&rdquo; those which do not parry
+in the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another
+line, <i>e.g.</i> to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte. &ldquo;<i>Controtempo</i>,&rdquo;
+Ital. for time-thrust. &ldquo;Coronation,&rdquo; an attack preceded
+by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and vice
+versa) made famous by Lafaugère. &ldquo;<i>Corps-à-corps</i>&rdquo; (body to
+body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters
+that their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again
+come on guard. &ldquo;<i>Coulé</i>,&rdquo; Fr. for glide. &ldquo;Disarm,&rdquo; to knock the
+foil out of the adversary&rsquo;s hand; it is of no value in the French
+school. &ldquo;Double Hit,&rdquo; when both fencers attack and hit at the
+same time; neither hit counts. &ldquo;<i>Filo</i>,&rdquo; Ital. for glide (graze).
+&ldquo;Flying Cut-over,&rdquo; a cut-over executed as a continuation of a
+parry, the hand being drawn back towards the body. &ldquo;<i>Incontro</i>,&rdquo;
+Ital. for double attack. &ldquo;Give the blade,&rdquo; to allow the adversary
+easy contact with the foil; it is often resorted to in order to tempt
+the adversary into a beat or bind. &ldquo;Menace,&rdquo; to threaten the
+adversary by an extension and forward movement of the trunk.
+&ldquo;<i>Mur</i>,&rdquo; see &ldquo;Salute.&rdquo; &ldquo;Passage of arms,&rdquo; a series of attacks and
+parries, ending in a successful hit. &ldquo;Phrase of arms,&rdquo; a series of
+attacks and parries ending in a hit or invalidation. &ldquo;Invalidation,&rdquo;
+a hit on some part of the person outside the target, made by the fencer
+whose right it is at that moment to attack or riposte; such a hit
+invalidates one made simultaneously or subsequently by his opponent,
+however good. &ldquo;Rebeat,&rdquo; two beats, executed as quickly as possible
+together, one on each side of the adversary&rsquo;s blade. &ldquo;<i>Reprises
+d&rsquo;attaque</i>,&rdquo; Fr. for renewed attacks. &ldquo;Salute,&rdquo; the courteous
+salutation of the public and the adversary before and after a bout.
+A more elaborate salute, called by the French the <i>Mur</i>, consists of
+a series of parries, lunges and other evolutions carried out by both
+fencers at the same time. Important exhibition assaults are usually
+preceded by the <i>Mur</i>, which is called in English the Grand Salute.
+&ldquo;<i>Septime enveloppée</i>,&rdquo; a riposte by means of a twist and thrust after
+a parry in septime. It envelops and masters the adverse blade,
+whence the name. &ldquo;Secret thrusts,&rdquo; the French &ldquo;<i>bottes secrètes</i>,&rdquo;
+pretended infallible attacks of which the user is supposed alone to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+know the method of execution; they have no real existence.
+&ldquo;<i>Sforza,</i>&rdquo; Ital. for disarmament. &ldquo;<i>Scandaglio,</i>&rdquo; Ital for examination,
+studying the form of an opponent at the beginning of a bout.
+&ldquo;<i>Toccato!</i>&rdquo; Ital. for &ldquo;Touched!&rdquo;,. Fr. &ldquo;<i>Touché.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The literature of foil-fencing is practically
+identical with that of the art in general (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fencing</a></span>). The following
+modern works are among the best. French School: <i>Fencing</i>,
+in the Badminton library (1897); <i>Foil and Sabre</i>, by L. Rondelle
+(Boston, 1892); &ldquo;Fencing,&rdquo; by C. Prevost in the <i>Encyclopaedia
+of Sport</i> (1901); <i>Fencing</i>, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906).
+Italian school: <i>Istruzione per la scherma, &amp;c.</i>, by S. de Frae
+(Milan, 1885); <i>La Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola</i>, by F.
+Masiello (Florence, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOIX, PAUL DE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist.
+He studied Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence
+at Toulouse, where shortly after finishing his curriculum
+he delivered a course of lectures on civil law, which gained
+him great reputation. At the age of nineteen he was named
+councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in this capacity
+expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild measures
+in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was
+arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained
+the favour of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent
+ambassador to England, where he remained four years. He was
+then sent to Venice, and returned a short time afterwards to
+England to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and
+the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled several important missions
+during the reign of Henry III. of France. In 1577 he was made
+archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed ambassador
+to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et
+ambassadeur pour le roy auprès du pape Grégoire XIII, au roi
+Henry III</i>, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to
+their authenticity. See <i>Gallia Christiana</i> (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret,
+<i>Oraison funèbre de Paul de Foix</i> (Paris, 1584); &ldquo;Lettres de Catherine
+de Médicis,&rdquo; edited by Hector de la Ferrière (Paris, 1880 seq.) in
+the <i>Collection de documents inédits sur l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOIX<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages
+capital of the counts of Foix, and now capital of the department
+of Ariège, 51 m. S. of Toulouse, on the Southern railway from
+that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is
+situated between the Ariège and the Arget at their confluence.
+The old part of the town, with its ill-paved winding streets and
+old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated rock crowned
+by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th centuries),
+while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de
+Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic
+building of the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture,
+a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycée,
+training colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
+Bank of France. Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on.
+Foix probably owes its origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne.
+This afterwards became an abbey, in which were laid
+the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of Tours in the 5th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the
+modern department of Ariège, a region watered chiefly by the
+Ariège and its affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted
+of an agglomeration of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though
+subordinate to the counts of Foix, had some voice in the government
+of the district. Protestantism obtained an early entrance
+into the county, and the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th
+centuries were carried on with much implacability therein. The
+estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th
+century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable
+power and virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed
+one of the thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was
+incorporated in the department of Ariège.</p>
+
+<p><i>Counts of Foix.</i>&mdash;The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished
+French family which flourished from the 11th to the
+15th century. They were at first feudatories of the counts of
+Toulouse, but chafing under this yoke they soon succeeded in
+throwing it off, and during the 13th and 14th centuries were
+among the most powerful of the French feudal nobles. Living
+on the borders of France, having constant intercourse with
+Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they
+were in a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of
+independence, and acted rather as the equals than as the
+dependents of the kings of France.</p>
+
+<p>The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of
+Bernard Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of
+Carcassonne (d. 1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and
+the adjoining lands, which had hitherto formed part of the county
+of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, Roger was succeeded by his
+brother Peter, who died six years later, and was succeeded in
+turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the crusade
+of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II.
+for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased
+the anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died
+in 1125 he was succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of
+Roger III. about 1149, and of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188,
+brought the county to Roger Bernard&rsquo;s only son, Raymond
+Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French king, Philip
+Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the capture
+of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the Albigenses,
+and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to
+Simon IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to
+terms with the church and recovered his estates before his death
+in 1223, was a patron of the Provençal poets, and counted
+himself among their number. He was succeeded by his son,
+Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted Raymond VII.,
+count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance to the
+French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated
+on two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who
+followed, died in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger
+Bernard III., who, more famous as a poet than as a warrior,
+was taken prisoner both by Philip III. of France and by Peter
+III. of Aragon. This count married Marguerite, daughter and
+heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Béarn (d. 1290), and this union
+led to the outbreak of a long feud between the houses of Foix
+and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger
+Bernard&rsquo;s son and successor, Gaston I., who became count
+in 1302, inheriting both Foix and Béarn. Becoming embroiled
+with the French king, Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle
+with the count of Armagnac, Gaston was imprisoned in Paris;
+but quickly regaining his freedom he accompanied King Louis X.
+on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and died on his return
+to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston II., was
+the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of
+Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and
+Spain, dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his
+son, Gaston III. (1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed
+Phoebus on account of his beauty, was the most famous member
+of the old Foix family. Like his father he assisted France in her
+struggle against England, being entrusted with the defence of
+the frontiers of Gascony; but when the French king, John II.,
+showed a marked preference for the count of Armagnac, Gaston
+left his service and went to fight against the heathen in Prussia.
+Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble ladies
+from the attacks of the adherents of the <i>Jacquerie</i> at Meaux, and
+was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle
+he also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in
+Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI.
+he made peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued
+to fight against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362,
+was defeated and compelled to pay a ransom; and this war
+lasted until 1377, when peace was made. Early in 1380 the
+count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when Charles
+VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this
+appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the
+royal command, and supported by the communes of Languedoc,
+Gaston fought for about two years against John, duke of Berry,
+who had been chosen as his successor, until, worsted in the
+combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to his estates,
+remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had
+married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343),
+by his wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+divorced in 1373, he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have
+been incited by his uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison
+his father, and who met his death in 1381. It is probable, as
+Froissart says, that he was killed by his father. Left without
+legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded to bequeath his
+lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and Béarn
+when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond
+of hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature.
+Several beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed
+by his orders, and he himself wrote <i>Déduits de la chasse
+des bestes sauvaiges et des oiseaulx de proye</i>. Froissart, who gives
+a graphic description of his court and his manner of life, speaks
+enthusiastically of Gaston, saying: &ldquo;I never saw none like him
+of personage, nor of so fair form, nor so well made,&rdquo; and again,
+&ldquo;in everything he was so perfect that he cannot be praised too
+much.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Almost immediately after Gaston&rsquo;s death King Charles VI.
+granted the county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon,
+a descendant of Count Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398,
+Matthew&rsquo;s lands were seized by Archambault, count of Grailly
+and captal de Buch, the husband of his sister Isabella (d. 1426),
+who became count of Foix in 1401. Archambault&rsquo;s eldest son,
+John (<i>c.</i> 1382-1436), who succeeded to his father&rsquo;s lands and
+titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter of Charles
+III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
+Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the
+royal representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between
+Foix and Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle
+between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, he intrigued
+with both parties, and consequently was distrusted by the
+dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the cause of
+France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
+when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
+allegiance and became the king&rsquo;s representative in Languedoc
+and Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding
+bands which were devastating France; fought for Aragon
+against Castile; and aided his brother, the cardinal of Foix, to
+crush some insurgents in Aragon. Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464),
+was the fifth son of Archambault of Grailly, and was made
+archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent part in the
+struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
+the Collège de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John&rsquo;s
+son, Gaston IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of
+John, king of Aragon and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty
+of Narbonne, and having assisted King Charles VII. in
+Guienne, he was made a peer of France in 1458. In 1455 his
+father-in-law designated him as his successor in Navarre, and
+Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
+Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and
+Guienne; but these marks of favour did not prevent him
+from joining a league against Louis in 1471. His eldest son,
+Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of
+France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. died two years later,
+his lands descended to his grandson, Francis Phoebus (d. 1483),
+who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded by his
+sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d&rsquo;Albret (d. 1516).
+Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret
+and subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of
+Navarre became king of France in 1589 the lands of the counts
+of Foix-Grailly became part of the French royal domain. A
+younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. 1500), who
+received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and married
+Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
+terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death
+of his nephew Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom
+of Navarre against Jean d&rsquo;Albret and his wife, Catherine de
+Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted until 1497, when John
+renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix (1489-1512),
+the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
+who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain.
+In 1507 Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with
+King Louis XII. for the duchy of Nemours, and as duke of
+Nemours he took command of the French troops in Italy.
+Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston encountered
+the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
+after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit.
+From the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also
+sprung the viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of
+Bénanges and Candale, and of Gurson and Fleix.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D.J. Vaissète, <i>Histoire générale de Languedoc</i>, tome iv. (Paris,
+1876); L. Flourac, <i>Jean I<span class="sp">er</span>, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de
+Béarn</i> (Paris, 1884); Le Père Anselme, <i>Histoire généalogique</i>, tome
+iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, <i>Histoire du comte de Foix</i> (Toulouse,
+1852); Madaune, <i>Gaston Ph&oelig;bus, comte de Foix et souverain de
+Béarn</i> (Pau, 1865); and Froissart&rsquo;s <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S. Luce
+and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> <span class="sc">Chevalier de</span> (1669-1752),
+French soldier and military author, was born at Avignon on the
+13th of February 1669. His military ardour was first awakened
+by reading Caesar&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, and he ran away from home
+and joined the army. He soon saw active service, and, young
+as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the manuscript
+of which passed with Folard&rsquo;s other papers to Marshal Belleisle
+on the author&rsquo;s death. In 1702 he became a captain, and aide-de-camp
+to the duke of Vendôme, then in command of the French
+forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendôme&rsquo;s brother,
+the Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant
+feat of arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at
+the battle of Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was
+during his tedious recovery from his wounds that he conceived
+the tactical theories to the elucidation of which he devoted most
+of his life. In 1706 he again rendered good service in Italy, and
+in 1708 distinguished himself greatly in the operations attempted
+by Vendôme and the duke of Burgundy for the relief of Lille,
+the failure of which was due in part to the disagreement of the
+French commanders; and it is no small testimony to the ability
+and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
+Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his
+services were rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg.
+He saw further active service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles
+XII. of Sweden in the north, and under the duke of Berwick in
+the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. he regarded as the
+first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm that Folard
+began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on Polybius.
+On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his
+papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh,
+and in 1724 appeared his <i>Nouvelles Découvertes sur la guerre dans
+une dissertation de Polybe</i>, followed (1727-1730) by <i>Histoire de
+Polybe traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ...
+de M. de Folard, Chevalier de l&rsquo;Ordre de St Louis</i>. Folard spent
+the remainder of his life in answering the criticisms provoked
+by the novelty of his theories. He died friendless and in obscurity
+at Avignon in 1752.</p>
+
+<p>An analysis of Folard&rsquo;s military writings brings to light not
+a connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of
+independent ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far
+more often extravagant. The central point of his tactics was
+his proposed column formation for infantry. Struck by the
+apparent weakness of the thin line of battle of the time, and
+arguing from the <span class="grk" title="embolon">&#7956;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span> or <i>cuneus</i> of ancient warfare, he desired
+to substitute the shock of a deep mass of troops for former
+methods of attack, and further considered that in defence a solid
+column gave an unshakable stability to the line of battle.
+Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst
+some famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido
+Starhemberg, approved it and put it in practice, the weight of
+military opinion throughout Europe was opposed to it, and
+eventually history justified this opposition. Amongst the most
+discriminating of his critics was Frederick the Great, who is
+said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian king
+certainly caused a <i>précis</i> to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
+wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like
+others by Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its
+publication (Paris, 1760) under the title <i>Esprit du Chev. Folard</i>,
+created a great impression. &ldquo;Thus kept within bounds,&rdquo; said
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+the prince de Ligne, &ldquo;Folard was the best author of the time.&rdquo;
+Frederick himself said tersely that &ldquo;Folard had buried diamonds
+in a rubbish-heap.&rdquo; Thus began the controversy between line
+and column formations, which long continued and influenced
+the development of tactics up to the most modern times. Folard&rsquo;s
+principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy
+and Menil Durand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard</i>
+(Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard&rsquo;s
+works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jähns, <i>Geschichte
+der Kriegswissenschaften</i>, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
+1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any
+surface, whence its particular application in geology with which
+this article deals. The verb &ldquo;to fold&rdquo; (O. Eng. <i>fealdan</i>) meant
+originally to double back a piece of cloth or other material so as
+to form a pleat, whence has evolved its various senses of to roll
+up, to enclose, enfold or embrace as with the arms, to clasp the
+hands or arms together, &amp;c. The word is common to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>falten</i>, Dutch <i>vouwen</i> (for <i>vouden</i>), &amp;c., and the
+ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. <span class="grk" title="plekein">&#960;&#955;&#941;&#954;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, Lat.
+<i>plicare</i>, <i>plectere</i>, to plait, pleat, weave, and in the suffixes of such
+words as <span class="grk" title="diplasios">&#948;&#953;&#960;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>duplex</i>, double, <i>simplex</i>, &amp;c. Similarly the
+termination &ldquo;-fold&rdquo; is added to numbers implying &ldquo;so many,&rdquo;
+<i>e.g.</i> twofold, hundredfold, cf. &ldquo;manifold.&rdquo; The similar word
+for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for sheep, and
+hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of worshippers,
+or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ&rsquo;s flock,
+must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is <i>falæd</i>, and cognate forms
+are found in Dutch <i>vaalt</i>, &amp;c. It apparently meant a planked or
+boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. <i>fjael</i>, Swed. <i>fjöl</i>, plank.</p>
+
+<p>In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified
+rocks of the earth&rsquo;s crust, whereby they have been made
+to take up less horizontal space. The French equivalents are
+<i>pli</i>, <i>plissement</i>, <i>ridement</i>; in Germany, <i>Falte</i>, <i>Faltung</i>, <i>Sattelung</i>
+are the terms usually employed. It is comparatively rarely that
+bedded rocks are observed in the position in which they were
+first deposited, a certain amount of buckling up or sagging down
+of the crust being continually in progress in one region or another.
+In every instance therefore where, in walking over the surface,
+we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and without dislocations,
+increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part of a
+great curvature in the strata of the earth&rsquo;s crust.</p>
+
+<p>Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on
+some cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
+mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his
+researches in the field without discovering that the rocks of the
+earth&rsquo;s crust have been almost everywhere thrown into curves,
+usually so broad and gentle as to escape observation except
+when specially looked for. The outcrop of beds at the surface
+is commonly the truncation of these curves. The strata must
+once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
+may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip,
+the intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:73px" src="images/img587a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Section of the Isle of Wight&mdash;a Monoclinal Curve, <i>a</i>,
+Chalk; <i>b</i>, Woolwich and Reading beds; <i>c</i>, London clay; <i>d</i>, Bagshot
+series; <i>e</i>, Headon series; <i>f, g</i>, Osborne and Bembridge series.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or
+gently inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and
+then an immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping
+character. The strata are thus bent up and continue on the other
+side of the tilt at a higher level. Such bends are called <i>monoclines</i>,
+<i>monoclinal folds</i> or <i>flexures</i>, because they present only one
+fold, or one half of a fold, instead of the two which we see in an
+arch or trough. The most notable instance of this structure in
+Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of which a section is given in
+fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south side of the island
+rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly vertical.
+The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, but
+rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable
+cases of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W.
+Powell in his survey of the Colorado region.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:341px" src="images/img587b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It much more frequently happens that the strata have been
+bent into arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping
+under the surface on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up
+again on the other side. Where they dip away from the axis of
+movement the structure is termed an <i>anticline</i> or <i>anticlinal fold</i>;
+where they dip towards the axis, it is a <i>syncline</i> or <i>synclinal fold</i>.
+The diagram in fig. 2 may be taken to represent a series of strata
+(1-17) thrown into an anticline (AA&prime;) and syncline (BB&prime;). A
+section drawn across these folds in the line CD would show
+the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the part of the
+anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 forms the
+crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
+On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
+succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under
+the next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the
+centre of a trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on
+the east side the same beds rise to the surface which passed
+beneath it on the west side. The particular bed marked EF has
+been entirely removed by denudation from the top of the anticline,
+and is buried deep beneath the centre of the syncline.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:181px" src="images/img587c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the line CD
+(fig. 2).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are
+abruptly terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig.
+2, both the arch and trough are represented as diminishing, the
+former towards the north, the latter towards the south. The
+observer in passing northwards along the axis of that anticline
+finds himself getting into progressively higher strata as the fold
+sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing southwards along
+the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and gets into
+lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this way
+it is said to &ldquo;nose out.&rdquo; In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
+inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward
+dip from the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline.
+Hence the anticline noses out to the north and the syncline to
+the south.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:282px; height:124px" src="images/img598a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Simple Folds.</i>&mdash;In describing rock-folds special terms have
+been assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+sides of an anticline or syncline are known as the &ldquo;limbs,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;slopes,&rdquo; &ldquo;flanks&rdquo; or &ldquo;members&rdquo; of the fold; in an anticline,
+the part X, fig. 3, the angle of the bend, is the &ldquo;crest&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;crown&rdquo; (Ger. <i>Gewölbebiegung</i>, Fr. <i>charnière anticlinale</i>), the
+corresponding part of a syncline being the &ldquo;trough-core&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;base,&rdquo; Y, fig. 3 (Ger. <i>Muldenbiegung</i>, Fr. <i>charnière synclinale</i>).
+The portion of an anticline which has been removed by denudation
+is the &ldquo;aerial arch,&rdquo; dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata
+in a fold constitute the &ldquo;core,&rdquo; arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core
+B, in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending
+of the strata has taken place about an &ldquo;axial plane&rdquo; (often
+called the &ldquo;axis&rdquo;), which in the examples illustrated in fig. 3
+would pass through the points A and B, perpendicularly to the
+horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded regions the axial
+planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be moderately
+inclined, producing an &ldquo;inversion,&rdquo; &ldquo;inverted fold&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;overfold.&rdquo; When the inclination of the axial plane is great a
+&ldquo;recumbent overfold&rdquo; is produced (Fr. <i>pli couché</i>, Ger, <i>liegende
+Falte</i>). In a fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an &ldquo;arch limb&rdquo;
+(<i>a</i>), a middle limb (<i>b</i>) and a
+floor or &ldquo;trough limb&rdquo; (<i>c</i>).
+X and Y are the upper and
+lower bends respectively.
+One of the important functions
+of a fold is its direction;
+this of course depends
+upon the orientation of the
+axial plane. The crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of
+a syncline is rarely horizontal for any great distance; its
+departure from horizontality is designated the &ldquo;pitch,&rdquo; and
+the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards the north, &amp;c. Most
+simple folds&mdash;with the exception of very shallow curvatures
+of wide area,&mdash;when considered in their entirety, are seen to be
+somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations
+of the simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs,
+(1) the limbs may tend to diverge as they recede from the
+crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled an &ldquo;open anticline&rdquo;; (2) the
+limbs may be parallel in &ldquo;closed&rdquo; folds (commonly known as
+isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open angle or
+widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a fan-shaped
+fold (Fr. <i>pli en éventail</i>, Ger. <i>Fächerfalte</i>); another
+variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. <i>pli en champignon</i>).
+The axial plane is not always extended: it may be
+so abbreviated that the folding appears to have taken place
+about a point; anticlines of this type are variously designated
+&ldquo;short-anticlines,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>brachyanticlinaux</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;domes&rdquo;; similarly,
+there are &ldquo;short-synclines,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>brachysynclinaux</i>&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;cuvettes.&rdquo; The dip in cases of this kind has been described as
+&ldquo;qua-qua versal&rdquo; or &ldquo;periclinal.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Complex Folding.</i>&mdash;Sometimes a simple fold has been itself
+subjected to further folding repeated more than once, it is then
+termed a &ldquo;refolded fold&rdquo; (Fr. <i>pli replié</i>); fine examples may be
+observed in the Alps and in other mountain chains. A great
+regional major fold containing within itself a number of minor
+&ldquo;special&rdquo; or subsidiary folds is described as a &ldquo;geanticline&rdquo;
+(Fr. <i>structure en éventail composé</i>), or as a &ldquo;geosyncline&rdquo; (Fr.
+<i>structure en éventail renversé</i>). Even folds of lesser magnitude
+may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal movement,
+and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or higher
+order (Fr. <i>couches gaufrées</i> [fig. 5]). In its smaller manifestation,
+this class of folding passes into &ldquo;crumpling&rdquo; or &ldquo;puckering,&rdquo;
+where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a single
+hand specimen. In &ldquo;frilling&rdquo; or &ldquo;frilled structure&rdquo; the folds
+have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated
+rocks minute folds are observable with the microscope that do
+not appear to the unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal
+overfolds has passed into a series of thrusts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fault</a></span>),
+the so-called &ldquo;imbricated&rdquo; structure (Fr. <i>structure imbriquée</i>,
+Ger. <i>Schuppenstruktur</i>) is generated. Occasionally crust-blocks
+resembling &ldquo;graben&rdquo; and &ldquo;horsts&rdquo; are circumscribed by folds
+instead of faults; when this is so they have been called respectively
+&ldquo;infolded graben&rdquo; or &ldquo;overfolded horsts.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has
+always had a marked influence on the nature of the folding;
+some beds have yielded much more readily than others, certain
+beds will be found to be faulted, while those above and below
+have folded without fracture. In many examples of apparent
+plasticity it can be shown that this effect has been produced
+by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock
+substance.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:214px" src="images/img598b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of Kinsale.
+(Du Noyer.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The larger rock folds have produced important economic
+results. For example, in many coal regions the deposits have
+been conserved in some districts in the synclines or &ldquo;basins,&rdquo;
+while they have been removed by denudation from the uplifted
+anticlines in others. Near the crest of anticlines is commonly
+an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized districts; and,
+in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata determines the
+direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most convenient
+site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or &ldquo;dome,&rdquo;
+where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a
+subjacent saturated layer under pressure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement
+of the great folded regions of the earth&rsquo;s crust, see E. Suess,
+<i>Das Antlitz der Erde</i>, English translation. <i>The Face of the Earth</i>,
+vols. i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim,
+<i>Les Dislocations de l&rsquo;écorce terrestre</i> (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,
+<i>Geotektonische Probleme</i> (Stuttgart, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLENGO, TEOFILO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino
+Coccajo or Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets,
+was born of noble parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th
+of November 1491, From his infancy he showed great vivacity
+of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in making verses. At the
+age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte Casino near
+Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a professed
+member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a
+monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to
+have produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written,
+not unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516
+he forsook the monastic life for the society of a well-born young
+woman named Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about
+the country for several years, often suffering great poverty,
+having no other means of support than his talent for versification.
+His first publication was the <i>Merlini Cocaii macaronicon</i>, which
+relates the adventures of a fictitious hero named Baldus. The
+coarse buffoonery of this work is often relieved by touches of
+genuine poetry, as well as by graphic descriptions and acute
+criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic style is rendered
+peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent introduction
+of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though frequently
+censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression,
+it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very
+few years passed through several editions. Folengo&rsquo;s next
+production was the <i>Orlandino</i>, an Italian poem of eight cantos,
+written in rhymed octaves. It appeared in 1526, and bore on
+the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco (Merlin
+the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life
+of dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience;
+and shortly afterwards wrote his <i>Chaos del tri per uno</i>, in which,
+partly in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes
+in Italian, and sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account
+of the vicissitudes of the life he had lived under his various names,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+We next find him about the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves
+a life of Christ entitled <i>L&rsquo;Umanità del Figliuolo di Dio</i>; and he is
+known to have composed, still later, another religious poem upon
+the creation, fall and restoration of man, besides a few tragedies.
+These, however, have never been published. Some of his later
+years were spent in Sicily under the patronage of Don Fernando
+de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a short time to
+have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired to
+Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on
+the 9th of December 1544.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by
+Rabelais. The earlier editions of his <i>Opus macaronicum</i> are now
+extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the
+text as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLEY, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born
+at Dublin on the 24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to
+study drawing and modelling at the schools of the Royal Dublin
+Society, where he took several first-class prizes. In 1835 he was
+admitted a student in the schools of the Royal Academy, London.
+He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839 with his &ldquo;Death of
+Abel and Innocence.&rdquo; &ldquo;Ino and Bacchus,&rdquo; exhibited in 1840,
+gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards
+commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere.
+&ldquo;Lear and Cordelia&rdquo; and &ldquo;Death of Lear&rdquo; were
+exhibited in 1841. &ldquo;Venus rescuing Aeneas&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Houseless
+Wanderer&rdquo; in 1842, &ldquo;Prospero and Miranda&rdquo; in 1843. In
+1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
+&ldquo;Youth at a Stream,&rdquo; and was, with Calder Marshall and John
+Bell, chosen by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for
+the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. Statues of John
+Hampden and Selden were executed for this purpose, and received
+liberal praise for the propriety, dignity and proportion of their
+treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to come rapidly.
+Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
+statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him
+with a steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was
+made an associate and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy.
+Among his numerous works the following may be noticed,
+besides those mentioned above:&mdash;&ldquo;The Mother&rdquo;; &ldquo;Egeria,&rdquo;
+for the Mansion House; &ldquo;The Elder Brother in Comus,&rdquo; his
+diploma work; &ldquo;The Muse of Painting,&rdquo; the monument of
+James Ward, R.A.; &ldquo;Caractacus,&rdquo; for the Mansion House;
+&ldquo;Helen Faucit&rdquo;; &ldquo;Goldsmith&rdquo; and &ldquo;Burke,&rdquo; for Trinity
+College, Dublin; &ldquo;Faraday&rdquo;; &ldquo;Reynolds&rdquo;; &ldquo;Barry,&rdquo; for
+Westminster Palace Yard; &ldquo;John Stuart Mill,&rdquo; for the Thames
+embankment; &ldquo;O&rsquo;Connell&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cough,&rdquo; for Dublin;
+&ldquo;Clyde,&rdquo; for Glasgow; &ldquo;Clive,&rdquo; for Shrewsbury; &ldquo;Hardinge,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Canning&rdquo; and &ldquo;Outram,&rdquo; for Calcutta; &ldquo;Hon. James
+Stewart,&rdquo; for Ceylon; the symbolical group &ldquo;Asia,&rdquo; as well as
+the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in
+Hyde Park; and &ldquo;Stonewall Jackson,&rdquo; in Richmond, Va.
+The statue of Sir James Outram is probably his masterpiece.
+Foley&rsquo;s early fanciful works have some charming qualities; but
+he will probably always be best remembered for the workmanlike
+and manly style of his monumental portraits. He died at
+Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the 4th of
+September was buried in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral. He left his models
+to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part
+of his property to the Artists&rsquo; Benevolent Fund.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, <i>The Works of J.H. Foley</i> (1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLEY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1757-1833), British admiral, entered
+the navy in 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a
+good deal of active service in the West Indies against American
+privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, he served under
+Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel and Sir Charles Hardy
+in the Channel, and with Rodney&rsquo;s squadron was present at
+the defeat of De Lángara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at the
+relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney&rsquo;s command, he went
+out to the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which
+culminated in the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the
+Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-captain
+to Admiral John Gell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde
+Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action
+of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off Toulon on the 13th
+of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he was flag-captain
+to the second in command, and in the following year
+was sent out in command of the &ldquo;Goliath&rdquo; (74), to reinforce
+Nelson&rsquo;s fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the
+&ldquo;Goliath&rdquo; in the battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the
+squadron round the French van, and this man&oelig;uvre contributed
+not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by
+Foley&rsquo;s own initiative, or intended by Nelson, has been a matter
+of controversy (see <i>Journal of the Royal United Service Institution</i>,
+1885, p. 916). His next important service was with Nelson in
+the Baltic. The &ldquo;Elephant&rdquo; carried Nelson&rsquo;s flag at the battle
+of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health
+obliged Foley to decline Nelson&rsquo;s offer (made when on the
+point of starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain
+of the Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs
+and at the peace was made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be
+full admiral and G.C.B. He died while commanding in chief at
+Portsmouth in 1833.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.B. Herbert, <i>Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley</i> (Cardiff,
+1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLI<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Foley</span>), <b>ALLAN JAMES</b> (1837-1899), Irish bass singer,
+was born at Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837;
+originally a carpenter, he studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and
+made his first appearance at Catania in 1862. From the opera
+in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for the season of 1865, and
+appeared with much success in various parts. He sang in the
+first performance of <i>The Flying Dutchman</i> (Daland) in England
+in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod&rsquo;s <i>Redemption</i> in
+1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
+vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request
+at ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLIGNO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (anc. <i>Fulginiae</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal see of
+Umbria, Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia,
+from which it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town),
+26,278 (commune). It lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a
+tributary of the Tiber; it is almost square in shape and is surrounded
+by walls. It is a picturesque and interesting town;
+several of its churches contain paintings by Umbrian masters,
+notably works by Niccolò di Liberatore (or Niccolò Alunno,
+1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
+(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolò. The
+cathedral has a romanesque S. façade of 1133, restored in 1903;
+the interior was modernized in the 18th century. To the left
+of the choir is an octagonal chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the
+younger (1527). In the same piazza as the S. façade is the Palazzo
+del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a chapel with frescoes
+by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra Portas is
+said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
+the columns of the portico remain. Raphael&rsquo;s &ldquo;Madonna
+di Foligno,&rdquo; now in the Vatican, was originally painted for the
+church of S. Anna. The Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are
+two good Renaissance buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the
+8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It changed hands often during the wars of the
+13th century, and was destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From
+1305 to 1439 it was governed by the family of the Trinci as
+deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter year one of its members
+went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a force against
+Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and the
+last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth
+Foligno belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It
+suffered from a severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station
+on the main line from Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the
+junction for Perugia. Three miles to the E. is the abbey of
+Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like those of S. Paolo
+fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns supporting
+arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic (&ldquo;Cosmatesque&rdquo;
+work). The church has been modernized.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLIO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (properly the ablative case of the Lat. <i>folium</i>, leaf, but
+also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. <i>foglio</i>), a term in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
+bibliography and printing, with reference either to the size of
+paper employed, or of the book, or to the pagination. In the
+phrase &ldquo;in folio&rdquo; it means a sheet of paper folded once, and
+thus a book bound up in sheets thus folded is a book of the largest
+size and is known as a &ldquo;folio&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bibliography</a></span>). Similarly,
+&ldquo;folio&rdquo; is one of the sizes of paper adapted to be thus folded
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>). In book-keeping the word is used for a page in a
+ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
+law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document,
+used for measurement of the length and for the addition of costs.
+In Great Britain, a &ldquo;folio&rdquo; is taken to contain 72 words, except
+in parliamentary and chancery documents, when the number
+is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words form a &ldquo;folio.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:169px; height:190px" src="images/img600.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">FOLIUM,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by
+René Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x³ + y³ = 3axy. The
+curve is symmetrical about the line x = y,
+and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and
+a loop in the first quadrant. It may be
+traced by giving m various values in the
+equations x = 3am / (1 + m³), y = 3am²
+(1 + m³), since by eliminating m between
+these relations the equation to the curve
+is obtained. Hence it is <i>unicursal</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curve</a></span>). The area of the loop, which
+equals the area between the curve
+and its asymptote, is 3a/2.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLKES, MARTIN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born
+in London on the 29th of October 1690. He was educated at
+Saumur University and Clare College, Cambridge, where he so
+distinguished himself in mathematics that when only twenty-three
+years of age he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society.
+He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723 Sir Isaac
+Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the vice-presidents.
+On the death of Newton he became a candidate
+for the presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom,
+however, he succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member
+of the French Academy; in 1746 he received honorary degrees
+from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 he set out on a tour
+through Italy, in the course of which he composed his <i>Dissertations
+on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins</i>. Before the
+Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to
+1754, he read in 1736 his <i>Observations on the Trajan and Antonine
+Pillars at Rome</i> and his <i>Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th
+Year of King Edward III</i>. In 1745 he printed the latter with
+another on the history of silver coinage. He also contributed
+both to the Society of Antiquaries and to the Royal Society
+other papers, chiefly on Roman antiquities. He married in
+1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had appeared at the
+Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols&rsquo;s Lit. <i>Anecdot.</i> ii.
+578-598).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Sir John Hill&rsquo;s attack on Folkes (<i>Review of the Works of the
+Royal Soc.</i>, 1751), see D&rsquo;Israeli, <i>Calamities and Quarrels of Authors</i>
+(1860), pp. 364-366.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLKESTONE,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place
+of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of
+Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern &amp;
+Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905; (1901) 30,650. This is
+one of the principal ports in cross-Channel communications, the
+steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older part of
+Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the shore
+between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the
+hills on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered
+by hills rising sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of
+which, such as Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks.
+Above the cliff west of the old town is a broad promenade
+called the Lees, commanding a notable view of the channel
+and connected by lifts with the shore below. On this cliff also
+stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, a cruciform
+building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly Early
+English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine
+priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established
+by Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The
+site of this foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments
+of the sea. The monastery was destroyed at the
+dissolution of religious houses by Henry VIII. Folkestone inner
+harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep water pier for
+use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not only
+the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
+on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be
+mentioned the grammar school, founded in 1674, the public
+library and museum, and a number of hospitals and sanatoria.
+The discontinued Harveian Institution for young men was
+named after William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the
+blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also commemorated
+by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a member
+of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
+aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
+Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb
+of Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).</p>
+
+<p>Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl
+Godwine and was called upon to supply him with ships when he
+was exiled from England; at the time of the Domesday Survey
+it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. From early times it was
+a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to find one out
+of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the royal
+service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose
+liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone
+by Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was
+prescriptive, was entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty
+of Folkestone. The history of Folkestone is a record of its
+struggle against the sea, which was constantly encroaching
+upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, impoverished by their
+losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the end of the 18th
+century the town had become prosperous by the increase of its
+fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th century
+one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLKLAND<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (<i>folcland</i>). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon
+documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is
+contrasted with bookland in a way which shows that these two
+kinds of tenure formed the two main subdivisions of landownership:
+no one is to deny right to another in respect of folkland or
+bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. Dipl. 281), King Æthelberht
+exchanges five hides of folkland for five hides of bookland which
+had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the latter for the
+newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal exactions except
+the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd and joining
+in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland was
+not free from the payment of <i>gafål</i> (land tax) and providing
+quarters for the king&rsquo;s men. In ealdorman Alfred&rsquo;s will the
+testator disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his
+sons and his daughter, but to a son who is not considered as
+rightful offspring five hides of folkland are left, provided the
+king consents. It is probable that folkland is meant in two or
+three cases when Latin documents speak of <i>terra rei publicae
+jure possessa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two principal explanations have been given to this term.
+Allen thought that folkland was similar to the Roman <i>ager
+publicus</i>: it was the common property of the nation (<i>folc</i>),
+and the king had to dispose of it by carving out dependent
+tenures for his followers more or less after the fashion of continental
+<i>beneficia</i>. These estates remained subject to the superior
+ownership of the folk and of the king: they could eventually
+be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a holder
+of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
+letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted
+to apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer,
+H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and others followed Allen&rsquo;s lead.</p>
+
+<p>Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an
+article on folkland in the <i>English Hist. Review</i> for 1893. It
+considers folkland as landownership by folkright&mdash;at common
+law, as might be said in modern legal speech. In opposition to it
+bookland appears as landownership derived from royal privilege.
+The incidents recorded in the charters characterize folkland as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to limitations in respect of
+testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to be relieved from
+fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from folkland into
+bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred&rsquo;s son, not being recognized
+as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession
+or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and
+limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to
+the fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless
+&ldquo;books.&rdquo; These are exemptions from fiscal dues and
+freedom of disposition of the owner. This view of the matter has
+been accepted by the chief modern authorities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J. Allen, <i>Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of
+Royal Prerogative in England</i> (London, 1849); K. Maurer, <i>Kritische
+Überschau</i> (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book
+and Beyond</i>, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, &ldquo;Folcland,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, <i>Land Laws</i>
+(London, 1896); H. Brunner, <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Band i.
+(2nd ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. Vi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLKLORE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a
+designation for the traditional learning of the uncultured classes
+of civilized nations. The word has been adopted in this sense
+into many foreign languages; it is sometimes regarded as the
+equivalent of the Ger. <i>Volkskunde</i>. But folklore is, properly
+speaking, the &ldquo;lore <i>of</i> the folk,&rdquo; while <i>Volkskunde</i> is lore or
+learning <i>about</i> the folk, and includes not only the mental life
+of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term folklore is
+also used to designate the science which deals with folklore;
+the study of survivals involves the investigation of the similar
+customs, beliefs, &amp;c., of races on lower planes of culture; consequently
+folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
+societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as
+with the popular superstitions of the white races.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The scientific study of folklore dates back to the
+first quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long
+before that date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of
+recent growth. The first Folklore Society was founded in London
+in 1878; similar bodies now exist in the United States, France,
+Italy, Switzerland and especially in Germany and Austria.
+The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at a very early
+period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
+28th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In Greece the Homeric poems contain many
+folk-tale incidents; for India we have the <i>Jatakas</i> and <i>Panchatantra</i>;
+and for the Arabs the great collection of the <i>Thousand
+and One Nights</i>. Another type of folk-narrative is represented
+by Aesop&rsquo;s <i>Fables</i>. Not unnaturally beliefs and customs received
+less attention; our knowledge of them among the ancients is as
+a rule pieced together. Among the oldest professed collections
+are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), <i>Traité des superstitions</i> (1679),
+Aubrey&rsquo;s <i>Miscellanies</i> (1686) and H. Bourne&rsquo;s (1696-1733)
+<i>Antiquitates vulgares</i> (1725); but they belong to the antiquarian,
+non-scientific period.</p>
+
+<p>The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore
+were the brothers Grimm, by the publication of their <i>Kinder-und
+Hausmärchen</i> (1812-1815) and <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i> (1835).
+They were the first to present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated
+form. They differed from their predecessors in
+regarding the myth, not as the result of conscious speculation,
+but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, disposed to
+press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the figures
+of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as the
+folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
+exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and
+others. At the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880),
+the forerunner of the anthropological school of folklore, shared
+in this mistake. Breaking away eventually from the philological
+schools, which interpreted myths and their supposed descendants,
+the folk-tales, as relating to the storm, the sun, the dawn, &amp;c.
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mythology</a></span>), Mannhardt made folk-custom and belief his
+basis. To this end he set himself to collect and compare the
+superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was always
+feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt&rsquo;s
+researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor
+abroad. In 1878 the foundation of the Folklore Society marked
+a new era in England, where the philological school had had
+few adherents; and the anthropological school soon produced
+evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew Lang, Dr J.G.
+Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom
+and belief on the one hand, and of rites and religions of people
+in the lower stages of culture on the other hand, it has become
+abundantly clear that there is no line of demarcation between
+the two. Each throws light upon the other, and the superstitions
+of Europe are the lineal descendants of savage creeds
+which have their parallels all over the world in the culture of
+primitive peoples.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subdivisions.</i>&mdash;The folklore of civilized peoples may be
+conveniently classified under three main heads: (1) belief and
+custom; (2) narratives and sayings; (3) art. These again may
+be subdivided. The first division, <i>Belief and Custom</i>, includes
+(A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, including (<i>a</i>) those
+connected with natural phenomena or inanimate nature, (<i>b</i>)
+tree and plant superstitions, (<i>c</i>) animal superstitions, (<i>d</i>) ghosts
+and goblins, (<i>e</i>) witchcraft, (<i>f</i>) leechcraft, (<i>g</i>) magic in general
+and divination, (<i>h</i>) eschatology, and (<i>i</i>) miscellaneous superstitions
+and practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including
+(<i>a</i>) festival customs for which are set aside certain days and
+seasons, (<i>b</i>) ceremonial customs on the occasion of events such as
+birth, death or marriage, (<i>c</i>) games, (<i>d</i>) miscellaneous local
+customs, such as agricultural rites connected with the corn-spirit
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>), and (<i>e</i>) dances. The second head of <i>Narratives
+and Sayings</i> may be subdivided (A) into (<i>a</i>) sagas or tales
+told as true, (<i>b</i>) Märchen or nursery tales, (<i>c</i>) fables, (<i>d</i>) drolls,
+apologues, cumulative tales, &amp;c., (<i>e</i>) myths (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mythology</a></span>),
+and (<i>f</i>) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as
+they do not come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes,
+riddles, jingles, proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &amp;c. The
+third head, <i>Art</i>, subdivides into (<i>a</i>) folk music with ballads and
+songs, (<i>b</i>) folk drama. Any classification, however, labours
+under the disadvantage of separating items which properly
+belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form in
+which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be
+aetiological in their nature and form an elaborate record of a
+custom. Eschatological beliefs naturally take the form of myths.
+Traditional narratives can also be classified under art, and so on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature.</i>&mdash;The literature of the subject falls into two sharply
+defined classes&mdash;synthetic works and collections of folklore&mdash;of
+which the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former
+class the most important is Dr J.G. Frazer&rsquo;s <i>Golden Bough</i>,
+which sets out from the study of a survival in Roman religion
+and covers a wide field of savage and civilized beliefs and customs.
+Especially important are the chapters on agricultural rites, in
+which are set forth the results of Mannhardt&rsquo;s researches. Other
+important lines of folklore research in the <i>Golden Bough</i> are
+those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
+of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms.
+Mr E.S. Hartland&rsquo;s <i>Legend of Perseus</i> is primarily concerned
+with the origin of a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is
+dismissed as insoluble. A large part of the book is taken up
+with a discussion of sympathetic magic, and especially with the
+&ldquo;life index,&rdquo; an object so bound up with the life of a human
+being that it acts as an indication of his well-being or otherwise.
+The importance of children&rsquo;s games in the study of folklore has
+been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection of the
+games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme.
+With the more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem
+of the diffusion of games has also come to the fore. In particular
+it is found that the string-game called &ldquo;cat&rsquo;s cradle&rdquo; in various
+forms is of very wide diffusion, being found even in Australia.
+The question of folk-music has recently received much attention
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Song</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<b>Introductory works:</b> M.R. Cox, <i>Introduction
+to Folklore</i>; Kaindl, <i>Die Volkskunde</i>; Marillier in <i>Revue de l&rsquo;histoire
+des religions</i>, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.</p>
+
+<p><b>General works:</b> J.G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>; E.S. Hartland,
+<i>The Legend of Perseus</i>; A. Lang, <i>Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual
+and Religion</i>; Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Liebrecht, <i>Zur Volkskunde</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span></p>
+
+<p><b>British Isles.</b> England: Burne, <i>Shropshire Folklore</i>; <i>Denham
+Tracts</i> (F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, <i>Lancashire Folklore</i>;
+Henderson, <i>Folklore of Northern Counties</i>; <i>County Folklore Series</i>
+(Printed Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, <i>Welsh
+Folklore</i>; Rhys, <i>Celtic Folklore</i>. Scotland: Dalyell, <i>Darker
+Superstitions</i>; Gregor, <i>Folklore of N.E. of Scotland</i>; the works of
+J.G. Campbell, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Germany:</b> Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, English translation by
+Stallybrass; Wuttke, <i>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</i>; Meyer, <i>Deutsche
+Volkskunde</i>; Tetzner, <i>Die Slaven in Deutschland</i>; Mogk in Paul&rsquo;s
+<i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i>, and the works cited by
+Kaindl (see above).</p>
+
+<p><b>France:</b> Sebillot&rsquo;s works; Rolland, <i>Faune populaire</i>; Laisnel
+de la Salle, <i>Croyances et légendes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for
+Bohemia, Grohmann, <i>Aberglaube</i>; for Greece, Abbott, <i>Macedonian
+Folklore</i>, and Rennell Rodd, <i>Folklore of Greece</i>; for Italy, Pitré&rsquo;s
+bibliography; for India, Crooke&rsquo;s works, and the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>.
+For questionnaires see <i>Handbook of Folklore</i> (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,
+<i>Essai de questionnaires</i>; <i>Journal of American Folklore</i> (1890, &amp;c.);
+and Kaindl&rsquo;s <i>Volkskunde</i>. For a bibliography of folk-tales see
+Hartland, <i>Mythology and Folk-tales</i>; to his list may be added
+Petitot&rsquo;s <i>Légendes indiennes</i>; Rand, <i>Legends of the Micmacs</i>;
+Lummis, <i>The Man who Married the Moon</i>; and the publications
+of the American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies
+in <i>Folklore</i> and other periodicals. On special points may
+be mentioned Miss Cox&rsquo;s <i>Cinderella</i> (Folklore Society); Kohler&rsquo;s
+works, &amp;c. (see also bibliography to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tale</a></span>). For games
+see Gomme, <i>English Games</i>; Culin, <i>Korean Games</i>; Rochholz,
+<i>Alemannisches Kinderlied</i>; Böhme, <i>Deutsches Kinderlied</i>; Handelmann,
+<i>Volks- und Kinderspiele</i>; Jayne, <i>String Figures</i>, &amp;c.; and
+the bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Doll</a></span>. See also Sonnenschein&rsquo;s <i>Best Books</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of the more important Societies and publications:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.</p>
+
+<p>U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.</p>
+
+<p>France: <i>Société des traditions populaires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Germany: <i>Verein für Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung für
+Volkskunde</i>; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Austria: <i>Verein für österreichische Volkskunde</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Switzerland: <i>Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Volkskunde</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Italy: <i>Società per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
+less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies
+mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
+the following among others: Belgium, <i>Wallonia</i>; Poland, <i>Wisla</i>;
+France, <i>Melusine</i> (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, <i>Cesky Lid</i>; Denmark,
+<i>Dania</i>, &amp;c.; Germany, <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>
+(1859-1890); <i>Am Urguell</i> (1890-1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLLEN, AUGUST<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (or, as he afterwards called himself,
+<span class="sc">Adolf</span>) <b>LUDWIG</b> (1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen
+on the 21st of January 1794, the son of a district judge. He
+studied theology at Giessen and law at Heidelberg, and after
+leaving the university edited the Elberfeld <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>.
+Suspected of being connected with some radical plots, he was
+imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821 he
+went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at
+Aarau, farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in
+Thurgau, and then retired to Bern, where he lived till his death
+on the 26th of December 1855. Besides a number of minor
+poems he wrote <i>Harfengrüsse aus Deutschland und der Schweiz</i>
+(1823) and <i>Malegys und Vivian</i> (1829), a knightly romance after
+the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many translations,
+mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
+with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso&rsquo;s <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i> (1818)
+and <i>Siegfrieds Tod</i> from the <i>Nibelungenlied</i> (1842); he also
+collected and translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819).
+In 1846 he published a brief collection of sonnets entitled <i>An
+die gottlosen Nichtswüteriche</i>. This was aimed at the liberal
+philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the occasion of a literary duel
+between the two authors. Follen&rsquo;s posthumous poem <i>Tristans
+Eltern</i> (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known work
+is a collection of German poetry entitled <i>Bildersaal deutscher
+Dichtung</i> (1827).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLLEN, KARL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother
+of A.L. Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the
+5th of September 1795. He first studied theology at Giessen,
+but after the campaign of 1814, in which, like his brother
+August, he took part as a Hessian volunteer, began the study of
+jurisprudence, and in 1818 established himself as <i>Privatdocent</i>
+of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being suspected of political
+intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after the assassination
+of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political murder
+of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen
+being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in
+Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school
+at Coire and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian
+authorities imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in
+1824 the hospitality of the United States of America. Here he
+became an instructor in German at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830
+obtained an appointment as professor of German language
+and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation having
+given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835,
+and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in
+Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat
+which was totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from
+New York to Boston, on the night of the 13th-14th of January
+1840. Follen was the author of several celebrated patriotic
+songs written in the interests of liberty. The best is perhaps
+<i>Horch auf, ihr Fürsten! Du Volk, horch auf!</i> of which Johannes
+Wit, called von Dörring (1800-1863), was long, though erroneously,
+considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen&rsquo;s
+collection of patriotic songs, <i>Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some
+reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with
+a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1798-1845), English lawyer,
+was born at Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December
+1798. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Follett, who had
+retired from the army in 1790, and engaged in business at
+Topsham. He received his education at Exeter grammar school
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He had
+entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a
+pleader below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824,
+and joined the western circuit in 1825. At the very outset
+his great qualifications were universally recognized. He was
+thoroughly master of his profession, and his rapid rise in it was
+due not only to his quick perception and sound judgment, but
+to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of temper.
+In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding
+Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to
+parliament for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished
+himself, and under the first administration of Sir Robert Peel
+was appointed solicitor-general (November 1834); but resigned
+with the ministry in April 1835. In the course of this year he was
+knighted. On the return of Peel to power in 1841 Sir William
+was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April 1844 he succeeded
+Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
+health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been
+permanently injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down,
+and he was compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the
+south of Europe. He returned to England in March 1845; but
+the disease, consumption, reasserted itself, and he died in
+London on the 28th of June following. A statue of Follett,
+executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in Westminster
+Abbey.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1793-1872), English
+journalist, descended from a noble French Huguenot family,
+the Greniers of Languedoc, was born in London in 1793. John
+Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England under the
+name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
+(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the
+author of a standard legal work, a <i>Treatise on Equity</i>, was the
+father of Albany Fonblanque; he represented the borough of
+Camelford in parliament; and was one of the Whig friends of
+George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young Fonblanque
+was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His
+health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
+suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a
+view to being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812)
+he commenced writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted
+notice both by the boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+the superiority of his style to what Macaulay, when speaking of
+him, justly called the &ldquo;rant and twaddle of the daily and weekly
+press&rdquo; of the time. While he was eagerly taking his share in all
+the political struggles of this eventful period, he was also continuing
+his studies, devoting no less than six hours a day to the
+study of classics and political philosophy. Under this severe
+mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
+however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to
+the newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his
+habits were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary
+anxieties.</p>
+
+<p>From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively
+employed upon the staff of <i>The Times</i> and the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>,
+whilst he contributed to the <i>Examiner</i>, to the <i>London Magazine</i>
+and to the <i>Westminster Review</i>. In 1828 the <i>Examiner</i> newspaper,
+which had been purchased by the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the
+<i>Religion of the Universe</i>, &amp;c., was given over to Fonblanque&rsquo;s
+complete control; and for a period of seventeen years (1830 to
+1847) he not only sustained the high character for political independence
+and literary ability which the <i>Examiner</i> had gained
+under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt,
+but even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a
+certain delight in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed
+against themselves. When it was proposed that the admirers
+and supporters of the paper should facilitate a reduction in its
+price by the payment of their subscription ten years in advance,
+not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord Lytton) volunteer his
+aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting with radicalism.
+During his connexion with the <i>Examiner</i>, Fonblanque had
+many advantageous offers of further literary employment;
+but he devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to
+the service of the paper he had resolved to make a standard of
+literary excellence in the world of journalism. Fonblanque was
+offered the governorship of Nova Scotia; but although he took
+great interest in colonial matters, and had used every effort to
+advocate the more generous political system which had colonial
+self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
+beloved <i>Examiner</i> even for so sympathetic an employment. In
+1847, however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post
+of statistical secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course
+compelled him to resign the editorship of the <i>Examiner</i>, but he
+still continued to contribute largely to the paper, which, under the
+control of John Forster, continued to sustain its influential
+position. During the later years of his life Fonblanque took no
+prominent part in public affairs; and when he died at the age of
+seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew, Edward Fonblanque,
+rightly observes, &ldquo;a man who had lived and toiled in an age gone
+by and in a cause long since established.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The character of Albany Fonblanque&rsquo;s political activity may
+be judged of by a study of his <i>England under Seven Administrations</i>
+(1837), in comparison with the course of social and political
+events in England from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must
+be regarded in the light of a reformer. Journalism before his
+day was regarded as a somewhat discreditable profession; men
+of true culture were shy of entering the hot and dusty arena lest
+they should be confounded with the ruder combatants who fought
+there before the public for hire. But the fact that Fonblanque,
+a man not only of strong and earnest political convictions but
+also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate to choose this
+field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a man of
+letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
+gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
+prejudice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque</i>, edited by his
+nephew, Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a
+collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOND DU LAC,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac
+county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the
+S. end of Lake Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du
+Lac river, which is navigable for only a short distance. Pop.
+(1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom 2952 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of some importance,
+and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul, the
+Minneapolis, St Paul &amp; Sault St Marie, and the Chicago &amp; North-Western
+railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat
+lines connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great
+Lakes. At North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits,
+are car-shops of the two last-mentioned railways, and in the
+city are manufactories of machinery, automobiles, wagons
+and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, refrigerators, agricultural
+implements, toys and furniture. The total value of the
+city&rsquo;s factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase of
+95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal
+cathedral, the Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital
+and convent, and a public library with about 25,000 volumes in
+1908. The first settlers on the site of Fond du Lac arrived about
+1835. Subsequently a village was laid out which was incorporated
+in 1847; a city charter was secured in 1852.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONDI<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (anc. <i>Fundi</i>), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
+province of Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E.
+of Terracina by road. Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above
+sea-level, at the N. end of a plain surrounded by mountains,
+which extend to the sea. It occupies the site of the ancient
+Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to <i>Latium adjectum</i>, on
+the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road which
+passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
+and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly
+in <i>opus incertum</i>, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no
+doubt, from the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still
+exists, and bears the inscription of three aediles who erected the
+gate, the towers and the wall. A similar inscription of three
+different aediles from the N.W. gate still exists, but not <i>in situ</i>.
+In the neighbourhood are the remains of several ancient villas,
+and along the Via Appia still stands an ancient wall of <i>opus
+reticulatum</i>, with an inscription, in large letters, of one Varronianus,
+the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. The engineering of
+the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where it
+passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The
+castle on the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with
+beautiful tracery. Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro
+(formerly S. Maria), which was the cathedral until the see was
+suppressed in 1818 and united with that of Gaeta; it contains
+a fine pulpit with &ldquo;cosmatesque&rdquo; work and the fine tomb of
+Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century triptychs
+and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of the
+anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery
+the cell which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient city of Fundi in 338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 332) received (with
+Formiae) the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>, because it had always secured
+the Romans safe passage through its territory; the people
+as a whole did not join Privernum in its war against Rome three
+years later, though Vitruvius Vacca, the leader, was a native of
+Fundi. It acquired the full citizenship in 188 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was
+partly under the control of a <i>praefectus</i>. The inscription upon
+some waterpipes which have been discovered shows that later it
+became a <i>municipium</i>. It was governed by three aediles:
+Horace&rsquo;s jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due to the
+exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in <i>Hermes</i>, xiii. p. 113). The
+family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi.
+During the Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily
+abandoned, but it seems to have come under the rule of the
+papacy by <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 754 at any rate. Pope John VIII. ceded it with
+its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but its history is somewhat
+intricate after this period. Sometimes it appears as an
+independent countship, though held by members of the Caetani
+family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
+Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to
+carry off Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city.
+After this Fondi was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the
+Di Sangro family, in which it still remains. Its position as a
+frontier town between the papal states and the kingdom of
+Naples, just in the territory of the latter&mdash;the Via Appia can
+easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual frontier called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+Portella<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or S.E. of it&mdash;affected it a good deal during the French
+Revolution and the events which led up to the unification of
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and
+the partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the
+ancient Via Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a
+considerable détour. The lake was also known in classical times
+ass, <i>lacus Amyclanu</i> from the town of Amyclae or Amunclae,
+which was founded, according to legend, by Spartan colonists,
+and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+(E. Pais in <i>Rendiconti dei Lincei</i>, 1906, 611 seq.); the bay was
+also known as <i>mare Amunclanum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Speluncae (mod. <i>Sperlonga</i>) on the coast also
+belonged to the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa
+in which Sejanus saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost
+crushed by a fall of rock. Considerable remains of it, and of the
+caves from which it took its name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the
+modern village. For modern discoveries see P. di Tucci in
+<i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1880), 480; G. Patroni, <i>ibid.</i> (1898), 493.
+The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient writers, though the
+<i>ager Caecubus</i>, the coast plain round the Lago di Fundi, was even
+more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; and
+though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
+entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even
+more to the excavation works of Nero&rsquo;s projected canal from the
+lacus Avernus to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is
+spoken of in the inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of
+Hadrian, together with Falernian and Setian wines (<i>Corpus
+inscript. Lat.</i> vi. Berlin, 1882, 9797). The plain of Fondi is the
+northernmost point in Italy where the cultivation of oranges and
+lemons is regularly carried on in modern times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Conte Colino, <i>Storia di Fondi</i> (Naples, 1902); B. Amante
+and R. Bianchi, <i>Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania</i>
+(Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in <i>English Historical Review</i>, xix. (1904)
+557 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the pass of Ad Lautulas see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terracina</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONNI,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft.
+above sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S.
+of Nuoro by road. Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village
+in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut
+woods. The church of the Franciscans, built in 1708, contains
+some curious paintings by local artists. The costumes are extremely
+picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the
+Baptist, the patron saint. The men&rsquo;s costume is similar to that
+worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and
+black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise;
+over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with
+blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and
+red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is
+accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one
+above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs,
+the married women black. A little to the N. of Fonni, by the
+high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in
+the <i>Antonine Itinerary</i> as situated 87 m. from Carales on the
+road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the
+discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three
+sides of a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of
+baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above
+them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips
+(F. Vivanet, in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while
+a discharge certificate (<i>tabula honestae missionis</i>) of sailors
+who had served in the <i>classis Ravennas</i> was found in some
+ruins here or hereabouts (<i>id. ib.</i>, 1882, 440; T. Mommsen,
+<i>Corp. inscr. Lat.</i> x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several
+&ldquo;menhirs&rdquo; (called <i>pietre celtiche</i> in the district) and other
+prehistoric remains.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONSAGRADA,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province
+of Lugo; 25 m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302.
+Fonsagrada is situated 3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed
+between the rivers Rodil and Suarna. It is an important market
+for all kinds of agricultural produce, and manufactures linen and
+frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing to the mountainous
+character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a railway or
+navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any
+considerable export trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1892), first
+president of the united states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas
+on the 5th of August 1827, being the third son of Lieut.-Colonel
+Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He was educated at
+the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained the rank
+of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864
+against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez,
+dictator of Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and
+before the close of the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel,
+and some years later that of general of division. After holding
+several military commands, he was appointed in 1886 governor
+of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In this position he threw
+himself heartily into politics, espoused the republican opinions
+then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their exponents with
+his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the government
+at the close of the year removed him from his post, and recalled
+him to the capital as director of the service of army material.
+Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage
+insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed
+him from office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the
+viscount de Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of
+the military officers&rsquo; political rights. From that time his influence
+was supreme in the army. In December 1888, when the Conservative
+Correa d&rsquo;Oliveira became prime minister, Fonseca was
+appointed to command an army corps on the frontier of Matto
+Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a
+dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to
+the chamber of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in
+September. Divisions of opinion soon arose within the Liberal
+party on the question of provincial autonomy. The more
+extreme desired the inauguration of a complete federal system.
+Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the journalist
+and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to
+head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection
+broke out on the 15th of November 1889. The government
+commander, Almeida Barreto, hastened to place himself
+under Fonseca&rsquo;s orders, and the soldiers and sailors made
+common cause with the insurgents. The affair was almost
+bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being the
+only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn
+the ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican,
+leaders and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government
+was constituted by the army and navy in the name of the nation,
+with Fonseca at its head. The council was abolished, and both
+the senate and the chamber of deputies were dissolved. The
+emperor was requested to leave the territory of Brazil within
+twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of November was embarked
+on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a decree of
+banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So
+universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt
+at armed resistance. The provisional government exercised
+dictatorial powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891
+Fonseca was elected president of the republic. He was, however,
+no politician, and possessed indeed little ability beyond the art
+of acquiring popularity. His tenure of office was short. In
+May he became involved in an altercation with congress, and in
+November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond his
+constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule insurrection
+broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of
+November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office.
+From that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de
+Janeiro on the 23rd of August 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONSECA,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> <span class="sc">Amapala</span> or <span class="sc">Conchagua</span>, <b>BAY OF,</b> an inlet of the
+Pacific Ocean in the volcanic region between the Central American
+republics of Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is
+unsurpassed in extent and security by any other harbour on
+the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest length, by about
+30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea about
+18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita
+and Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called &ldquo;Los Farellones,&rdquo;
+divide the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient
+depth for the largest vessels. A channel called &ldquo;El Estero
+Real&rdquo; extends from the extreme southern point of the bay into
+Nicaragua for about 50 m., reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake
+Managua. The principal islands in the bay are Sacate Grande,
+Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to Honduras,
+and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri
+belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest,
+being about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its
+position is the most important in the bay, being about 20 m.
+in circumference, and rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft.
+On the southern and eastern shores of the island the lava forms
+black rocky barriers to the waves, varying in height from 10
+to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward are a number
+of <i>playas</i> or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the most
+considerable of these is the port of Amapala (<i>q.v.</i>). Fonseca
+Bay was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named
+by him after his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable
+enemy of Columbus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONT<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fons</i>, &ldquo;fountain&rdquo; or &ldquo;spring,&rdquo; Ital. <i>fonte</i>, Fr.
+<i>les fonts</i>), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for
+Christian baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered
+at rivers or natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no
+doubt the primitive form of the rite was by <i>immersion</i> in the
+water. <i>Infusion</i>&mdash;pouring water on the head of the neophyte&mdash;was
+early introduced into the west and north of Europe on
+account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its occasional
+danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental
+churches. <i>Aspersion</i>, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid,
+but recorded early examples of its use are rare (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baptism</a></span>).
+These different modes of administering baptism have caused
+corresponding changes in the receptacles for the water. After
+the cessation of persecution, when ritual and ornament began
+to develop openly, special buildings were erected for administering
+the rite of baptism. This was obviously necessary, for a large
+<i>piscina</i> (basin or tank) in which candidates could be immersed
+would occupy too much space of the church floor itself. These
+baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an ascent of
+three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but not
+the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baptistery</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries
+had generally given place to that of fonts. The material of
+which these were made was stone, often decorative marble;
+as early as 524, however, the council of Lerida enacted that if a
+stone font were not procurable the presbyter was to provide
+a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament exclusively, which
+might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the font
+never became an important decorative article of church furniture:
+&ldquo;The font, <span class="grk" title="kolumbêthra">&#954;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#956;&#946;&#942;&#952;&#961;&#945;</span> (says Neale, <i>Eastern Church</i>, i. 214), in
+the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in
+the West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the
+font seldom or never possesses any beauty. The material is
+usually either metal or wood. In Russia the <i>columbethra</i> is
+movable and only brought out when wanted.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by
+Anastasius in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been
+presented thereto by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry,
+overlaid with silver inside and out. In the middle were two
+porphyry pillars carrying a golden dish, on which burnt the
+Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick and fed with balsam).
+On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with silver statues
+of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags poured
+out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional;
+the majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine
+early Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed,
+at Beer-Sheba.</p>
+
+<p>Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These
+are all of stone, except a few of lead; much less common are
+fonts of cast bronze (a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the
+Church of St Barthélemy, Liége). The most ancient are plain
+cylindrical bowls, with a circular&mdash;sometimes cruciform or
+quatrefoil&mdash;outline to the basin, either without support or with
+a single central pillar; occasionally there is more than one pillar.
+The basins are usually lined with lead to prevent absorption
+by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh, possesses
+an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the
+circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not
+infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone
+is found. Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon;
+hexagons are even less common, and pentagons very rare.
+There is a pentagonal font of this period at Cabourg, dept.
+Calvados, N. France.</p>
+
+<p>Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief.
+Arcading and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and
+pictorial representation. A very remarkable leaden font is
+preserved at Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in
+the life of Christ. At Pont-à-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs
+of St John the Baptist preaching, and baptizing Christ.
+Caryatides sometimes take the place of the pillars, and sculptured
+animals and grotesques of strange design not infrequently
+form the base. More remarkable is the occasional persistence
+of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very ancient
+font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian
+symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor
+(see G. Stephens&rsquo; brochure, <i>Thunor the Thunderer</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A
+very remarkable example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim
+in Hanover, resting on four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase
+from which water is running (typical of the rivers of Paradise).
+Above is an inscription explaining the connexion of these rivers
+with the virtues of temperance, courage, justice and prudence.
+On the sides of the cup are representations of the passage of the
+Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the Virgin
+and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with
+bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures
+of Our Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles,
+exists at Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters
+inscribed upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries
+octagonal fonts became the rule. They are delicately ornamented
+with mouldings and similar decorations, in the contemporary
+style of Gothic architectural art. Though the basin is usually
+circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are not infrequently
+found in which the outline of the basin follows the octagonal
+shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this type
+are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.</p>
+
+<p>In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the
+Norman conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude
+examples, such as those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton,
+Sussex, are actually of Saxon times; of course we cannot count
+as &ldquo;Saxon fonts&rdquo; those adapted from pre-Norman sculptured
+stones originally designed for other purposes, such as that at
+Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are very
+common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman
+parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain,
+but generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage,
+&amp;c. Among good examples that might be instanced of this
+period are Alphington, Devon (inverted cone, without foot);
+Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on caryatides); Ilam, Staffs
+(cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale, Sculthorpe,
+Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the last,
+remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a
+projecting stoup in the side for the chrism&mdash;a unique detail);
+besides others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden,
+Kent; Coleshill, Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome,
+Herefordshire. Some of the best examples of &ldquo;Norman&rdquo;
+fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in Winchester
+cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the
+Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font
+at Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden
+fonts that remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+Gloucestershire, 4 in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford
+and Sussex, 1 in Derby, Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and
+Wiltshire); perhaps the finest examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire,
+and Walton, Surrey. Early English fonts are comparatively
+rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth
+ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of
+an Early English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be
+seen at St Giles&rsquo;, Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the
+Decorated period are commoner, but not so frequent as those of
+the preceding Norman or subsequent Perpendicular periods.
+Fonts of the Perpendicular period are very common, and are
+generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem, which, together with
+the body of the font, are frequently richly ornamented with
+panelling. It was also the custom during this period to ornament
+the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic
+insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however,
+are as a rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular
+work, are stiff and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable
+font, with sculptured figures, belonging to the late 14th century,
+at West Drayton in Middlesex.</p>
+
+<p>In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal
+children of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544
+by Sir R. Lea, and given by him to the church at St Albans,
+but was afterwards destroyed by the Puritans. A silver font
+existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes brought to Westminster
+on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,
+Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the
+16th century. The only existing structure at all recalling the
+ancient baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in
+Bedfordshire. The font at Luton belongs to the Decorated
+style, and is enclosed in an octagonal structure of freestone,
+consisting of eight pillars about 25 ft. in height, supporting a
+canopy. The space around the font is large enough to hold
+twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a vessel
+for containing the consecrated water, which when required was
+let down into the font by means of a pipe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury,
+that baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a
+precaution against sorcery:&mdash;&ldquo;Fontes baptismales sub sera
+clausi teneantur propter sortilegia.&rdquo; The lids appear at first to
+have been quite simple and flat. They gradually, however,
+partook of the ornamentation of the font itself, and are often
+of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated with finials,
+crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers are
+very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be
+raised at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme,
+Oxon; St Gregory, Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk;
+Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary position of the font in
+the church was and is near the entrance, usually to the left of
+the south door.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Arcisse de Caumont, <i>Cours d&rsquo;antiquités monumentales</i> (Paris,
+1830-1843); Francis Simpson, <i>A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts</i>
+(London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dict.
+raisonné de l&rsquo;architecture</i> (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker&rsquo;s <i>Glossary
+of Architecture</i>; Francis Bond, <i>Fonts and Font-Covers</i> (London, 1908).
+A large number of fine illustrations of fonts, principally of the earlier
+periods, will be found in the volumes of the <i>Reliquary</i> and <i>Illustrated
+Archaeologist</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LÉONARD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1762-1853),
+French architect, was born at Pontoise on the 20th of September
+1762. He came of a family several of whose members had distinguished
+themselves as architects. Leaving the college of
+Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to L&rsquo;Isle-Adam to
+assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect André.
+To facilitate his improvement André allowed him to have access
+to his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was
+sent to Paris to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and
+there began his acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into
+a life-long friendship. After six years of study he competed
+for a prize at the Academy, and, winning the second for the plan
+of an underground chapel, he received a pension and was sent
+to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The Revolution
+breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge in
+England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was
+employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by
+the painter, David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth
+he was fully engaged in the principal architectural works
+executed in Paris as architect successively to Napoleon I.,
+Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe. In conjunction with Percier
+(till his death) he was employed on the arch of the Carrousel,
+the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand staircase of the
+Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the Louvre and
+the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the Academy
+of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the
+emperor. With Percier he published the following works&mdash;<i>Palais</i>,
+<i>maisons</i>, <i>et autres édifices de Rome moderne</i> (1802);
+<i>Descriptions de cérémonies et de fêtes</i> (1807 and 1810); <i>Recueil
+de décorations intérieures</i> (1812); <i>Choix des plus célèbres maisons
+de plaisance de Rome et des environs</i> (1809-1813); <i>Résidences
+des souverains, Parallèle</i> (1833). <i>L&rsquo;histoire du Palais-Royal</i> was
+published by Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and
+associate, in 1838, and himself died in Paris on the 10th of
+October 1853.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTAINEBLEAU<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, a town of northern France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E.
+of Paris on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau,
+a town of clean, wide and well-built streets, stands in the
+midst of the forest of Fontainebleau, nearly 2 m. from the left
+bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the Tambour mansion, and
+a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of Ferrara,
+both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the
+palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of
+General Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a
+monument to President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau
+is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. The school of practical
+artillery and engineering was transferred to Fontainebleau from
+Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part of the palace
+surrounding the cour des offices.</p>
+
+<p>Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills,
+and manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are
+grown in the vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort,
+and during the season the president of the Republic frequently
+resides in the palace. This famous building, one of the largest,
+and in the interior one of the most sumptuous, of the royal
+residences of France, lies immediately to the south-east of the
+town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by buildings,
+extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du
+Cheval Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting
+scene between Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour
+de la Fontaine, the Cour Ovale, built on the site of a more
+ancient château, and the Cour d&rsquo; Henri IV.: the smaller Cour
+des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the Cour Ovale. The
+exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. <i>Fons Bleaudi</i>)
+are equally unknown, but the older château was used in the
+latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas
+Becket to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued
+a favourite residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The
+creator of the present edifice was Francis I., under whom the
+architect Gilles le Breton erected most of the buildings of the
+Cour Ovale, including the Porte Dorée, its southern entrance,
+and the Salle des Fêtes, which, in the reign of Henry II., was
+decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio and Nicolo
+dell&rsquo; Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber in
+France. The Galerie de François I. and the lower storey of the
+left wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same
+architect, who also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin.
+In the same reign the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the
+Chapelle de la Ste Trinité and the Galerie d&rsquo;Ulysse, destroyed
+and rebuilt under Louis XV., was constructed by Pierre
+Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes most to Henry
+IV., to whom are due the Cour d&rsquo; Henri IV., the Cour des Princes,
+with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs, used
+as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase
+in the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+on works of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and
+Napoleon III. devoted considerable sums to the same end. The
+palace is surrounded by gardens and ornamental waters&mdash;to the
+north the Jardin de l&rsquo;Orangerie, to the south the Jardin Anglais
+and the Parterre, between which extends the lake known as the
+Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large numbers. A space
+of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered by the park,
+which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of Henry IV.
+On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine
+white grapes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest of Fontainebleau.</i>&mdash;The forest of Fontainebleau is one
+of the most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations
+it has been the chosen haunt of French landscape painters.
+Among the most celebrated spots are the Vallée de la Solle,
+the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de Franchard and d&rsquo;Apremont,
+and the Fort l&rsquo;Empereur. The whole area extends to 42,200
+acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter of this
+area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone supplied
+a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech, hornbeam
+and birch are the chief varieties of trees.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical
+events which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the
+Fair, Henry III. and Louis XIII. were all born in the palace,
+and the first of these kings died there. James V. of Scotland
+was there received by his intended bride; and Charles V. of
+Germany was entertained there in 1539. Christina of Sweden
+lived there for years, and the gallery is still to be seen where in
+1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to death.
+In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of
+the edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the
+great Condé. In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests
+in Peter the Great of Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark;
+and in the early part of the 19th century it was twice the residence
+of Pius VII.,&mdash;in 1804 when he came to consecrate the emperor
+Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his prisoner.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pfnor, <i>Monographie de Fontainebleau</i>, with text by Champollion
+Figeac (Paris, 1866); <i>Guide artistique et historique au palais
+de Fontainebleau</i> (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, <i>Recherches sur Fontainebleau</i>
+(Fontainebleau, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1801-1839), French man of letters,
+was born at Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began
+his career as a clerk in a government office, but was dismissed
+for taking part in a political banquet. At the age of nineteen
+he went to Paris and began to contribute to the <i>Tablettes</i> and
+the <i>Album</i>. He was brought to trial for political articles written
+for the latter paper, but defended himself so energetically that
+he secured the indefinite postponement of his case. The offending
+paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a collection
+of political poems, <i>Odes et épîtres</i>, and a number of plays, of
+which <i>Perkins Warbec</i> (1828), written in collaboration with
+MM. Halévy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828
+the <i>Album</i> was revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent
+but witty attack on Charles X., entitled <i>Le Mouton enragé</i>
+(20th June 1829). To escape the inevitable prosecution Fontan
+fled over the frontier, but, finding no safe asylum, he returned
+to Paris to give himself up to the authorities, and was sentenced
+to five years&rsquo; imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was liberated
+by the revolution of 1830, and his <i>Jeanne la folle</i>, performed in
+the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to sympathy
+with the author&rsquo;s political principles than to the merits of the
+piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton
+history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which
+he wrote in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, <i>Le Procès d&rsquo;un
+maréchal de France</i> (printed 1831), was suppressed on the
+night of its production. Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of
+October 1839.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis
+of his principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la
+littérature dramatique</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, DOMENICO<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1543-1607), Italian architect and
+mechanician, was born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in
+1543. After a good training in mathematics, he went in 1563
+to join his elder brother, then studying architecture at Rome.
+He made rapid progress, and was taken into the service of
+Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in the church of
+Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the cardinal&rsquo;s
+pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana
+volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense.
+The cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of
+Sixtus V., he immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect.
+Amongst the works executed by him were the Lateran palace,
+the palace of Monte Cavallo (the Quirinal), the Vatican library,
+&amp;c. But the undertaking which brought Fontana the highest
+repute was the removal of the great Egyptian obelisk, which
+had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from the place
+where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in front
+of St Peter&rsquo;s he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus
+V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation
+of public moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his
+post (1592). This appears to have been just in time to save
+the Colosseum from being converted by Fontana into a huge
+cloth factory, according to a project of Sixtus V. Fontana was
+then called to Naples, and accepted the appointment of architect
+to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples he built the
+royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a new
+harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only
+literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the
+obelisk (Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was
+honoured with a public funeral in the church of Santa Anna.
+His plan for a new harbour at Naples was carried out only after
+his death. His son Giulio Cesare succeeded him as royal architect
+in Naples, the university of that town being his best-known
+building.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, LAVINIA<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter,
+was the daughter of Prospero Fontana (<i>q.v.</i>). She was greatly
+employed by the ladies of Bologna, and, going thence to Rome,
+painted the likenesses of many illustrious personages, being under
+the particular patronage of the family (Buoncampagni) of Pope
+Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman ladies, from the
+days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in 1605, showed
+no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had done;
+and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,
+often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works
+of a different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness.
+Among the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum;
+the &ldquo;Virgin lifting a veil from the sleeping infant Christ,&rdquo; in the
+Escorial; and the &ldquo;Queen of Sheba visiting Solomon.&rdquo; Her
+own portrait in youth&mdash;she was accounted very beautiful&mdash;was
+perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts Zappi of
+Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband,
+whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the
+draperies in many of Lavinia&rsquo;s pictures. She is deemed on the
+whole a better painter than her father; from him naturally
+came her first instruction, but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque
+style, with strong quasi-Venetian colouring. She was
+elected into the Academy of Rome, and died in that city in 1614.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTANA, PROSPERO<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1512-1597), Italian painter, was
+born in Bologna, and became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola.
+He afterwards worked for Vasari and Perino del Vaga. It was
+probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a practice of offhand,
+self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of commissions,
+and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few
+weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Città di Castello.
+Along with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works
+of parade he attained a certain measure of success, although his
+drawing was incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs
+to the degenerate period of the Bolognese school, under the
+influence chiefly of the imitators of Raphael&mdash;Sabbatini, Sammachini
+and Passerotti being three of his principal colleagues.
+His soundest successes were in portraiture, in which branch of
+art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo introduced
+him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was
+pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court
+with the three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand
+scale, and figured as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+professional brethren. Returning to Bologna, after doing some
+work in Fontainebleau and in Genoa, he opened a school of art,
+in which he became the preceptor of Lodovico and Agostino
+Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as reformers and
+innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue of
+Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane
+history and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in
+Bologna,&mdash;the picture of the &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo; in the
+church of S. Maria delle Grazie, being considered his masterpiece&mdash;not
+unlike the style of Paul Veronese. He died in Rome in
+1597.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTANE, THEODOR<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1819-1898), German poet and novelist,
+was born at Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At
+the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a chemist, and after
+qualifying as an apothecary, he found employment in Leipzig
+and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in England, and settling
+in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature. He made
+repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English
+ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published <i>Ein Sommer
+in London</i> (1854); <i>Aus England, Studien und Briefe</i> (1860) and
+<i>Jenseit des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland</i> (1860).
+Fontane was particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg,
+in which his home lay; he was proud of its past achievements,
+and delighted in the growth of the capital city, Berlin. The
+fascination which the country of his birth had for him may be
+seen in his delightfully picturesque <i>Wanderungen durch die Mark
+Brandenburg</i> (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the wars of
+Prussia in <i>Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864</i> (1866)
+and <i>Der deutsche Krieg von 1866</i> (1869). He proceeded to the
+theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs,
+remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates
+in <i>Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870</i> (1871), and he published the
+result of his observations of the campaign in <i>Der Krieg gegen
+Frankreich 1870-71</i> (1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries,
+he at first sought inspiration for his poetry in the heroes
+of other countries. His <i>Gedichte</i> (1851) and ballads <i>Manner und
+Helden</i> (1860) tell of England&rsquo;s glories in bygone days. Then the
+achievements of his own countrymen entered into rivalry, and
+these, as an ardent patriot, he immortalized in poem and narrative.
+It is, however, as a novelist that Fontane is best known.
+His fine historical romance <i>Vor dem Sturm</i> (1878) was followed
+by a series of novels of modern life: <i>L&rsquo;Adultera</i> (1882); <i>Schach
+von Wuthenow</i> (1883); <i>Irrungen, Wirrungen</i> (1888); <i>Stine</i> (1890);
+<i>Unwiederbringlich</i> (1891); <i>Effi Briest</i> (1895); <i>Der Stechlin</i> (1899),
+in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the realistic
+methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to
+the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September
+1898 at Berlin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fontane&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Romane und Erzählungen</i> were published in
+12 vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the autobiographical
+works <i>Meine Kinderjahre</i> (1894) and <i>Von zwanzig bis
+dreissig</i> (1898), also <i>Briefe an seine Familie</i> (1905); also F. Servaes,
+<i>Theodor Fontane</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTANES, LOUIS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1821), French poet and
+politician, was born at Niort (Deux Sèvres) on the 6th of March
+1757. He belonged to a noble Protestant family of Languedoc
+which had been reduced to poverty by the revocation of the edict
+of Nantes. His father and grandfather remained Protestant,
+but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His parents died
+in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he
+found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published
+poems, some of which were inspired by English models, appeared
+in the <i>Almanack des Muses</i>; &ldquo;Le Cri de mon c&oelig;ur,&rdquo; describing
+his own sad childhood, in 1778; and &ldquo;La Forêt de Navarre&rdquo;
+in 1780. His translation from Alexander Pope, <i>L&rsquo;Essai sur
+l&rsquo;homme</i>, was published with an elaborate preface in 1783, and
+<i>La Chartreuse</i> and <i>Le Jour des morts</i> in the same year,
+<i>Le Verger</i> in 1788 and his <i>Épître sur l&rsquo;édit en faveur des
+non-catholiques</i>, and the <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;astronomie</i> in 1789.
+Fontanes was a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became
+joint-editor of the <i>Modérateur</i>. He married at Lyons in 1792,
+and his wife&rsquo;s first child was born during their flight from the
+siege of that town. Fontanes was in hiding in Paris when the four
+citizens of Lyons were sent to the Convention to protest against
+the cruelties of Collot d&rsquo;Herbois. The petition was drawn up
+by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered, he fled from
+Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and afterwards
+at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor
+of literature in the École Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he
+was one of the original members of the Institute. In the
+<i>Mémorial</i>, a journal edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated
+reaction to the monarchical principle. He was exiled by the
+Directory and made his way to London, where he was closely
+associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to France,
+and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to
+write an <i>éloge</i> on Washington, secured his return to the Institute
+and his political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative
+chamber, of which he was president from 1804 to 1810.
+Other honours and titles followed. He has been accused of
+servility to Napoleon, but he had the courage to remonstrate
+with him on the judicial murder of the due d&rsquo;Enghien, and as
+grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he consistently
+supported religious and monarchical principles. He
+acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis
+in 1817. He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving
+eight cantos of an unfinished epic poem entitled <i>La Grèce sauvée</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of
+the 18th century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve
+edited the <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic
+critical study of the author and his career. But by
+that time the Romantic movement was in the ascendant and
+Fontanes met with small appreciation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a town of western France, capital
+of an arrondissement in the department of Vendée 30 m. N.E.
+of La Rochelle on the State railway between that town and
+Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639; commune, 10,326. Fontenay,
+an ancient and straggling town, is situated a few miles south of
+the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the Vendée, at the
+point where it becomes navigable. The church of Notre-Dame
+(15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly
+sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th
+and 17th centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town
+has several houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most
+remarkable of these is the Hôtel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600),
+which contains much rich decoration together with collections
+of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay was the birthplace of many
+prominent men during the 15th and 16th centuries, and the
+Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the Renaissance style,
+given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates the fact.
+The chief square is named after François Viète, the great
+mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public
+institutions of the town include a tribunal of first instance and
+a communal college. Among its industries are the manufacture
+of felt hats, oil and soap and timber-sawing, flour-milling and
+tanning. There is trade in horses, mules, timber, grain, fruit, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls.
+The affix of &ldquo;comte&rdquo; is said to have been applied to it when it
+was taken by King Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and
+given to his brother Alphonse, count of Poitou, under whom
+it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to the English by the
+treaty of Brétigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by Duguesclin.
+It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of the
+16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both
+by the republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From
+1790 to 1806 it was capital of the department of Vendée.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1657-1757),
+French author, was born at Rouen, on the 11th of February
+1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of January 1757, having
+thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His father was
+an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two
+Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his
+native city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary
+precocity and versatility of his talents. His teachers, who
+readily appreciated these, were anxious for him to join their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
+order, but his father had designed him for the bar, and an
+advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost the first
+cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and
+gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was
+first directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for
+prizes of the French Academy, but never with success. He
+visited Paris from time to time and established intimate relations
+with the abbé de Saint Pierre, the abbé Vertot and the mathematician
+Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in 1680, the total
+failure of his tragedy <i>Aspar</i>. Fontenelle afterwards acknowledged
+the justice of the public verdict by burning his unfortunate
+drama. His opera of <i>Thétis et Pélée</i>, 1689, though highly praised
+by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and
+it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic
+works not one has kept the stage. His <i>Poésies pastorales</i>
+(1688) have no greater claim to permanent repute, being characterized
+by stiffness and affectation; and the utmost that can
+be said for his poetry in general is that it displays much of the
+<i>limae labor</i>, great purity of diction and occasional felicity of
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>His <i>Lettres galantes du chevalier d&rsquo;Her</i> ..., published
+anonymously in 1685, was an amusing collection of stories that
+immediately made its mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of
+Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised as the rival princesses
+Mreo and Eenegu, in the <i>Relation de l&rsquo;île de Bornéo</i>, gave proof
+of his daring in religious matters. But it was by his <i>Nouveaux
+Dialogues des morts</i> (1683) that Fontenelle established a genuine
+claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three
+years later by the appearance of the <i>Entretiens sur la pluralité
+des mondes</i> (1686), a work which was among the very first
+to illustrate the possibility of being scientific without being
+either uninteresting or unintelligible to the ordinary reader.
+His object was to popularize among his countrymen the astronomical
+theories of Descartes; and it may well be doubted if
+that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or successful
+expositor among his disciples.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687
+he removed to Paris; and in the same year he published his
+<i>Histoire des oracles</i>, a book which made a considerable stir in
+theological and philosophical circles. It consisted of two essays,
+the first of which was designed to prove that oracles were not
+given by the supernatural agency of demons, and the second
+that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It excited the
+suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus, published
+a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition
+of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered.
+To the following year (1688) belongs his <i>Digression sur les
+anciens et les modernes</i>, in which he took the modern side in
+the controversy then raging; his <i>Doutes sur le système physique
+des causes occasionnelles</i> (against Malebranche) appeared shortly
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of
+the determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this
+quarrel, especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous
+occasions had secured his rejection. He consequently was
+admitted a member both of the Academy of Inscriptions and of
+the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he became perpetual
+secretary to the latter body. This office he actually held for
+the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official
+capacity that he wrote the <i>Histoire du renouvellement de l&rsquo;Académie
+des Sciences</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts
+and analyses of the proceedings, and also the <i>éloges</i> of the members,
+written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best
+known of his <i>éloges</i>, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that
+of his uncle Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the
+<i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i> (January 1685) and, as
+<i>Vie de Corneille</i>, was included in all the editions of Fontenelle&rsquo;s
+<i>&OElig;uvres</i>. The other important works of Fontenelle are his
+<i>Élements de la géometrie de l&rsquo;infini</i> (1727) and his <i>Apologie des
+tourbillons</i> (1752). Fontenelle forms a link between two very
+widely different periods of French literature, that of Corneille,
+Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and that of Voltaire,
+D&rsquo;Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in virtue of his
+great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually had
+much in common with the <i>beaux esprits</i> of the 17th century, as
+well as with the <i>philosophes</i> of the 18th. But it is to the latter
+rather than to the former period that he properly belongs.</p>
+
+<p>He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve
+has said, he well deserves a place &ldquo;<i>dans la classe des
+esprits infiniment distingués</i>&rdquo;&mdash;distinguished, however, it ought
+to be added by intelligence rather than by intellect, and less
+by the power of saying much than by the power of saying a little
+well. In personal character he has sometimes been described
+as having been revoltingly heartless; and it is abundantly
+plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling strongly the
+more generous emotions&mdash;a misfortune, or a fault, which revealed
+itself in many ways. &ldquo;<i>Il faut avoir de l&rsquo;âme pour avoir du goût.</i>&rdquo;
+But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken
+too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the
+esteem of many friends suffices to show that the theoretical
+selfishness which he sometimes professed cannot have been
+consistently and at all times carried into practice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle&rsquo;s works,
+the first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The
+best is that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate
+works have been very frequently reprinted and also translated.
+The <i>Pluralité des mondes</i> was translated into modern Greek in 1794.
+Sainte-Beuve has an interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several
+useful references, in the <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. iii. See also Villemain,
+<i>Tableau de la littérature française au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; the abbé
+Trublet, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de la vie et des ouvrages
+de M. de Fontenelle</i> (1759); A. Laborde-Milaà, <i>Fontenelle</i> (1905),
+in the &ldquo;Grands écrivains français&rdquo; series; and L. Maigron,
+<i>Fontenelle, l&rsquo;homme, l&rsquo;&oelig;uvre, l&rsquo;influence</i> (Paris, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTENOY,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
+about 4 m. S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of
+Fontenoy, in which on the 11th of May 1745 the French army
+under Marshal Saxe defeated the Anglo-Allied army under the
+duke of Cumberland. The object of the French (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austrian Succession, War of the</a></span>) was to cover the siege
+of the then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies,
+who slowly advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed
+of the impending attack, Louis XV., with the dauphin, came
+with all speed to witness the operations, and by his presence to
+give Saxe, who was in bad health and beset with private enemies,
+the support necessary to enable him to command effectively.
+Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal Königsegg,
+and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of Waldeck.</p>
+
+<p>The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river
+at Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between
+Antoing and Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed,
+and Fontenoy itself was put in a complete state of defence. On
+the left rear of this line, and separated from Fontenoy by some
+furlongs of open ground, another redoubt was made at the corner
+of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain. The infantry
+was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy
+redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood;
+behind them was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were
+guarded by a mounted volunteer corps called <i>Grassins</i>. At
+Calonne the marshal had constructed three military bridges
+against the contingency of a forced retreat. The force of the
+French was about 60,000 of all arms, not including 22,000 left
+in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself, who was
+suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to
+ mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the
+troops. At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian
+army with the Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vézon,
+facing towards Fontenoy and the wood, while the Dutch on their
+left extended the general line to Péronne. The total force was
+46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe could actually put into
+the line of battle.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Königsegg and
+Waldeck on the 10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary
+skirmish had cleared the broken ground immediately about
+Vézon and revealed a part of the defender&rsquo;s dispositions. It was
+resolved that the Dutch should attack the front Antoing-Fontenoy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
+while Cumberland should deliver a flank attack
+against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground
+between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round
+the wood was projected but had to be given up, as in the late
+evening of the 10th the Allies&rsquo; light cavalry drew fire from its
+southern edge. Cumberland then ordered his cavalry commander
+to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to cover the formation of
+the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another and most
+important modification had to be made. The advance was
+beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became
+visible. Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby
+(major and brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and
+an artillery detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing
+its fire with that of Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the
+development of the flank attack. At 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the brigade moved
+off, but it was irresolutely handled and halted time after time;
+and after waiting as long as possible, the British and Hanoverian
+cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and extended
+in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious cannonade
+which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir
+John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were
+to have covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns
+of the Dutch towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward
+through the lanes, each unit on reaching open ground
+covering the exit and deployment of the one in rear, all under the
+French cannonade. This went on for two hours, and save that
+it showed the magnificent discipline of the British and Hanoverian
+regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack. Cumberland&rsquo;s
+own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the
+Guards&rsquo; Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed
+Antoine Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Françaises,
+and another Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe&rsquo;s artillery
+commander.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:518px; height:608px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img610.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">It was now 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and while the guns from the wood redoubt
+battered the upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby&rsquo;s brigade was
+huddled together, motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself
+galloped thither, and under his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the
+last remnants of self-possession. To Sir John Ligonier&rsquo;s aide-de-camp,
+who delivered soon afterwards a bitterly formal order
+to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the duke&rsquo;s orders
+were for him to advance in line with Ligonier&rsquo;s main body.
+By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had
+collapsed.</p>
+
+<p>But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together
+had roused a stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the
+men they led. Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the
+Hanoverian general Zastrow, gave up the right attack and
+brought his battalions into the main body. A second halfhearted
+attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by some Dutch
+troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of these
+battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland
+regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own
+accord. Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal
+had agreed to take all risks and to storm through
+between Fontenoy and the wood redoubt, and had launched the
+great attack, one of the most celebrated in the history of war.
+The English infantry was in two lines. The Hanoverians on
+their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to file into third
+line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were the
+battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn,
+accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry
+followed. The column may have numbered 14,000 infantry.
+All the infantry battalions closed on their centre, the normal
+three ranks becoming six. If the proper distances between lines
+were preserved, the mass must have formed an oblong about
+500 yds × 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).</p>
+
+<p>The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the
+front line and gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade
+order, drums beating and colours flying, the mass advanced,
+straight up the gentle slope, which was swept everywhere by
+the flanking artillery of the defence. Then, when the first line
+reached the low crest on the ends of which stood the French
+artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full enfilade
+from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy&rsquo;s horse and
+foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the
+front gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to
+avoid the fire. Then the French advanced, and the Guards
+Brigade and the Gardes Françaises met face to face. Captain
+Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760), lieutenant of the First (Grenadier)
+Guards, suddenly ran in front of the line, took off his hat to the
+enemy and drank to them from a pocket flask, shouting a taunt,
+&ldquo;We hope you will stand till we come up to you, and not swim
+the river as you did at Dettingen,&rdquo; then, turning to his own men,
+he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers
+returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether
+or not the French, as legend states, were asked and refused to
+fire first, the whole British line fired one tremendous series of
+volleys by companies. 50 officers and 760 men of the three
+foremost French regiments fell at once, and at so appalling a
+loss the remnant broke and fled. Three hundred paces farther
+on stood the second line of the French, and slowly the mass
+advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the
+French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept
+the crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up,
+the assailants were practically in square and repelled various
+partial attacks coming from all sides. The Régiment du Roi
+lost 33 officers and 345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream)
+Guards. But these counter-attacks gained a few
+precious minutes for the French. It was the crisis of the battle.
+The king, though the court meditated flight, stood steady with
+the dauphin at his side,&mdash;Fontenoy was the one great day of
+Louis XV.&rsquo;s life,&mdash;and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to
+collect his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians
+were now at a standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes
+were repulsed, but no progress was made; their cavalry was unable
+to get to the front, and Saxe was by now thinking of victory.
+Captain Isnard of the Touraine regiment suggested artillery to
+batter the face of the square, preparatory to a final charge.
+General Löwendahl galloped up to Saxe, crying, &ldquo;This is a great
+day for the king; they will never escape!&rdquo; The nearest guns
+were planted in front of the assailants, and used with effect.
+The infantry, led by Löwendahl, fastened itself on the sides of
+the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
+Irish Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting
+for the cannon to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie
+and all the light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of
+Richelieu and count d&rsquo;Estrées. The left wing of the Allies was
+still inactive, and troops were brought up from Antoing and
+Fontenoy to support the final blow. About 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> it was delivered,
+and in eight minutes the square was broken. As the
+infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn groups the
+French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts
+to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and
+they regained the broken ground about Vézon, whence they had
+come. Cumberland himself and all the senior generals remained
+with the rearguard.</p>
+
+<p>The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat
+less than normally heavy when distributed over the whole of
+both armies, but exceedingly severe in the units really engaged.
+Eight out of nineteen regiments of British infantry lost over
+200 men, two of these more than 300. A tribute to the loyalty
+and discipline of the British, as compared with the generality
+of armies in those days, may be found in the fact that the three
+Guards&rsquo; regiments had no &ldquo;missing&rdquo; men whatever. The 23rd
+(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Böschlanger&rsquo;s
+Hanoverian regiment suffered even more heavily, and four
+others of that nation had 200 or more casualties. The total
+loss was about 7500, that of the French 7200. The French
+&ldquo;Royal&rdquo; regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men; some other
+regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch
+lost a bare 7% of their strength.</p>
+
+<p>Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the
+Prussian Guards at St Privat is to-day, <i>a locus classicus</i> for military
+theorists. But the technical features of the battle are completely
+overshadowed by its epic interest, and above all it illustrates
+the permanent and unchangeable military characteristics of the
+British and French nations.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FONTEVRAULT,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fontevraud</span> (Lat. <i>Fons Ebraldi</i>), a
+town of western France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire,
+10 m. S.E. of Saumur by road and 2½ m. from the confluence of
+the Loire and Vienne. Pop. (1906) 1279. It is situated in the
+midst of the forest of Fontevrault. The interest of the place
+centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has been utilized and abused
+as a central house of detention for convicts. The church (12th
+century), of which only the choir and apse are appropriated to
+divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by four
+cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the
+crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of
+Henry II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard
+I. of England and of Isabella of Angoulême, wife of John of
+England&mdash;Eleanor&rsquo;s being of oak and the rest of stone. The
+cloister, refectory and chapter-house date from the 16th century.
+The second court of the abbey contains a remarkable building,
+the Tour d&rsquo;Évrault (12th century), which long went under the
+misnomer of <i>chapelle funéraire</i>, but was in reality the old kitchen.
+Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+de l&rsquo;architecture</i>. There are three stories, the whole being
+surmounted by a pyramidal structure.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Order of Fontevrault</i> was founded about 1100 by Robert
+of Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec,
+in the diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher
+and ascetic. The establishment was a double monastery,
+containing a nunnery of 300 nuns and a monastery of 200 monks,
+separated completely so that no communication was allowed
+except in the church, where the services were carried on in
+common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers and
+other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by
+the nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the
+observance of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency.
+The special feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled
+the monks as well as the nuns. At the beginning the order had
+a great vogue, and at the time of Robert&rsquo;s death, 1117, there
+were several monasteries and 3000 nuns; afterwards the number
+of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the same plan. The
+institute never throve out of France; there were attempts to
+introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were
+three houses&mdash;at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton,
+and Westwood in Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in
+France were recruited from the highest families, and the abbess
+of Fontevrault, who was the superior-general of the whole order,
+was usually of the royal family of France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. Hélyot, <i>Hist, des ordres religieuses</i> (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13;
+Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1907), i. 46; the arts.
+&ldquo;Fontevrauld&rdquo; in Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2), and
+in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), supply full references
+to the literature. The most recent monograph is Édouard, <i>Fontevrault
+et ses monuments</i> (1875); for the later history see art. by
+Edmund Bishop in <i>Downside Review</i> (1886).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOD<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (like the verb &ldquo;to feed,&rdquo; from a Teutonic root, whence
+O. Eng. <i>foda</i>; cf. &ldquo;fodder&rdquo;; connected with Gr. <span class="grk" title="pateiothai">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>,
+to feed), the general term for what is eaten by man and other
+creatures for the sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of
+human food is dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nutrition</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Infancy.</i>&mdash;The influence of a normal diet upon the health of
+man (we exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must
+depend on the abnormal conditions existing) begins at the
+earliest stage of his life. No food has as yet been found so suitable
+for the young of all animals as their mother&rsquo;s milk. This, however,
+has not been from want of seeking. Dr Brouzet (<i>Sur l&rsquo;éducation
+médicinale des enfants</i>, i. p. 165) had such a bad opinion of human
+mothers, that he expressed a wish for the state to interfere and
+prevent them from suckling their children, lest they should
+communicate immorality and disease! A still more determined
+pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who thought
+life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn
+propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer
+and honey for milk, which latter he calls &ldquo;brute&rsquo;s food.&rdquo; Baron
+Justus von Liebig, as the result of his chemical researches,
+introduced a &ldquo;food for infants,&rdquo; which in more modern days
+has been followed by a multiplication of patent foods. A close
+imitation of human milk may also be made by the addition to
+fresh cow&rsquo;s milk of half its bulk of soft water, in each pint of
+which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of powdered
+&ldquo;sugar of milk&rdquo; and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These
+artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value
+where for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food,
+however, for the first six months is certainly mother&rsquo;s milk alone.
+A vigorous baby can indeed bear with impunity much rough
+usage, and often appears none the worse for a certain quantity
+of farinaceous food; but the majority do not get habituated to
+it without an exhibition of dislike which indicates rebellion of
+the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on their way to the
+front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands secrete
+an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then
+anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered
+in the light of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child&rsquo;s
+age, partly by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth
+nine times out of ten consists of the lower central front teeth,
+which may appear any time during the sixth and seventh month.
+The mother may then begin to diminish the number of suckling
+times; and by a month she can have reduced them to twice
+a day, so as to be ready when the second group makes its way
+through the upper front gums to cut off the supply altogether.
+The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders, usually
+after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid food
+can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a considerable
+portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which
+seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.</p>
+
+<p><i>Childhood and Youth.</i>&mdash;At this stage of life the diet must
+obviously be the best which is a transition from that of infancy
+to that of adult age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire
+surrender of every consideration to the claim of growth is not
+possible, nor indeed desirable. Moreover, that abundance of
+adipose tissue, or reserve new growth, which a baby can bear
+is an impediment to the due education of the muscles of the boy
+or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so continuous as
+before, but at the same time should be more frequent than for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule
+should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in
+nutritive power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate,
+all sufficient. The maturity the body then reaches involves a
+hardening and enlargement of the bones and cartilages, and a
+strengthening of the digestive organs, which in healthy young
+persons enables us to dispense with some of the watchful care
+bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are generally
+sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be
+allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition
+which has hitherto been paramount.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adults.</i>&mdash;It is only necessary here to refer to the article on
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vegetarianism</a></span>) for a discussion of the food
+of normal adults; and to such headings as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietary</a></span> (for fixed
+allowances) or <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cookery</a></span>. Different staple articles of food are
+dealt with under their own headings. For animals other than
+man see the respective articles on them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those
+enumerated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dietetics</a></span>, see Sir Henry Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Foods and
+Feeding</i> (1894); Hart&rsquo;s <i>Diet in Sickness and Health</i> (1896); Knight,
+<i>Food and its Functions</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOD PRESERVATION.<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> The preservation of food material
+beyond the short term during which it naturally keeps sound and
+eatable has engaged human thought from the earliest dawn of
+civilization. Necessity compelled man to store the plenitude
+of one season or place against the need of another. The hunter
+dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man preserved
+milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented grape-juice
+into wine. With the separation of country from town, the
+development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural
+and food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man
+from torrid to arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and
+sea and of armies on the march, the problem of the prevention
+of the natural decomposition to which nearly all food substances
+are liable became increasingly urgent, and forms to-day, next
+to the production of food, the most important problem in connexion
+with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long as the
+reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at preservation
+were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless
+processes which have during modern times been proposed and
+attempted comparatively few have stood the test of experience.
+In the light of modern knowledge, however, the guiding principles
+appear to be very simple.</p>
+
+<p>Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it
+were, of their own accord. They may lose water by evaporation,
+and fatty substances may alter by the absorption of oxygen
+from the air. They are otherwise quite stable and unchangeable
+while not attacked and eaten up by living organisms, or while
+the life with which they may be endowed is in a state of suspense.
+An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its ripening change;
+a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A substance,
+in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under the
+attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be
+available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the
+life be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower
+organism. All decomposition of food is due to the development
+within the food of living organisms. Under conditions under
+which living organisms cannot enter or cannot develop food
+keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length of time. The
+problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore, into that
+of keeping out or killing off all living things that might feed
+upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly
+belong to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food
+preservation is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily
+intelligible when once their biological origin is recognized.
+Yeasts cause the decomposition of saccharine substances into
+alcohol and carbon dioxide, acetic and lactic ferments produce
+from sugar or from alcohol the organic acids causing the souring
+of food, moulds as a rule cause oxidation and complete destruction
+of organic matter, nitrogenous or saccharine, while most
+bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous constituents, producing
+albumoses and peptones and breaking up the complex albumen-molecule
+into numerous smaller molecules often allied to alkaloids,
+generally with the production of evil-smelling gases.
+These processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently
+take place successively in the decomposition of food, one set of
+organisms taking up the work of destruction as the conditions
+become favourable to its development and unfavourable to its
+predecessor. The organisms may come from the air, the soil
+or from animal sources. The air teems with organisms which
+settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable nidus;
+the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life;
+while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all
+animals harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in
+countless millions. Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed
+to the air, or touched by the soil or by animals or man,
+it becomes infected with living cells, which by their development
+lead to its decomposition and destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals;
+or their development may be arrested by cold, removal of water,
+or by the presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not
+destroying their life. All successful processes of food preservation
+depend upon one or other of these circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation by Heat.</i>&mdash;At the boiling-point of water all living
+cells perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about
+three hours. Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75° C. (167° F.)
+in the presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty
+at 140° C. (284° F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly
+in solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction;
+hence acid fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which,
+when quite fresh, is alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food
+becomes temporarily sterile, until a fresh crop of organisms finds
+access from the air. By repeated cooking all food can be indefinitely
+preserved. One of the most important functions of
+cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts
+against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of
+certain fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous
+ages; few materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in
+vegetables some sort of sterilizing process is attempted by
+washing (of salads) or removal of the outer skin (of fruits).
+All preparation of food for the table, cooking being the most
+important, tends towards preservation, but is effectual only for
+a few hours or days at most, unless special means are adopted
+to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with
+a thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin
+layer of lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria
+and other minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent
+manner and on a commercial scale it has to be cooked in a
+receptacle which must be sufficiently strong for transport,
+cheap, light and unattacked by the material in contact with it.
+None of the receptacles at present in use quite fulfils the whole
+of these conditions: glass and china are heavy and fragile, and
+their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called tin-plate,
+is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to its
+strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing
+scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought
+iron, now generally consists of steel containing but very little
+carbon; it is cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a
+very thin layer of pure tin, all excess of tin being removed by
+hot rollers and brushes. The layer of tin, which formerly constituted
+from 3 to 5% of the total weight of the plate, has,
+owing to the increased price of tin and the improvement in
+machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is only from
+1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect,
+perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid
+juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception
+of milk, all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all
+food that has been preserved in tin canisters contains variable
+traces of dissolved tin. Happily, salts of tin have but little
+physiological action. Nevertheless, the employment cf tin-plate
+for very acid materials, like tomatoes, peaches, &amp;c., is very
+objectionable.</p>
+
+<p>The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+follows:&mdash;The canister, which has been made either by the use
+of solder or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material
+to be preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the
+interstices the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally
+the former. Sterilization is effected by placing the  tins in
+pressure chambers, which are heated by steam to 120° C. or more.
+The  tins are exposed to that temperature for such time as
+experience has shown to be necessary to heat the contents
+throughout to at least 100° C. The temperature is then allowed
+to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of water, when the
+tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they are placed
+in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride and
+are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small
+aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the
+expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means
+of a drop of solder. This process, which was originally introduced
+by François Appert early in the 19th century, is employed
+on an enormous scale, especially in America. The use of
+lacquered  tins, having the inner surface of the tin covered with
+a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. Imperfect
+sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development
+within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and
+drummy. More frequently than not the contents of the larger
+tins, containing meat or other animal products, are not absolutely
+sterile, but the conditions are mostly such that the organisms
+which have survived the cooking process cannot develop. When
+they can develop without formation of gas dangerous products
+of decomposition may be produced without showing themselves
+to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine poisoning
+have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated
+with preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no
+class of preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine
+formation. The formation of poisonous substances has never
+been traced to preserved fruit or other material poor in nitrogen.
+The mode of preserving food in china or glass is quite similar,
+but the losses by breakage are not inconsiderable. Food which
+has been preserved in  tins is sometimes transferred to glass and
+re-sterilized, the feeling against &ldquo;tinned&rdquo; food caused by the
+&ldquo;Chicago scandals&rdquo; not having entirely subsided. Were it not
+for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and that the
+food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to keep
+for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances,
+however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of
+canned food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation by Chemicals.</i>&mdash;Salt is the oldest chemical preservative
+and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and
+with wood-smoke, has been used for many centuries, mainly as
+a meat preservative. It is used either dry in layers strewn on
+the surface of the meat or fish to be preserved, or in the form of
+brine in which the meat is submerged or which is injected into
+the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is but moderate.
+It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is non-injurious,
+that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and
+that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When
+aided by wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power
+upon traces of creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite
+efficient. The addition of saltpetre is principally for the purpose
+of giving to the meat a bright pink tint. The strongly saline
+taste of pickled meat or salted butter appears gradually to have
+become repugnant to a large part of mankind, and other preservatives
+have come into use, possessing greater bactericidal
+power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to them
+is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>. At the present time
+the use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England.
+Meat which has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde,
+and has thus been superficially sterilized, is also coming into
+commerce in increasing quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is
+distinctly poisonous, and has the property of combining with
+albuminoids and rendering them completely insoluble in the
+digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are not infrequently
+used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages
+or deterioration of so-called &ldquo;potted meats,&rdquo; which are supposed
+to last fresh and sweet on the consumer&rsquo;s table for a considerable
+length of time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used
+in the preservation of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium
+fluoride has been found in butter. The whole of these substances
+possess decided and injurious physiological properties. Alcohol
+now rarely forms a preservative of food material, its employment
+being confined to small fruit. The use of sugar as a preservative
+depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute solution it
+is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it
+possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated
+syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less
+does not undergo any biological change; in the presence of
+organic acids, like those contained in fruit, growth of organisms
+is inhibited when the percentage of water is somewhat greater.
+Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in the manufacture of
+jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the surface
+of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains unaffected
+and unaltered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation by Drying.</i>&mdash;Food materials in which the percentage
+of moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little
+liable to bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent
+<i>Penicillium</i>. Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts,
+which are laden with otherwise decomposable food material,
+by the simple expedient of water removal. The life of cereal
+grains and many seeds appears to be unlimited. By the removal
+of water the most perishable materials, like meat or eggs, can be
+rendered unchangeable, except so far as the inevitable oxidation
+of the fatty substances contained in them is concerned and
+which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat, upon
+which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of
+attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively
+small articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish.
+It has been superseded even among less civilized communities
+by the spread of canned food. Fruit, however, is very largely
+preserved in the dried state. Grapes are sun-dried and thus form
+currants, raisins and sultanas, the last variety being often
+bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums, apples and pears
+are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on wire
+sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated
+with notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried
+vegetables, including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans
+and cabbages, are also manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to
+some extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due
+to J. von Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the
+middle of the 19th century. The soluble material is extracted
+mainly from beef, in Australia to some extent from mutton,
+by means of warm water; the albumen is coagulated by heat
+and removed, and the broths thus obtained are evaporated <i>in
+vacuo</i> until the extract contains no more than about 20% of
+water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 &#8468; of lean
+beef.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation by Refrigeration.</i>&mdash;At or below the freezing-point
+of water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication.
+Although it has been asserted that many of them perish
+when kept for some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that
+the vast majority of bacteria and their germs remain merely
+dormant. Even so highly organized structures as cereal seeds
+do not suffer in vitality on being kept for a considerable length
+of time at the far lower temperature of liquid air. Biological
+change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point, and as long as
+that temperature is maintained food material remains unaltered,
+except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation
+of water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations
+due to oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a
+reasonably long time, and without the addition of any preservative
+substance, food in a raw condition. It is the only
+process of preservation which from a sanitary point of view is
+entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and properly employed.
+Its introduction on a commercial scale has more powerfully
+affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less degree,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+of the United States than any other scientific advance since the
+establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities
+of frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced
+in the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until
+required. Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have
+become almost impossible, and the abundance of Australian and
+New Zealand ranches, and of West Indian orchards, has been
+made readily accessible to the British consumer. For household
+purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers suffices to preserve
+food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used for the
+purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored
+from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far
+larger quantity is artificially produced by the methods described
+in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refrigerating</a></span>, which also contains an account
+of the means by which low temperatures are produced for
+industrial purposes of importation and storage. Fleets of
+steamships fitted with refrigerating machinery and insulated
+cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food materials, which
+are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses, markets and
+hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July 1873
+from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory
+state. In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America.
+The first cargo of frozen meat was successfully brought to the
+United Kingdom in 1880 from Australia in the &ldquo;Strathleven,&rdquo;
+fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine. The temperature in the
+cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34° F., whilst in the
+chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the freezing room or
+chambers a much lower temperature (between 0° and 10° F.)
+is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled
+slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent
+damage by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice.
+The carcasses when freezing must be hung separated from each
+other, but for storage or transportation they are packed tightly
+together. Fish such as salmon is washed, thoroughly cleansed,
+and frozen on trays. Butter should be cooled as rapidly as
+possible to about 10° F.; its composition as regards proportion
+of volatile fatty-acids, &amp;c., remains absolutely unaltered for
+years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe and
+should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each
+one being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases
+holding about three hundred, which are taken first to a room
+in which they are slowly cooled to about 33° F., and are then kept
+in store just below freezing-point. Particular attention must be
+paid to the relative humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit
+should be quite fresh; grapes may be chilled to 26° F., while
+lemons cannot safely be kept at a lower temperature than 36°.
+The time during which soft fruit can be kept even in cold-store
+is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable
+prejudice existed against stored meat. While in many cases the
+flavour of fresh meat is rather superior, the food value is in no
+way altered by cold-storage.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation by Pickling other than Salt.</i>&mdash;For the preservation
+of vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to
+a limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute
+solution of sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage
+of eggs the more aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a
+portion of its water to the more concentrated yolk, which thereby
+expands and renders its thin containing-membrane liable to
+rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats and salmon, is preserved
+by packing in olive or other oil.</p>
+
+<p>The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely,
+milk, deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that
+alkaline liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat
+than acid materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour
+which milk undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact
+that milk forms perhaps the best medium for the growth and
+propagation of bacterial organisms, there is exceptional difficulty
+in its sterilization. As secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly
+sterile fluid, and, as shown by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under
+aseptic conditions and kept under such, it remains definitely
+fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other pollution at the time of
+milking arises from the animal, the stable, the milker and the
+vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other
+bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder.
+Milk as it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000
+bacteria and often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh
+country cream 100 millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual.
+These bacteria are of many kinds, some of them spore-bearing.
+The spores are more difficult to kill than the adult organism.
+The first step towards preservation is the removal of the dirt
+unavoidably present, to the particles of which a considerable
+proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through cloths or,
+better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects that
+removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a
+breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet
+of the milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate,
+a process known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the
+cream separates slowly, and does not form the coherent layer
+thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating is then effected either after
+bottling or by passing the milk continuously through pipes in
+which it is heated to from 160° to 170° F. By a repetition of
+the heating process on two or more succeeding days, complete
+sterilization may be effected, although a single treatment is
+sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many forms
+of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general
+introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark
+for the feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals
+has practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use
+of sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found
+little favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board
+ship.</p>
+
+<p>Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a
+most extensive sale. The first efforts to condense and thus
+preserve milk date from 1835, when an English patent was
+granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N. Horsford prepared condensed
+milk with the addition of lactose. Commercially successful milk
+condensation began in 1856. The milk is heated to about
+180° F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, after having
+been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts of
+milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122° F.,
+and is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration
+that 100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar,
+contain the solids of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed
+milk, although rarely quite sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is
+invariably brought into commerce in tin canisters. The preparation
+of sweetened condensed milk forms one of the most important
+branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is steadily increasing
+in England. Although milk can quite well be preserved in the
+form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically possesses
+immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the
+balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable,
+such unsweetened milk has found little or no favour.
+Milk powder is manufactured under various patents, the most
+successful of which depends upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate
+and the subsequent rapid evaporation of the milk on
+steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk powder made from
+skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but full-cream
+milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of the
+finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation
+of so-called milk chocolates.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. H.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Per contra</i>, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the <i>Year-book
+for 1907</i> (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 197-206,
+with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two and three
+years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on the
+efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an &ldquo;indefinite&rdquo; period is
+concerned; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat
+may really account for various modern diseases.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOL<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>fol</i>, modern <i>fou</i>, foolish, from a Late Latin use of
+<i>follis</i>, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester,
+a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester.</p>
+
+<p>The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its
+culminating point of influence and recognized place and function
+in the social organism during the middle ages, appears to have
+existed in all times and countries. Not only have there always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+been individuals naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others;
+there has been besides in most communities a definite class, the
+members of which have used their powers or weaknesses in this
+direction as a regular means of getting a livelihood. Savage
+jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests, have certainly much in
+common with the jester by profession. There existed in ancient
+Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose habits were not
+essentially different from those of the jesters of the middle ages.
+Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon has
+given a picturesque account in the <i>Banquet</i>. Philip of Macedon
+is said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as
+well as court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have
+sometimes been not unreasonably confounded) were common
+in a number of the petty courts at that era of civilization. <i>Scurrae</i>
+and <i>moriones</i> were the Roman parallels of the medieval witty
+fool; and during the empire the manufacture of human monstrosities
+was a regular practice, slaves of this kind being much
+in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester again has
+from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories
+are told of Bahalul (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">D&rsquo;Herbelot</a></span>, s.v.) the jester of Harun al-Reshid,
+which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the
+conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures
+of all kinds were found at the court of Montezuma. But that
+monarch no doubt hit upon one great cause of the favour of
+monarchs for this class when he said that &ldquo;more instruction
+was to be gathered from them than from wiser men, for they
+dared to tell the truth.&rdquo; Douce, in his essay <i>On the Clowns and
+Fools of Shakespeare</i>, has made a ninefold division of English
+fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the
+domestic fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool
+of the mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the
+&ldquo;vice,&rdquo; and is the original of the stage clowns so common among
+the dramatists of the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so
+much of the wit of Shakespeare. A very palpable classification
+is that which distinguishes between such creatures as were chosen
+to excite to laughter from some deformity of mind or body, and
+such as were so chosen for a certain (to all appearance generally
+very shallow) alertness of mind and power of repartee,&mdash;or briefly,
+butts and wits. The dress of the regular court fool of the middle
+ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge from the prints
+and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge on this
+matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time.
+The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight,
+with generally one leg different in colour from the other. The
+head was covered with a garment resembling a monk&rsquo;s cowl,
+which fell over the breast and shoulders, and often bore
+asses&rsquo; ears, and was crested with a cockscomb, while bells
+hung from various parts of the attire. The fool&rsquo;s bauble was
+a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was sometimes
+attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham
+castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occasionally
+worn, but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots
+than to the wits.</p>
+
+<p>The fool&rsquo;s business was to amuse his master, to excite him
+to laughter by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression
+of state affairs, and, in harmony with a well-known physiological
+precept, by his liveliness at meals to assist his lord&rsquo;s digestion.
+The names and the witticisms of many of the official jesters at
+the courts of Europe have been preserved by popular or state
+records. In England the list is long between Hitard, the fool of
+Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I.,
+and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are
+remembered from some connexion with general or literary history.
+Scogan was attached to Edward IV., and later was published
+a collection of poor jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew
+Boorde&rsquo;s name was attached, but without authority.</p>
+
+<p>Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have
+been a kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally
+used his influence with the king for good and charitable
+purposes. Armin, who, in his <i>Nest of Ninnies</i>, gives a full
+description of Sommers, and introduces many popular fools,
+says of him&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Only this much, he was a poor man&rsquo;s friend.</p>
+<p class="i05">And helpt the widow often in her end.</p>
+<p class="i05">The king would ever grant what he would crave.</p>
+<p class="i05">For well he knew Will no exacting knave.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is
+full of allusions to Will Sommers.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted
+from any list of jesters. A book of Tarleton&rsquo;s Jests was published
+in 1611, and, together with his <i>News out of Purgatory</i>, was reprinted
+by Halliwell Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844.
+Archie Armstrong, for a too free use of wit and tongue against
+Laud, lost his office and was banished the court. The conduct
+of the archbishop against the poor fool is not the least item of the
+evidence which convicts him of a certain narrow-mindedness
+and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of the court-jester
+flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with fantastic
+effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of the
+times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais&rsquo;s romance,
+and is the hero of Victor Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Le Roi s&rsquo;amuse</i>, and, with some
+changes, of Verdi&rsquo;s opera <i>Rigoletto</i>; while Chicot, the lithe and
+acute Gascon, who was so close a friend of Henry III., is portrayed
+with considerable justness by Dumas in his <i>Dame de
+Monsoreau</i>. In Germany Rudolph of Habsburg had his Pfaff
+Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen (whose features,
+as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved by the
+pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after jester.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the 16th century appeared <i>Le Sottilissime Astuzie di
+Bertoldo</i>, which is one of the most remarkable books ever written
+about a jester. It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of
+Bologna, and is a comic romance giving an account of the
+appearance at the court of Alboin king of the Lombards of a
+peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and wit. The book
+was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number of
+editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified.
+Though fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo
+are typical of the jester. That the private fool existed as late
+as the 18th century is proved by Swift&rsquo;s epitaph on Dicky Pearce,
+the earl of Suffolk&rsquo;s jester.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Flögel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The
+History of Court Fools (1858).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. He.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOLS, FEAST OF<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (Lat. <i>festum stultorum</i>, <i>fatuorum</i>, <i>follorum</i>,
+Fr. <i>fête des fous</i>), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious
+festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical
+counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The
+celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of
+ancient Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire
+to Christianity, and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical
+councils, continued to be celebrated by the people on the
+Kalends of January with all their old licence. The custom,
+indeed, so far from dying out, was adopted by the barbarian
+conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths in Spain,
+Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in
+Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms
+thought it necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected
+with it (<i>Decretum</i>, xix. c. 5, Migne, <i>Patrologia lat</i>. 140, p. 965).
+Then, just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among
+the people, the clergy themselves gave it the character of a
+specific religious festival. Certain days seem early to have been
+set apart as special festivals for different orders of the clergy:
+the feast of St Stephen (December 26) for the deacons, St John&rsquo;s
+day (December 27) for the priests, Holy Innocents&rsquo; Day for the
+boys, and for the sub-deacons Circumcision, the Epiphany,
+or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy Innocents became
+a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected by his
+fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or
+archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy,
+while the canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At
+first there is no evidence to prove that these celebrations were
+characterized by any specially indecorous behaviour; but in the
+12th century such behaviour had become the rule. In 1180
+Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens, calls the festival of the
+sub-deacons <i>festum stultorum</i> (Migne, <i>Patrol</i>. <i>lat</i>. 202, p. 79).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
+The burlesque ritual which characterized the Feast of Fools
+throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A young
+sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal <i>insignia</i>
+(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary.
+A mock mass was begun, during which the lections were read
+<i>cum farsia</i>, obscene songs were sung and dances performed,
+cakes and sausages eaten at the altar, and cards and dice played
+upon it.</p>
+
+<p>This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though
+condemned by serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the
+child-like popular mind of the middle ages no suggestion of
+contempt, though when belief in the doctrines and rites of
+the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready instrument
+in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this kind
+of retribution Scott in <i>The Abbot</i> gives a vivid picture, the
+Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling
+remnant of the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting
+on substituting the traditional Feast of Fools.</p>
+
+<p>This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously
+displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under
+various forms was celebrated in a large number of churches
+throughout the West. The ass had been introduced into the
+ritual of the church in the 9th century, representing either
+Balaam&rsquo;s ass, that which stood with the ox beside the manger
+at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt,
+or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often
+the ass was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes
+he was the occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to
+modern notions, but by no means intended in an irreverent
+spirit. The three most notable celebrations of the Feast of the
+Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. At Rouen the feast
+was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to represent
+the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with
+a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs
+and kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil,
+the chief figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow
+wooden effigy, within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies.
+The procession was followed, inside the church, by
+a curious combination of ritual office and mystery play, the text
+of which, according to the <i>Ordo processionis asinorum secundum
+Rothomagensem usum</i>, is given in Du Cange.</p>
+
+<p>Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was
+held on the 14th of January, and represented the flight into
+Egypt. A richly caparisoned ass, on which was seated the
+prettiest girl in the town holding in her arms a baby or a large
+doll, was escorted with much pomp from the cathedral to the
+church of St Étienne. There the procession was received by
+the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the sanctuary.
+Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to
+the <i>Introit</i>, <i>Kyrie</i>, <i>Gloria</i>, &amp;c., the congregation chanted &ldquo;Hinham&rdquo;
+(Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this
+feast actually runs: <i>In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum
+vice, Ite missa est, Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias,
+ter respondebit Hinham, Hinham, Hinham</i> (At the close of the
+mass the priest turning to the people instead of saying, <i>Ite missa
+est</i>, shall bray thrice: the people, instead of <i>Deo gratias</i>, shall
+thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw, Hee-haw).</p>
+
+<p>At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast
+of Fools, celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision.
+The clergy went in procession to the west door of the church,
+where two canons received the ass, amid joyous chants, and led
+it to the precentor&rsquo;s table. Bizarre vespers followed, sung
+falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts from all the
+vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was solemnly
+fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the precentor
+out into the square before the church (<i>conductus ad ludos</i>);
+water was poured on the precentor&rsquo;s head, and the ass became
+the centre of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery
+being carried on far into the night, while the clergy and the
+serious-minded retired to matins and bed.</p>
+
+<p>Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish
+the Feast of Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed
+its more obvious indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III.
+forbade the feasts of priests, deacons and sub-deacons altogether;
+and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened those who disobeyed this
+prohibition with excommunication. How little effect this had,
+however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, archbishop of
+Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses of
+the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the
+university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed
+a letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King
+Charles VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology
+to forbid it in collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact,
+too popular to succumb to these efforts, and it survived throughout
+Europe till the Reformation, and even later in France;
+for in 1645 Mathurin de Neuré complains in a letter to Pierre
+Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries which yearly on Innocents&rsquo;
+Day took place in the monastery of the Cordeliers at Antibes.
+&ldquo;Never did pagans,&rdquo; he writes, &ldquo;solemnize with such extravagance
+their superstitious festivals as do they.... The lay-brothers,
+the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen ...
+occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the
+sacerdotal garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands
+books turned upside down, and pretend to read through spectacles
+in which for glass have been substituted bits of orange-peel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. Picart, <i>Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples</i>
+(1723); du Tilliot, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de la fête des
+Fous</i> (Lausanne, 1741); Aimé Cherest, <i>Nouvelles recherches sur la
+fête des Innocents et la fête des Fous dans plusieurs églises et notamment
+dans celle de Sens</i> (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Müller&rsquo;s <i>Zeitschrift
+für deutsche Kulturgeschichte</i> (1858); H. Böhmer, art. &ldquo;Narrenfest&rdquo;
+in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklop</i>. (ed. 1903); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>
+(ed. 1884), <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Festum Asinorum.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOLSCAP,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb
+running up the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn
+by jesters and fools (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fool</a></span>); also a conical cap worn by
+dunces. The name is given to a size of writing or printing paper,
+varying in size from 12 × 15 in. to 17 × 13-1/2 in. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>). The
+name is derived from the use of a &ldquo;fool&rsquo;s cap&rdquo; as a watermark.
+A German example of the watermark dating from 1479 was
+exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction of
+the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-mill
+at Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the
+familiar story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool&rsquo;s cap
+for the royal arms as a watermark on the paper used for the
+journals of parliament.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOL&rsquo;S PARSLEY,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> in botany, the popular name for <i>Aethusa
+Cynapium</i>, a member of the family <i>Umbelliferae</i>, and a common
+weed in cultivated ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform
+root and a smooth hollow branched stem 1 to 2 ft. high, with
+much divided (ternately pinnate) smooth leaves and small compound
+umbels of small irregular white flowers. The plant has a
+nauseous smell, and, like other members of the order (<i>e.g.</i> hemlock,
+water-drop wort), is poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOT,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting
+of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests
+when in an upright position, standing or moving (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>:
+<i>Superficial and Artistic</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>: <i>Appendicular</i>). The
+word is also applied to such parts of invertebrate animals as serve
+as a foot, either for movement or attachment to a surface.
+&ldquo;Foot&rdquo; is a word common in various forms to Indo-European
+languages, Dutch, <i>voet</i>, Ger. <i>Fuss</i>, Dan. <i>fod</i>, &amp;c. The Aryan root
+is <i>pod</i>-, which appears in Sans. <i>p&#363;d</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="pous, podos">&#960;&#959;&#8166;&#962;, &#960;&#959;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span> and Lat.
+<i>pes</i>, <i>pedis</i>. From the resemblance to the foot, in regard to its
+position, as the base of anything, or as the lowest member of the
+body, or in regard to its function of movement, the word is
+applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a
+sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part
+of an organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the
+bottom of a type is divided by a groove into two portions known
+as &ldquo;feet.&rdquo; Probably referring to the beating of the rhythm
+with the foot in dancing, the Gr. <span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span> and Lat. <i>pes</i> were applied in
+prosody to a grouping of syllables, one of which is stressed,
+forming the division of a verse. &ldquo;Foot,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> foot-soldier, was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+formerly, with an ordinal number prefixed, the name of the
+infantry regiments of the British army. It is now superseded by
+territorial designations, but it still is used in the four regiments of
+the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a lineal
+measure of length the &ldquo;foot&rdquo; is of great antiquity, estimated
+originally by the length of a man&rsquo;s foot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weights and
+Measures</a></span>). For the ceremonial washing of feet, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maundy
+Thursday</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic
+Aphtha, Eczema Epizootica), a virulent contagious and inoculable
+malady of animals, characterized by initial fever, followed by the
+formation of vesicles or blisters on the tongue, palate and lips,
+sometimes in the nostrils, fourth stomach and intestine of
+cattle, and on parts of the body where the skin is thin, as on the
+udder and teats, between the claws, on the heels, coronet and
+pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very rapidly.
+A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is
+accompanied by salivation and a peculiar &ldquo;smacking&rdquo; of the
+lips. The vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break,
+exposing a red raw patch, which is very sensitive. The animal
+cannot feed so well as usual, suffers much pain and inconvenience,
+loses condition, and, if a milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or,
+if pregnant, may abort. More or less lameness is a constant
+symptom, and sometimes the feet become very much diseased and
+the animal is so crippled that it has to be destroyed. It is often
+fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by the saliva and the
+discharges from the vesicles, though all the secretions and
+excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all articles and
+places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by injecting
+the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or the
+peritoneal cavity.</p>
+
+<p>If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of
+different disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has
+been a European malady for more than 2000 years. But no
+reliance can be placed on this evidence, and it is not until we
+reach the 17th and 18th centuries that we find trustworthy proof
+of its presence, when it was reported as frequently prevailing
+extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During the 19th
+century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations
+between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become
+widely diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced
+from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower
+Austria, Bohemia, Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834.
+Cattle in the Vosges and in Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and
+the disease extending to France, Belgium and Holland, reached
+England in 1839, and quickly spread over the three kingdoms (see
+also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>). At this time the importation of
+foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was supposed
+that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships&rsquo;
+stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the
+voyage. This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct
+outbreaks, and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-mouth
+disease. From the observations of the best authorities it
+would appear to be an altogether exotic malady in the west of
+Europe, always invading it from the east; at least, this has been
+the course noted in all the principal invasions. It was introduced
+into Denmark in 1841; and into the United States of America in
+1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by diseased cattle
+from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic from
+the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually
+extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North
+America. It was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was
+stamped out on each occasion. It appears to be well known in
+India, Ceylon, Burma and the Straits Settlements. In 1870 it
+was introduced into the Andaman Islands by cattle imported
+from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in the same year
+it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is frequently
+epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks
+used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle
+also spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also
+prevails in central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle
+of the Dinkas suffering from a disease of the kind.</p>
+
+<p>Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young
+animals, or when malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge.
+In one year (1892) in Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with
+an estimated loss to the owners of £7,500,000 sterling. It is
+transmissible to nearly all the domestic animals, but its ravages
+are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Human
+beings are also liable to infection.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet,
+with salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to
+the sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation
+of the diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough
+disinfection of all places and substances which are capable of
+conveying the infection.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTBALL,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a game between two opposing sides played with
+a large inflated ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or
+by both feet and hands.</p>
+
+<p>Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity,
+and their existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris,
+Faroe Islanders, Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos,
+points to their primitive nature. In Greece the <span class="grk" title="episkyros">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>
+seems to have borne a resemblance to the modern game. Of this
+we read in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Antiquities</i>&mdash;&ldquo;It was the game
+at football, played in much the same way as with us, by a great
+number of persons divided into two parties opposed to one
+another.&rdquo; Amongst the Romans the <i>harpastum</i>, derived from
+the Greek verb <span class="grk" title="harpazô">&#7937;&#961;&#960;&#940;&#950;&#969;</span>, I seize, thus showing that carrying the
+ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil Kennett,
+in his <i>Romae antiquae notitia</i>, terms this missile a &ldquo;larger kind
+of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and
+striving to throw it into one another&rsquo;s goals, which was the
+conquering cast.&rdquo; The <i>harpastum</i> was a gymnastic game and
+probably played for the most part indoors. The real Roman
+football was played with the inflated <i>follis</i>, which was kicked from
+side to side over boundaries, and thus must have closely resembled
+the modern Association game. Tradition ascribes its introduction
+in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It has been played in
+Tuscany under the name of <i>Calcio</i> from the middle ages down to
+modern times.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman
+tradition has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians
+assert that a variety of football has been played in Ireland for
+over 2000 years. In early times the great football festival of the
+year was Shrove Tuesday, though the connexion of the game
+with this particular date is lost in obscurity. William Fitzstephen,
+in his <i>History of London</i> (about 1175), speaks of the
+young men of the city annually going into the fields after dinner
+to play at the well-known game of ball on the day <i>quae dicitur
+Carnilevaria</i>. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention
+of football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314)
+in consequence of &ldquo;the great noise in the city caused by hustling
+over large balls (<i>rageries de grosses pelotes</i>).&rdquo; A clear reference is
+made &ldquo;ad pilam ... pedinam&rdquo; in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39
+Edward III. (1365), memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be
+prohibited on account of the decadence of archery, and the same
+thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6 (1388). Both Henry VIII. and
+Elizabeth enacted laws against football, which, both then and
+under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have been violent to
+the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by prominent
+writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his <i>Boke named the Governour</i>
+(1531), speaks of football as being &ldquo;nothyng but beastely fury
+and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and consequently
+rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be
+wounded, wherefore it is to be put in perpetual silence.&rdquo; In
+Stubbes&rsquo; <i>Anatomie of Abuses</i> (1583) it is referred to as &ldquo;a
+develishe pastime ... and hereof groweth envy, rancour and
+malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great
+effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth.&rdquo; Fifty years
+later (1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone&rsquo;s <i>Table-Book</i>) as
+remarking, &ldquo;I would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am
+stopped by one of your heroic games called football; which I
+conceive (under your favour) not very conveniently civil in the
+streets, especially in such irregular and narrow roads as Crooked
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like your military
+pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed these
+two valiant exercises in the streets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes
+of Galway in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery,
+excepting &ldquo;onely the great foot balle.&rdquo; In the time of Charles
+II. football was popular at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene
+College, as is evidenced by the following extract from the register
+book of that institution under the date 1679:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation
+upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day,
+further than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their
+thirsts. And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking
+and spending money&mdash;Sophisters and Freshmen together&mdash;upon ye
+account of making or not making a speech at that football time be
+utterly left off and extinguished.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the
+masses, and never took root, except in educational institutions,
+among the upper classes until the 19th century. No clubs or
+code of rules had been formed, and the sole aim seems to have
+been to drive the ball through the opposing side&rsquo;s goal by fair
+means or foul. So rough did the game become that James I.
+forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes the exercise in
+his <i>Basilikon Doron</i> as &ldquo;meeter for laming than making able the
+users thereof.&rdquo; Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part
+in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses
+closed in order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered
+that the game fell into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal,
+occurred; and Shrove Tuesday &ldquo;football-day&rdquo; gradually died
+out about 1830, though a relic of the custom still remained in a
+few places. For some thirty years football was only practised at
+the great English public schools, many of which possessed special
+games, which in practically all cases arose from the nature of the
+individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its charging,
+tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it
+was taken up by the great public schools, would have been
+extremely dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts
+of some schools, as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence
+at such institutions the dribbling style of play, in which Mr
+Montague Shearman (<i>Football</i>, in the &ldquo;Badminton Library&rdquo;) sees
+the origin of the Association game, came into existence. Only at
+Rugby (later at some other schools), which from the first possessed
+an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved and developed,
+including even its roughness, for actual &ldquo;hacking&rdquo;
+(<i>i.e.</i> intentional kicking of an opponent&rsquo;s legs) was not expressly
+abolished at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school
+game at Rugby contained in <i>Tom Brown&rsquo;s School Days</i> has
+become classic.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Rugby Union.</i>&mdash;We have seen that from early times a
+rudimentary game of football had been a popular form of sport in
+many parts of Great Britain, and that in the old-established
+schools football had been a regular game among the boys. In
+different schools there arose various developments of the original
+game; or rather, what, at first, must have been a somewhat
+rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape as a
+definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby
+school had developed such a game, and from football played
+according to Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about
+the middle of the 19th century that football&mdash;up till that time a
+regular game only among schoolboys&mdash;took its place as a regular
+sport among men. To begin with, men who had played the game
+as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to continue playing
+their favourite school game, and others were induced to join
+them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had
+not had the experience of playing the game at school, but who
+had the energy and the will to follow the example of those who
+had had this experience. In this way football was established as a
+regular game, no longer confined to schoolboys. When football
+was thus first started, the game was little developed or organized.
+Rules were very few, and often there was great doubt as to what
+the rules were. But, almost from the first, clubs were formed to
+play football according to Rugby rules&mdash;that is, according to the
+rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even the
+Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost
+unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still,
+the fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a
+certain uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the
+English Union, and the commencement of international matches,
+that a really definite code of rules was drawn up.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of
+Rugby school became so popular in preference to the games of
+other schools, such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was
+probably very largely due to the reputation and success of Rugby
+school under Dr Arnold, and this also led most probably to its
+adoption by other schools; for in 1860 many schools besides
+Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The rapidity
+with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th century
+was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the
+London district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great
+rival, shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been
+started in Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield football
+club dates back to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of
+Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby football clubs had been formed
+before 1870, and by that date the game had been implanted both
+in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland, before 1860,
+football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been
+established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many
+districts had been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid
+as, in some ways, had been the spread of the game between the
+years 1850 and 1870, it was as nothing to what happened in the
+following twenty years; for by 1890 Rugby football, together
+with Association football, had become the great winter amusement
+of the people, and roused universal interest; while to-day
+on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of thousands
+of people playing football, while those who watch the game
+can be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to
+this great increase in the game and interest taken in it were,
+undoubtedly, the establishment of the various national Unions
+and the international matches; and, of course, the local rivalry
+of various clubs, together with cup or other competitions prevalent
+in certain districts, was a leading factor. The establishment
+of the English Union led to a codification of the rules
+without which development was impossible.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in
+London. This Union was an association of some clubs and schools
+which joined together and appointed a committee and officials
+to draw up a code of rules of the game. From this beginning the
+English Rugby Union has become the governing body of Rugby
+football in England, and has been joined by practically all the
+Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters connected
+with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international
+teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded in
+Edinburgh on the same lines, and with the same objects, while
+in 1880 the Welsh Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby
+Football Union, were established as the national Unions of Wales
+and Ireland, though in both countries there had been previously
+Unions not thoroughly representative of the country. All
+these Unions became the chief governing body within their own
+country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and
+laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by
+the English Union, the others adopted the English rules, with
+amendments to them from time to time. This state of affairs
+had one element of weakness&mdash;viz. that since all the Unions made
+their own rules, if ever a dispute should arise between any of
+them, a dead-lock was almost certain to ensue. Such a dispute
+did occur in 1884 between the English and Scottish Unions.
+This dispute eventually turned on the question of the right of
+the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game,
+and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior
+to the other Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this
+claim, and finally, in 1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin
+were appointed as a commission to settle the dispute. The
+result was the establishment of the International Board, which
+consists of representatives from each Union&mdash;six from England,
+two from each of the others&mdash;whose duties were to settle any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span>
+question that might arise between the different Unions, and to
+settle the rules under which international matches were to be
+played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various
+Unions as the rules of the game.</p>
+
+<p>With the establishment of the International Board the organization
+of the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail,
+and in 1895 occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading
+clubs in Yorkshire and Lancashire broke off from the English
+Union and formed the Northern Union, which since that date
+has had many accessions, and has become the leading body in
+the north of England. The question in dispute was the payment
+of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer
+love of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do,
+and who could give the time to play it; but with the increasing
+popularity of the game it became the pastime of all classes of the
+people, and clubs began to grow rich by &ldquo;drawing big gates,&rdquo;&mdash;that
+is, large numbers of spectators, frequently many thousands
+in number, paid for the privilege of witnessing the match. In
+these circumstances the temptation arose to reimburse the player
+for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to for playing
+the game, and thus it became universally recognized as legitimate
+to pay a player&rsquo;s expenses to and from a match. But in the
+case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their
+weekly wage when they had to go a distance to play a match,
+or to go on tour with their club&mdash;that is, go off for a few days and
+play one or two matches in different parts of the country&mdash;and
+consequently the claim was made on their behalf to recoup them
+for their loss of wage; while at the same time rich clubs began
+to be willing to offer inducements to good players to join their
+club, and these inducements were generally most acceptable
+in the form of money. In Association football (see below)
+professionalism&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the hiring and paying of a player for his
+services&mdash;had been openly recognized. A large section of the
+English Union&mdash;the amateur party&mdash;would not tolerate anything
+that savoured of professionalism, and regarded payments made
+to a player for broken time as illegitimate. The result was the
+formation of the Northern Union, which allowed such payments,
+and has practically recognized professionalism. This body has
+also somewhat altered the laws of the game, and reduced the
+number of players constituting a team from fifteen to thirteen.
+In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly amateur;
+but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan
+the professional element is strong.</p>
+
+<p>Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to
+select international teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first
+international match was played between England and Scotland
+in Edinburgh. This was a match between teams picked from
+English and Scottish players. These matches from the first
+roused widespread interest, and were a great stimulus to the
+development of the game. With the exception of a few years,
+when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all
+the countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one
+another&mdash;England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland
+since 1875 and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing
+Ireland in 1877 and Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales
+met first in 1882 and then in 1884, and since 1887 have played
+annually. The qualifications of a player for any country were
+at first vaguely considered to be birth; but they were never
+definitely settled, and there has been a case of a player playing
+for two countries. In 1894, however, the International Board
+decided that no player was to play for more than one country,
+and this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and
+though birth is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is
+not essential. Though international matches excite interest
+throughout the United Kingdom, the matches between two rival
+clubs arouse just as much excitement in their district, particularly
+when the clubs may be taken as representatives of two
+neighbouring rival towns. But when to this rivalry there is
+added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the excitement
+is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions
+have never been so popular as among Association, but the competition
+for the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before
+the establishment of the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly
+was the main cause of the popularity of the game in that county.
+Similarly the competition for the South Wales Cup from 1878
+to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game in that country.
+The method of carrying on these competitions is, that all the
+clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in the
+first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn
+in pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is
+only one pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elaboration
+of this competition is the &ldquo;League system&rdquo; of the Association
+game. This, likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players.
+Still it exists in some districts, especially where clubs are anxious
+to draw big gates. In the League system a certain number of
+clubs form a league to play one another twice each season; two
+points are counted for a win and one for a draw. The club
+which at the end of the season comes out with most points wins
+the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup
+competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season,
+and one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming
+out first.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with
+them, and this has certainly been the case with Rugby football,
+especially in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An
+interchange of football visits between these colonies and the
+motherland is now an important feature in the game. These
+tours date from 1888, when an English team visited Australia
+and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of
+New Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over
+to England, and by their play even then indicated how well the
+grammar of the game had been studied in that colony. Subsequently
+several British teams visited at intervals New Zealand
+and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent home a team
+which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played
+altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England,
+Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz.
+by a try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for
+itself. In 1908 a combined team of English and Welsh players
+toured in New Zealand and Australia, and also visited Canada
+on their way home. The team was not so strong as could have
+been wished, and though they did fairly well in Australia, they
+lost all three &ldquo;test matches&rdquo; against New Zealand. In South
+Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play
+is hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The
+first British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the
+generosity of Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking
+against loss. Teams were also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the
+result of matches played in each visit showing the steady improvement
+of the colonists. In 1906 the South Africans paid their first
+visit to England, and the result of their tour proved them to
+be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England
+managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one
+of the home Unions to gain a victory. The success of these
+colonial visits, more especially financially, created a development
+very foreign to the intentions of their organizers. The Northern
+Union as a professional body had drifted into a somewhat parlous
+state, through suffering on the one hand from a lack of international
+matches, and on the other from the competition of
+Association professional teams. The great financial success
+resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention
+of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered
+into negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team
+who would come over and play the Northern Union clubs, the
+visiting players themselves taking a share of the gate-money.
+For this purpose a team of New Zealanders toured the north of
+England in 1907, and their action caused the introduction of
+professional or Northern Union football in both New Zealand
+and Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to
+English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil,
+and numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 international
+matches have been played between France and England,
+and the energy of French players, coupled with their national
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+<i>élan</i>, makes them formidable opponents. The Rugby code has
+also obtained a firm footing in Canada, India, Ceylon and the
+Argentine.</p>
+
+<p>The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite
+conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft
+though firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than
+110 yds. long nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approximates
+to these dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines,
+called touch-lines, down the sides, and goal-lines along the ends.
+The touch-lines are continued beyond the goal-lines for a distance
+of not more than 25 yds.; and parallel to the goal-line and
+behind it, at a distance of not more than 25 yds., is drawn a line
+called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of the touch-lines
+produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from the touch-lines,
+are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding 11 ft.
+in height, and generally much more&mdash;averaging perhaps from
+20 to 30 ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a
+height of 10 ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar;
+and the object of the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar
+between the upright posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball
+is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate spheroid), and the official
+dimensions are&mdash;length, 11 to 11¼ in.; length circumference,
+30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 25½ to 26 in.; weight, 13
+to 14½ oz. It is made of india-rubber inflated, and covered with
+a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is
+generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked
+by flags on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there
+is similarly marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the
+side that had gained the majority of goals won the match, and
+if no goal had been scored, or an equal number, the game was
+said to be left drawn; but a modification was adopted before
+long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the ordinary course
+of play; but from the very first a try goal could be obtained by
+that side one of whose players either carried the ball across his
+opponents&rsquo; goal-line and then touched it down (<i>i.e.</i> on the
+ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the
+goal-line, before any of his opponents. The &ldquo;try&rdquo; is then
+proceeded with as follows: the ball is taken out by a member
+of the side obtaining the try in a straight line from the spot where
+it was &ldquo;touched down,&rdquo; and is deposited in a selected position
+on the ground in the field of play, the defending side being all
+confined behind their own goal-line until the moment the ball
+is so placed on the ground, when another member of the attacking
+side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a &ldquo;place kick&rdquo;)
+over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal
+is kicked; very often not. The modification first allowed was
+to count that side the winner which had gained the majority
+of tries, provided no goal or an equal number of goals had been
+scored; but a majority of one goal took precedence of any
+number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards abolished, and
+a system of points instituted by which the side with the majority
+of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and
+tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being
+as follows:&mdash;A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which
+case the try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except
+from a mark or a penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a
+goal obtained by a player who drops the ball from his hands and
+kicks it the moment it rises off the ground, as in the &ldquo;half-volley&rdquo;
+at cricket or tennis. A goal from a mark or penalty kick 3 points.
+Under the Northern Union code any sort of goal counts 2 points,
+a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a goal, both try
+and goal count, <i>i.e.</i> 5 points are scored.</p>
+
+<p>In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the
+direction of the opponents&rsquo; goal, but it may also be carried; but
+it must not be thrown forward or knocked on&mdash;that is, in the
+direction of the opponents&rsquo; goal&mdash;though it may be thrown back.
+Thus the game is really a combination of football and handball.
+The main principle is that any one who is not &ldquo;offside&rdquo; is
+in play. A player is offside if he gets in front of the ball&mdash;that
+is, on the opponents&rsquo; side of the ball, nearer than a colleague in
+possession of the ball to the opponents&rsquo; goal-line; when in this
+position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the
+ball under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the
+&ldquo;scrummage.&rdquo; In old days at Rugby school there was practically
+no limit to the numbers of players on each side, and not infrequently
+there would be a hundred or more players on one side.
+This was never prevalent in club football; twenty a-side was
+the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to fifteen a-side,
+the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides the ball
+got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted
+to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise
+forcing their way through with the ball in front of them. This
+was the origin of the scrummage.</p>
+
+<p>The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten
+minutes, sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends
+each goal in turn for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players
+who compose a side, the usual arrangement is that eight are called
+&ldquo;forwards,&rdquo; and form the scrummage; two &ldquo;half-backs&rdquo; are
+posted outside the scrummage; and four &ldquo;three-quarter-backs,&rdquo;
+a little behind the halves, stretch in a line across the field, their
+duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the ball to other
+members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents from
+doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of
+&ldquo;passing,&rdquo; the field position of the half-backs has undergone
+a change. One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is
+known as the &ldquo;scrum-half,&rdquo; the other takes a position between
+the latter and the three-quarters, and is termed the &ldquo;stand-off-half.&rdquo;
+Behind the three-quarters comes the &ldquo;full-back&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;back,&rdquo; a single individual to maintain the last line of defence;
+his duties are entirely defensive, either to &ldquo;tackle&rdquo; an opponent
+who has managed to get through, or, more usually, to catch
+and return long kicks. Play is started by one side kicking the
+ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of the
+opponents&rsquo; goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other
+side, who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on
+until he is &ldquo;tackled,&rdquo; or caught, by one of his opponents, unless
+he should choose to &ldquo;pass&rdquo; or throw it to another of his own
+side, who, provided he be not offside, may either kick, or run,
+or pass as he chooses. The ball in this way is kept moving
+until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line, or is tackled. If the
+ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at right angles
+to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is thrown in
+straight either by one of the same side whose player carried
+the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown
+out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-line
+either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending
+side touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds.
+from the goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field.
+If the ball is tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from
+the ground as soon as possible, and the forwards at once form
+the scrummage by putting down their heads and getting ready
+to shove against one another. They shove as soon as the ball
+is put down between the two front rows. In the scrummage
+the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise
+breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in the
+direction of the opponents&rsquo; goal-line by a series of short kicks
+in which the players run after the ball as fast as possible, while
+their opponents lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick
+or other device stop the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards
+breaking away with the ball, sometimes they let the ball come
+out of the scrummage to their half-backs, who either kick or run
+with it, or pass it to the three-quarter-backs, and so the game
+proceeds until the ball is once more &ldquo;dead&rdquo;&mdash;that is, brought
+to a standstill. The scrummage appears to be an uninteresting
+man&oelig;uvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but it is not
+merely a man&oelig;uvre in which weight and strength alone tell&mdash;it
+also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet,
+applying the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking
+the opposing side, as it were&mdash;usually termed wheeling&mdash;directing
+all the force to one side of the scrummage and thus
+breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively one, for the players
+are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it is called
+a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an open
+game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
+game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting
+struggle, frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very
+rapidly from one side to the other, so that it is a matter of
+no surprise to find the British public so ardently attached
+to it.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. J. N. F.; C. J. B. M.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Association.</i>&mdash;It is generally supposed that the English
+game of Association football is the outcome of the game of football
+as played at Cambridge University about the middle of
+the 19th century. In October 1863 a committee, consisting of
+representatives of the schools of Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Marlborough,
+Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code of laws
+which settled the fundamental principle of the &ldquo;Association&rdquo;
+game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which
+permitted of handling and carrying the ball. In Association
+football the use of the hands or arms, either for the purpose of
+playing the ball or impeding or holding an opponent, is absolutely
+prohibited; &ldquo;dribbling&rdquo; or kicking the ball with the feet, and
+propelling it by the head or body, are the methods to be adopted.
+The Cambridge laws specially provided for &ldquo;kicking&rdquo; the ball.
+Laws 13 and 14 provided that &ldquo;the ball, when in play, may be
+stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit by
+the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding,
+pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The laws of Association football first took practical shape
+as the outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863
+at the Freemasons&rsquo; Tavern, London. The clubs which sent
+delegates were representative of all classes of football then
+played. The meeting was a momentous one, for not only was
+the foundation laid of the Football Association, the national
+association which has since then controlled the game in England,
+but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed
+as to &ldquo;hacking&rdquo; being permissible under the laws, the representatives
+who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is
+now so roundly condemned in both the Association and Rugby
+games, withdrew and formed the Rugby Union.</p>
+
+<p>The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the
+Football Association at their meeting on the 24th of November
+1863. They took the view that those laws &ldquo;embraced the true
+principles of the game with the greatest simplicity&rdquo;; the laws
+were &ldquo;officially&rdquo; passed on the 1st of December 1863, and the
+first publication was made in <i>Bell&rsquo;s Life</i> four days later. These
+laws have from time to time been modified, but the principles
+as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the Association
+game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual dimensions
+for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and
+the goals are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post
+8 ft. from the ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and
+must be a perfect sphere from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as
+distinguished from the elliptical or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A
+rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in front of the goals,
+and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the &ldquo;penalty
+area&rdquo;; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the centre
+of the goal, is the &ldquo;penalty kick mark.&rdquo; The boundary lines
+at the sides of the field are called the &ldquo;touch-lines&rdquo;; those at
+the ends (in the centre of which are the goals) being the &ldquo;goal-lines.&rdquo;
+The game is started by a place kick from the centre of
+the field of play, and none of the opposite side is allowed to
+approach within 10 yds. of the ball when it is kicked off. When
+the ball passes over the touch line it has to be thrown in by one
+of the opposite side, and can be returned into the field of play
+in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line at any time
+without touching one of the defending side, it has to be kicked
+out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in
+front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest
+the point where the ball left the field of play. But should it
+touch one of the defending side in its transit over the goal-line
+the attacking side has the privilege of a free kick from the corner
+flag (a &ldquo;corner kick&rdquo;). This is often a great advantage, but such
+free kick does not produce a goal unless the ball touches one of
+the other players on its way to the post. Ordinarily a goal is
+scored when the ball goes between the goal-posts and under the
+cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or carried. The regulation
+duration of a game is an hour and a half, and ends are
+changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has
+the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority
+of goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except
+when the free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty
+for certain infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and
+if such infringement take place within the penalty area on the
+part of a player on the side then defending the goal, and in
+the judgment of the referee be intentional, a &ldquo;penalty kick&rdquo;
+is awarded to the attacking side. The penalty kick is a free
+kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players of the defending
+side being excluded from the penalty area, except the goalkeeper,
+who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore,
+being an almost certain goal.</p>
+
+<p>A player is always in play as long as there are three of the
+opposite side between him and the opposite goal <i>at the time the
+ball is kicked</i>. This &ldquo;offside&rdquo; rule gives much trouble to the
+young player, though why it should do so it is not easy to say.
+The rule is simple if the words in italics are remembered. The
+ball must not be carried, knocked or wilfully handled under any
+pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper, who is allowed to
+use his hands in defence of his goal, either by knocking on or
+throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus far he
+is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the ball
+the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the
+rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them
+the serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player.
+Players are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such
+as have their heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal
+plates or gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this
+rule is liable to be prohibited from taking further part in a
+match.</p>
+
+<p>In the early &rsquo;sixties of the 19th century there were probably
+not more than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association
+football in the United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined
+in the south of England to the universities and public schools.
+But whilst the game was being established in the south it was
+making steady progress in the north, particularly in Yorkshire,
+where the Sheffield Club had been formed as early as 1854. In
+1867 the game had become so well established that it was decided
+to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played
+&ldquo;in the wilds of Battersea Park,&rdquo; terminated in a draw, neither
+side having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the
+growing popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871,
+only three years later, two matches of an international character
+were played between Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership
+with the Football Association; they were not, however, recognized
+as &ldquo;international&rdquo; matches. The first real international match,
+England v. Scotland, was played on the 30th of November 1872
+at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between
+England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879;
+and that between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In
+1896 amateur international matches were inaugurated with
+Germany, Austria and Bohemia; and games are now annually
+played with Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Holland, Austria and other continental countries. As the outcome
+of the international relations with Scotland, Wales and
+Ireland, an International Football Association Board was formed
+in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon. Two
+representatives from each of the four national associations constitute
+the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not
+only by the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in
+all countries where the Association game is played. At a meeting
+held at Paris on the 21st of May 1904 the &ldquo;International Federation
+of Association Football&rdquo; was instituted. It consists of the
+recognized national associations in the respective countries:
+and its objects are to develop and control Association international
+football. The countries in federation are: Austria,
+Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany,
+Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early
+days becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+the game in the 20th century. Association football has become
+one of the most popular of all national sports in the United
+Kingdom. It is slowly but surely taking a similar position on the
+continent of Europe and is making progress even in the Far East,
+Japan being one of its latest adherents. In the season of 1871-1872
+the Football Association inaugurated its popular challenge
+cup competition which is now competed for by both amateur and
+professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered, all of
+which were from the south of England. The first winners of the
+cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the
+final tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the
+competition was mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the
+season of 1881-1882 the Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in
+the final tie by the Old Etonians by one goal to nothing. Professionalism
+was then unknown in the game, and comparatively
+little interest was taken in it except by the players themselves.
+In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the first time
+taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in
+the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900-1901
+it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur
+Club, who defeated the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three
+goals to one. In the following season the cup was again taken
+north by the Bury Club. In the early days of the competition a
+few hundred people only attended the final tie, which for many
+years was played at Kennington Oval in London. In the course
+of time, however, the interest of the public so largely increased
+that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity;
+accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Manchester,
+where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894
+it was played at Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace.
+The attendance during the following ten years averaged 80,000
+people. The record attendance was in the season of 1900-1901,
+when the south were contesting with the north, the spectators
+then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909
+356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had
+increased to 404.</p>
+
+<p>The great development of the game necessitated many changes
+in the system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary
+to the rules) a practice of making payment to players crept into
+the game in the north of England and slowly developed. After
+some years of debate as to the best method of dealing with this
+development the Football Association decided in 1885 to legalize
+and control the payment of players. The rules define a professional
+player as one who receives remuneration of any sort
+above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually paid, or
+is registered as a professional. They further provide that training
+expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered as
+remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses.
+Players competing for any money prizes in football contests are
+also considered professionals.</p>
+
+<p>In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional
+clubs of the north and midlands of England, was formed; and a
+new scheme was inaugurated for the playing of matches on what
+is known as the &ldquo;League&rdquo; principle, the essential advantage of
+which is that the clubs in membership of a league agree to play
+with each other &ldquo;home and home&rdquo; matches each season, and
+also bind themselves under certain penalties to play their best
+team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern League
+came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the
+interest in the game in the south and west of England. The
+Football League and the Southern League very soon had their
+imitators, and in 1909 there were upwards of six hundred league
+competitions playing under the sanction and control of the Football
+Association. The league system also found favour in Scotland,
+Wales and Ireland, and has extended to most of the colonies
+where Association football is played. In the season of 1893-1894
+the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in
+membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated.
+In the first season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity
+of the competition is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-1909
+there were 229 entries.</p>
+
+<p>The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs,
+had in 1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur
+clubs and a quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400
+professional clubs with 7000 professional players. It has also
+directly affiliated 52 county, district and colonial associations,
+and indirectly in membership a large number of minor associations
+which are affiliated through the county and district
+associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs
+in Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the
+various battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other
+army stations; and the Royal Navy Football Association
+comprises all ships afloat having Association football clubs.</p>
+
+<p>The regulations of the Football Association, which is the
+recognized administrative and legislative body for the game in
+England, make provision for the sanction and control of leagues
+and competitions; and its rules, regulations, principles and
+practices very largely prevail in all national associations. The
+king is the patron, and the council consists of 56 members, a
+president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10 representatives
+elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the country is
+subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the navy
+and of county associations in England which have upwards of
+50 clubs in membership, each representative being directly
+appointed by his association. In 1905 the Football Association
+became incorporated under the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and
+as a consequence the word &ldquo;Limited&rdquo; appears in its title. It is
+not, however, a trading body; the shareholders are not entitled
+to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may the members of the
+council, who are the directors, receive any payment for their
+services. The Scottish Football Association is also an incorporated
+body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the
+United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the
+regulations of the Football Association they may not pay a larger
+dividend to their shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the
+directors receive payment for their services.</p>
+
+<p>The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late
+years has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing
+every one into full play. The great aim accordingly has been
+to encourage combination and to discourage purely individual
+efforts. In the early days, though there was a certain amount of
+cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on himself. Even up to the
+middle of the &rsquo;seventies dribbling was looked upon as the great
+desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just as long kicks
+were the main object of a back. The development of the game
+was of course bound to change all that. The introduction of
+passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler
+pure and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with
+which he was mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually
+came to be regarded as the keynote to success. Instead of one full
+back, as was originally the case, and one half-back, the defence
+gradually developed by the addition first of a second half, then of
+a second full back, and still later of a third half-back, until it came
+to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of course, two full backs
+and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used to constitute
+the attack in the earliest days of the Association have been
+reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood,
+until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has
+been to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and
+as a natural consequence to make the game more open and
+thereby generally more interesting and attractive. Association
+football is indeed, from the standpoint of the spectator, a much
+brighter game than it was in its infancy, the result of the new
+methods bringing every one of the eleven players into full relief
+<span class="correction" title="amended from throughtout">throughout</span> the game. The players who, as a rule, make or mar
+the success of a side in modern football are the centre forward
+and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the
+attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close
+dribbling and following up, the new formation makes for accuracy
+of passing among the forwards, with intelligent support from the
+half-backs. The net result is practically the effective combination
+of the whole side. To do his part as it ought to be done
+every member of an eleven must work in harmony with the rest,
+and on a definite system, in all cases subordinating his own
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+methods and personal interests to promote the general well-being
+of the side.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. W. A.; F. J. W.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The literature of British football is very extensive, but the following
+works are among the best: <i>Football</i> in the &ldquo;Badminton Library&rdquo;
+(London, 1904), where the different games played at Eton, Harrow,
+Rugby, Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly described;
+Rev. F. Marshall, <i>Football; the Rugby Game</i> (London,
+Cassells); J.E. Vincent, <i>Football; its History for Five Centuries</i>
+(London, 1885); C.J.B. Marriott and C.W. Alcock, <i>Football</i>
+(&ldquo;Oval Series&rdquo;); &ldquo;Football,&rdquo; in the <i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>The
+Rugby Football Union Handbook</i>, Richardson, Greenwich, Official
+Annual; and <i>The Football Annual</i>, Merritt and Hatcher (Association
+Game), London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;In America the game of football has been
+elaborated far more than elsewhere, and involves more complications
+than in England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of
+football generally resembling the English Association game was
+played on the village greens and by the students of colleges and
+academies. There was no running with the
+ball, but dribbling, called &ldquo;babying,&rdquo; was
+common. In 1871 a code of rules was drawn
+up, but they were unsatisfactory and not invariably
+observed. &ldquo;Batting the ball,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+striking the ball forward with the fists, was
+allowed. There were two backs, sixteen
+rushers or forwards, and two rovers or &ldquo;peanutters,&rdquo;
+who lurked near the opponents&rsquo; goal.
+During this period the first international football
+game was played at Yale between the
+college team and one made up of old Etonians,
+the rules being a compromise between the
+American and the English.</p>
+
+<p>English Rugby, introduced from Canada,
+was first played at Harvard University, and
+in 1875 a match under a compromise set of
+rules, taken partly from the Rugby Union and
+partly from the existing American game, was
+played with Yale. The following year Yale
+adopted the regular Rugby Union rules, and
+played Harvard under these. Later, several
+other colleges adopted these English rules.
+Absence of tradition necessitated expansion
+of these laws, and a convention of colleges
+was assembled. Thenceforward annual conventions
+were held, which from time to time
+altered and amplified the rules. A college
+association was formed, and the game grew in
+popularity. Public criticism of the roughness
+shown in the play early threatened its existence;
+indeed at one time the university
+authorities compelled Harvard to abstain
+from the annual game with Yale. Changes
+in the rules were introduced, and the game has been characterized
+by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become the
+most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal
+university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even
+40,000 spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but
+a Rules Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of
+New York, made the necessary changes in the rules from time
+to time, and these have been accepted by the country at large.
+In the West associations were formed; but the game in the East
+is played principally under separate agreements between the
+contesting universities, all using, however, one code of rules.
+Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new committee
+of wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as
+well as public and private schools have also taken up the
+game. The American football season lasts from the middle
+of September to the first of December only, owing to the
+severity of the American winter. Professional football is not
+played in America.</p>
+
+<p>The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men
+on a field of 330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines
+into squares with sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on
+each side of the field. Until 1903 the field was divided by
+latitudinal lines only and was therefore popularly called the
+&ldquo;gridiron&rdquo;; subsequently it was called the &ldquo;checkerboard.&rdquo;
+The end lines are called &ldquo;goal-lines,&rdquo; the side &ldquo;touch-lines.&rdquo;
+The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle line, or
+55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of
+each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft.
+in length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the
+ground. The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby
+type.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:668px; height:338px" src="images/img623.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Diagram of Field</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The football rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a scrimmage, the
+first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the quarter-back, may carry it
+forward beyond the line of scrimmage, provided in so doing he crosses such line at least
+5 yds. from the point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore,
+that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line of scrimmage
+at least 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put in play. The field is marked
+off at intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in
+penalizing fouls and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained in three downs, and also
+at intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the side lines, in order to assist the
+referee in determining whether the quarter-back runs according to rule, or whether,
+in case of a forward pass, such pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed
+from the gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the above
+diagram shows exactly how the field should be marked. As the width of the field
+does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is wise to run the first line through the
+middle point of the field and then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle
+line. In order to save labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion of the
+longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is accomplished if their points of intersection
+with the transverse lines are distinctly marked, for instance, by a line a foot long.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2">A match game consists of two periods (<i>halves</i>) of thirty-five
+minutes with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games
+usually have shorter halves. There are four officials: the <i>umpire</i>,
+whose duty it is to watch the conduct of the players and decide
+regarding fouls; the <i>referee</i>, who decides questions regarding the
+progress of the ball and of play; the <i>field judge</i> who assists
+the referee and keeps the time; and the <i>linesman</i>, who (with two
+assistants, one representing each eleven) marks the distance
+gained or lost in each play.</p>
+
+<p>In scoring, a &ldquo;touchdown&rdquo; (the English Rugby &ldquo;try&rdquo;) counts
+5 points, a goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the
+touchdown), a &ldquo;goal from the field,&rdquo; whether from placement or
+drop-kick, 4, and a &ldquo;safety&rdquo; (the English Rugby &ldquo;touchdown&rdquo;)
+2. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, these are made as in English Rugby.
+American Rugby differs from the English game, because in the
+scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other, and, although
+separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a constant
+man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of &ldquo;interference&rdquo;
+is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put
+&ldquo;on side&rdquo; when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward
+passing, <i>i.e.</i> throwing the ball toward the opponents&rsquo; goal, is
+permissible under certain restrictions. The costume usually
+consists of a close-fitting jersey with shoulders and elbows padded
+and reinforced with leather; short trousers with padded thighs
+and knees, heavy stockings and shoes with leather cleats. In the
+early period of the game caps were worn, but, as they were
+impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour of the
+wearing of long hair, and the &ldquo;chrysanthemum head&rdquo; became
+the distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+proved an inadequate protection, and some players now wear a
+&ldquo;head harness&rdquo; of soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed
+in the places of injured players.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby,
+and the rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking,
+place-kicking, goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are
+practically the same, except that, on a free kick after a fair
+catch, the opposing players in the American game may not come
+up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in front of it. In the
+American game there is no scrummage in the English sense, nor
+is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch. The
+element of chance in both these methods of play was done away
+with by the enunciation of the principle of the &ldquo;possession of the
+ball.&rdquo; In America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a
+runner has been tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is
+also put into play by an evolution called a scrimmage, usually
+called &ldquo;line-up,&rdquo; which beyond the name bears no resemblance
+to the English scrummage. The ball, at every moment of the
+game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to the other.
+It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not being
+able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive
+attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven linemen
+(<i>i.e.</i> forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-lines
+on the spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The
+ball is placed on the ground by the centre-rush, also called the
+snapper-back, who, upon the signal being given by his quarter-back,
+&ldquo;snaps back&rdquo; the ball to this player, or to the full-back,
+by a quick movement of the hand or foot. The moment the ball is
+snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it is a foul for the
+side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an opponent
+except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms);
+or for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The
+defenders may use their hands and arms only to get their
+opponents out of the way in order to get at the man with the ball.
+Each member of the attacking side endeavours, of course, to
+prevent his opponents from breaking through and interfering
+with the quarter-back, who requires this protection from his line
+in order to have time to pass the ball to one of the backs, whom he
+has notified by a signal to be ready. In the United States a
+player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long as hands
+and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called &ldquo;blocking-off&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;interference&rdquo; when done to protect a friend running with
+the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of
+American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the
+half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his
+interference must form immediately. This means that one or
+more of his fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs,
+blocking off any opponent who <span class="correction" title="amended from trys">tries</span> to tackle him. The first
+duty of the defence against a hostile run is therefore to break up
+the interference, <i>i.e.</i> put these defenders out of the play, so that
+the runner may be reached and tackled.</p>
+
+<p>The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off
+or goal. If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account
+of the direction of wind, the loser must kick off and send the
+ball at least 10 yds. into the opponents&rsquo; territory from a place-kick
+from the 55 yds. line. The two ends of the kicking side,
+who are usually fast runners, get down the field after the ball
+as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man who catches
+the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the kick-off
+is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it back
+as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his
+opponents the ball is down, and a line-up takes place, the ball
+being in the possession of the catcher&rsquo;s side, which now attacks.
+In order to prevent the so-called &ldquo;block game,&rdquo; once prevalent,
+in which neither side made any appreciable progress, the rules
+provide that the side in possession of the ball must make <i>at
+least 10 yds. in three successive attempts</i>, or, failing to do so,
+must surrender the ball to the enemy, or, as it is called, &ldquo;lose
+the ball on downs&rdquo;. This is infrequent in actual play, because
+if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly successful, it becomes
+evident that the chances of completing the obligatory 10-yd.
+gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a forward
+pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball on
+the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball,
+nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When
+the wind is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often,
+as the other side, not being able to kick back on equal terms,
+is forced to play a rushing game, which is always exhausting.
+Again, the kicking game is often resorted to by the side that has
+the lead in the score, in order to save its men and yet retain the
+advantage. The only remaining way to advance the ball is on
+a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English game. The free
+kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from placement.
+Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is brought
+back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who
+carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the
+side which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of
+two ways. Either it may be touched to the ground and then
+kicked at least 10 yds. towards the opponents&rsquo; goal, or it may be
+taken into the field at right angles to the line a distance not
+less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and there put down for a
+line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring how far he will
+go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.</p>
+
+<p>Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his
+weight and ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back.
+He must also, in case the full-back is to make the next play,
+be able to throw the ball from between his legs accurately into
+the full-back&rsquo;s hands, thus saving the time that would be wasted
+if the quarter-back were used as an intermediary. The two
+&ldquo;guards,&rdquo; who must also be heavy men, form with the centre
+the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in defence
+blocking the enemy. The two &ldquo;tackles&rdquo; must be heavy
+yet active and aggressive men, as they must not only help the
+centre and guards in repelling assaults on the middle of the line,
+but also assist the ends in stopping runs round the line as well
+as those between tackle and end, a favourite point of attack.
+The &ldquo;ends&rdquo; are chosen for their activity, sure tackling, fast
+running and ability to follow up the ball after a kick. Of the
+four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure
+catcher and tackler and a fast runner. The two half-backs
+must also be fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is
+often chosen for his ability to gain ground by &ldquo;bucking the line,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> plunging through the opposing team&rsquo;s line. He must therefore
+be over the average weight, while the other half-back is called
+upon to gain by running round the opposing ends. The quarter-back
+is the commanding general and therefore the most important
+member of his side, as with him lies the choice of plays to be
+made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in
+decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities
+absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains
+the ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a
+series of numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain
+play that is to be carried through the moment the ball is snapped
+back. A good quarter-back thinks rapidly and shouts his signal
+for the next play as soon as a down has been called and while
+the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays are run off rapidly
+and the enemy is given as little time as possible to concentrate.
+The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard them
+from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating
+every position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and
+other open plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called
+sequence-signals, and indicate a prearranged series of plays for
+use in certain emergencies. Every man&oelig;uvre of the attacking
+side is carried out by every member of the team, the ideal being
+&ldquo;every man in every play every time.&rdquo; As soon as a signal is
+given each man should know what part of the ensuing move will
+fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for the runner, or getting
+down the field under a punt. Every team has its own code.</p>
+
+<p>About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and
+mass plays (wedge-formations, tandems, &amp;c.), <i>i.e.</i> to the grouping
+of bodies of men behind the line, and starting them before the
+ball was snapped back, so that they struck the line with an
+acquired momentum that was extremely severe, particularly
+when met by men equally determined. These plays caused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most
+important law providing for a limitation to the number of men
+who could be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping
+seven men drawn up in the line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Penalties</i> are of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for
+refusing to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for
+repeated fouls made with the intention of delaying the game;
+(2) disqualification of players for unnecessary roughness or
+ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for infringement of rules, for
+which certain distances are taken away from the previous
+gains of the side making the fouls.</p>
+
+<p>The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages interspersed
+with runs and kicks. The systematized development
+of plays places at the disposal of the quarter an infinite variety
+of attack, which he seeks to direct at the opposing line with
+bewildering rapidity and dash. During the preliminary games
+of the season &ldquo;straight football&rdquo; is generally played; that is,
+intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple plunges
+into the line are mainly relied upon. &ldquo;Trick plays,&rdquo; which
+comprise all man&oelig;uvres of an intricate nature, are reserved
+for later and more important matches. Among these is the
+&ldquo;fake (false) kick,&rdquo; in which the full-back takes position as if
+to receive the ball for a kick, but the ball is passed to a different
+player for a run. Another play of this kind is the &ldquo;wing-shift,&rdquo;
+in which some or all of the players on one side of centre suddenly
+change to the other side, thus forming a mass and throwing the
+opponents&rsquo; line out of balance. To this category belong also
+&ldquo;double passes,&rdquo; &ldquo;false passes,&rdquo; &ldquo;delayed passes,&rdquo; &ldquo;delayed
+runs&rdquo; and &ldquo;criss-crosses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Training for football in America resembles that for other
+sports in regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems
+at the universities differ, but there is generally a head coach,
+who is assisted by graduates, each of whom pays especial
+attention to one set of men, one to the men in the centre of the
+line, one to the backs, another to the ends, &amp;c. Candidates for
+the teams are put through a severe course of practice in catching
+punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts, falling on the
+ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking through
+the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the kicking
+is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves
+particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the
+ball whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of
+cardinal importance in American football, and dribbling for this
+reason is unknown. When running with the ball the player is
+taught to take short steps, to follow his interference, that is, not
+isolate himself from his defenders, and neither to slow up nor
+shut his eyes when striking the opposing line. Tackling well
+below the waist is taught, but it is a foul to tackle below the knee.
+The general rule for defensive work of all kinds is &ldquo;play low.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Walter Camp, <i>How to play Football</i>, and the <i>Official Football
+Guide</i> (annual), both in Spalding&rsquo;s Athletic Library; his <i>Book of
+College Sports</i> (New York, 1893), his <i>American Football</i> (New York,
+1894), and his <i>Football</i> (Boston, 1896)&mdash;the last in co-operation with
+L.F. Deland; R.H. Barbour, <i>The Book of School and College Sports</i>
+(New York, 1904); W.H. Lewis, <i>Primer of College Football</i> (Boston,
+1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. B.; W. Ca.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, ANDREW HULL<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1806-1863), American admiral, was
+born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806,
+his father, Samuel Augustus Foote (1780-1846), being a prominent
+lawyer and Whig politician, who as U.S. senator moved in 1829
+&ldquo;Foote&rsquo;s resolutions&rdquo; on public lands, in the discussion of which
+Daniel Webster made his &ldquo;reply to Hayne.&rdquo; He entered the
+U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830.
+After cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the &ldquo;John Adams,&rdquo;
+he was assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later
+(1846-1848) to the Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made
+commander of the &ldquo;Perry,&rdquo; and engaged for two years in suppressing
+the slave trade on the African coast. In 1856, as
+commander of the &ldquo;Portsmouth,&rdquo; he served on the East India
+station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the
+Barrier Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak
+of the Civil War, he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard,
+becoming a full captain in 1861. In August 1861 he was assigned
+to the command &ldquo;of the naval operations upon the Western
+waters.&rdquo; His exploit in capturing Fort Henry (on the right
+bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the 6th
+of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant&rsquo;s
+land forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success;
+but their combined attack on Fort Donelson (12 m. off, on the left
+bank of the Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry
+garrison had escaped, resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16),
+in heavy losses to Foote&rsquo;s gunboats, Foote himself being severely
+wounded. In March-April he co-operated in the capture of
+New Madrid (<i>q.v.</i>) and Island No. 10. In June he retired from
+his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral, and
+became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On
+the 26th of June 1863 he died at New York.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), American author and
+illustrator, was born in Milton, New York, on the 19th of
+November 1847, of English Quaker ancestry. She was educated
+at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female Collegiate Seminary and at
+the Cooper Institute School of Design for women, in New York.
+In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining engineer,
+and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California,
+Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories,
+in which, as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough
+picturesque life, especially the mining life, of the West. Some
+of her best drawings appear in her own books. Among her
+publications are <i>The Led-Horse Claim</i> (1883), <i>John Bodewin&rsquo;s
+Testimony</i> (1886), <i>The Chosen Valley</i> (1892), <i>C&oelig;ur d&rsquo;Alene</i>
+(1894); <i>The Prodigal</i> (1900), a novelette; <i>The Desert and the
+Sown</i> (1902); and several collections of short stories, including
+<i>A Touch of Sun and other Stories</i> (1903).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTE, SAMUEL<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor,
+was baptized at Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his
+attachment to his native Cornwall he gives no better proofs
+as an author than by making the country booby Timothy (in
+<i>The Knights</i>) sound the praises of that county and of its manly
+pastimes; but towards his family he showed a loyal and enduring
+affection. His father was a man of good family and position.
+His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as
+well as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally
+supported in the days of his prosperity, and after her death
+indignantly vindicated her character from the imputations
+recklessly cast upon it by the revengeful spite of the duchess
+of Kingston. About the time when Foote came of age, he
+inherited his first fortune through the murder of his uncle, Sir
+John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel
+Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at
+Worcester, and at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing
+himself in both places by mimicry and audacious pleasantries
+of all kinds, and, although he left Oxford without taking his
+degree, acquiring a classical training which afterwards enabled
+him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion, and helped
+to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>Foote was &ldquo;designed&rdquo; for the law, but certainly not by
+nature. In his chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian
+Coffee-house hard by, he learned to know something of lawyers
+if not of law, and was afterwards able to jest at the jargon and
+to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and to satirize the Latitats
+of the other branch of the profession with particular success.
+The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in <i>The Lame Lovers</i>,
+is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v. Pickwick.
+But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house
+in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was
+the social centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the
+second of which he appears to have inherited at his father&rsquo;s
+death), and had then passed through severe straits, he made
+his first appearance on the actual stage in 1744. It is said that
+he had married a young lady in Worcestershire; but the traces
+of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to his washer-woman)
+are mysterious, and probably apocryphal.</p>
+
+<p>Foote&rsquo;s first appearance as an actor was made little more than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+two years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics,
+including Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own
+first venture, as Othello, was a failure; and though he was
+fairly successful in genteel comedy parts, and was, after a favourable
+reception at Dublin, enrolled as one of the regular company
+at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746, he had not as yet
+made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay neither in
+tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder &ldquo;where
+the devil it <i>did</i> lie,&rdquo; when his successful performance of the part
+of Bayes in <i>The Rehearsal</i> at last suggested to him the true
+outlet for his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the
+example of Garrick, he had introduced into this famous part
+imitations of actors, and had added a variety of other satirical
+comment in the way of &ldquo;gag.&rdquo; Engaging a small company
+of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April 1747,
+at the theatre in the Haymarket &ldquo;<i>gratis</i>,&rdquo; &ldquo;a new entertainment
+called the <i>Diversions of the Morning</i>,&rdquo; to which were to be added
+a farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue &ldquo;spoken by
+the B-d-d Coffee-house.&rdquo; Foote&rsquo;s success in these <i>Diversions</i>
+obtained for him the name of &ldquo;the English Aristophanes,&rdquo;
+an absurd compliment, declined by Foote himself (see his letter
+in <i>The Minor</i>). The <i>Diversions</i> consisted of a series of imitations
+of actors and other well-known persons, whose various peculiarities
+of voice, gesture, manner or dress were brought directly
+before the spectators, while the epilogue introduced the wits
+of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and specially
+&ldquo;took off&rdquo; an eminent physician (probably the munificent
+Sir William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in <i>The
+Devil on Two Sticks</i>), and a notorious quack oculist of the day.
+The actors ridiculed in this entertainment having at once procured
+the aid of the constables for preventing its repetition, Foote
+immediately advertised an invitation to his friends to drink
+a dish of tea with him at the Haymarket on the following day at
+noon&mdash;&ldquo;and &rsquo;tis hoped there will be a great deal of comedy
+and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make the morning
+as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to be
+had at St George&rsquo;s coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no
+person will be admitted. N.B.&mdash;<i>Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there,
+and Lady Betty Frisk has absolutely promised.</i>&rdquo; The device
+succeeded to perfection; further resistance was abandoned
+as futile by the actors, whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the
+&ldquo;instructions to his pupils&rdquo; which the entertainer pretended
+to impart (typifying them under characters embodying their
+several chief peculiarities or defects&mdash;the massive and sonorous
+James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy Ryan as a
+razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had
+an occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her
+wares and the bill of the play); and Mr Foote&rsquo;s <i>Chocolate</i>,
+which was afterwards converted into an evening <i>Tea</i>, became
+an established favourite with the town.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend
+a third fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his
+means by a speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing
+anecdote told of him by Johnson. But he could now command
+a considerable income; and when money came he seems to have
+freely expended it in both hospitality and charity. During
+his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of which
+he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and
+more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of
+other authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop
+in his <i>Knights</i> (1749, printed 1754). <i>Taste</i> (1752), in which parts
+of the <i>Diversions</i> were incorporated, was followed by some
+eighteen pieces, the majority of which were produced at the
+Haymarket, the favourite home of Foote&rsquo;s entertainments.
+In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this theatre a licence from
+the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766) converted into a
+licence for summer performances for life. The entertainments
+were a succession of variations on the original idea of the
+<i>Diversions</i> and the <i>Tea</i>. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures
+(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second
+act of the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on <i>Orators</i> (1754),
+suggested by some bombastic discourses given by Macklin in
+his old age at the Piazza coffee-house in Covent Garden, where
+Foote had amused the audience and confounded the speaker
+by interposing his humorous comments. <i>The Orators</i> is preserved
+in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with a mock
+lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England,
+and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate,
+to which Holberg&rsquo;s <i>Politician-Tinman</i> can hardly have been a
+stranger. At a later date (1773) a new device was introduced
+in a <i>Puppet-show</i>. The piece (unprinted) played in this by the
+puppets was called <i>Piety in Pattens</i>, and professed to show &ldquo;by
+the moral how maidens of low degree might become rich from
+the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by the literature
+how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed
+under cover of words the most high flown.&rdquo; In other words,
+it was an attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not
+altogether extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion
+with the notorious Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from
+the <i>Puppet-show</i>, and thus was avoided a recurrence of the
+quarrel which many years before had led to an interchange
+of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by Woodward of the
+imitative Foote.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites
+became very friendly, and on Foote&rsquo;s part unmistakably
+affectionate, and they have not been always generously represented
+by Garrick&rsquo;s biographers. A comparison between the
+two as actors is of course out of the question; but, though
+Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue, there
+is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character
+was one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson&rsquo;s
+opinions of him many records remain in Boswell; when Johnson
+had at last found his way into Foote&rsquo;s company (he afterwards
+found it to Foote&rsquo;s own table) he was unable to &ldquo;resist&rdquo; him,
+and, on hearing of Foote&rsquo;s death, he thought the career just
+closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile most of poor Foote&rsquo;s friendships in high life were
+probably those that are sworn across the table, and require
+&ldquo;t&rsquo;other bottle&rdquo; to keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture&mdash;of
+Lord Mexborough and his royal guest the duke of York,
+and their companions, bantering Foote on his ignorance of horsemanship,
+and after he had weakly protested his skill, taking him
+out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and
+broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the &ldquo;patientee&rdquo;
+(in which character he said he was now making his first appearance)
+consoling himself with the reflection that he would now
+be able to take off &ldquo;old Faulkner&rdquo; (a pompous Dublin alderman
+with a wooden leg, whom he had brought on the stage as Peter
+Paragraph in <i>The Orators</i>) &ldquo;to the life.&rdquo; The duke of York
+made him the best reparation in his power by promising him
+a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and
+Foote not only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp,
+he considered the leg he had lost &ldquo;a redundancy, a mere nothing
+at all,&rdquo; but ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two
+of his later pieces, <i>The Lame Lover</i> and <i>The Devil on Two Sticks</i>,
+while, with the true instinct of a public favourite, making constant
+reference to it in plays and prologues. Though the characters
+played by him in several of his later plays are comparatively
+short and light, he continued to retain his hold over the public,
+and about the year 1774 was beginning to think of withdrawing,
+at least for a time, to the continent, when he became involved
+in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his entertainments
+nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick&rsquo;s
+case, and it is said in Johnson&rsquo;s) put any visible restraint upon
+personal satire. <i>The Author</i>, in which, under the infinitely
+humorous character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh
+gentleman of the name of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed,
+been ultimately suppressed. But in general he had pursued
+his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to public ridicule and
+contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or supposed
+quacks in medicine (as in <i>The Devil on Two Sticks</i>), enthusiasts
+in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in <i>The Cozeners</i>) and George
+Whitefield and his connexion (in <i>The Minor</i>). He had not only
+dared the wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in <i>The</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+<i>Nabob</i>), and been rewarded by the withdrawal, from among
+the pundits who rationalized away Whittington&rsquo;s Cat, of Horace
+Walpole and other eminent members of the body, but had in
+the same play attacked a well-known representative of a very
+influential though detested element in English society,&mdash;the
+&ldquo;Nabobs&rdquo; themselves. But there was one species of cracked
+porcelain which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with
+impunity. The rumour of his intention to bring upon the stage,
+in the character of Lady Kitty Crocodile in <i>The Trip to Calais</i>,
+the notorious duchess of Kingston, whose trial for bigamy was
+then (1775) impending, roused his intended victim to the utmost
+fury; and the means and influence she had at her disposal
+enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to
+prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint
+as to the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify
+Foote&rsquo;s character in every way that hatred and malice could
+suggest. After he had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been
+exchanged between the duchess and him equally characteristic
+of their respective writers, Foote took his revenge upon the
+chief of the duchess&rsquo;s instruments, a &ldquo;Reverend Doctor&rdquo;
+Jackson, who belonged to the &ldquo;reptile&rdquo; society of the journalists
+of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of
+<i>The Bankrupt</i>. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper
+in <i>The Capuchin</i>, under which name the altered <i>Trip to Calais</i>
+was performed in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were
+not yet at an end; and a discharged servant of Foote&rsquo;s was
+suborned by Jackson to bring a charge of assault and apply
+for a warrant against him. Though the attempt utterly broke
+down, and Foote&rsquo;s character was thus completely cleared, his
+health and spirits had given way in the struggle&mdash;as to which,
+though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part
+of the public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the
+very audiences of his own theatre had been, or had seemed to
+be, divided in opinion. He thus resolved to withdraw, at least
+for a time, from the effects of the storm, let his theatre to Colman,
+and after making his last appearance there in May 1777, set
+forth in October on a journey to France. But at Dover he fell
+sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few hours
+died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary&rsquo;s church at Dover
+(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that
+he had a hand &ldquo;open as day for melting charity.&rdquo; His resting-place
+in Westminster Abbey is without any memorial.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Foote&rsquo;s chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of
+mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the
+mere outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose
+likeness he assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility
+of voice, though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice
+was not disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assuming
+characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies,
+where he occasionally &ldquo;doubled&rdquo; parts. The excellent &ldquo;patter&rdquo;
+of some of his plays, such as <i>The Liar</i> and <i>The Cozeners</i>, must have
+greatly depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person
+he was rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his overflowing
+humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible
+sparkle of his eyes.</p>
+
+<p>As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank.
+He regarded comedy as &ldquo;an exact representation of the peculiar
+manners of that people among whom it happens to be performed;
+a faithful imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which
+are openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the
+correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community.&rdquo;
+This he regarded as the <i>utile</i>, or useful purpose, of comedy; the
+<i>dulce</i> he conceived to be &ldquo;the fable, the construction, machinery,
+conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece.&rdquo; For part at least of this
+view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly &ldquo;Letter&rdquo; in
+which he replied, &ldquo;to the Reverend Author of the &lsquo;Remarks,
+Critical and Christian,&rsquo; on <i>The Minor</i>&rdquo;), he rather loftily appealed
+to classical authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of
+the <i>dulce</i> to the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species
+of art. His comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and
+reproducing characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that
+he not only took them from real life, but closely modelled them on
+well-known living men and women, was not in himself an artistic
+sin. Nor indeed was the novelty of this process absolute, though
+probably no other comic dramatist has ever gone so far in this
+course, or has pursued it so persistently. The public delighted in his
+&ldquo;d&mdash;&mdash;d fine originals,&rdquo; because it recognized them as copies; and
+he was himself proud that he had taken them from real persons,
+instead of their being &ldquo;vamped from antiquated plays, pilfered from
+the French farces, or the baseless beings of the poet&rsquo;s brain.&rdquo; But
+the real excellence of many of Foote&rsquo;s comic characters lies in the
+fact that, besides being incomparably ludicrous types of manners,
+they remain admirable comic types of general human nature. Sir
+Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile appetite for news; Lady Pentweazel,
+and her preposterous vanity in her superannuated charms;
+Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages of public schools
+(where children may &ldquo;make acquaintances that may hereafter be
+useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they learn there,
+does not signify twopence&rdquo;); Major Sturgeon and Jerry Sneak;
+Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or two
+of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves,
+whatever their origin; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed
+by Foote&rsquo;s vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic
+treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies
+in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute
+contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention
+or conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the
+interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His
+characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them.
+With the exception of <i>The Liar</i> (which Foote pretended to have
+taken from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele&rsquo;s
+adaptation of Corneille&rsquo;s <i>Le Menteur</i>), and perhaps of <i>The Bankrupt</i>,
+there is hardly one of Foote&rsquo;s &ldquo;comedies&rdquo; in which the conception
+and conduct of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest
+farce. Not that sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters
+are wanting, but these familiar ingredients are as incapable of
+exciting real interest as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable
+to produce more than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays
+Foote constantly resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce&mdash;a
+disguise. Of course Foote must have been well aware of the shortcomings
+of his rapidly manufactured productions; he knew that if
+he might sneer at &ldquo;genteel comedy&rdquo; as suited to the dramatists
+of the servants&rsquo; hall, and pronounce the arts of the drama at the great
+houses to be &ldquo;directed by the genius of insipidity,&rdquo; he, like the little
+theatre where he held sway, was looked upon as &ldquo;an eccentric, a
+mere summer fly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic
+scenes of genuine farce. An oration of &ldquo;old masters,&rdquo; an election
+of a suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians,
+a newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputations
+massacred&mdash;all these and other equally happy situations are
+brought before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And
+everywhere the comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour,
+and the comic characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy
+which at once raises them above the level of mere theatrical conventionalism.
+Foote professed to despise the mere caricaturing of
+national peculiarities as such, and generally used dialect as a mere
+additional colouring; he was, however, too wide awake to the
+demands of his public not to treat France and Frenchmen as fair
+game, and coarsely to appeal to national prejudice. His satire
+against those everlasting victims of English comedy and farce, the
+Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned from Paris, was
+doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he made fun of
+the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the society
+of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of
+Foote&rsquo;s social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it
+is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone
+of his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at
+refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made
+occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare
+against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the
+two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of Foote&rsquo;s farces or &ldquo;comedies&rdquo; as he calls
+them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print.
+The date of production, and the character originally performed by
+Foote, are added to the title of each:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Knights</i> (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir
+Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the <i>Diversions</i> is
+incorporated; <i>The Englishman in Paris</i> (1753: Young Buck);
+<i>The Englishman returned from Paris</i> (1756: Sir Charles Buck); <i>The
+Author</i> (1757: Cadwallader); <i>The Minor</i> (1760: Smirk and Mrs
+Cole); <i>The Liar</i> (1762); <i>The Orators</i> (1762: Lecturer); <i>The Mayor
+of Garratt</i> (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); <i>The Patron</i>
+(1764: Sir Thomas Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); <i>The Commissary</i>
+(1765: Mr Zac. Fungus); <i>The Devil upon Two Sticks</i>
+(1768: Devil,&mdash;alias Dr Hercules Hellebore); <i>The Lame Lover</i>
+(1770: Sir Luke Limp); <i>The Maid of Bath</i> (1771: Mr Flint); <i>The
+Nabob</i> (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); <i>The Bankrupt</i> (1773: Sir Robert
+Riscounter); <i>The Cozeners</i> (1774: Mr Aircastle); <i>The Capuchin</i>, a
+second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by the censor (1776:
+O&rsquo;Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in 1763-1768.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Foote&rsquo;s biography may be read in W. (&ldquo;Conversation&rdquo;)
+Cooke&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of Samuel Foote</i> (3 vols., 1805), which
+contain, amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things
+and of anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously
+unpublished occasional pieces (with the <i>Tragedy à la mode</i>, part of
+the <i>Diversions</i>, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this
+source seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information
+in the rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by &ldquo;Jon Bee&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span>
+(John Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as &ldquo;John Hunds&rdquo;) to his
+useful edition of Foote&rsquo;s Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars
+will be found in Tate Wilkinson&rsquo;s <i>Wandering Patentee</i> (York, 1795)
+and in other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, reprinted
+with additions, from the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, in John Forster&rsquo;s
+<i>Biographical Essays</i> (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy
+Fitzgerald (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTMAN,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a name given among articles of furniture to a
+metal stand, usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong
+or oval in shape, for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-room
+fire. In the days before the general use of hot-water dishes
+the footman possessed definite utility, but although it is still
+in occasional use, it is now chiefly regarded as an ornament.
+It was especially common in the hardware counties of England,
+where it is still frequently seen; the simple conventionality
+of its form is not inelegant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOTSCRAY,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
+on the Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne.
+Pop. (1901) 18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from
+which most of the building stones in Melbourne and the neighbourhood
+is obtained; it is also an important manufacturing centre,
+with numerous sugar-mills, jute factories, soap works, woollen-mills,
+foundries, chemical works and many other minor industries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOOT-STALL,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a word supposed to be a literal translation of
+<i>pièdestal</i>, or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Base</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FOPPA, VINCENZO,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> Italian painter, was born near Brescia.
+The dates of his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and
+1492; but there is now good reason for substituting 1427 and
+1515. He settled in Pavia towards 1456, and was the head of a
+Lombard school of painting which subsisted up to the advent
+of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia. His
+contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in
+perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially.
+Among his noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan,
+the &ldquo;Martyrdom of St Sebastian&rdquo;; and a &ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; in
+the Carrara gallery, Bergamo, executed in 1455. He worked
+much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his paintings are
+now lost.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, <i>Vincenzo Foppa</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORAGE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender
+collected for the food of the horses of an army. In early usage
+the word was confined to the dried forage as opposed to grass.
+From this word comes &ldquo;foray,&rdquo; an expedition in search of
+&ldquo;forage,&rdquo; and hence a pillaging expedition, a raid. The word
+&ldquo;forage,&rdquo; directly derived from the Fr. <i>fourrage</i>, comes from a
+common Teutonic origin, and appears in &ldquo;fodder,&rdquo; food for
+cattle. The ultimate Indo-European root, <i>pat</i>, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="pateisthai">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>,
+Lat. <i>pascere</i>, to feed, gives &ldquo;food,&rdquo; &ldquo;feed,&rdquo; &ldquo;foster&rdquo;; and
+appears also in such Latin derivatives as &ldquo;pastor,&rdquo; &ldquo;pasture.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORAIN, J. L.<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), French painter and illustrator,
+was born in 1852. He became one of the leading modern
+Parisian caricaturists, who in his merciless exposure of the
+weaknesses of the <i>bourgeoisie</i> continued the work which was
+begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The scathing
+bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as his
+pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in
+his painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives
+him to caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called &ldquo;a Degas
+pushed on to caricature.&rdquo; In his pen-and-ink work he combines
+extraordinary economy of means with the utmost power of
+expression and suggestion. Forain&rsquo;s popularity dates from the
+publication of his <i>Comédie parisienne</i>, a series of two hundred
+and fifty sketches republished in book form. He has contributed
+many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the <i>Figaro</i>,
+<i>Le Rire</i>, <i>L&rsquo;Assiette au beurre</i>, <i>Le Courrier français</i>, and <i>L&rsquo;Indiscret</i>.
+His political drawings for the <i>Figaro</i> were republished
+in book form under the title of <i>Doux Pays</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+political leader, was born near Rainsboro, Highland county,
+Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He passed his early life on a
+farm, enlisted as a private in the 89th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
+in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for part of the
+time as an aide on the staff of General H.W. Slocum, and in
+1865 received a captain&rsquo;s brevet for &ldquo;efficient services during
+the campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia.&rdquo; After the war
+he spent two years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two
+years at Cornell. In 1869 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and
+began practice in Cincinnati. He was a judge of the Cincinnati
+Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he was the Republican
+candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in 1885
+and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in
+1889. He then for eight years practised law with great success
+in Cincinnati. In 1896 he was elected United States senator
+to succeed Calvin S. Brice (1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected
+and served until 1909. In the Senate he was one of the aggressive
+Republican leaders, strongly supporting the administration of
+President M&rsquo;Kinley (whose name he presented to the Republican
+National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in the debates preceding,
+during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War,
+and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt,
+was conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence.
+He vigorously opposed various measures advocated by the
+president, and led the opposition to the president&rsquo;s summary
+discharge of certain negro troops after the Brownsville raid of
+the 13th of August 1906 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brownsville</a></span>, Texas).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5
+       "Fleury, Claude" to "Foraker"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2011 [EBook #35747]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FLORENCE: "... while the new structures erected in their
+      place, especially those in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, are almost
+      uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine
+      architecture." 'Piazza' amended from 'Piaza'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLORIDA: "Not until the last decade of the 17th century did
+      the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the settlements beyond
+      the east coast." 'Not' amended from 'no'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLOWER: "The exine is a firm membrane, which defines the
+      figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it." 'exine'
+      amended from 'extine'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOG: "... the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the
+      reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the
+      case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps
+      not fairly included." 'rarefaction' amended from 'rarefraction'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "Association football is indeed, from the
+      standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in
+      its infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of
+      the eleven players into full relief throughout the game."
+      'throughout' amended from 'throughtout'.
+
+    ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "This means that one or more of his fellows must
+      accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any opponent who
+      tries to tackle him." 'tries' amended from 'trys'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE V
+
+         Fleury, Claude to Foraker
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FLEURY, CLAUDE                  FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE
+  FLIEDNER, THEODOR               FLYING BUTTRESS
+  FLIGHT and FLYING               FLYING COLUMN
+  FLINCK, GOVERT                 "FLYING DUTCHMAN,"
+  FLINDERS, MATTHEW               FLYING-FISH
+  FLINSBERG                       FLYING-FOX
+  FLINT, AUSTIN                   FLYING-SQUIRREL
+  FLINT, ROBERT                   FLYSCH
+  FLINT, TIMOTHY                  FOCA
+  FLINT (Michigan, U.S.A.)        FOCHABERS
+  FLINT (county of North Wales)   FOCSHANI
+  FLINT (town of North Wales)     FOCUS
+  FLINT (crystalline substance)   FOG
+  FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS    FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO
+  FLOAT                           FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND
+  FLOCK                           FOGGIA
+  FLODDEN                         FOHN
+  FLODOARD                        FOHR
+  FLOE                            FOIL
+  FLOOD, HENRY                    FOIL-FENCING
+  FLOOD                           FOIX, PAUL DE
+  FLOOD PLAIN                     FOIX
+  FLOOR                           FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES
+  FLOORCLOTH                      FOLD
+  FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS         FOLENGO, TEOFILO
+  FLOR, ROGER DI                  FOLEY, JOHN HENRY
+  FLORA                           FOLEY, SIR THOMAS
+  FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR          FOLI, ALLAN JAMES
+  FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN        FOLIGNO
+  FLORENCE OF WORCESTER           FOLIO
+  FLORENCE (Alabama, U.S.A.)      FOLIUM
+  FLORENCE (capital of Tuscany)   FOLKES, MARTIN
+  FLORES (Atlantic Ocean island)  FOLKESTONE
+  FLORES (East Indies island)     FOLKLAND
+  FLOREZ, ENRIQUE                 FOLKLORE
+  FLORIAN, SAINT                  FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG
+  FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE  FOLLEN, KARL
+  FLORIANOPOLIS                   FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB
+  FLORIDA                         FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM
+  FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE         FOND DU LAC
+  FLORIDOR                        FONDI
+  FLORIN                          FONNI
+  FLORIO, GIOVANNI                FONSAGRADA
+  FLORIS, FRANS                   FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA
+  FLORUS                          FONSECA, BAY OF
+  FLORUS, JULIUS                  FONT
+  FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS          FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD
+  FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH ADOLF VON     FONTAINEBLEAU
+  FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN       FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE
+  FLOUNDER                        FONTANA, DOMENICO
+  FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE     FONTANA, LAVINIA
+  FLOURENS, GUSTAVE               FONTANA, PROSPERO
+  FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE     FONTANE, THEODOR
+  FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY       FONTANES, LOUIS
+  FLOWER                          FONTENAY-LE-COMTE
+  FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL             FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE
+  FLOYD, JOHN                     FONTENOY
+  FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN            FONTEVRAULT
+  FLOYER, SIR JOHN                FOOD
+  FLUDD, ROBERT                   FOOD PRESERVATION
+  FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT        FOOL
+  FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED        FOOLS, FEAST OF
+  FLUKE                           FOOLSCAP
+  FLUME                           FOOL'S PARSLEY
+  FLUMINI MAGGIORE                FOOT
+  FLUORANTHENE                    FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
+  FLUORENE                        FOOTBALL
+  FLUORESCEIN                     FOOTE, ANDREW HULL
+  FLUORESCENCE                    FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK
+  FLUORINE                        FOOTE, SAMUEL
+  FLUOR-SPAR                      FOOTMAN
+  FLUSHING (New York, U.S.A.)     FOOTSCRAY
+  FLUSHING (Zeeland, Holland)     FOOT-STALL
+  FLUTE                           FOPPA, VINCENZO
+  FLUX                            FORAGE
+  FLY                             FORAIN, J. L.
+  FLYCATCHER                      FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian, was born at
+Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for the bar, he was educated
+at the aristocratic college of Clermont (now that of Louis-le-Grand). In
+1658 he was nominated an advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for
+nine years followed the legal profession. But he had long been of a
+religious disposition, and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had
+been some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as tutor
+of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king next entrusted
+to him the education of the count of Vermandois, one of his natural
+sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received for his services the
+Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rhodez. In 1689 he was
+appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of
+Berry, and thus became intimately associated with Fenelon, their chief
+tutor. In 1696 he was elected to fill the place of La Bruyere in the
+French Academy; and on the completion of the education of the young
+princes the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the
+diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned, with
+rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu. About this time
+he began his great work, the first of the kind in France, and one for
+which he had been collecting materials for thirty years--the _Histoire
+ecclesiastique_. Fleury's evident intention was to write a history of
+the church for all classes of society; but at the time in which his
+great work appeared it was less religion than theology that absorbed the
+attention of the clergy and the educated public; and his work
+accordingly appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader,
+dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine, of
+discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood and the
+imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success. The first edition,
+printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was followed by many others,
+among which may be mentioned that of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692,
+and that of Nismes, in 25 vols. 8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury
+only comes down to the year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre
+and Goujet down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of
+Fleury and its supplement, the general table of contents, published by
+Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful. Translations
+have been made of the entire work into Latin, German and Italian. The
+Latin translation, published at Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo,
+carries the work down to 1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor
+to the young king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans
+said, he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but
+Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was equalled
+by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness of his conduct.
+
+  Fleury left many works besides his _Histoire ecclesiastique_. The
+  following deserve special mention:--_Histoire du droit francois_
+  (1674, 12mo); _Moeurs des Israelites_ (1681, 12mo); _Moeurs des
+  Chretiens_ (1682, 12mo); _Traite du choix et de la methode des etudes_
+  (1686, 2 vols. 12mo); _Les Devoirs des maitres et des domestiques_
+  (1688, 12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one
+  volume at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned
+  his _Catechisme historique_ (1679) and the _Institution du droit
+  ecclesiastique_ (1687).
+
+  See C. Ernst Simonetti, _Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers in
+  dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury_ (Gottingen, 1746,
+  4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, _Notice sur C. Fleury, considere comme historien
+  de l'eglise_ (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg, _Geschichte
+  des Christentums, i._
+
+
+
+
+FLIEDNER, THEODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant divine, was born on the
+21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near Wiesbaden), the small village in
+which his father was pastor. He studied theology at the universities of
+Giessen and Gottingen, and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and
+at the age of twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent
+in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the
+Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine, a few
+miles below Dusseldorf. To help his people and to provide an endowment
+for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822 through part of Germany,
+and then in 1823 to Holland and England. He met with considerable
+success, and had opportunities of observing what was being done towards
+prison reform; in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist
+Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad state. The
+prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms, badly fed, and left in
+complete idleness. No one dreamed of instructing them, or of collecting
+statistics to form the basis of useful legislation on the subject.
+Fliedner, at first singly, undertook the work. He applied for permission
+to be imprisoned for some time, in order that he might look at prison
+life from the inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to
+hold fortnightly services in the Dusseldorf prison, and to visit the
+inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded themselves
+together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first Prison Society of
+Germany (_Rheinisch-Westfalischer Gefangnisverein_) was founded. In 1833
+Fliedner opened in his own parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for
+discharged female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly
+increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited his
+interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be best served by an
+organized body of specially trained women. Accordingly in 1836 he began
+the first deaconess house, and the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their
+ordination vows the deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the
+poor, the sick and the young; but their engagements were not final--they
+might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose. In
+addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an infant
+school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses (1836), an
+orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842), and an asylum for
+female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted at the foundation and in
+the management of similar institutions, not only in Germany, but in
+various parts of Europe.
+
+In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851 he
+travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East--the object
+of his journeys being to found "mother houses," which were to be not
+merely training schools for deaconesses, but also centres whence other
+training establishments might arise. He established a deaconess house in
+Jerusalem, and after his return assisted by counsel and money in the
+erection of establishments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and
+Bucharest. Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house
+of refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other
+institutions soon arose) and the "house of evening rest" for retired
+deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received the degree of
+doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in recognition rather of
+his practical activity than of his theological attainments. He died on
+the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind him over 100 stations attended
+by 430 deaconesses; and these by 1876 had increased to 150 with an
+attendance of 600.
+
+Fliedner's son FRITZ FLIEDNER (1845-1901), after studying in Halle and
+Tubingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in Madrid. He followed
+in his father's footsteps by founding several philanthropic institutions
+in Spain. He was also the author of a number of books, amongst which was
+an autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen_
+(1901).
+
+  Theodor Fliedner's writings are almost entirely of a practical
+  character. He edited a periodical, _Der Armen und Kranken Freund,_
+  which contained information regarding the various institutions, and
+  also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides
+  purely educational and devotional works, he wrote _Buch der Martyrer_
+  (1852); _Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang.
+  Liebesanstalten zu Kaiserswerth_ (1856); _Nachricht uber das
+  Diakonissen-Werk in der Christ. Kirche_ (5th ed., 1867); _Die evangel.
+  Martyrer Ungarns und Siebenburgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach
+  Jerusalem und Constantinopel_. All were published at Kaiserswerth.
+  There is a translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London,
+  1867). See also G. Fliedner, _Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines
+  Lebens und Wirkens_ (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work
+  _Kaiserswerth Deaconesses_ (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's
+  _Deaconesses_ (London, 1862); _The Service of the Poor_, by E.C.
+  Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson's _Praying and Working_
+  (London, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of modern times,
+there are few possessing a wider or more enduring interest than that of
+aerial navigation (see also AERONAUTICS). To fly has always been an
+object of ambition with man; nor will this occasion surprise when we
+remember the marvellous freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with
+non-volant animals. The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme
+difficulty. To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is,
+at first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are
+thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this feat. These
+creatures, however varied in form and structure, all fly according to
+one and the same principle; and this is a significant fact, as it tends
+to show that the air must be attacked in a particular way to ensure
+flight. It behoves us then at the outset to scrutinize very carefully
+the general configuration of flying animals, and in particular the size,
+shape and movements of their flying organs.
+
+Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from balloons,
+with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously compared; and a
+flying machine constructed upon proper principles can have nothing in
+common with either of those creations. The ship floats upon water and
+the balloon upon air; but the ship differs from the balloon, and the
+ship and the balloon differ from the flying creature and flying machine.
+The water and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The
+analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the
+balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature and
+flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported by the
+water and requires merely to be propelled; a flying creature and a
+flying machine constructed on the living type require to be both
+supported and propelled. This arises from the fact that water is much
+denser than air, and because water supports on its surface substances
+which fall through air. While water and air are both fluid media, they
+are to be distinguished from each other in the following particulars.
+Water is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible; air, on
+the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and compressible.
+If water be struck with violence, the recoil obtained is great when
+compared with the recoil obtained from air similarly treated. In water
+we get a maximum recoil with a minimum of displacement; in air, on the
+contrary, we obtain a minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement.
+Water and air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form
+_movable fulcra_ to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet these
+peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying animals
+(whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made not of rigid
+but of elastic materials. The travelling organs, moreover, increase in
+size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid to be acted upon. The
+difference in size of the travelling organs of animals becomes very
+marked when the land animals are contrasted with the aquatic, and the
+aquatic with the aerial, as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.
+
+The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well
+illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds. A bird
+when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately in a
+backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil. The water supports
+the bird, and the feet simply propel. In this case the bird is lighter
+than the water, and the long axis of the body is horizontal (a of fig.
+4). When the bird dives, or flies under water, the long axis of the body
+is inclined obliquely downwards and forwards, and the bird forces itself
+into and beneath the water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both.
+In diving or sub-aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards,
+the wings downwards and _backwards_ (b of fig. 4). In aerial flying
+everything is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely
+upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards and backwards,
+but downwards and _forwards_ (c of fig. 4). These changes in the
+direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming, diving and flying,
+and in the direction of the stroke of the wings in sub-aquatic and
+aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird is heavier than the air
+and lighter than the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chillingham Bull (_Bos Scoticus_). Small
+travelling extremities adapted for land. r, s, t, u, figure-of-8
+described by the feet in walking.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Turtle (_Chelonia imbricata_). Enlarged
+travelling extremities (flippers) adapted for water.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Bat (_Phyllocina gracilis_). Greatly
+expanded travelling extremities adapted for air.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a
+bird in (a) swimming, (b) diving, and (c) flying.]
+
+The physical properties of water and air explain in a great measure how
+the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how the latter differs
+from the flying creature and flying machine constructed on the natural
+type. The sailing ship is, as it were, immersed in two oceans, viz. an
+ocean of water and an ocean of air--the former being greatly heavier and
+denser than the latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and
+the ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel
+the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes the
+hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water, which, as
+explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the ship is in motion
+it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by the rudder alone, or
+by both combined. A balloon differs from a sailing ship in being
+immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean of air. It resembles the ship
+in floating upon the air, as the ship floats upon the water; in other
+words, the balloon is lighter than the air, as the ship is lighter than
+the water. But here all analogy ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being
+immersed in two fluids having different densities, can be steered and
+made to tack about in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in
+the case of the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The
+balloon in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its
+horizontal movements, which ought to be the more important, are
+accidental movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the
+balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt to steer
+a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence of oars, sails
+and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by currents of air. The
+balloon has no hold upon the air, and this consequently cannot be
+employed as a _fulcrum_ for regulating its course. The balloon, because
+of its vast size and from its being lighter than the air, is completely
+at the mercy of the wind. It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the
+wind for the time being, and the direction of the wind in every instance
+determines the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to
+propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its
+destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree of
+certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another, and hence
+the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as likely as not,
+carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a mere lifting machine
+and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying machine. It resembles the
+flying creature only in this, that it is immersed in the ocean of air in
+which it sustains itself. The mode of suspension is wholly different.
+The balloon floats because it is lighter than the air; the flying
+creature floats because it extracts from the air, by the vigorous
+downward action of its wings, a certain amount of upward recoil. The
+balloon is passive; the flying creature is active. The balloon is
+controlled by the wind; the flying creature controls the wind. The
+balloon in the absence of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical
+line; the flying creature can fly in a horizontal plane in any given
+direction. The balloon is inefficient because of its levity; the flying
+creature is efficient because of its weight.
+
+Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to flight.
+Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air. The inertia of
+the mass of the flying creature enables it to control and direct its
+movements in the air. Many are of opinion that flight is a mere matter
+of levity and power. This is quite a mistake. No machine, however light
+and powerful, will ever fly whose travelling surfaces are not properly
+fashioned and properly applied to the air.
+
+It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed in
+some mysterious way to flight, but this is now known to be erroneous.
+The bats and some of the best-flying birds have no air sacs. Similar
+remarks are to be made of the heated air imprisoned within the bones of
+certain birds.[1] Feathers even are not necessary to flight. Insects and
+bats have no feathers, and yet fly well. The only facts in natural
+history which appear even indirectly to countenance the flotation theory
+are the presence of a swimming bladder in some fishes, and the existence
+of membranous expansions or pseudo-wings in certain animals, such as the
+flying fish, flying dragon and flying squirrel. As, however, the animals
+referred to do not actually fly, but merely dart into the air and there
+sustain themselves for brief intervals, they afford no real support to
+the theory. The so-called floating animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6
+and 7.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Red-throated Dragon (_Draco haematopogon_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Flying Colugo (_Galeopithecus volans_); also
+called flying lemur and flying squirrel.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Flying Fish (_Exocoetus exiliens_).]
+
+It has been asserted, and with some degree of plausibility, that a fish
+lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter than the air
+might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind that, in point of
+fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold its own if the water
+were in the least perturbed, and that a bird lighter than the air would
+be swept into space by even a moderate breeze without hope of return.
+Weight and power are always associated in living animals, and the fact
+that living animals are made heavier than the medium they are to
+navigate may be regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight
+being necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the
+bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for the
+most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that flight in
+every instance is the product, not of superior levity, but of _weight_
+and _power_ directed upon properly constructed flying organs.
+
+This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying
+machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily be a
+light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of surface. On the
+contrary, it favours the belief that it should be a compact and
+moderately heavy and powerful structure, which trusts for elevation and
+propulsion entirely to its flying appliances--whether actively moving
+wings, or screws, or aeroplanes wedged forward by screws. It should
+attack and subdue the air, and never give the air an opportunity of
+attacking or subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a
+master, and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance
+elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be _multum
+in parvo_. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and must extract
+from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces--however fashioned
+and however applied--the recoil or resistance necessary to elevate and
+carry it forward. Extensive inert surfaces indeed are contra-indicated
+in a flying machine, as they approximate it to the balloon, which, as
+has been shown, cannot maintain its position in the air if there are air
+currents. A flying machine which could not face air currents would
+necessarily be a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to
+fall back upon _weight_, or rather the structures and appliances which
+weight represents. These appliances as indicated should not be
+unnecessarily expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever
+practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces, in
+preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.
+
+The question of surface is a very important one in aviation: it
+naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface. As
+there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal, so there
+are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying machine.
+Art should follow nature in this matter. The active surfaces in flying
+creatures are always greatly in excess of the passive ones, from the
+fact that the former virtually increase in proportion to the spaces
+through which they are made to travel. Nature not only distinguishes
+between active and passive surfaces in flying animals, but she strikes a
+just balance between them, and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces
+to the strength and weight of the flying creature and the air currents
+to which the surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to
+operate. In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects
+are to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she
+reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she likewise
+reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying surfaces.
+While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying animal as a
+whole, she increases as occasion demands the active or wing surfaces by
+wing movements, and the passive or dead surfaces by the forward motion
+of the body in progressive flight. She knows that if the wings are
+driven with sufficient rapidity they practically convert the spaces
+through which they move into solid bases of support; she also knows that
+the body in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it
+passes. The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the wing
+movements will be readily understood from the accompanying illustrations
+of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in motion (figs. 8 and 9). In
+fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body of the insect and the wings are,
+as compared with those of fig. 9, trifling. The wing would have much
+less purchase on fig. 8 than on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by
+the latter were passive or dead surfaces. But they are not dead
+surfaces: they represent the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating
+wings, which are actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings
+travel at a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are
+superior to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart
+through the wind in whatever direction it pleases.
+
+The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to realize
+that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes[2] in a flying machine
+would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically, as will be shown
+by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier than fig. 8, and if both
+were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9 would be more blown about than
+fig. 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Blow-fly (_Musca vomitoria_) with its wings at
+rest.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Blow-fly with its wings in motion as in flight.]
+
+It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the
+elytra or wing cases--thin, light, horny structures inclined slightly
+upwards--which in the act of flight are spread out and act as sustainers
+or gliders. The elytra, however, are comparatively long narrow
+structures which occupy a position in front of the wings, of which they
+may be regarded as forming the anterior parts. The elytra are to the
+delicate wings of some insects what the thick anterior margins are to
+stronger wings. The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures.
+They can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with the
+horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight, as flight
+in the great majority of instances is performed without them. The elytra
+serve as protectors to the wings when the wings are folded upon the back
+of the insect, and as they are extended on either side of the body more
+or less horizontally when the insect is flying they contribute to flight
+indirectly, in virtue of their being carried forward by the body in
+motion.
+
+_Natural Flight_.--The manner in which the wings of the insect traverse
+the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support, raises the
+whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, therefore, at this
+stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat fully to the
+subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and bat, a knowledge
+of natural flight preceding, and being in some sense indispensable to, a
+knowledge of artificial flight. The bodies of flying creatures are, as a
+rule, very strong, comparatively light and of an elongated form,--the
+bodies of birds being specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying
+creatures, however, are less remarkable for their strength, shape and
+comparative levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and
+complicated movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first
+satisfactorily analysed those movements, and reproduced them by the aid
+of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867[3] showed that all
+natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are screws
+structurally, and that they act as screws when they are made to vibrate,
+from the fact that they twist in opposite directions during the down and
+up strokes. He also explained that all wings act upon a common
+principle, and that they present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air,
+through which they pass much in the same way that an oar passes through
+water in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying
+creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already
+indicated) strike downwards and _forwards_ during the down strokes, and
+upwards and _forwards_ during the up strokes. Lastly he demonstrated
+that the wings of flying creatures, when the bodies of said creatures
+are fixed, describe _figure-of-8 tracks_ in space--the figure-of-8
+tracks, when the bodies are released and advancing as in rapid flight,
+being opened out and converted into _waved tracks_.
+
+  It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his
+  admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo
+  da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and
+  practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Spirals in Nature and
+  Art_, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo's chief work
+  on flight, bearing the title _Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie
+  Altre Materie_, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of
+  twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations
+  interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references
+  to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In
+  none of Leonardo's manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures,
+  is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral
+  movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the
+  wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the
+  stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by
+  modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo gives
+  a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of the
+  wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes downwards
+  and _backwards_, whereas in reality it strikes downwards and
+  _forwards_. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: "The wings
+  have to row downwards and _backwards_ to support the machine on high,
+  so that it moves forward." In speaking of natural flight he remarks:
+  "If in its descent the bird rows _backwards_ with its wings the bird
+  will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike the air which
+  successively runs behind the bird to fill the void whence it comes."
+  There is nothing in Leonardo's writings to show that he knew either
+  the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the modern sense.
+
+Pettigrew's discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements made by the
+wing in stationary and progressive flight was confirmed some two years
+after it was made by Prof. E.J. Marey of Paris[4] by the aid of the
+"sphygmograph."[5] The movements in question are now regarded as
+fundamental, from the fact that they are alike essential to natural and
+artificial flight.
+
+The following is Pettigrew's description of wings and wing movements
+published in 1867:--
+
+  "The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less
+  triangular in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards
+  the body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical
+  on section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape
+  converting the pinions into delicately graduated instruments balanced
+  with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular
+  system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air on
+  the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumerable
+  varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated or
+  scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some
+  lanceolate and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of
+  one or two pairs--the anterior or upper pair, when two are present,
+  being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous
+  condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. [Greek:
+  elytron], a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the
+  integument, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various
+  directions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists
+  as the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity
+  of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin,
+  where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae
+  are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
+  spiral stair--the anterior one occupying a higher position than that
+  farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also
+  to the margins, _the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves_
+  and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper
+  surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under
+  surface,--their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with
+  such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance and
+  the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the form of
+  wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited--the
+  pinions in those insects acting as _helices_, or _twisted levers_,
+  and elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would
+  seem to warrant" (figs. 10 and 11).... "To confer on the wings the
+  multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied with
+  double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move not only in
+  an upward, downward, forward and backward direction, but also at
+  various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with wings thus
+  hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be not inaptly
+  compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the universality of
+  motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness in another."...
+  "All wings obtain their leverage by presenting oblique surfaces to the
+  air, the degree of obliquity gradually increasing in a direction from
+  behind, forwards and downwards, during extension when the sudden or
+  effective stroke is being given, and gradually decreasing in an
+  opposite direction during flexion, or when the wing is being more
+  slowly recovered preparatory to making a second stroke. The effective
+  stroke in insects, and this holds true also of birds, is therefore
+  delivered _downwards and forwards_, and not, as the majority of
+  writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards.... The wing
+  in the insect is more flattened than in the bird; and advantage is
+  taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in
+  heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, _to reverse the
+  pinion more or less completely during the down and up strokes_."...
+  "This is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of the
+  wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction from
+  above downwards and from behind forwards--the anterior margin
+  travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating. The wing may
+  thus be said to attack the air by a _screwing movement_ from above.
+  During the up or return stroke, on the other hand, the posterior
+  margin rotates in a direction from below upwards and from before
+  backwards, so that by a similar but _reverse screwing motion_ the
+  pinion attacks the air from beneath."... "_A figure-of-8_, compressed
+  laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running from left to
+  right of the spectator, represents the movements in question. _The
+  down and up strokes_, as will be seen from this account, _cross each
+  other_, the wing smiting the air during its descent from above, as in
+  the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as in the flying
+  fish and boy's kite" (fig. 12).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_)
+  when at rest; seen from above.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_)
+  when in motion; seen from behind. This figure shows how the wing
+  twists and untwists when in action, and how it forms a true screw.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12 shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of
+  the wing in extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As
+  the tip of the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the
+  continuous and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The
+  arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how
+  the down and up strokes _cross each other_.]
+
+  ... "The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect or bird
+  may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward reciprocating
+  action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion. In these
+  instances the backward and forward strokes are made to counterbalance
+  each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with considerable
+  fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during extension and
+  flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an object, or
+  still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when the
+  down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and
+  progressing rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being
+  carried forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or
+  spiral course, as shown in fig. 13."
+
+  ... "The down and up strokes are compound movements--the termination
+  of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the up stroke, and the
+  termination of the up stroke including the beginning of the down
+  stroke. This is necessary in order that the down and up strokes may
+  glide into each other in such a manner as to prevent jerking and
+  unnecessary retardation."[6]...
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Wave track made by the wing in progressive
+  flight. a, b, Crests of the wave; c, d, e, up strokes; x, x, down
+  strokes; f, point corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing,
+  and forming a centre for the downward rotation of the wing (a, g); g,
+  point corresponding to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a
+  centre for the upward rotation of the wing (d, f).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--a, b, line along which the wing travels
+  during extension and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in
+  which the wing is spread out in extension and closed or folded in
+  flexion.
+
+  Extension (elbow).  Flexion (wrist).
+
+  Flexion (elbow).  Extension (wrist).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge
+  (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge
+  (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal and ventral aspects as seen from behind;
+  showing auger-like conformation of wing. Compare with figs. 11 and
+  18.]
+
+  "The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex, and
+  _more or less twisted upon itself_ when extended, so that the anterior
+  or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature
+  to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great
+  measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are twisted
+  upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular
+  surfaces--the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other
+  at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter
+  of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion.
+  As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing
+  may be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the
+  same plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during
+  either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of
+  the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance
+  in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
+  forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers which
+  they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact ensures
+  that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which the primary
+  and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and down upon the
+  wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn from the wind during
+  flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore be compared to a huge
+  gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet representing the bones of the
+  wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet the primary and
+  secondary feathers" (figs. 15 and 16).... "From this description it
+  will be evident that by the mere rotation of the bones of the forearm
+  and hand the maximum and minimum of resistance is secured much in the
+  same way that this object is attained by the alternate dipping and
+  feathering of an oar."... "The wing, both when at rest and when in
+  motion, may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw
+  propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of the
+  wing corresponds closely with the outline of the propeller (figs. 11,
+  16 and 18), and the track described by the wing in space _is twisted
+  upon itself_ propeller fashion[7] (figs. 12, 20, 21, 22, 23). The
+  great velocity with which the wing is driven converts the impression
+  or blur made by it into what is equivalent to a solid for the time
+  being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel in violent motion,
+  as is well understood, more or less completely occupy the space
+  contained within the rim or circumference of the wheel" (figs. 9, 20
+  and 21).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina
+  gracilis_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.]
+
+  ... "The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to that of
+  the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-transparent,
+  continuous membrane, supported in divers directions, particularly
+  towards its anterior margin, by a system of osseous stays or
+  stretchers which confer upon it the degree of rigidity requisite for
+  flight. It is, as a rule, deeply concave on its under or ventral
+  surface, and in this respect resembles the wing of the heavy-bodied
+  birds. The movement of the bat's wing in extension is a _spiral_ one,
+  the spiral running alternately from below upwards and forwards and
+  from above downwards and backwards. The action of the wing of the bat,
+  and the movements of its component bones, are essentially the same as
+  in the bird" (figs. 17 and 18).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina
+  gracilis_). Dorsal and ventral aspects, as seen from behind. These
+  show the screw-like configuration of the wing, and also how the wing
+  twists and untwists during its action.]
+
+  ... "The wing strikes the air precisely as a boy's kite would if it
+  were jerked by its string, the only difference being that the kite is
+  _pulled forwards_ upon the wind by the string and the hand, whereas in
+  the insect, bird and bat the wing is _pushed forwards_ on the wind by
+  the weight of the body and the power residing in the pinion itself"
+  (fig. 19).[8]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--The Cape Barn-owl (_Strix capensis_), showing
+the kite-like surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and
+body in flight.]
+
+The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to lead us to
+explain how it happens that the wing, which in many instances is a
+comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet attack the air with such
+vigour as to extract from it the recoil necessary to elevate and propel
+the flying creature. The accompanying figures from one of Pettigrew's
+later memoirs[9] will serve to explain the _rationale_ (figs. 20, 21, 22
+and 23).
+
+As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration sweeps
+through a comparatively very large space. This space, as already
+explained, is practically a solid basis of support for the wing and for
+the flying animal. The wing attacks the air in such a manner as
+virtually to have no slip--this for two reasons. The wing reverses
+instantly and acts as a kite during nearly the entire down and up
+strokes. The angles, moreover, made by the wing with the horizon during
+the down and up strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this
+is a remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed at
+which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase and
+decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to and fro are due
+partly to the resistance offered by the air, and partly to the mechanism
+and mode of application of the wing to the air. The wing, during its
+vibrations, rotates upon two separate centres, the tip rotating round
+the root of the wing as an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior
+margin rotating around the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing
+is really eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the
+rowing feathers of the bird's wing. The compound rotation goes on
+throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately associated
+with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately seizing and evading
+the air.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the
+left wing of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to
+vibrate. These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing
+with the horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing
+reverses and reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite
+directions, and describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22
+represent the forward or down stroke (a b c d e f g), figs. 21 and 23
+the backward or up stroke (g h i j k l a). The terms forward and back
+strokes are here employed with reference to the head of the insect, x,
+x', line to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or
+forward stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward
+stroke, it will be seen that _the wing crosses its own track_ more or
+less completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.]
+
+The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by the wing
+being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the wing to twist
+and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is made to vibrate. The
+twisting referred to is partly a vital and partly a mechanical
+act;--that is, it is occasioned in part by the action of the muscles and
+in part by the greater resistance experienced from the air by the tip
+and posterior margin of the wing as compared with the root and anterior
+margin,--the resistance experienced by the tip and posterior margin
+causing them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior
+margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior
+margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs. 9, 11,
+12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.
+
+The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is represented
+in fig. 24.
+
+Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the remarkable
+power which the wing possesses of making and utilizing its own currents.
+Thus, when the wing descends it draws after it a strong current, which,
+being met by the wing during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy
+of the up stroke. Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it
+creates an upward current, which, being met by the wing when it
+descends, powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke.
+This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with natural
+and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes are complete
+in themselves.
+
+The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed, and in
+such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide into each other.
+It is only in this way that the air can be made to pulsate, and that the
+rhythm of the wing and the air waves can be made to correspond. The air
+must be seized and let go in a certain order and at a certain speed to
+extract a maximum recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is
+regulated by the size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very
+much higher speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing,
+moreover, travel at different degrees of velocity--the tip and posterior
+margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater space, in a
+given time, than the root and anterior margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Wing of the Bird with its root (a, b) cranked
+forwards.
+
+  a, b, Short axis of the wing (axis for tip of wing, h).
+
+  c, d, Long axis (axis for posterior margin of wing, h, i, j, k, l).
+
+  m, n, Short axis of rowing feathers of wing.
+
+  r, s, Long axis of rowing feathers of wing. The rotation of the rowing
+  feathers on their long axis (they are eccentrics) enables them to open
+  or separate during the up, and close or come together during the down
+  strokes.
+
+  e f, g p, concave shape presented by the under surface of the wing.]
+
+The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases enormous. The
+wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at the rate of 110, and the
+common house-fly at the rate of 330 beats per second. Quick as are the
+vibrations of natural wings, the speed of certain parts of the wing is
+amazingly increased. Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a
+consequence, a comparatively slow and very limited movement at the root
+confers great range and immense speed at the tip, the speed of each
+portion of the wing increasing as the root of the wing is receded from.
+This is explained on a principle well understood in mechanics, viz. that
+when a wing or rod hinged at one end is made to move in a circle, the
+tip or free end of the wing or rod describes a much wider circle in a
+given time than a portion of the wing or rod nearer the hinge (fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25 shows how different portions of the wing travel
+at different degrees of speed. In this figure the rod a, b, hinged at x,
+represents the wing. When the wing is made to vibrate, its several
+portions travel through the spaces d b f, j k l, g h i, and e a c in
+exactly the same interval of time. The part of the wing marked b, which
+corresponds with the tip, consequently travels very much more rapidly
+than the part marked a, which corresponds with the root. m n, o p,
+curves made by the wing at the end of the up and down strokes; r,
+position of the wing at the middle of the stroke.]
+
+One naturally inquires why the high speed of wings, and why the
+progressive increase of speed at their tips and posterior margins? The
+answer is not far to seek. If the wings were not driven at a high speed,
+and if they were not eccentrics made to revolve upon two separate axes,
+they would of necessity be large cumbrous structures; but large heavy
+wings would be difficult to work, and what is worse, they would (if too
+large), instead of controlling the air, be controlled by it, and so
+cease to be flying organs.
+
+There is, however, another reason why wings should be made to vibrate at
+high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light, thin, elastic
+medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and unless the wings
+attacked it with great violence the necessary recoil or resistance could
+not be obtained. The atmosphere, because of its great tenuity, mobility
+and comparative imponderability, presents little resistance to bodies
+passing through it at low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly
+accelerated, the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to
+elicit a recoil. This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the
+resistance experienced varying according to the density of the
+atmosphere and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon
+it. While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the progress
+of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly difficult to
+compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy to convert it into
+a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary support and forward
+impetus. This arises from the fact that bodies moving in air experience
+a _minimum of resistance_ and occasion a _maximum of displacement_.
+Another and very obvious difficulty is traceable to the great disparity
+in the weight of air as compared with any known solid, and the
+consequent want of buoying or sustaining power which that disparity
+involves. If we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times
+lighter. To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are
+furnished with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which
+they apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of the
+third order. In this form of lever the power is applied between the
+fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power is represented by the
+wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the weight by the body of the flying
+animal. Although the third order of lever is particularly inefficient
+when the fulcrum is rigid and immobile, it possesses singular advantages
+when these conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as
+happens with the air, is _elastic_ and _yielding_. In this instance a
+very slight movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever
+directed towards the body, is followed by an immense sweep of the
+extremity of the wing, where its elevating and propelling power is
+greatest--this arrangement ensuring that the large quantity of air
+necessary for support and propulsion shall be compressed under the most
+favourable conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--In this figure f, f' represent the movable
+fulcra furnished by the air, p p' the power residing in the wing, and b
+the body to be moved. In order to make the problem of flight more
+intelligible, the lever formed by the wing is prolonged beyond the body
+(b), and to the root of the wing so extended the weight (w, w') is
+attached; x represents the universal joint by which the wing is attached
+to the body. When the wing ascends as shown at p, the air (fulcrum f)
+resists its upward passage, and forces the body (b) or its
+representative (w) slightly downwards. When the wing descends as shown
+at p', the air (fulcrum f') resists its downward passage, and forces the
+body (b) or its representative (w') slightly upwards. From this it
+follows that when the wing rises the body falls, and vice versa--the
+wing describing the arc of a large circle (f f'), the body (b), or the
+weights (w, w') representing it, describing the arc of a small circle.]
+
+In this process the weight of the body performs an important part, by
+acting upon the inclined planes formed by the wings in the plane of
+progression. The power and the weight may thus be said to reciprocate,
+the two sitting as it were side by side and blending their peculiar
+influences to produce a common result, as indicated at fig. 26.
+
+When the wings descend they elevate the body, the wings being active and
+the body passive; when the body descends it contributes to the elevation
+of the wings,[10] the body being active and the wings more or less
+passive. It is in this way that weight forms a factor in flight, the
+wings and the weight of the body reciprocating and mutually assisting
+and relieving each other. This is an argument for employing four wings
+in artificial flight,--the wings being so arranged that the two which
+are up shall always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are
+down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve the driving
+power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.
+
+That the weight of the body plays an important part in the production of
+flight may be proved by a very simple experiment. If two quill feathers
+are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged that they expand and arch
+above it (fig. 27), it is found that if the apparatus be dropped from a
+vertical height of 3 yds. it does not fall vertically downwards, but
+downwards and _forwards_ in a curve, the forward travel amounting in
+some instances to a yard and a half. Here the cork, in falling, acts
+upon the feathers (which are to all intents and purposes wings), and
+these in turn act upon the air, in such a manner as to produce a
+horizontal transference.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--a, b, quill feathers; c, cork; d, e, f, g,
+downward and _forward_ curved trajectory made by the feathers and cork
+before reaching the ground (h, i).]
+
+In order to utilize the air as a means of transit, the body in motion,
+whether it moves in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a
+force super-added, must be heavier than air. It must tread with its
+wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water, or as a kite
+upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple reason that the body
+must be active, the air passive. The flying body must act against
+gravitation, and elevate and carry itself forward at the expense of the
+air and of the force which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it
+were otherwise--if it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the
+one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other, it would
+float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an ordinary balloon.
+
+In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must attack
+the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must attack the
+wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a calm, the wings
+must be made to smite the air after the manner of a boy's kite with
+great vigour and at a high speed. In this case the wings fly the bird.
+If, however, the bird is fairly launched in space and a stiff breeze is
+blowing, all that is required in many instances is to extend the wings
+at a slight upward angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the
+wings present kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly
+moving air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the
+necessary illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights
+upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his wings with
+tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched. This done he extends
+his enormous pinions[11] and sails majestically along, seldom deigning
+to flap his wings, the breeze doing the work for him. A familiar
+illustration of the same principle may be witnessed any day when
+children are engaged in the pastime of kite-flying. If two boys attempt
+to fly a kite in a calm, the one must hold up the kite and let go when
+the other runs. In this case the under surface of the kite is made to
+strike the still air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it
+suffices if the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands
+still. In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface of
+the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the kite what
+the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined planes formed by
+its wings.
+
+The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully expanded,
+is greater than that of any other class of animal, their weight being
+proportionally less. As already stated, however, it ought never to be
+forgotten that even the lightest insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier
+than the air, and that no fixed relation exists between the weight of
+body and expanse of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied
+and large-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and
+others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and partridge.
+Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those apparent inconsistencies
+in the dimensions of the body and wings are readily explained by the
+greater muscular development of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects,
+birds and bats, and the increased power and rapidity with which the
+wings in them are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in
+the science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a
+heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well as by a
+lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore, there is
+apparently no correspondence between the area of the wing and the animal
+to be raised, there is, except in the case of sailing insects, birds and
+bats, an unvarying relation as to the weight and number of oscillations;
+so that the problem of flight would seem to resolve itself into one of
+weight, power, velocity and small surfaces, _versus_ buoyancy, debility,
+diminished speed and extensive surfaces--weight in either case being a
+_sine qua non_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Hawk and Pigeon.]
+
+That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and the size
+and weight of the body to be elevated is evident on comparing the
+dimensions of the wings and bodies of the several orders of insects,
+bats and birds. If such comparison be made, it will be found that the
+pinions in some instances diminish while the bodies increase, and the
+converse. No practical good can therefore accrue to aviation from
+elaborate measurements of the wings and body of any flying thing;
+neither can any rule be laid down as to the extent of surface required
+for sustaining a given weight in the air. The statements here advanced
+are borne out by the fact that the wings of insects, bats and birds may
+be materially reduced without impairing their powers of flight. In such
+cases the speed with which the wings are driven is increased in the
+direct ratio of the mutilation. The inference to be deduced from the
+foregoing is plainly this, that even in large-bodied, small-winged
+insects and birds the wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus
+wing area supplying that degree of elevating and sustaining power which
+is necessary to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal.
+In this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects, and
+the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,--the bats carrying
+their young without inconvenience, the birds elevating surprising
+quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28).
+
+While as explained, no definite relation exists between the weight of a
+flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there being, as
+stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds and bats, and the
+converse, and while, as has been shown, flight is possible within a wide
+range, the wings being, as a rule, in excess of what are required for
+the purposes of flight,--still it appears from the researches of L. de
+Lucy that there is a general law, to the effect that the larger the
+volant animal, the smaller, by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The
+existence of such a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight
+is concerned, for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy,
+powerful flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently
+comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very considerable
+importance, as the object desiderated in a flying machine is elevating
+capacity.
+
+De Lucy tabulated his results as under:--
+
+ +-------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
+ |                        INSECTS                  |                BIRDS.              |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ |                           | Flying Surface      |                   |                |
+ |                           | referred to the     |                   | Flying Surface |
+ |                           |  Kilogramme         |                   | referred to the|
+ |          Names.           | = 2 lb. 8 oz. 3 dwt.|       Names.      | Kilogramme.    |
+ |                           |   2 gr. avoird.     |                   |                |
+ |                           | = 2 lb. 3 oz. 4.428 |                   |                |
+ |                           |   dr. troy.         |                   |                |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ |                           |  sq.                |                   |  sq.           |
+ |                           | yds.  ft.  in.      |                   | yds. ft. in.   |
+ | Gnat                      |  11    8   92       | Swallow           | 1    1 104-1/2 |
+ | Dragon-fly (small)        |   7    2   56       | Sparrow           | 0    5 142-1/2 |
+ | Coccinella (Lady-bird)    |   5   13   87       | Turtle-dove       | 0    4 100-1/2 |
+ | Dragon-fly (common)       |   5    2   89       | Pigeon            | 0    2   113   |
+ | Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs|   3    5   11       | Stork             | 0    2    20   |
+ | Bee                       |   1    2   74-1/2   | Vulture           | 0    1   116   |
+ | Meat-fly                  |   1    3   54-1/2   | Crane of Australia| 0    0   130   |
+ | Drone (blue)              |   1    2   20       |                   |                |
+ | Cockchafer                |   1    2   50       |                   |                |
+ |          / Stag-beetle \  |                     |                   |                |
+ | Lucanus <   (female)   /  |   1    1   39-1/2   |                   |                |
+ | cervus  |  Stag-beetle \  |                     |                   |                |
+ |          \  (male)     /  |   0    8   33       |                   |                |
+ | Rhinoceros-beetle         |   0    6  122-1/2   |                   |                |
+ +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+  "It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always
+  decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal
+  increases in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one
+  another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the
+  stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs 150
+  times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of
+  surface, &c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs about
+  10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface. The
+  pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice as much
+  surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the Australian crane,
+  and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now we compare the insects
+  and the birds, the gradation will become even much more striking. The
+  gnat, for example, weighs 97,000 times less than the pigeon, and has
+  40 times more surface; it weighs three millions of times less than the
+  crane of Australia, and possesses 140 times more of surface than this
+  latter, the weight of which is about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 lb.
+  5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 lb. 15 oz. 2-1/4 dr. avoirdupois).
+
+  "The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has
+  the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it
+  does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139
+  sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre.
+  But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent
+  birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest
+  and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted,
+  the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of
+  which is the longest maintained."[12]
+
+The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air, and
+reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very obvious
+bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body of the flying
+creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the wing ascends, and
+is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing descends. The wing and
+body are consequently always playing at cross purposes, the wing rising
+when the body is falling and vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of
+the body and wing of the bird are well seen when contemplating the
+flight of the gull from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is
+following in the wake of the vessel. The complementary movements
+referred to are indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line
+represents the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line
+that made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, _the wing
+advances both when it rises and when it falls_. It is a peculiarity of
+natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the principle of
+living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed, even in a
+strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward. If, for
+instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical direction, as at
+a b of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and forwards in a double
+curve (see continuous line of figure) to c, thus converting the vertical
+down stroke into a _down, oblique, forward stroke_. If, again, the wing
+be suddenly elevated in a strictly vertical direction, as at c d, the
+wing as certainly darts upwards and forwards in a double curve to e,
+thus converting the vertical up strokes into an _upward, oblique,
+forward stroke_. The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from
+e to f and elevated from g to h, the wing describing a _waved track_ as
+at e g, g i.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the
+body describe _waved tracks_,--the crests of the waves made by the wing
+(a, c, e, g, i) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by
+the body (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).]
+
+There are good reasons why the wings should always be in advance of the
+body. A bird when flying is a body in motion; but a body in motion tends
+to fall not vertically downwards, but _downwards and forwards_. The
+wings consequently must be made to strike _forwards_ and kept in advance
+of the body of the bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling
+_downwards and forwards_. If the wings were to strike backwards in
+aerial flight, the bird would turn a forward somersault.
+
+That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and up strokes
+in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and experiment. If any
+one watches a bird rising from the ground or the water, he cannot fail
+to perceive that the head and body are slightly tilted upwards, and that
+the wings are made to descend with great vigour in a downward and
+_forward_ direction. The dead natural wing and a properly constructed
+artificial wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet,
+just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator believes to
+be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of the wing, in spite
+of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.--the amount of forward
+movement being regulated by the rapidity of the down stroke. This is a
+very striking experiment. The same thing happens with a properly
+constructed artificial wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with
+the natural wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and
+forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its wings
+towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during the down stroke
+_pushed_ the body of the bird in an upward and forward direction; in
+reality the wings do not push but _pull_, and in order to pull they must
+always be in advance of the body to be flown. If the wings did not
+themselves fly _forward_, they could not possibly cause the body of the
+bird to fly forward. It is the wings which cause the bird to fly.
+
+It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite, during
+both the down and the up strokes, its under concave or biting surface,
+in virtue of the forward travel communicated to it by the body of the
+flying creature, being closely applied to the air, during both its
+ascent and its descent. This explains how the wing furnishes a
+persistent buoyancy alike when it rises and when it falls (fig. 30).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the
+down and up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon
+(_a, b_) vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades
+the superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air
+during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double
+dotted lines (c g, i b) represent the down strokes, the single dotted
+line (h, i) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and
+angles made by the wing with the horizon (a, b) during the down strokes
+are indicated at c d e f g, j k l m,--those made during the up strokes
+being indicated at g h i. As the down and up strokes run into each
+other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards and
+the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface of the
+wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under surface
+seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this figure how the
+wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent buoyancy.]
+
+The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial kite
+only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in all its
+parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the latter is
+comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of the kite formed
+by the natural wing are rendered necessary by the fact that the wing, as
+already stated, is practically hinged at its root and along its anterior
+margin, an arrangement which necessitates its several parts travelling
+at different degrees of speed, in proportion as they are removed from
+the axes of rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the
+root, and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a
+_twisting diagonal movement_ of the wing on its long axis, which, but
+for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments. The
+elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing, and
+ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the same
+instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would reverse at
+precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be characterized by
+pauses or dead points at the end of the down and up strokes which would
+be fatal to it as a flying organ. The elastic properties of the wing are
+absolutely essential, when the mechanism and movements of the pinion are
+taken into account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying
+instrument.
+
+The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those upon
+which the constructors of flying machines very properly ground their
+hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be conferred on artificial
+wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar structures; and these
+structures, if we may judge from what we find in nature, _should be of
+moderate size and elastic_. The power of the flying organs will be
+increased if they are driven at a comparatively high speed, and
+particularly if they are made to reverse and reciprocate, as in this
+case they will practically create the currents upon which they are
+destined to rise and advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces
+with the horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should be
+small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated, is true
+of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings and their
+analogues.
+
+_Artificial Flight_.--We are now in a position to enter upon a
+consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of artificial
+flight and flying machines.
+
+We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenticated account
+of an artificial wing was given by G.A. Borelli in 1670. This author,
+distinguished alike as a physiologist, mathematician and mechanician,
+describes and figures a bird with artificial wings, each of which
+consists of _a rigid rod in front and flexible feathers behind_. The
+wings are represented as striking _vertically downwards_, as the annexed
+duplicate of Borelli's figure shows (fig. 31).
+
+Borelli was of opinion that flight resulted from the application of an
+inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge action. He,
+in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges itself forward upon the
+air by the perpendicular vibration of its wings, the wings during their
+action forming a wedge, the base of which (c b e) is directed towards
+the head of the bird, the apex (a f) being directed towards the tail
+(d). In the 196th proposition of his work (_De motu animalium_, Leiden,
+1685) he states that--
+
+  "If the expanded wings of a bird suspended in the air shall strike the
+  undisturbed air beneath it with a motion _perpendicular to the
+  horizon_, the bird will fly with a _transverse motion_ in a plane
+  parallel with the horizon." "If," he adds, "the wings of the bird be
+  expanded, and the under surfaces of the wings be struck by the air
+  _ascending perpendicularly to the horizon_ with such a force as shall
+  prevent the bird gliding downwards (i.e. with a tendency to glide
+  downwards) from falling, it will be urged in a horizontal direction."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31. Borelli's bird with artificial wings.
+
+    r e, Anterior margin of the right wing, consisting of a rigid rod.
+
+    o a, Posterior margin of the right wing, consisting of flexible
+    feathers.
+
+    b c, Anterior; and
+
+    f, Posterior margins of the left wing same as the right.
+
+    d, Tail of the bird.
+
+    r g, d h, Vertical direction of the down stroke of the wing.]
+
+  The same argument is restated in different words as under:--"If the
+  air under the wings be struck by the flexible portions of the wings
+  (_flabella_, literally fly flaps or small fans) with a motion
+  perpendicular to the horizon, the sails (_vela_) and flexible portions
+  of the wings (_flabella_) will yield in an upward direction and form a
+  wedge, the point of which is directed towards the tail. Whether,
+  therefore, the air strikes the wings from below, or the wings strike
+  the air from above, the result is the same,--the posterior or flexible
+  margins of the wings _yield in an upward direction_, and in so doing
+  urge the bird in a _horizontal direction_."
+
+There are three points in Borelli's argument to which it is necessary to
+draw attention: (1) the direction of the down stroke: it is stated to be
+_vertically downwards_; (2) the construction of the anterior margin of
+the wing: it is stated to consist of _a rigid rod_; (3) the function
+delegated to the posterior margin of the wing: it is said _to yield in
+an upward direction_ during the down stroke.
+
+With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing strikes
+vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body of a flying
+bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion tends to fall
+downwards and forwards, the wing must strike downwards and forwards in
+order effectually to prevent its fall. Moreover, in point of fact, all
+natural wings, and all artificial wings constructed on the natural type,
+invariably strike downwards and forwards.
+
+With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity of the
+anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine the
+anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they are in every
+case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to properly constructed
+artificial wings. If the anterior margins of natural and artificial
+wings were rigid, it would be impossible to make them vibrate smoothly
+and continuously. This is a matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a
+wing with a rigid anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is
+characterized by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up
+strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady fanning
+movement peculiar to natural wings.
+
+As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior margin
+of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to remark that the
+statement is true if it means a slight upward bending, but that it is
+untrue if it means an extensive upward bending.
+
+Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one of his
+followers, E.J. Marey, maintains that during the down stroke the wing
+yields until its under surface makes a backward angle with the horizon
+of 45 deg. Marey further states that during the up stroke the wing
+yields to a corresponding extent in an opposite direction--the posterior
+margin of the wing, according to him, passing through an angle of 90
+deg., plus or minus according to circumstances, every time the wing
+rises and falls.
+
+That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent during
+both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted, alike because of
+the very delicate and highly elastic properties of the posterior margins
+of the wing, and because of the comparatively great force employed in
+its propulsion; but that it does not yield to the extent stated by Marey
+is a matter of absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any
+one watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will
+observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never rises
+during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the under
+surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards. On the contrary,
+he will perceive that the under surface of the wing (during the down
+stroke) invariably looks forwards and forms a true kite with the
+horizon, the angles made by the kite varying at every part of the down
+stroke, as shown more particularly at c d e f g, i j k l m of fig. 30.
+
+The authors who have adopted Borelli's plan of artificial wing, and who
+have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing's action most fully, are
+J. Chabrier, H.E.G. Strauss-Durckheim and Marey. Borelli's artificial
+wing, it will be remembered, consists of a rigid rod in front and a
+flexible sail behind. It is also made to strike vertically downwards.
+According to Chabrier, the wing has only one period of activity. He
+believes that if the wing be suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles,
+it is elevated solely by the reaction of the air. There is one
+unanswerable objection to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if
+not all the insects, have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate
+their wings at pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the
+reaction of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Durckheim agrees with
+Borelli both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion
+that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined plane a
+component force (composant) which it employs to support and direct
+itself. In his theology of nature he describes a schematic wing as
+consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible sail behind. A
+membrane so constructed will, according to him, be fit for flight. It
+will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers itself successively. It
+will of its own accord dispose itself as an inclined plane, and
+receiving obliquely the reaction of the air, it transfers into tractile
+force a part of the vertical impulsion it has received. These two parts
+of the wing, moreover, are equally indispensable to each other.
+
+Marey repeats Borelli and Durckheim with very trifling modifications, so
+late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings, the one composed of a
+rigid rod and sail--the rod representing the stiff anterior margin of
+the wing; the sail, which is made of paper bordered with cardboard, the
+flexible posterior margin. The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in
+front and behind of thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He
+states that if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, "the
+resistance of the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements.
+In effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power
+of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the extended
+nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and flexible. During the
+vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure has the power of remaining
+rigid, whereas the flexible portion, being pushed in an upward direction
+on account of the resistance it experiences from the air, assumes an
+oblique position which causes the upper surface of the wing to look
+forwards." The reverse of this, in Marey's opinion, takes place during
+the elevation of the wing--the resistance of the air from above causing
+the upper surface of the wing to look backwards.... "At first," he says,
+"the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the animal. It
+lowers itself--the front part of the wing strongly resists, the sail
+which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by the ribbing (the
+anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself, the sail or posterior
+margin of the wing being raised meanwhile by the air, which sets it
+straight again, the sail will take an intermediate position and incline
+itself about 45 deg. plus or minus according to circumstances.... The
+wing continues its movements of depression inclined to the horizon; but
+the impulse of the air, which continues its effect, and naturally acts
+upon the surface which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself
+into two forces, a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices
+to raise the animal, the second to move it along."[13] Marey, it will be
+observed, reproduces Borelli's artificial wing, and even his text, at a
+distance of nearly two centuries.
+
+The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact imitation
+of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more or less
+triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin, and thin at the
+tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid. It is, on the
+contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout. It is furnished with
+springs at its root to contribute to its continued play, and is applied
+to the air by a direct piston action in such a way that it descends in a
+downward and forward direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an
+upward and forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and
+propels both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists
+during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in space,
+precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most marked at the
+tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of the posterior margin
+next the tip. The wing when in action may be divided into two portions
+by a line running diagonally between the tip of the wing anteriorly and
+the root of the wing posteriorly. The tip and posterior parts of the
+wing are more active than the root and anterior parts, from the fact
+that the tip and posterior parts (the wing is an eccentric) always
+travel through greater spaces, in a given time, than the root and
+anterior parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists
+during its action, to form _a mobile helix or screw_. This wing is made
+to vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be
+propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.
+
+  a b, Anterior margin of wing, to which the neurae or ribs are affixed.
+
+  c d, Posterior margin of wing crossing anterior one.
+
+  x, Ball-and-socket joint at root of wing, the wing being attached to
+  the side of the cylinder by the socket.
+
+  t, Cylinder.
+
+  r r, Piston, with cross heads (w, w) and piston head (s).
+
+  o o, Stuffing boxes.
+
+  e, f, Driving chains.
+
+  m, Superior elastic band, which assists in elevating the wing.
+
+  n, Inferior elastic band, which antagonizes m. The alternate
+  stretching of the superior and inferior elastic bands contributes to
+  the continuous play of the wing, by preventing dead points at the end
+  of the down and up strokes. The wing is free to move in a vertical and
+  horizontal direction and at any degree of obliquity.]
+
+The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields freely in a
+downward direction during the up stroke, while it yields comparatively
+little in an upward direction during the down stroke; and this is a
+distinguishing feature, as the wing is thus made to fold and elude the
+air more or less completely during the up stroke, whereas it is made to
+expand and seize the air with avidity during the down stroke. The
+oblique line referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually
+divides the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating
+and propelling, the latter sustaining.
+
+It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise function
+discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment tends to show that
+the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior margin propels, and the root
+sustains.
+
+The wing--and this is important--is driven by a direct piston action
+with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion having communicated
+to it a smart click at the beginning of every down stroke--the up stroke
+being more uniform. The following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the
+artificial wing here represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural
+wing as depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in
+the one which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to
+the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to be applied
+to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the head of the
+piston. This wing, like the single wing described, twists and untwists
+as it rises and falls, and possesses all the characteristics of the
+natural wing (fig. 34).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each
+wing forms a mobile helix or screw.
+
+  a b, Anterior margin of left wing.
+
+  c d, Posterior margin of ditto.
+
+  d g, Primary or rowing feathers of left wing.
+
+  g a, Secondary feathers ditto.
+
+  x,   Root of right wing with ball-and-socket joint.
+
+  l,   Elbow joint.
+
+  m,   Wrist joint,
+
+  n,o, Hand and finger joints.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston
+action. During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly
+convex on its upper surface (a b c d, A A'); its under surface (e f g h,
+A A') being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards.
+It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke.
+During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every
+direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form two
+screws, as seen at a' b' c' d', e' f' g' h', B, B'. The active area of
+the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during the up
+stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke; the wing
+seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than during the up
+stroke. _i, j, k_, elastic band to regulate the expansion of the wing;
+l, piston; m, piston head; n, cylinder.]
+
+He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two blades,
+which taper and become thinner towards the tips and posterior margins.
+When the screw is made to rotate, the blades, because of their
+elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the angles being least
+where the speed of the blades is greatest and vice versa. The pitch of
+the blades is thus regulated by the speed attained (fig. 35).
+
+The peculiarity of Pettigrew's wings and screws consists in their
+elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative length
+and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air when they are at
+rest, and when in motion the speed with which they are driven is such as
+to ensure that the comparatively large spaces through which they travel
+shall practically be converted into solid bases of support.
+
+After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw
+configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more
+especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings,
+and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construction of
+flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by D.S. Brown,[14]
+elastic aerial screws by J. Armour,[15] and elastic aeroplanes, wings
+and screws by Alphonse Penaud.[16]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades
+resembling wings (a b c d, e f g h).
+
+  x, End of driving shaft.
+
+  v,w, Sockets in which the roots of the blades of the screw rotate, the
+  degree of rotation being limited by steel springs (z, s).
+
+  a b, e f, tapering elastic rods forming anterior or thick margins of
+  blades of screw.
+
+  d c, h g, Posterior or thin elastic margins of blades of screw. The
+  arrows m, n, o, p, q, r indicate the direction of travel.]
+
+Penaud's experiments are alike interesting and instructive. He
+constructed models to fly by three different methods:--(a) by means of
+screws acting vertically upwards; (b) by aeroplanes propelled
+horizontally by screws; and (c) by wings which flapped in an upward and
+downward direction. An account of his helicoptere or screw model
+appeared in the _Aeronaut_ for January 1872, but before giving a
+description of it, it may be well to state very briefly what is known
+regarding the history of the screw as applied to the air.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cayley's Flying Model.]
+
+The first suggestion on this subject was given by A.J.P. Paucton in
+1768. This author, in his treatise on the _Theorie de la vis
+d'Archimede_, describes a machine provided with two screws which he
+calls a "pterophores." In 1796 Sir George Cayley gave a practical
+illustration of the efficacy of the screw as applied to the air by
+constructing a small machine, consisting of two screws made of quill
+feathers, a representation of which we annex (fig. 36). Sir George
+writes as under:--
+
+  "As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a machine
+  rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my present
+  communication by describing an instrument of this kind, which any one
+  can construct at the expense of ten minutes' labour.
+
+  "a and b, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted four
+  wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like the
+  sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A round
+  shaft is fixed in the cork a, which ends in a sharp point. At the
+  upper part of the cork b is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small
+  pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is
+  then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the
+  shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by
+  turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may
+  unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the cork
+  with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on the
+  upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from unwinding,
+  and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the
+  ceiling."
+
+Cayley's screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were superimposed and
+rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that if the area of the
+screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and moved by a man, they would
+elevate him. His interesting experiment is described at length, and the
+apparatus figured in _Nicolson's Journal_, 1809, p. 172.
+
+Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris Sarti in 1823,
+followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing flying models on the
+vertical screw principle. In 1842 W.H. Phillips succeeded, it is stated,
+in elevating a steam model by the aid of revolving fans, which according
+to his account flew across two fields after having attained a great
+altitude; and in 1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be
+sustained by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by
+vertical screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave
+de Ponton d'Amecourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who exhibited
+models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended with graduated
+weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These models were so fragile
+that they usually broke in coming in contact with the ground in their
+descent. Their flight, moreover, was unsatisfactory, from the fact that
+it only lasted a few seconds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--De la Landelle's Flying-machine. m, n, o, p;
+q, r, s, t, Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards.
+The vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the
+machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an extensive
+aeroplane.]
+
+Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton d'Amecourt had a
+small steam model constructed. This model, which was shown at the
+exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain at the Crystal
+Palace in 1868, consisted of two superposed screws propelled by an
+engine, the steam for which was generated (for lightness) in an
+aluminium boiler. This steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only
+lifted a third of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle's
+ideas.
+
+All the models referred to (Cayley's excepted[17]) were provided with
+rigid screws. In 1872 Penaud discarded the rigid screws in favour of
+elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Helicoptere or Screw-Model, by Penaud.]
+
+Penaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the whalebone and
+clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam of the larger ones.
+His helicoptere or screw-model is remarkable for its lightness,
+simplicity and power. The accompanying sketch will serve to illustrate
+its construction (fig. 38). It consists of two superposed elastic screws
+(a a, b b), the upper of which (a a) is fixed in a vertical frame (c),
+which is pivoted in the central part (d) of the under screw. From the
+centre of the under screw an axle provided with a hook (e), which
+performs the part of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between
+the hook or crank (e) and the centre of the upper screw (a a), the
+india-rubber in a state of torsion (f) extends. By fixing the lower
+screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times the
+requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The apparatus when
+liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height of 50 ft., and
+gyrates in large circles for a period varying from 15 to 30 seconds.
+
+Penaud next directed his attention to the construction of a model, to be
+propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic aeroplane extending
+horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed such a machine in 1810, and
+W.S. Henson constructed and patented a similar machine in 1842. Several
+inventors succeeded in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and
+screws, as, e.g. J. Stringfellow in 1847,[18] and F. du Temple in 1857.
+These models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found
+exceedingly difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of
+stability fore and aft and laterally. Penaud succeeded in overcoming the
+difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated an
+automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane placed aft
+or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic. The two elastic
+aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a slight upward angle with the
+horizon, the angle made by the smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being
+slightly in excess of that made by the larger. The motive power was
+india-rubber in the condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The
+reader will understand the arrangement by a reference to the
+accompanying drawing (fig. 39).
+
+Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two screws, one
+fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions; and in the event of
+only one screw being employed it may be placed in front of or behind the
+aeroplane.
+
+When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about 2 ft., after
+which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and flies in a forward
+direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from the ground for a
+distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this distance in from 10 to 11
+seconds, its mean speed being something like 12 ft. per second. From
+experiments made with this model, Penaud calculates that one horse-power
+would elevate and support 85 lb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.
+
+  a a, Elastic aeroplane.
+
+  b b, Automatic rudder.
+
+  c c, Aerial screw centred at f.
+
+  d, Frame supporting aeroplane, rudder and screw.
+
+  e, India-rubber, in a state of torsion, attached to hook or crank at
+  f. By holding the aeroplane (a a) and turning the screw (c c) the
+  necessary power is obtained by torsion. (Penaud.)]
+
+D.S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-biplanes. His
+experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes united by a central shaft
+or shafts, and separated by a wide interval, always produce increased
+stability. The production of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is
+in some respects the most difficult, but this also has been attempted
+and achieved. Penaud and A.H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged
+models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to construct an
+artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli, Strauss-Durckheim
+and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect never having been able to
+lift more than a third of its own weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Penaud's Artificial Flying Bird.
+
+  a b c d, a' b' c' d', Elastic wings, which twist and untwist when made
+  to vibrate.
+
+  a b, a' b', Anterior margins of wings.
+
+  c d, c' d', Posterior margins of wings.
+
+  c, c', Inner portions of wings attached to central shaft of model by
+  elastic bands at e.
+
+  f, India-rubber in a state of torsion, which provides the motive
+  power, by causing the crank situated between the vertical wing
+  supports (g) to rotate; as the crank revolves the wings are made to
+  vibrate by means of two rods which extend between the crank and the
+  roots of the wings.
+
+  h, Tail of artificial bird.]
+
+De Villeneuve and Penaud constructed their winged models on different
+types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird. De Villeneuve
+made the wings of his artificial bat conical in shape and comparatively
+rigid. He controlled the movements of the wings, and made them strike
+downwards and forwards in imitation of natural wings. His model
+possessed great power of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with
+ease, and flew in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and
+at a velocity of 20 m. an hour. Penaud's model differed from de
+Villeneuve's in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins
+of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the
+anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber springs were
+made to extend between the inner posterior parts of the wings and the
+frame, corresponding to the backbone of the bird.
+
+A vertical movement having been communicated by means of india-rubber in
+a state of torsion to the roots of the wings, the wings themselves, in
+virtue of their elasticity, and because of the resistance experienced
+from the air, twisted and untwisted and formed reciprocating screws,
+precisely analogous to those originally described and figured by
+Pettigrew in 1867. Penaud's arrangement is shown in fig. 40.
+
+If the left wing of Penaud's model (a b, c d of fig. 40) be compared
+with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew's artificial wing
+(fig. 32), the identity of principle and application is at once
+apparent.
+
+In Penaud's artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the addition
+of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground, but on being
+liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when, having acquired
+initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance of 50 or more
+feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following are the
+measurements of the model in question:--length of wing from tip to tip,
+32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber, &c., 73 grammes
+(about 2-1/2 ounces).     (J. B. P.)
+
+
+_Flying Machines_.--Henson's flying machine, designed in 1843, was the
+earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale. Henson was one of the
+first to combine aerial screws with extensive supporting structures
+occupying a nearly horizontal position. The accompanying illustration
+explains the combination (fig. 41).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Henson's Aerostat.]
+
+  "The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse of its
+  sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight it
+  had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced with its
+  front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present its
+  under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of
+  which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill,
+  prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining of
+  the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled
+  through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged on
+  the air in its front.... The machine, fully prepared for flight, was
+  started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it
+  attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress.
+  That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the
+  air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the
+  steam-engine and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of
+  velocity; it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight
+  necessary for that small effect." The editor of Newton's _Journal of
+  Arts and Sciences_ speaks of it thus:--"The apparatus consists of a
+  car containing the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &c., to which a
+  rectangular frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with
+  canvas or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side
+  of the car in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird;
+  but with this difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the
+  wings are two vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which
+  are intended to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like
+  circular wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of a
+  steamboat, and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill.
+  These wheels receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or
+  other engine contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car
+  a triangular frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which
+  is also covered with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or
+  contracted at pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of
+  causing the machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a rudder
+  for directing the course of the machine to the right or to the left;
+  and to facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts
+  which rise from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary
+  for buoying up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot
+  for each half pound of weight."
+
+F.H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented in 1866 what he
+designated his aeroplanes.[19] These were thin, light, long, narrow
+structures, arranged above each other in tiers like so many shelves.
+They were tied together at a slight upward angle, and combined strength
+and lightness. The idea was to obtain great sustaining area in
+comparatively small space with comparative ease of control. It was hoped
+that when the aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical
+screws, or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float
+upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the aeroplanes
+would give the same support as if spread out horizontally. The
+accompanying figures illustrate Wenham's views (figs. 42 and 43).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Wenham's system of Aeroplanes designed to carry
+a man.
+
+  a, a, Thin planks, tapering at each end, and attached to a triangle.
+
+  b, Similar plank for supporting the aeronaut.
+
+  c, c, Thin bands of iron with truss planks a, a, and
+
+  d, d, Vertical rods. Between these are stretched five bands of holland
+  15 in. broad and 16 ft. long, the total length of the web being 80 ft.
+  This apparatus when caught by a gust of wind, actually lifted the
+  aeronaut.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A similar system, planned by Wenham.
+
+  a, a, Main spar 16 ft. long;
+
+  b, b, Panels, with base board for aeronaut attached to main spar.
+
+  e, e, Thin tie-band of steel with struts starting from main spar. This
+  forms a strong light framework for the aeroplanes, consisting of six
+  webs of thin holland 15 in. broad. The aeroplanes are kept in parallel
+  plane by vertical divisions of holland 2 ft. wide.
+
+  c, c', Wing propellers driven by the feet.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Stringfellow's Flying Machine.]
+
+Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson, and built a
+successful flying model in 1847, made a second model in 1868, in which
+Wenham's aeroplanes were combined with aerial screws. This model was on
+view at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain,
+held at the Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact,
+elegant and light, and obtained the L100 prize of the exhibition for its
+engine, which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed. The
+illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a very good
+idea of the arrangement--a, b, c representing the superimposed
+aeroplanes, d the tail, e, f the screw propellers. The superimposed
+aeroplanes (a, b, c) in this machine contained a sustaining area of 28
+sq. ft., in addition to the tail (d). Its engine represented a third of
+a horse power, and the weight of the whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel,
+superimposed aeroplanes and propellers) was under 12 lb. Its sustaining
+area, if that of the tail (d) be included, was something like 36 sq.
+ft., i.e. 3 sq. ft. for every pound. The model was forced by its
+propellers along a wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer
+could determine, failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme
+lightness and the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow,
+however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sustained by
+its aeroplanes alone.
+
+The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874, consisted
+of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three wheels; a very
+effective light engine constructed on a new principle, which dispensed
+with the old-fashioned, cumbrous boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal
+aeroplanes; and two comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was
+to get up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This
+accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine would gradually
+be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way that the weight of certain
+birds--the eagle, e.g.--is thrown upon the wings after a few hops and
+leaps. Once in the air the aeroplanes, it was believed, would become
+effective in proportion to the speed attained. The machine, however, did
+not realize the high expectations formed of it, and like all its
+predecessors it was doomed to failure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Moy's Aerial Steamer.]
+
+Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the problem of
+artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those of Prof. S.P.
+Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began their aerial experiments about
+the same time (1889-1890). By 1893-1894 both had embodied their views in
+models and large flying machines.
+
+Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small flying models and one
+large one. These he designated "aerodromes." They were all constructed
+on a common principle, and were provided with extensive flying surfaces
+in the shape of rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the
+horizon, and more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The
+cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at their
+anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of powerful vertical
+screw propellers driven at high speed--the greater the horizontal speed
+provided by the propellers, the greater, by implication, the lifting
+capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies, frames and aeroplanes of the
+aerodromes were strengthened by vertical and other supports, to which
+were attached aluminium wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that
+was possible. Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in
+this he succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously
+shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface being
+directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of highly trained
+mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and great secrecy was observed
+as to his operations. He flew his smallest models in the great lecture
+room of the National Museum, and his larger ones on the Potomac river
+about 40 m. below Washington.
+
+While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in 1889, he did not
+construct and test his steam-driven flying models until 1893. These
+were made largely of steel and aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made
+the longest flight then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully
+half a mile on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to
+carry passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to the
+order and at the expense of the American government, which granted a sum
+of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Langley's Flying Machine. a, Large aeroplane;
+b, Small aeroplane; c, Propelling screws.]
+
+  Langley's machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not intended
+  to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion closely
+  resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very rigid tube of
+  aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than 2 in. in
+  diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the framework
+  corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed 60 oz. and
+  developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made of thin
+  hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 lb. each; these
+  occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was refined
+  gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was utilized for
+  a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were twin screw
+  propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in practice,
+  to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute. The
+  wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames of
+  tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front
+  were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at
+  different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height, or
+  a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could
+  be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast
+  extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the craft,
+  and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips of
+  the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this trussing
+  arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly stiff.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Langley's Aerodrome in flight.]
+
+  In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-convex,
+  narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities, the
+  two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed
+  amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th
+  of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked
+  violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared,
+  by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was
+  pulled into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the
+  aerodrome rose to the surface, it was found that while the front
+  sustaining surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water,
+  yet the rear ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last
+  attempt, on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to
+  the launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track.
+  This time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained,
+  was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear
+  sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support
+  and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had come
+  before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid in the
+  recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted apart, and
+  one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened a rope
+  to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what it
+  should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in two.
+  Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see _Annual
+  Report of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1904, p. 122).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Sir H. Maxim's Flying Machine.]
+
+  Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly skilled
+  workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on which stood
+  a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex aeroplanes
+  arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward angle with
+  the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and propelled
+  by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha, &c. The
+  boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained in about
+  2000 bent copper tubes, only 3/8 in. in external diameter, heated by
+  over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha or gasoline.
+  Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute. The
+  steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 lb. in all, were
+  placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was provided by a
+  pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about 8 ft. from the
+  ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was independently
+  governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in actual effect, an
+  amount which, considering that their total weight was only 600 lb.,
+  gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 horse-power for every 2
+  lb. weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders were 5 and 8 in.
+  in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in. When going at full
+  speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per minute on the two
+  gigantic propellers that drove the machine along. These were in
+  appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except that they were
+  square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad and thin. They
+  were built from overlapping strips of American pine, planed smooth and
+  covered with glued canvas. They weighed 135 lb. each, the length of
+  each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the width at the ends 5-1/2 ft.
+  The pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully stayed by steel wires to
+  their shafts, or the first revolution would have snapped them off
+  short. The material of which the framework was built was thin steel
+  tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties were of the best
+  steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the square inch.
+  The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the fore-part cut
+  away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the stern over
+  which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all over it.
+  High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly concavo-convex
+  main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an imperceptible angle,
+  and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft., increased by side wings
+  to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes arranged in tiers, and
+  large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted and served for vertical
+  steering. The machine was strengthened in every direction by vertical
+  and other supports and securely wired together at all points. It was
+  furnished with four strong flanged wheels and ran along a light
+  broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track, 1800 ft. long, in the hope that
+  when the speed reached a certain point it would leave the rails, but
+  it was prevented from rising more than an inch or so by four arms, or
+  outriggers, furnished with wheels, which projected from its sides and
+  ran under an inverted wooden upper or safety track outside the railway
+  track proper.
+
+  At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main
+  aeroplane, the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side
+  planes were in position. After everything had been got in readiness,
+  careful observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was
+  connected to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the pump
+  set so as to deliver over 5000 lb. of water per hour into the boiler.
+  The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted to
+  310 lb. per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more than
+  2100 lb. A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had been
+  adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 lb. and with a strong blast
+  at 320 lb. The signal being given to let go, the machine darted
+  forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More
+  gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced 300
+  ft., the steam had mounted to 320 lb. per sq. in., and the
+  safety-valve was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had
+  travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger
+  wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was lifting
+  at least 8000 lb. The speed rapidly increased until when the machine
+  had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were of 2 in.
+  steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine
+  completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft., the
+  left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety track, and
+  shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper track--3 in.
+  by 9 in. Georgia pine--and a plank became entangled in the framework
+  of the machine. Steam had already been shut off, and the machine
+  coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four of its wheels
+  sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other marks. Before
+  making this run the wheels which were to engage the upper track were
+  painted, and the paint left by them on the upper track indicated the
+  exact point where the machine lifted. The area of the aeroplanes was
+  very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting effect was fully 10,000
+  lb. The planes therefore lifted 2.5 lb. per sq. ft., and 5 lb. for
+  each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of the engines was lost in
+  the screw slip. This showed that the diameter of the screws was not
+  great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft.
+
+In 1897 M.C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent results, two
+full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus with funds furnished
+by the French government. This reproduced the structure of a bird with
+almost servile imitation, save that traction was obtained by two
+screw-propellers. The steam engine weighed about 7 lb. per horse-power,
+but the equilibrium of the apparatus was defective.
+
+Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining
+equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal, Percy
+Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight by means of
+aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They depended mainly on the
+utilization of natural air currents, trusting for stability and balance
+to movements in their own bodies, or in portions of their machines which
+they could control. They threw themselves from natural or artificial
+elevations, or, facing the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards
+against it until they got under way and the wind caught hold of their
+aeroplanes. To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of
+demonstrating the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of
+reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000 glides
+safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave, batlike wings,
+in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49). It was with a machine
+of the latter type that he was upset by a sudden gust of wind and killed
+in 1896. Pilcher in England improved somewhat on Lilienthal's apparatus,
+but used the same general method of restoring the balance, when
+endangered, by shifting the weight of the operator's body. He too made
+several hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust
+of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his endeavours
+to the production of automatic stability, and made the surfaces movable
+instead of the man. He used several different forms of apparatus,
+including one with five superposed pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50)
+and another with two continuous aeroplanes, one above the other (fig.
+51). He made over 1000 glides without accident.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Lilienthal's Gliding Machine.]
+
+Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur and Orville
+Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider developed into a
+successful flying machine. These investigators began their work in 1900,
+and at an early stage introduced two characteristic features--a
+horizontal rudder in front for steering in the vertical plane, and the
+flexing or bending of the ends of the main supporting aeroplanes as a
+means of maintaining the structure in proper balance. Their machines to
+begin with were merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a
+horizontal, position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight
+lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five flights,
+in the longest of which they remained in the air for half an hour and
+covered a distance of 24-1/2 m. The utmost secrecy, however, was
+maintained concerning their experiments, and in consequence their
+achievements were regarded at the time with doubt and suspicion, and it
+was hardly realized that their success would reach the point later
+achieved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Chanute's Multiple Gliding Machine.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chanute's Biplane Gliding Machine.]
+
+Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great
+improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and, although
+the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still left something to
+be desired, it provided the designers of flying machines with what they
+had long been looking for--a motor very powerful in proportion to its
+weight. Largely in consequence of this progress, and partly no doubt
+owing to the stimulus given by the activity of builders of dirigible
+balloons, the construction of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a
+number of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont, after
+a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-shaped gas
+balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine. It consisted of the
+following parts:--(a) A system of aeroplanes arranged like the capital
+letter T at a certain upward angle to the horizon and bearing a general
+resemblance to box kites; (b) a pair of very light propellers driven at
+a high speed; and (c) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine.
+The driver occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which
+is shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels and
+vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts of the
+aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground on either side.
+With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th of November 1906 a distance
+of 220 metres in 21 seconds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Santos Dumont's Flying Machine.]
+
+About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights on a machine
+of the biplane type, consisting of two main supporting surfaces one
+above the other, with a box-shaped vertical rudder behind and two small
+balancing aeroplanes in front. The engine was an eight-cylinder
+Antoinette petrol motor, developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a
+minute, and driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th
+of October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at
+Issy-les-Molineaux, and on the 13th of January 1908 he made a circular
+flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of
+L2000. In March he remained in the air for 3-1/2 minutes, covering a
+distance of 1-1/4 m.; but in the following month a rival, Leon
+Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and constructed by the same
+makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this performance by flying nearly 2-1/2
+m. in 6-1/2 minutes. In July Farman remained in the air for over 20
+minutes; on the 6th of September Delagrange increased the time to nearly
+30 minutes, and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front
+with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24-1/2 m.
+
+But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers--Orville
+Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On the 9th of September
+1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia, made three notable flights; in
+the first he remained in the air 57-1/2 minutes and in the second 1 hour
+3 minutes, while in the third he took with him a passenger and covered
+nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes. Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in
+1 hour 14-1/3 minutes, but on the 17th he had an accident, explained as
+being due to one of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by
+which his machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and
+Lieutenant Selfridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards
+Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records with a
+flight lasting 1 hour 31 minutes 25-4/5 seconds, in which he covered
+about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the 11th of October, he made a flight
+of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger. On the 31st of December
+he succeeded in remaining in the air for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.
+
+Wilbur Wright's machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother being
+essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched supporting
+surfaces, each 12-1/2 metres long, arranged parallel one above the other
+at a distance of 1-4/5 metres apart. As they were each about 2 metres
+wide their total area was about 50 sq. metres. About 3 metres in front
+of them was arranged a pair of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped
+like a long narrow ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected
+changes of elevation, the driver being able by means of a lever to
+incline them up or down according as he desired to ascend or descend.
+The rudder for lateral steering was placed about 2-1/2 metres behind the
+main surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes. The
+lever by which they were turned was connected with the device by which
+the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed simultaneously though in
+opposite directions; i.e. if the ends of the aeroplanes on one side were
+bent downwards, those on the other were bent upwards. By the aid of
+this arrangement the natural cant of the machine when making a turn
+could be checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol
+engine was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the
+central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger if one
+was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line. Making
+about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24 horse-power, and
+was connected by chain gearing to two wooden propellers, 2-1/2 metres in
+diameter and 3-1/2 metres apart, the speed of which was about 450
+revolutions a minute. The whole machine, with aeronaut, weighed about
+1100 lb., the weight of the motor being reputed to be 200 lb.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 1.--PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.
+
+  FIG. 2.--WRIGHT BIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 3.--BLERIOT MONOPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.
+
+  FIG. 4.--A.V. ROE'S TRIPLANE.
+
+  Photo, Topical Press.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch.
+
+  A, B, Main supporting surfaces.
+
+  C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder with fixed semilunar fin E.
+
+  F, Vertical rudder.
+
+  G, Motor.
+
+  H, Screws.]
+
+A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with monoplanes
+having only a single supporting surface, and it was on a machine of this
+type that the Frenchman Bleriot on July 25th flew across the English
+Channel from Calais to Dover in 31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but
+performed the same feat on an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw
+considerable increases in the periods for which aviators were able to
+remain in the air, and Roger Sommer's flight of nearly 2-1/2 hours on
+August 7th was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he
+covered a distance estimated at 137-1/4 m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec. In
+both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation meetings
+were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy, Doncaster and
+Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was made in a wind of 40 m.
+an hour by Latham. This aviator also proved the possibility of flying at
+considerable altitudes by attaining on December 1st a height of over
+1500 ft., but this record was far surpassed in the following January by
+L. Paulhan, who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los
+Angeles. In the course of the year three aviators were killed--Lefevbre
+and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and four men perished
+in September by the destruction of the French airship "Republique," the
+gas-bag of which was ripped open by a broken propeller. In January 1910
+Delagrange was killed by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane
+on which he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully
+flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within 24 hours, for
+the _Daily Mail's_ L10,000 prize.
+
+The progress made by all these experiments at aviation had naturally
+created widespread interest, both as a matter of sport and also as
+indicating a new departure in the possibilities of machines of war. And
+in 1909 the British government appointed a scientific committee, with
+Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a consultative body for furthering the
+development of the science in England.
+
+The table below gives some details, approximately correct, of the
+principal experiments made with flying machines up to 1908.
+
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+  |       |                  | Tip  |         |         | Pounds | Speed | Maximum |          | Horse-|  Pounds   |
+  | Year. |   Experimenter.  | to   | Surface.| Weight. |  per   |  per  | Flight. |  Motor.  | power.| sustained |
+  |       |                  | Tip. |         |         | sq. ft.| hour. |         |          |       |  per h.p. |
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+  |       |                  |  Ft. | Sq. ft. |   lb.   |        |  Mls. |    Ft.  |          |       |           |
+  | 1879  | Tatin            |  6.2 |     7.5 |    3.85 |  0.51  | 18    |    100? |Compressed|  0.03 |    110?   |
+  |       |                  |      |         |         |        |       |         |   air    |       |           |
+  | 1885 \|                  |      |         |         |        |       |         |          |       |           |
+  | 1889 /| Hargrave (No. 16)|  5.5 |    26.0 |    5.00 |  0.19  | 10    |    343  |    "     |  0.06 |     79    |
+  | 1893  | Phillips         | 22.0 |   136.0 |  402.00 |  3.00  | 28    |    500? |  Steam   |  5.6  |     72?   |
+  | 1894  | Maxim*           | 50.0 |  4000.0 | 8000.00 |  2.5   | 36    |    300? |    "     |363.00 |     28    |
+  | 1896  | Langley          | 12.0 |    70.0 |   30.00 |  0.43  | 24    |  4,000  |    "     |  1.00 |     30    |
+  | 1897  | Tatin and Richet | 21.0 |    86.0 |   72.00 |  0.83  | 40    |    460  |    "     |  1.33 |     55    |
+  | 1897  | Ader*            | 49.0 |   270.0 | 1100.00 |  4.00  | 50?   |    100? |    "     | 40.00 |     27    |
+  | 1895  | Lilienthal*      | 23.0 |   151.0 |  220.00 |  1.46  | 23    |  1,200  | Gravity  |  2.00 |    110    |
+  | 1896  | Pilcher*         | 23.0 |   170.0 |  200.00 |  1.17  | 25    |    900  |    "     |  2.00 |    100    |
+  | 1896  | Chanute*         | 16.0 |   135.0 |  178.00 |  1.31  | 22    |    360  |    "     |  2.00 |     89    |
+  | 1906  | S. Dumont*       | 39   |   560   |  550    |  0.98  | 22.26 |  2,900  |  Petrol  | 50    |     23    |
+  | 1908  | W. Wright*       | 41   |   650   | 1100    |  1.7   | 37    |295,000  |  Petrol  | 24    |     46    |
+  +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+
+    * The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Some of the books mentioned under AERONAUTICS contain
+  details of flying machines; see H.W.L. Moedebeck, _A Pocketbook of
+  Aeronautics_, trans. by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907); Sir Hiram
+  S. Maxim, _Artificial and Natural Flight_ (London, 1908); F.W.
+  Lanchester, _Aerodynamics_ and _Aerodonetics_ (London, 1907 and 1908);
+  C.C. Turner, _Aerial Navigation of To-day_ (London, 1909); also two
+  papers on "Aerial Navigation" read by Colonel G.O. Fullerton before
+  the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and 1906; papers read by
+  Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell and E.S. Bruce before the Society of Arts,
+  London, in April 1907 and December 1908 respectively; Cantor Lectures
+  by F.W. Lanchester (Society of Arts, 1909); and the _Proceedings_ of
+  the Aeronautical Society (founded 1865), &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds
+    of passage have no air in their bones.--_Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond_. part
+    xxv., 1857, p. 13.
+
+  [2] By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure
+    inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or
+    rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of
+    support to any body attached to it.
+
+  [3] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics," by
+    J. Bell Pettigrew, _Proc. Roy. Inst_., 1867; "On the Mechanical
+    Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," by the
+    same author, _Trans. Linn. Soc_., 1867.
+
+  [4] _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l'Etranger_,
+    1869.
+
+  [5] The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording
+    instrument. It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of
+    clock-work at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its
+    surface by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements
+    to be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more
+    levers, and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where
+    they appear as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the
+    wings the tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious
+    modification, employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the
+    different parts of the wings were made actually to record their own
+    movements. As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave
+    theory of stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject
+    of a rigorous _experimentum crucis_.
+
+  [6] This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse
+    is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in
+    the substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when
+    necessary, in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some
+    measure what may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are
+    especially useful in giving it continuous play.
+
+  [7] "The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form
+     cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated
+     with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the
+     wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their
+     nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is
+     equivalent--morphologically and physiologically--to one entire insect
+     wing. In the wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are
+     short, and in some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary
+     feathers are greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that
+     the wing as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by
+     the insect's wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones,
+     muscles and feathers have attained a maximum development. The
+     conformation of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance
+     in every direction--the waves running longitudinally, transversely
+     and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently be
+     removed without essentially altering either its form or its
+     functions. This is proved by making sections in various directions,
+     and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the
+     wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of
+     flight."--_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xxvi. pp. 325, 326.
+
+  [8] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,"
+    _Proc. Roy. Inst._, 1867; "On the Mechanical Appliances by which
+    Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1867,
+    26.
+
+  [9] "On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the movements
+    by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird," _Trans.
+    Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. 26.
+
+  [10] The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are--(a)
+    the elevator muscles of the wings, (b) the elastic properties of the
+    wings, and (c) the reaction of the compressed air on the under
+    surfaces of the wings.
+
+  [11] The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across
+    the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes
+    under a foot in width.
+
+  [12] _On the Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in reference to
+   the subject of Aerial Locomotion,_ by L. de Lucy (Paris).
+
+  [13] E.J. Marey, _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de
+    l'etranger_ (1869).
+
+  [14] "The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight," _Ninth Annual
+    Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874.
+
+  [15] "Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation," _Ninth
+    Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874.
+
+  [16] The _Aeronaut_ for January 1872 and February 1875.
+
+  [17] Cayley's screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and
+    consequently elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his
+    writings to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid
+    screws, it is to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for
+    convenience and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was
+    the first to advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial
+    purposes.
+
+  [18] Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and
+    figured further on (fig. 44).
+
+  [19] "On Aerial Locomotion," _Aeronautical Society's Report_ for
+    1867.
+
+
+
+
+FLINCK, GOVERT (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves in 1615, was
+apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but having secretly acquired
+a passion for drawing, was sent to Leuwarden, where he boarded in the
+house of Lambert Jacobszon, a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant
+preacher than as a painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and
+the companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist
+only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours of
+Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of Rombert Ulenburg,
+whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt in 1634. Other members of the
+same family lived at Amsterdam, cultivating the arts either
+professionally or as amateurs. The pupils of Lambert probably gained
+some knowledge of Rembrandt by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly
+J. von Sandrart, who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged
+as one of Rembrandt's best pupils, and living habitually in the house of
+the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years Flinck laboured
+on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master's style in all the
+works which he executed between 1636 and 1648; then he fell into
+peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling forms and grand action of
+Rubens's creations. Finally he sailed with unfortunate complacency into
+the Dead Sea of official and diplomatic painting. Flinck's relations
+with Cleves became in time very important. He was introduced to the
+court of the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who
+married in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John
+Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649. In 1652 a
+citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress, daughter of Ver
+Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India Company. He was already well
+known even then in the patrician circles over which the burgomasters De
+Graef and the Echevin Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the
+poet Vondel and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with
+antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often
+received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still
+preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.
+
+The earliest of Flinck's authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady, dated
+1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture is the
+"Blessing of Jacob," in the Amsterdam museum (1638). Both are thoroughly
+Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in vigour of touch and warmth of
+flesh tints. The four "civic guards" of 1642, and "the twelve
+musketeers" with their president in an arm-chair (1648), in the
+town-hall at Amsterdam, are fine specimens of composed portrait groups.
+But the best of Flinck's productions in this style is the peace of
+Munster in the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures
+full of animation in the faces, "radiant with Rembrandtesque colour,"
+and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his own likeness to the
+left in a doorway. The mannered period of Flinck is amply illustrated in
+the "Marcus Curius eating Turnips before the Samnite Envoys," and
+"Solomon receiving Wisdom," in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here
+it is that Flinck shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy
+in tint, flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh
+that looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge. The
+chronology of Flinck's works, so far as they are seen in public
+galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the "Grey Beard" of
+1639 at Dresden, the "Girl" of 1641 at the Louvre, a portrait group of a
+male and female (1646) at Rotterdam, a lady (1651) at Berlin. In
+November 1659 the burgomaster of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12
+canvases to represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus
+Curius and Horatius Cocles, and scenes from the wars of the Batavians
+and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than the sketches. In the
+same year he received a flattering acknowledgment from the town council
+of Cleves on the completion of a picture of Solomon which was a
+counterpart of the composition at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and
+portraits, such as the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg
+and John Maurice of Nassau, and the allegory of "Louisa of Orange
+attended by Victory and Fame" and other figures at the cradle of the
+first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several pictures
+which were painted for the Great Elector, none are preserved except the
+"Expulsion of Hagar" in the Berlin museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on
+the 22nd of February 1660.
+
+
+
+
+FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814), English navigator, explorer, and man of
+science, was born at Donington, near Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the
+16th of March 1774. Matthew was at first designed to follow his father's
+profession of surgeon, but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of
+adventure impelled him to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd
+of October 1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies,
+and after serving in the "Bellerophon" during Lord Howe's "glorious
+first of June" (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out in 1795 as
+midshipman in the "Reliance" to New South Wales. For the next few years
+he devoted himself to the task of accurately laying down the outline and
+bearings of the Australian coast, and he did his work so thoroughly that
+he left comparatively little for his successors to do. With his friend
+George Bass, the surgeon of the "Reliance," in the year of his arrival
+he explored George's river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again
+in March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the "Tom Thumb," only 8
+ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a stretch of coast
+to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope,
+when he was promoted to a lieutenancy, Flinders was engaged during
+February 1798 in a survey of the Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of
+Tasmania. His delight was great when, in September of the same year, he
+was commissioned along with Bass, who had already explored the sea
+between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and inferred that it
+was a strait, to proceed in the sloop "Norfolk" (25 tons) to prove
+conclusively that Van Diemen's Land was an island by circumnavigating
+it. In the same sloop, in the summer of next year, Flinders made an
+exploration to the north of Port Jackson, the object being mainly to
+survey Glasshouse Bay (Moreton Bay) and Hervey's Bay. Returning to
+England he was appointed to the command of an expedition for the
+thorough exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern
+continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been the
+first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of July 1801 the
+sloop "Investigator" (334 tons), in which the expedition sailed, left
+Spithead, Flinders being furnished with instructions and with a passport
+from the French government to all their officials in the Eastern seas.
+Among the scientific staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent
+English botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders's relative,
+John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-west coast of
+Australia, was reached on November 6, and King George's sound on the 9th
+of December. Flinders sailed round the Great Bight, examining the
+islands and indentations on the east side, noting the nature of the
+country, the people, products, &c., and paying special attention to the
+subject of the variation of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs
+were discovered and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after
+leaving Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders fell
+in with the French exploring ship, "Le Geographe," under Captain Nicolas
+Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter Bay. In the narrative of the
+French expedition published in 1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the
+Mauritius) by M. Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the
+land west of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered
+by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for the English
+ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when Flinders published his
+own narrative, that the real state of the case was fully exposed.
+Flinders continued his examination of the coast along Bass's Strait,
+carefully surveying Port Phillip. Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of
+May 1802.
+
+After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months, Flinders set
+out again on the 22nd of July to complete his circumnavigation of
+Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was examined with the greatest care in
+several places. The north-east entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was
+reached early in November; and the next three months were spent in an
+examination of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt
+them. An inspection of the "Investigator" showed that she was in so
+leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could the
+voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey of the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of Timor, the
+"Investigator" sailed round the west and south of Australia, and Port
+Jackson was reached on the 9th of June 1803. Much suffering was endured
+by nearly all the members of the expedition: a considerable proportion
+of the men succumbed to disease, and their leader was so reduced by
+scurvy that his health was greatly impaired.
+
+Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. "Porpoise" as a passenger,
+submit the results of his work to the Admiralty, and obtain, if
+possible, another vessel to complete his exploration of the Australian
+coast. The "Porpoise" left Port Jackson on the 10th of August,
+accompanied by the H.E.I.C.'s ship "Bridgewater" (750 tons) and the
+"Cato" (450 tons) of London. On the night of the 17th the "Porpoise" and
+"Cato" suddenly struck on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to
+wrecks. The officers and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4
+ft. above high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many
+of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks. The reef
+was in about 22 deg. 11' S. and 155 deg. E., and about 800 m. from Port
+Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a six-oared cutter in
+order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party. The reef was again reached
+on the 8th of October, and all the officers and men having been
+satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders on the 11th left for Jones Strait
+in an unsound schooner of 29 tons, the "Cumberland," with ten
+companions, and a valuable collection of papers, charts, geological
+specimens, &c. On the 15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he
+discovered that France and England were at war. The passport he
+possessed from the French government was for the "Investigator"; still,
+though he was now on board another ship, his mission was essentially
+the same, and the work he was on was simply a continuation of that
+commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Nevertheless, on her arrival at
+Port Louis the "Cumberland" was seized by order of the governor-general
+de Caen. Flinders's papers were taken possession of, and he found
+himself virtually a prisoner. We need not dwell on the sad details of
+this unjustifiable captivity, which lasted to June 1810. But there can
+be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was compelled to
+endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his health, and
+brought his life to a premature end. He reached England in October 1810,
+after an absence of upwards of nine years. The official red-tapeism of
+the day barred all promotion to the unfortunate explorer, who set
+himself to prepare an account of his explorations, though unfortunately
+an important part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The
+results of his labours were published in two large quarto volumes,
+entitled _A Voyage to Terra Australis_, with a folio volume of maps. The
+very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published Flinders died,
+at the early age of forty. The great work is a model of its kind,
+containing as it does not only a narrative of his own and of previous
+voyages, but masterly statements of the scientific results, especially
+with regard to magnetism, meteorology, hydrography and navigation.
+Flinders paid great attention to the errors of the compass, especially
+to those caused by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to
+have been the first to discover the source of such errors (which had
+scarcely been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the
+variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for which
+Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards. Numerous
+experiments on ships' magnetism were conducted at Portsmouth by
+Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812. Besides the _Voyage_,
+Flinders wrote _Observations on the Coast of Van Diemen's Land_, _Bass's
+Strait_, &c., and two papers in the _Phil. Trans._--one on the "Magnetic
+Needle" (1805), and the other, "Observations on the Marine Barometer"
+(1806).     (J. S. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FLINSBERG, a village and watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the Iserkamm, 1450 ft.
+above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the terminus station of the
+railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1900) 1957. It contains an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and has some manufactures of wooden wares.
+Flinsberg is celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of
+feminine disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also a
+climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors number about
+8500 annually.
+
+  See Adam, _Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort_ (Gorlitz, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886), American physician, was born at Petersham,
+Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812, and graduated at the medical
+department of Harvard University in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was
+professor of the theory and practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical
+College, of which he was one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he
+filled the same chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886
+he was professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical
+medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He wrote many
+text-books on medical subjects, among these being _Diseases of the
+Heart_ (1859-1870); _Principles and Practice of Medicine_ (1866);
+_Clinical Medicine_ (1879); and _Physical Exploration of the Lungs by
+means of Auscultation and Percussion_ (1882). He died in New York on the
+13th of March 1886.
+
+His son, AUSTIN FLINT, junr., who was born at Northampton,
+Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at Harvard and
+at the university of Louisville, graduated at the Jefferson Medical
+College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became professor of physiology
+at the university of Buffalo (1858) and subsequently at other centres,
+his last connexion being with the Cornell University Medical College
+(1898-1906). He was better known as a teacher and writer on physiology
+than as a practitioner, and his _Text-book of Human Physiology_ (1876)
+was for many years a standard book in American medical colleges. He also
+published an extensive _Physiology of Man_ (5 vols., 1866-1874),
+_Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease_ (1870), _Effects of
+Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise_ (1871), _Source of Muscular
+Power_ (1878), and _Handbook of Physiology_ (1905). In 1896 he became a
+consulting physician to the New York State Hospital for the Insane.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, ROBERT (1838-   ), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born near
+Dumfries and educated at the university of Glasgow. After a few years of
+pastoral service, first in Aberdeen and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he
+was appointed professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St
+Andrews in 1864. From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at
+Edinburgh. He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_. His chief works are _Christ's Kingdom upon
+Earth_ (Sermons, 1865); _Philosophy of History in Europe_ (1874; partly
+rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland, 1894); _Theism_ and
+_Anti-theistic Theories_ (2 vols., being the Baird Lectures for
+1876-1877; often reprinted); _Socialism_ (1894); _Sermons and Addresses_
+(1899); _Agnosticism_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840), American clergyman and writer, was born in
+Reading, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July 1780. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as a Congregational minister in
+Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued scientific studies with interest; and
+his labours in his chemical laboratory seemed so strange to the people
+of that retired region, that some persons supposed and asserted that he
+was engaged in counterfeiting. This, together with political
+differences, led to disagreeable complications, which resulted in his
+resigning his charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the
+valley of the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and
+a farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the settlers
+of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a picturesque work
+called _Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed in the Valley of the
+Mississippi_ (1826; reprinted in England and translated into French),
+the first account of the western states which brought to light the real
+life and character of the people. The success which this work met with,
+together with the failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish
+his more active labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the
+_Western Review_ in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and _Knickerbocker's
+Magazine_ (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books, including
+_Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot_ (1826), his best novel; _A
+Condensed Geography and History of the Western States, or the
+Mississippi Valley_ (2 vols., 1828); _Arthur Clenning_ (1828), a novel;
+and _Indian Wars in the West_ (1833). His style is vivid, plain and
+forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on the western
+states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass., on the 16th of
+August 1840.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
+on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9803;
+(1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 38,550. It
+is served by the Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by an
+electric line, the Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The
+city has a fine court-house (1904), a federal building (1908), a city
+hall (1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf,
+established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the
+treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has important
+manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being automobiles,
+wagons, carriages--Flint is called "the vehicle city,"--flour, woollen
+goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks and tiles; and its grain
+trade is of considerable importance. In 1904 the total value of the
+city's factory product was $6,177,170, an increase of 31.1% over that of
+1900. The settlement of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the
+Flint, began in 1820, but Flint's growth was very slow until 1831, when
+it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in 1855.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, or FLINTSHIRE (_sir Gallestr_), a county of North Wales, the
+smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the Dee
+estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by Denbighshire.
+Area, 257 sq. m. Included in Flint is the detached hundred of Maelor,
+lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county, and shut in by Cheshire
+on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire on the S., and by Denbighshire on the
+W. and N.W. The Clwyd valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of
+the Alyn and Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee,
+entering the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the W.,
+passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N. The Clwyd enters
+Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near Rhuddlan, reaches the
+Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the county under Moel Fammau,
+passes Cilcen and Mold (_y Wyddgrug_), runs underground near Hesb-Alyn
+(Alyn's drying-up), bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and
+joins the Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief
+lake.
+
+  Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their
+  economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most
+  important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous
+  limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwen; it forms the
+  Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold to
+  beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series is cherty
+  in the north--the chert is quarried for use in the potteries of
+  Staffordshire--but traced southward it passes into sandstones and
+  grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the
+  equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire,
+  while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought to
+  correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may be a
+  representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the coal
+  measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays and
+  marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from Talacre
+  through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope. The
+  carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a fault,
+  in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of Wenlock
+  age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western border of
+  the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd valley and
+  appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead and zinc ores
+  have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in the north of the
+  county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer Gwyn and Ffynnon
+  Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene mammals along with
+  palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift obscures the older rocks
+  on the east and north and in the vale of Clwyd. Short stretches of
+  blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl and Talacre.
+
+The London & North-Western railway follows the coast-line. Other
+railways which cross the county are the Great Western, and the Wrexham,
+Mold & Connah's Quay, acquired by the Great Central company. For pasture
+the vale of Clwyd is well known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief
+crops. Stock and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed
+with Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and Southdowns,
+while in the thick mining population a ready market is found for meat,
+cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in 1901) nearly doubled in
+the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day is one of the most densely
+populated counties in North Wales. The area of the ancient county is
+164,744 acres, and that of the administrative county 163,025 acres. The
+collieries begin at Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint,
+Halkin (Halcyn), Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlag). At
+Halkin, Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is
+sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc,
+formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and copper
+mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting works, oil,
+vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries around Buckley send
+their produce chiefly to Connah's Quay, whence a railway crosses the Dee
+to the Birkenhead (Cheshire) district. Iron seams are now thin, but
+limestone quarries yield building stone, lime for burning and small
+stone for chemical works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile
+manufactures small.
+
+The county returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary borough
+district (returning one member), consists of Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint,
+Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a
+small part of the Chester parliamentary borough. There is one municipal
+borough, Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley
+(5780), Connah's Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263), Prestatyn
+(1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales and Chester circuit,
+assizes being held at Mold. The Flint borough has a separate commission
+of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The ancient
+county, which is in the dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph,
+contains forty-six entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with
+parts of eleven others.
+
+Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the fragmentary
+ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:--Caerwys, near
+Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation. Bodfary (Bodfari) was
+traditionally occupied by the Romans. Moel y gaer (bald hill of the
+fortress), near Northop, is a remarkably perfect old British post. Maes y
+Garmon (perhaps for _Meusydd Garmon_, as y, the article, has no
+significance before a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields
+of Germanus). A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of _une victoire sans
+larmes, gagnee non par les armes, mais par la foi_ (E.H. Vollet). The
+Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and Saxons, at
+whose approach the _Alleluia_ of that Easter (A.D. 430) was sung. Panic
+duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St Germanus, confessor and
+bishop of Auxerre (A.D. 380-448), had to return to the charge in 446. He
+has, under the name Garmon, a great titular share in British topography.
+At Bangor Iscoed, "the great high choir in Maelor," was the monastery,
+destroyed with over 2000 monks, by Aethelfred of Northumberland in 607, as
+(by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland was sacked by
+the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (ii. 2) that Bangor monastery was
+in seven sections, with three hundred (working) monks. The supposed lines
+of direction of Watt's and Offa's dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope,
+Alyn valley, Oswestry (_Croes Oswallt_, "Oswald's cross"), for Watt's, and
+Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (_Hafren_, or Sabrina) for
+Offa's. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North Wales) defeated
+Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower) and at Coleshill (_Cynsyllt_).
+Near Pant Asa (_pant_ is a bottom) is the medieval Maen Achwynfan
+(_achwyn_, to complain, _maen_, stone), and tumuli, menhirs (_meini
+hirion_) and inscribed stones are frequent throughout the county. There is
+a 14th-century cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early
+Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county date from
+the early Edwards.
+
+  See H. Taylor, _Flint_ (London, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+FLINT, a municipal borough and the county town of the above; a seaport
+and contributory parliamentary borough, on the south of the Dee estuary,
+192 m. from London by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
+4265. The seat of great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur
+and other chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The
+county gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle,
+was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with Cheshire.)
+
+Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by Edward I.
+Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward III. bestowed its
+constableship upon the earls of Chester, and here Richard II.
+surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice taken, after siege, by the
+parliamentarians, and finally dismantled in 1647. There remain a square
+court (with angle towers), round tower and drawbridge, all three
+entrusted to a constable, appointed by the crown under the Municipal
+Corporations Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was
+chartered by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of
+Chester.
+
+
+
+
+FLINT (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages, possibly
+cognate with the Gr. [Greek: plinthos], a tile), in petrology, a dark
+grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance which has an almost
+vitreous lustre, and when pure appears structureless to the unaided eye.
+In the mass it is dark and opaque, but thin plates or the edges of
+splinters are pale yellow and translucent. Its hardness is greater than
+that of steel, so that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when
+drawn across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2.6 or only a little
+less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when hammered
+readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains. The fracture is
+perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer detach flakes which
+have convex, slightly undulating surfaces. At the point of impact a bulb
+of percussion, which is a somewhat elevated conical mark, is produced.
+This serves to distinguish flints which have been fashioned by human
+agencies from those which have been split merely by the action of frost
+and the weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably
+intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to archaeologists
+investigating Palaeolithic implements. With skill and experience a mass
+of flint can be worked to any simple shape by well directed strokes, and
+further trimming can be effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a
+direction slightly across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have
+the most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known to
+have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were specially
+suitable for his purposes.
+
+  Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and dolomite
+  may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also detected
+  minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic compounds, &c., to
+  which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities. These are
+  dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller in lustre.
+  Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystalline and
+  consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorphous
+  silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part of
+  the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms, such
+  as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur in
+  flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their
+  original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk which
+  encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure to the
+  weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints. At first
+  they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is
+  subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish
+  porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the
+  removal of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres
+  and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a very
+  slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material of
+  great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist
+  attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the
+  south-east of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their
+  surfaces often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the
+  edges of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one
+  pebble on another during storms or floods.
+
+  Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in the
+  white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see CHALK). It
+  is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses
+  which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules
+  often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not
+  deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands
+  cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right
+  angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as
+  bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some
+  extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of
+  radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into
+  solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again
+  precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is
+  consequently the result of "concretionary action." Where the flints
+  lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fact a kind of
+  metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly replaced
+  a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and the organisms
+  of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved in the
+  flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have their
+  cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the
+  shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind
+  are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.
+
+  Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the
+  same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and
+  commonly occurs in limestone (e.g. the Carboniferous Limestone) in the
+  same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of
+  radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian
+  oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some of
+  the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the
+  English Greensand; these often contain remains of sponges.
+
+The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrication of
+weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other materials have been
+employed where flint was not available, e.g. obsidian, chert,
+chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to prehistoric man (see FLINT
+IMPLEMENTS below) flint must have been of great value and served many of
+the uses to which steel is put at the present day. Flint gravels are
+widely employed for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in
+architecture. For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not regarded
+with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily; binds badly,
+yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy traffic and in bad
+weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do much damage to tires of
+motors and cycles. Seasoned flints from the land, having been long
+exposed to the atmosphere, are preferred to flints freshly dug from the
+chalk pits. Formerly flint and steel were everywhere employed for
+striking a light; and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special
+industry in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in
+Suffolk. In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade
+has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in
+semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable.
+Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass, and is
+still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties of pottery.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. The excavation of these remains of the
+prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift gravel-beds has marked a
+revolution in the study of Man's history (see ARCHAEOLOGY). Until almost
+the middle of the 19th century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of
+British and European archaeologists that the momentous results of the
+excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be dwarfed by
+discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous ideas of Man's
+antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes observed in some sand
+containing mammalian remains, at Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint,
+roughly worked into a cutting implement. This "find" was rapidly
+followed by others, and Boucher de Perthes published his first work on
+the subject, _Antiquites celtiques et antediluviennes: memoire sur
+l'industrie primitive et les arts a leur origin_ (1847), in which he
+proclaimed his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging
+to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French
+archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission then
+visited his collection and testified to the great importance of his
+discoveries. The "finds" at Abbeville were followed by others in many
+places in England, and in fact in every country where siliceous stones
+which are capable of being flaked and fashioned into implements are to
+be found. The implements occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the
+tumuli and ancient burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of
+prehistoric man in nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and
+lake-dwellings; but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of
+England and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long
+left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These gravels
+represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man shared Europe with
+the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros. The worked flints of this age
+are, however, unevenly distributed; for while the river-gravels of
+south-eastern England yield them abundantly, none has been found in
+Scotland or the northern English counties. On the continent the same
+partial distribution is observable: while they occur plentifully in the
+north-western area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway
+or Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by
+chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no longer
+indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier period of the
+Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint implements, which
+show signs of polishing and in many cases remarkably fine workmanship,
+and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs and lake-dwellings mixed with the
+bones of common domestic animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later
+Stone Age. The Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers,
+implements worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which
+resemble rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round,
+and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these is ground
+or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand, exhibit more
+variety of design, are carefully finished, and the particular use of
+each weapon can be easily detected. Man has reached the stage of culture
+when he could socket a stone into a wooden handle, and fix a flaked
+flint as a handled dagger or knife. The workmanship is superior to that
+shown in any of the stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic
+times. The manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all
+ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only kind of
+stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any shape, and thus
+forms the principal material of these earliest weapons. The blows must
+be carefully aimed or the flakes dislodged will be shattered: a
+gun-flint maker at Brandon, Suffolk, stated that it took him two years
+to acquire the art.
+
+  For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and detailed
+  descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans, _Ancient
+  Stone Implements_ (1897), Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (1865,
+  1900); also Thomas Wilson, "Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and Knives of
+  Prehistoric Times," in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1897; and W.K.
+  Moorehead, _Prehistoric Implements_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FLOAT (in O. Eng. _flot_ and _flota_, in the verbal form _fleotan_; the
+Teutonic root is _flut-_, another form of _flu-_, seen in "flow," cf.
+"fleet"; the root is seen in Gr. [Greek: pleein], to sail, Lat.
+_pluere_, to rain; the Lat. _fluere_ and _fluctus_, wave, is not
+connected), the action of moving on the surface of water, or through the
+air. The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river,
+backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as a mass of
+ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed boat, or a raft,
+or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support a baited line or
+fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or inflated organ by means
+of which certain animals, such as the "Portuguese man-of-war," swim, to
+a hollow metal ball or piece of whinstone, &c., used to regulate the
+level of water in a tank or boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the
+cistern of a barometer. "Float" is also the name of one of the boards of
+a paddle-wheel or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to
+denote the footlights. The word is also applied to something broad,
+level and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon for the
+purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a special kind of
+low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and to a platform on wheels
+used for shows in a procession. The term is applied also to various
+tools, especially to many kinds of trowels used in plastering. It is
+also used of a dock where vessels may float, as at Bristol, and of the
+trenches used in "floating" land. In geology and mining, loose rock or
+ore brought down by water is known as "float," and in tin-mining it is
+applied to a large trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word
+is used of the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without
+being woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United
+States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to bribery
+is called a "float" or "floater."
+
+
+
+
+FLOCK. 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian, from which
+come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in other Teutonic languages),
+originally a company of people, now mainly, except in figurative usages,
+of certain animals when gathered together for feeding or moving from
+place to place. For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other
+animals most generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular
+application of the word to sheep that "flock" is used of the Christian
+Church in its relation to the "Good Shepherd," and also of a
+congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual head.
+
+2. (Probably from the Lat. _floccus_, but many Teutonic languages have
+the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool, cotton or similar
+substance. The name "flock" is given to a material formed of wool or
+cotton refuse, or of shreds of old woollen or cotton rags, torn by a
+machine known as a "devil." This material is used for stuffing
+mattresses or pillows, and also in upholstery. The name is also applied
+to a special kind of wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like
+cloth, or, in the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting
+on a specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of
+cotton or silk. The word "flocculent" is used of many substances which
+have a fleecy or "flock"-like appearance, such as a precipitate of
+ferric hydrate.
+
+
+
+
+FLODDEN, or FLODDEN FIELD, near the village of Branxton, in
+Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene of a famous
+battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between the English and the
+Scots. On the 22nd of August a great Scottish army under King James IV.
+had crossed the border. For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King
+Henry VIII.'s absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no
+organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much precious
+time among the border castles, and when Surrey appeared at Wooler, with
+an army equal in strength to his own, which was now greatly weakened by
+privations and desertion, he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The
+English commander promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle,
+which the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors,
+accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and took up a
+strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey's reproaches for
+the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge to fight on
+Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The English commander, thus
+foiled, executed a daring and skilful march round the enemy's flank, and
+on the 9th drew up for battle in rear of the hostile army. It is evident
+that Surrey was confident of victory, for he placed his own army, not
+less than the enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter
+ruin. On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took post on
+Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 P.M. Surrey's archers
+and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the Scots, unable quietly to
+endure their losses, rushed to close quarters. Their left wing drove the
+English back, but Lord Dacre's reserve corps restored the fight on this
+side. In all other parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were
+personally opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king's
+corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward Stanley in
+flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre's force closed
+upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself, boldly neglecting an
+almost intact Scottish division in front of him, charged in upon the
+rear of King James's corps. Surrounded and attacked on all sides, this,
+the remnant of the invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen
+around the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of
+his nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to the
+last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all the leading men
+in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no family of importance that
+had not lost a member in this great disaster. The "King's Stone," said
+to mark the spot where James was killed, is at some distance from the
+actual battlefield. "Sybil's Well," in Scott's _Marmion_, is imaginary.
+
+
+
+
+FLODOARD (894-966), French chronicler, was born at Epernay, and educated
+at Reims in the cathedral school which had been established by
+Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As canon of Reims, and favourite of the
+archbishops Herivaeus (d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while
+still young an important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was
+twice deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on
+account of his steady opposition to the election of the count's infant
+son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of Archbishop Artold in
+947, Flodoard became for a time his chief adviser, but withdrew to a
+monastery in 952, and spent the remaining years of his life in literary
+and devotional work. His history of the cathedral church at Reims
+(_Historia Remensis Ecclesiae_) is one of the most remarkable
+productions of the 10th century. Flodoard had been given charge of the
+episcopal archives, and constructed his history out of the original
+texts, which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the
+period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The _Annales_ which
+Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly important, by
+reason of the author's honesty and the central position of Reims in
+European affairs in his time. Flodoard's poetical works are of hardly
+less historical interest. The long poem celebrating the triumph of
+Christ and His saints was called forth by the favour shown him by Pope
+Leo VII., during whose pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes
+fourteen books to the history of the popes.
+
+  Flodoard's works were published in full by J.P. Migne (_Patrologia
+  Latina_, vol. 135); a modern edition of the _Annales_ is the one
+  edited by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier,
+  _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (No. 932).
+
+
+
+
+FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse _flo_, layer, level plain), a
+sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of polar ice. It is of
+less extent than the field of "pack" ice, which is a compacted mass of
+greater depth drifting frequently under the influence of deep currents,
+while the floating floe is driven by the wind.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden Flood, chief
+justice of the king's bench in Ireland, was born in 1732, and was
+educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards at Christ Church,
+Oxford, where he became proficient in the classics. His father was a man
+of good birth and fortune, and he himself married a member of the
+influential Beresford family, who brought him a large fortune. In his
+early years he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant
+conversationalist. His judgment was sound, and he had a natural gift of
+eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by study of classical
+oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood therefore possessed every
+personal advantage when, in 1759, he entered the Irish parliament as
+member for Kilkenny in his twenty-seventh year. There was at that time
+no party in the Irish House of Commons that could truly be called
+national, and until a few years before there had been none that deserved
+even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still
+constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it had
+practically no powers of independent legislation, and none of
+controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated by the
+ministers in London (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Though the great majority of
+the people were Roman Catholics, no person of that faith could either
+enter parliament or exercise the franchise; the penal code, which made
+it almost impossible for a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a
+learned profession, or even to educate his children, and which in
+numerous particulars pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and
+subjected them to degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in
+practice largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were
+throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the economic
+theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade of Great
+Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison fully realized the
+necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only needed the ability and
+eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of Commons to raise up an
+independent party in parliament, and to create in the country a public
+opinion with definite intelligible aims.
+
+The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening of the
+duration of parliament--which had then no legal limit in Ireland except
+that of the reigning sovereign's life,--the reduction of the
+scandalously heavy pension list, the establishment of a national
+militia, and, above all, the complete legislative independence of the
+Irish parliament. For some years little was accomplished; but in 1768
+the English ministry, which had special reasons at the moment for
+avoiding unpopularity in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass,
+which was the first step towards making the Irish House of Commons in
+some measure representative of public opinion. It had become the
+practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by the
+owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their undertaking to
+manage the House in the government interest. But during the viceroyalty
+of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and more particularly these
+"undertakers" as they were called, were made to understand that for the
+future their privileges in this respect would be curtailed. When,
+therefore, an opportunity was taken by the government in 1768 for
+reasserting the constitutional subordination of the Irish parliament,
+these powerful classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood.
+In the following year, in accordance with the established procedure, a
+money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for acceptance
+by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it rejected, but contrary to
+custom a reason for this course was assigned, namely, that the bill had
+not originated in the Irish House. In consequence parliament was
+peremptorily prorogued, and a recess of fourteen months was employed by
+the government in securing a majority by the most extensive
+corruption.[1] Nevertheless when parliament met in February 1771 another
+money bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year Lord
+Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked this conflict,
+was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a publication, famous in
+its day, called _Baratariana_, to which Flood contributed a series of
+powerful letters after the manner of Junius, one of his collaborators
+being Henry Grattan.
+
+The success which had thus far attended Flood's efforts had placed him
+in a position such as no Irish politician had previously attained. He
+had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes, "proved himself beyond
+all comparison the greatest popular orator that his country had yet
+produced, and also a consummate master of parliamentary tactics. Under
+parliamentary conditions that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an
+atmosphere charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had
+created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and had
+inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine spirit of
+liberty and self-reliance."[2] Lord Harcourt, who succeeded Townsend as
+viceroy, saw that Flood must be conciliated at any price "rather than
+risk the opposition of so formidable a leader." Accordingly, in 1775,
+Flood was offered and accepted a seat in the privy council and the
+office of vice-treasurer with a salary of L3500 a year. For this step he
+has been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly in
+the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost influence
+from the moment he became a minister of the crown, Flood may reasonably
+have held that he had a better prospect of advancing his policy by the
+leverage of a ministerial position than by means of any opposition party
+he could hope to muster in an unreformed House of Commons.[3] The
+result, however, was that the leadership of the national party passed
+from Flood to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same
+session that Flood became a minister.
+
+Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this long
+period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the independence
+of the Irish parliament, and had to be content with advocating minor
+reforms as occasion offered. He was thus instrumental in obtaining
+bounties on the export of Irish corn to foreign countries and some other
+trifling commercial concessions. On the other hand he failed to procure
+the passing of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges
+irremovable, while his support of Lord North's American policy still
+more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But an important
+event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to some extent his former
+position in the country; this event was the alliance of France with the
+revolted American colonies. Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a
+French invasion, while the English government could provide no troops to
+defend the island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on
+foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000 men,
+disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by the country
+gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism of Lord Charlemont.
+This volunteer force, in which Flood was a colonel, while vigilant for
+the defence of the island, soon made itself felt in politics. A
+Volunteer Convention, formed with all the regular organization of a
+representative assembly, but wielding the power of an army, began
+menacingly to demand the removal of the commercial restrictions which
+were destroying Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government
+gave way; the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland
+for the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood, who
+had taken an active though not a leading part in this movement, now at
+last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He found to his
+chagrin that his former services had been to a great extent forgotten,
+and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When in a debate on the
+constitutional question in 1779 Flood complained of the small
+consideration shown him in relation to a subject which he had been the
+first to agitate, he was reminded that by the civil law "if a man should
+separate from his wife, and abandon her for seven years, another might
+then take her and give her his protection." But though Flood had lost
+control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament, the
+agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention and by
+increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in 1782 to the
+concession of the demand, together with a number of other important
+reforms (see GRATTAN, HENRY).
+
+No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a question
+arose--known as the Simple Repeal controversy--as to whether England, in
+addition to the repeal of the Acts on which the subordination of the
+Irish parliament had been based, should not be required expressly to
+renounce for the future all claim to control Irish legislation. The
+chief historical importance of this dispute is that it led to the
+memorable rupture of friendship between Flood and Grattan, each of whom
+assailed the other with unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective
+in the House of Commons. Flood's view prevailed--for a Renunciation Act
+such as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parliament
+in 1783--and for a time he regained popularity at the expense of his
+rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783) introduced a reform bill,
+after first submitting it to the Volunteer Convention. The bill, which
+contained no provision for giving the franchise to Roman Catholics--a
+proposal which Flood always opposed--was rejected, ostensibly on the
+ground that the attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of
+parliament. The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crown and the
+connexion with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by
+Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary reform
+might be imputed to nothing but "a sober and laudable desire to uphold
+the constitution ... and to perpetuate the cordial union of both
+kingdoms." The convention then dissolved, though Flood had desired, in
+opposition to Grattan, to continue it as a means of putting pressure on
+parliament for the purpose of obtaining reform.
+
+In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House of Commons.
+In 1783 he tried again, this time with success. He purchased a seat for
+Winchester from the duke of Chandos, and for the next seven years he was
+a member at the same time of both the English and Irish parliaments. He
+reintroduced, but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in
+1784; supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but
+short-sightedly opposed Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785. He
+remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation, even defending
+the penal laws on the ground that after the Revolution they "were not
+laws of persecution but of political necessity"; but after 1786 he does
+not appear to have attended the parliament in Dublin. In the House at
+Westminster, where he refused to enrol himself as a member of either
+political party, he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition
+to Fox's India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the
+expectations aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition to the
+commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however, most able; and in
+1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox declared to be the best
+scheme of reform that had yet been proposed, and which in Burke's
+opinion retrieved Flood's reputation. But at the dissolution in the same
+year he lost his seat in both parliaments, and he then retired to
+Farmley, his residence in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of
+December 1791.
+
+When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal friendship with
+Grattan, declared that Flood was "perhaps the ablest man Ireland ever
+produced, indisputably the ablest man of his own times," he expressed
+what was probably the general opinion of Flood's contemporaries. Lord
+Charlemont, who knew him intimately though not always in agreement with
+his policy, pronounced him to be "a man of consummate ability." He also
+declared that avarice made no part of Flood's character. Lord
+Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described him as a
+pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested flattery. Grattan, who
+even after the famous quarrel never lost his respect for Flood, said of
+him that he was the best tempered and the most sensible man in the
+world. In his youth he was genial, frank, sociable and witty; but in
+later years disappointment made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he
+was less polished, less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner
+and a greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition often
+governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually sound; and
+it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have succeeded in
+carrying a reform bill which might have preserved Irish parliamentary
+independence, if he had been supported by Grattan and the rest of his
+party in keeping alive the Volunteer Convention in 1783. Though he never
+wavered in loyalty to the British crown and empire, Ireland never
+produced a more sincere patriot than Henry Flood.
+
+  See Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838); Henry
+  Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_
+  (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of
+  Curran and some of his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); _The Irish
+  Parliament 1775_, from an official and contemporary manuscript, edited
+  by William Hunt (London, 1907); W.J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her
+  Agitators_; Lord Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2
+  vols., London, 1792); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols., London, 1878-1890); and _Leaders of
+  Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged edition, 2 vols., London, 1903);
+  J.A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_, vols. ii. and iii. (London,
+  1881); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish
+  Nation_ (London, 1833); Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the
+  State of Ireland_ (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish
+  Biography_ (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_
+  (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer movement, on which see
+  also _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon.
+  Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also _The Charlemont Papers_, and _Irish Parl.
+  Debates_, (vols. i.-iv.).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Walpole's _George III._, iv. 348.
+
+  [2] W.E.H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged
+    edition, 2 vols., 1903), i. 48.
+
+  [3] See Hardy's _Life of Charlemont_, i. 356.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD (in O. Eng. _flod_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
+_Flut_, Dutch _vloed_, from the same root as is seen in "flow,"
+"float"), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a
+deluge, hence "the flood," specifically, the Noachian deluge of Genesis,
+but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded in the mythology of
+other nations than the Hebrew (see DELUGE, THE). In the sense of
+"flowing water," the word is applied to the inflow of the tide, as
+opposed to "ebb."
+
+
+
+
+FLOOD PLAIN, the term in physical geography for a plain formed of
+sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down which a river runs has
+become very slight, it is unable to carry the sediment brought from
+higher regions nearer its source, and consequently the lower portion of
+the river valley becomes filled with alluvial deposits; and since in
+times of flood the rush of water in the high regions tears off and
+carries down a greater quantity of sediment than usual, the river
+spreads this also over the lower valley where the plain is flooded,
+because the rush of water is checked, and the stream in consequence
+drops its extra load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent.
+That of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m., and
+its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood plains may be
+the result of planation, with aggradation, that is, they may be due to a
+graded river working in meanders from side to side, widening its valley
+by this process and covering the widened valley with sediment. Or the
+stream by cutting into another stream (piracy), by cutting through a
+barrier near its head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer
+rock, and by glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling
+up its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river's
+course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind it,
+and indeed anything which checks a river's course and causes it to drop
+its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most commonly found
+near the mouth of a large river, such as the Rhine, the Nile, or the
+Mississippi, where there are occasional floods and the river usually
+carries a large amount of sediment. "Levees" are formed, inside which
+the river usually flows, gradually raising its bed above the surrounding
+plain. Occasional breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to
+spread in a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt
+covers the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain
+made by the United States geological survey show a great variety of
+material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured at one
+place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying
+swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel,
+sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any
+section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar
+character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by meandering,
+or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant
+pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the
+drainage system has ceased to act or is entirely diverted owing to any
+cause, the flood plain may become a level area of great fertility,
+similar in appearance to the floor of an old lake. The flood plain
+differs, however, inasmuch as it is not altogether flat. It has a gentle
+slope down-stream, and often for a distance from the sides towards the
+centre.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOR (from O. Eng. _flor_, a word common to many Teutonic languages,
+cf. Dutch _vloer_, and Ger. _Flur_, a field, in the feminine, and a
+floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of a room, but
+specially employed for one covered with boarding or parquetry. The
+various levels of rooms in a house are designated as "ground-floor,"
+"first-floor," "mezzanine-floor," &c. The principal floor is the storey
+which contains the chief apartments whether on the ground- or
+first-floor; in Italy they are always on the latter and known as the
+"piano nobile." The storey below the ground-floor is called the
+"basement-floor," even if only a little below the level of the pavement
+outside; the storey in a roof is known as the "attic-floor." The
+expressions one pair, two pair, &c., apply to the storeys above the
+first flight of stairs from the ground (see also CARPENTRY).
+
+
+
+
+FLOORCLOTH, a rough flannel cloth used for domestic cleaning; also a
+generic term applied to a variety of materials used in place of carpets
+for covering floors, and known by such trade names as kamptulicon,
+oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork-carpet, &c. Kamptulicon ([Greek:
+kamptos], flexible, [Greek: oulos], thick) was patented in 1844 by E.
+Galloway, but did not attract much attention till about 1862. It was
+essentially a preparation of india-rubber masticated up with ground
+cork, and rolled out into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers,
+sometimes over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has
+given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose. Oil-cloth is
+a coarse canvas which has received a number of coats of thick oil paint,
+each coat being rubbed smooth with pumice stone before the application
+of the next. Its surface is ornamented with patterns printed in oil
+colours by means of wooden blocks. Linoleum (_linum_, flax, _oleum_,
+oil), patented by F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized
+linseed oil and ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated
+with the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of pigments
+such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed on to a rough
+canvas backing between steam-heated rollers. Patterns may be printed on
+its surface with oil paint, or by an improved method may be inlaid with
+coloured composition so that the colours are continuous through the
+thickness of the linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and
+thus do not disappear with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material
+to linoleum, also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is
+stamped out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.
+
+
+
+
+FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS (1828-1896), French statesman, was born at St
+Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses-Pyrenees) on the 2nd of October 1828. He
+studied law in Paris, and was called to the bar in 1851. The _coup
+d'etat_ of that year aroused the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who
+had, while yet a student, given proof of his republican sympathies by
+taking part in the fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant
+and fearless attacks on the government in a series of political trials,
+and at the same time contributed to the _Temps_ and other influential
+journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de Justice in
+1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with the cry "Vive la
+Pologne, monsieur!" He delivered a scathing indictment of the Empire at
+the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took
+a part in the revolution of the 4th of September, as well as in the
+subsequent defence of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National
+Assembly by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed
+the _Ligue d'union republicaine des droits de Paris_ to attempt a
+reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his efforts
+failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers, but soon
+released. He became editor of the _Republique Francaise_, was chosen
+president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was elected deputy for
+the eleventh arrondissement. He took a prominent place among the
+extreme radicals, and became president of the group of the "Union
+republicaine." In 1882 he held for a short time the post of prefect of
+the Seine. In 1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber.
+This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality that
+he was re-elected the two following years. Having approached the Russian
+ambassador in such a way as to remove the prejudice existing against him
+in Russia since the incident of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for
+office; and on the fall of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became
+president of the council and minister of the interior in a radical
+ministry, which pledged itself to the revision of the constitution, but
+was forced to combat the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates
+in the chamber culminated on the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet
+and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following February
+the government fell on the question of revision, and in the new chamber
+of November Floquet was re-elected to the presidential chair. The Panama
+scandals, in which he was compelled to admit his implication, dealt a
+fatal blow to his career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892,
+and his seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the
+senate. He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1896.
+
+  See _Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet_, edited by Albert
+  Faivre (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FLOR, ROGER DI, a military adventurer of the 13th-14th century, was the
+second son of a falconer in the service of the emperor Frederick II.,
+who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when eight years old was sent to sea
+in a galley belonging to the Knights Templars. He entered the order and
+became commander of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in
+1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and an
+apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa, where he began
+to play the pirate. The struggle between the kings of Aragon and the
+French kings of Naples for the possession of Sicily was at this time
+going on; and Roger entered the service of Frederick, king of Sicily,
+who gave him the rank of vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302,
+as Frederick was anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops
+(called _Almugavares_), whom he had no longer the means of paying, Roger
+induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures in the East, in
+fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging the empire. The emperor
+Andronicus II. accepted his offer of service; and in September 1303
+Roger with his fleet and army arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted
+into the imperial family, was married to a grand-daughter of the
+emperor, and was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and
+the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and bloody
+quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after some
+successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter quarters at
+Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field, and rendered the
+important service of relieving Philadelphia, then invested and reduced
+to extremities by the Turks. But Roger, bent on advancing his own
+interests rather than those of the emperor, determined to found in the
+East a principality for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but
+the people slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed
+the siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was
+compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his troops in
+Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople to demand pay for
+the _Almugavares_. Dissatisfied with the small sum granted by the
+emperor, he plundered the country and carried on intrigues both with and
+against the emperor, receiving reinforcements all the while from all
+parts of southern Europe. Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly
+afterwards the young emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack
+the fierce and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to
+Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the massacre of
+his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was avenged by his men in
+a fierce and prolonged war against the Greeks.
+
+  See Moncada, _Expedicion de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contre Turcos y
+  Griegos_ (Paris, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+FLORA, in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and flowers, later
+identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival at Rome, the Floralia,
+instituted 238 B.C. by order of the Sibylline books and at first held
+irregularly, became annual after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May
+3), the first day being the anniversary of the foundation of her temple.
+It included theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and
+vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings were
+characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness. According to
+the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus Tatius, and her priest,
+the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art Flora was represented as a
+beautiful maiden, bedecked with flowers (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 183 ff.;
+Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 49).
+
+The term "flora" is used in botany collectively for the plant-growth of
+a district; similarly "fauna" is used collectively for the animals.
+
+
+
+
+FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR, a 13th-century romance. This tale, generally
+supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the passionate devotion of
+two children, and their success in overcoming all the obstacles put in
+the way of their love. The romance appears in differing versions in
+French, English, German, Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and
+Hungarian. The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E.
+Hausknecht's version of the 13th-century Middle English poem of "Floris
+and Blauncheflur" (_Samml. eng. Denkmaler_, vol. v. Berlin, 1885).
+Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of the story, but France
+was in the 12th and 13th centuries the chief market of romance, and the
+French version of the tale, _Floire et Blanchefleur_, is the most
+widespread. Floire, the son of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in
+constant companionship with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian
+slave of noble birth. Floire's parents, hoping to destroy this
+attachment, send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to
+foreign slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is told
+that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill himself, his
+parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the tower of the maidens
+destined for the harem of the emir of Babylon, into which he penetrates
+concealed in a basket of flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their
+constancy touches the hearts of their judges. They are married, and
+Floire returns to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt
+Christianity. Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Edelestand du
+Meril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few additions,
+the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the usual battles, single
+combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes of the story are printed by
+Paulin Paris in his _Romancero francais_ (Paris, 1883). The English poem
+renders the French version without amplifications, such as are found in
+other adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original, and
+less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms of the story
+must be noted the prose romance (c. 1340) of Boccaccio, _Il Filocolo_,
+and the 14th-century _Leggenda della reina Rosana e di Rosana sua
+figliuola_ (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The similarity between the story of
+Floire and Blanchefleur and _Chante-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete_[1]
+has been repeatedly pointed out, and they have even been credited with a
+common source.
+
+  See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht
+  (Berlin, 1885); also H. Sundmacher, _Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche
+  Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur_ (Gottingen, 1872); H.
+  Herzog, _Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur_ (Vienna,
+  1884); _Zeitschrift fur deut. Altertum_ (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish
+  version; the Scandinavian _Flores Saga ok Blankiflur_, ed. E. Kolbing
+  (Halle, 1896); the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, _Flore und
+  Blanscheflur_, ed. E. Sommer (Leipzig, 1846); the Swedish by G.E.
+  Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited by
+  Hartschorne (_English Metrical Tales_, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford
+  Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited G.H.
+  McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (_Floire et Blanchefleur_, Paris, 1906)
+  suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by
+  Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily imply a
+  connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with small
+  alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the book of
+  Esther.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French by
+    G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bedier (Tours, 1901); English by
+    Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and by
+    Laurence Housman (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (1831-1891), American actor, of Irish descent,
+whose real name was Bernard Conlin, was born on the 26th of July 1831 at
+Albany, N.Y., and first attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's
+Lyceum in 1851. Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (d.
+1906), in association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won
+all his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's _The Mighty Dollar_, said
+to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856 they had a
+successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of the first American
+actresses to appear on the English stage. In 1889 Florence entered into
+partnership with Joseph Jefferson, playing Sir Lucius O'Trigger to his
+Bob Acres and Mrs John Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour.
+His last appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891, as
+Ezekiel Homespun in _The Heir-at-law_, and he died on the 18th of
+November in Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118), English chronicler, was a monk of
+Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator, on the 7th of
+July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is known of his life. He compiled a
+chronicle called _Chronicon ex chronicis_ which begins with the creation
+and ends in 1117. The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by
+Marianus Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards
+at Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up to
+1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version of the English
+Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth comparing with the extant
+English Chronicles; and from 1106 he is an independent annalist, dry but
+accurate. Either Florence or a later editor of his work made
+considerable borrowings from the first four books of Eadmer's _Historia
+novorum_. Florence's work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of
+Worcester, who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years
+of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to Stephen,
+but not an indiscriminate partisan.
+
+  The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
+  Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc., 2
+  vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs
+  revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an
+  ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology
+  of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John Taxter
+  (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St Edmunds.
+  Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J. Stevenson in his
+  _Church Historians of England_, vol. ii. pt. i. (London, 1853); T.
+  Forester's translation in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1854)
+  gives the work of Taxter also.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama, U.S.A., on the
+N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of Muscle Shoals Canal, and
+about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900)
+6478 (1952 negroes); (1910) 6689. It is served by the Southern, the
+Northern Alabama (controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville &
+Nashville railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia,
+and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated in the
+fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on the edge of
+the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has various manufactures,
+including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons, stoves, fertilizers, staves
+and mercantile supplies. At Florence are the state Normal College, the
+Florence University for Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for
+negroes; founded in 1903 by the American Missionary Association).
+Florence was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president of
+the United States, and ex-president James Madison being among the early
+property holders. For several years Florence and Nashville, Tennessee,
+were commercial rivals, being situated respectively at the head of
+navigation on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of
+Alabama by Federal troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the
+Tennessee to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April
+1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels were
+repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th of May following,
+Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed cotton mills and public
+and private property; but they were driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy
+(1820-1897). On the 11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but
+the Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was chartered
+as a city in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+FLORENCE (Ital. _Firenze_, Lat. _Florentia_), formerly the capital of
+Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of Italy, and the
+sixth largest city in the country. It is situated 43 deg. 46' N., 11
+deg. 14' E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at this point flows
+through a broad fertile valley enclosed between spurs of the Apennines.
+The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and occupies an area of 3 sq. m.
+(area of the commune, 16-1/2 sq. m.). The geological formation of the
+soil belongs to the Quaternary and Pliocene period in its upper strata,
+and to the Eocene and Cretaceous in the lower. _Pietra forte_ of the
+Cretaceous period is quarried north and south of the city, and has been
+used for centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. _Pietra
+serena_ or _macigno_, a stone of a firm texture also used for building
+purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil is very
+fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of many kinds
+cover both the plain and the surrounding hills; the chief
+non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress, the ilex and
+the poplar, while many other varieties are represented. The gardens and
+fields produce an abundance of flowers, which justify the city's title
+of _la citta dei fiori_.
+
+_Climate and Sanitary Conditions._--The climate of Florence is very
+variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high winds from the
+north in winter to great heat in the summer, while in spring-time sudden
+and rapid changes of temperature are frequent. At the same time the
+climate is usually very agreeable from the end of February to the
+beginning of July, and from the end of September to the middle of
+November. The average temperature throughout the year is about 57 deg.
+Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8 deg., and the minimum 36.5 deg.,
+sometimes sinking to 21 deg. The longest day is 15 hours and 33 minutes,
+the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average rainfall is about
+37-1/2 inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and children's diseases mild;
+cholera has visited Florence several times, but the city has been free
+from it for many years. Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued
+as a severe epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare
+intervals and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
+measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses. The
+drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water brought from
+the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good, and the general
+sanitary conditions are satisfactory.
+
+
+  Churches.
+
+_Public Buildings._--Of the very numerous Florentine churches the Duomo
+(Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most important, founded in
+1298 on the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and
+consecrated in 1436; the facade, however, was not finished until the
+19th century--it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and
+unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous Campanile
+built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with exquisite bas-reliefs.
+Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th
+century on the site of an earlier church, and adorned with beautiful
+bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th century. The Badia, Santo Spirito,
+Santa Maria Novella, are a few among the many famous and beautiful
+churches of Florence. The existence of these works of art attracts
+students from all countries, and a German art school subsidized by the
+imperial government has been instituted.
+
+The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their splendid
+palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the residences of the
+noble families of Florence. Among others we may mention the Palazzo
+Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government of the Republic and now the
+town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, the residence of the Medici and now the
+prefecture, the palaces of the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most
+perfect specimens of Florentine _quattrocento_ architecture), Corsini,
+Davanzati, Pitti (the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della
+Lana or gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored,
+is the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence, which
+was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, was pulled down in
+1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care was not taken to avoid
+destroying certain buildings of historic and artistic value which might
+have been spared without impairing the work of sanitation, while the new
+structures erected in their place, especially those in the Piazza
+Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping
+with Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics at the
+time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was built, a society
+called the _Societa per la difesa di Firenze antica_ was formed by many
+prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient buildings and prevent them
+from destruction, and a spirit of intelligent conservatism seems now to
+prevail in this connexion. The city is growing in all directions, and a
+number of new quarters have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary
+than in the older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much
+aesthetic feeling. The _viali_ or boulevards form pleasant residential
+streets with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for
+each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming more
+and more general.
+
+
+  Libraries.
+
+Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number of smaller
+collections. The _Biblioteca Nazionale_, originally founded by Antonio
+Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the right, shared by the _Vittorio
+Emanuele_ library of Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in
+Italy, since 1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with
+regard to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed
+volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings (including 284
+by Albert Durer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000 letters. The number of
+readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately, however, the confusion
+engendered by a defective organization has long been a byword among the
+people; there is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in
+packing-cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very
+poor, hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself is
+quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new one has now
+been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, so that eventually the
+whole collection will be transferred to more suitable quarters. The
+_Biblioteca Marucelliana_, founded in 1752, contains 150,000 books,
+including 620 incunabula, 17,000 engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well
+managed and chiefly remarkable for its collection of illustrated works
+and art publications. The _Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana_, founded in
+1571, has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and
+was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the
+Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it with
+valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of which was the
+collection of _editiones principes_ given by Count d'Elci, in 1841, and
+the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by the Italian Government in
+1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS., including many magnificent
+illuminated missals and Bibles and a number of valuable Greek and Latin
+texts, 242 incunabula and 11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with
+palaeography; it is in some ways the most important of the Florentine
+libraries. The _Biblioteca Riccardiana_, founded in the 16th century by
+Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books and 650
+incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The state archives
+are among the most complete in Italy, and contain over 450,000 _filze_
+and _registri_ and 126,000 charters, covering the period from 726 to
+1856.
+
+
+  Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums.
+
+Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of artistic
+and historic interest, although the great majority of them belong to a
+comparatively limited period--from the 13th to the 16th century. The
+chief art galleries are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two
+former are among the finest in the world, and are filled with
+masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino, Ghirlandaio,
+Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine, Umbrian, Venetian,
+Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous admirable examples of
+antique, medieval and Renaissance sculpture. The Pitti collection is in
+the royal palace (formerly the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine
+new stairway and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence.
+In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological order.
+In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan masters, the Botticelli
+and Perugino rooms deserve special mention. Other pictures are scattered
+about in the churches, monasteries and private palaces. Of the
+monasteries, that of St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many
+works of Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the
+private collections the only one of importance is that of Prince
+Corsini. There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance
+antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podesta, itself
+one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many treasures are
+works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other sculptors, and large
+collections of ivory, enamel and bronze ware. The Opera del Duomo
+contains models and pieces of sculpture connected with the cathedral;
+the Etruscan and Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the
+Michelangelo museum, the museum of natural history and other collections
+are all important in different ways.
+
+
+  Population.
+
+The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners and a
+garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363; it increased
+largely when the capital of Italy was in Florence (1865-1872), but
+decreased or increased very slightly after the removal of the capital to
+Rome, and increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the
+rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration, as
+the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903, since
+when there has been a slight increase of the former and a decrease of
+the latter.
+
+
+  Administration.
+
+Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the central
+government is represented by a prefect (_prefetto_), while local
+government is carried on by a mayor (_sindaco_) and an elective town
+council (_consiglio comunale_). The city is the seat of a court of
+cassation (for civil cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor
+tribunals. It is the headquarters of an army corps, and an
+archiepiscopal see.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls
+  (education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 pupils,
+  and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary education is
+  provided by one higher and four lower technical schools with 1375
+  pupils, three _ginnasii_ or lower classical schools, and three _licei_
+  or higher classical schools, with 1000 pupils, and three training
+  colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher education is imparted at the
+  university (_Istituto di studii superiori e di perfezionamento_), with
+  600 to 650 students; although only comprising the faculties of
+  literature, medicine and natural science, it is, as regards the
+  first-named faculty, one of the most important institutions in Italy.
+  The original _Studio Fiorentino_ was founded in the 14th century, and
+  acquired considerable fame as a centre of learning under the Medici,
+  enhanced by the presence in Florence of many learned Greeks who had
+  fled from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks (1453).
+  Although in 1472 some of the faculties and several of the professors
+  were transferred to Pisa, it still retained importance, and in the
+  17th and 18th centuries it originated a number of learned academies.
+  In 1859 after the annexation of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was
+  revived and reorganized; since then it has become to some extent a
+  national centre of learning and culture, attracting students from
+  other parts of Italy, partly on account of the fact that it is in
+  Florence that the purest Italian is spoken. The revival of classical
+  studies on scientific principles in modern Italy may be said to have
+  begun in Florence, and great activity has also been displayed in
+  reviving the study of Dante; Dante lectures being given regularly by
+  scholars and men of letters from all parts of the country, above the
+  church of Or San Michele as in the middle ages, under the auspices of
+  the _Societa Dantesca_. Palaeography, history and Romance languages
+  are among the other subjects to which especial importance is given.
+  Besides the _Istituto di studii superiori_ there is the _Istituto di
+  scienze sociali_ "_Cesare Alfieri_," founded by the marchese Alfieri
+  di Sostegno for the education of aspirants to the diplomatic and
+  consular services, and for students of economics and social sciences
+  (about 50 students); an academy of fine arts, a conservatoire of
+  music, a higher female training-college with 150 students, a number of
+  professional and trade schools, and an academy of recitation. There
+  are also many academies and learned societies of different kinds, of
+  which one of the most important is the _Accademia della Crusca_ for
+  the study of the Italian language, which undertook the publication of
+  a monumental dictionary.
+
+
+    Charities, etc.
+
+  Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most
+  important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco
+  Portinari, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been thoroughly
+  renovated according to modern scientific principles. There are
+  numerous other hospitals both general and special, a foundling
+  hospital dating from the 13th century (Santa Maria degli Innocenti),
+  an institute for the blind, one for the deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the
+  hospitals and other charitable institutions are endowed, but the
+  endowments are supplemented by private contributions.
+
+
+    Commerce and Industry.
+
+  Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district,
+  and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
+  the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There are no
+  important industries, except a few flour-mills, some glass works, iron
+  foundries, a motor car factory, straw hat factories, and power-houses
+  supplying electricity for lighting and for the numerous tramcars.
+  There are, however, some artistic industries in and around the city,
+  of which the most important is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and
+  the Cantagalli majolica works. There are many other smaller
+  establishments, and the Florentine artificer seems to possess an
+  exceptional skill in all kinds of work in which art is combined with
+  technical ability. Another very important source of revenue is the
+  so-called "tourist industry," which in late years has assumed immense
+  proportions; the city contains a large number of hotels and
+  boarding-houses which every year are filled to overflowing with
+  strangers from all parts of the world.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae (Fiesole), which
+lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built
+only in Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by
+C. Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later
+on formed part of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed
+the river Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears
+to have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, and in
+A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a colony) it
+successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the waters of the
+Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus mentions it, and Florus
+describes it as one of the _municipia splendidissima_. A bishop of
+Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313. A group of Italic cremation tombs _a
+pozzo_ of the Villanova period were found under the pavement of the
+medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio. This took its name from the
+_Capitolium_ of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the
+Piazza Luna; the three _cellae_ were clearly traceable. The capitals of
+the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it became
+clear that this temple had supplied building materials for S. Giovanni
+and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal altar, probably belonging
+to the temple, were found. Remains of baths have been found close by,
+while the ancient amphitheatre has been found near S. Croce outside the
+Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
+gates, the _Decumanus_ being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del
+Corso, and the _Cardo_ by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio
+occupied the site of the Forum.
+
+  See L.A. Milani, "Reliquie di Firenze antica," in _Monumenti dei
+  Lincei_, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.)
+
+
+  The countess Matilda.
+
+  Guelphs and Ghibellines.
+
+  Beginnings of the commune.
+
+  War with the nobles.
+
+  The potestas.
+
+The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city by the
+Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general Stilicho.
+Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial
+garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths. We find
+the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one
+_Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum_, which suggests that Florence
+was the capital of a duchy (one of the regular divisions of the
+Longobard empire). Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many
+favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its
+situation on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
+agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the head of
+the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of
+San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro Mezzabarba as bishop of
+Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with
+Rome, which ended in the triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk
+Petrus Igneus, champion of the popular reform movement; this event
+indicates the beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
+Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or margraviate, and
+the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire.
+Under the emperor Otto I. one Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor
+Conrad II. (elected in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of
+Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
+Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the
+margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous countess Matilda, who
+ruled for forty years and played a prominent part in the history of
+Italy in that period. In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever
+on the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor and the
+faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and she herself often led armies
+to battle. It is at this time that the people of Florence first began to
+acquire influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of
+justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great
+feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in
+Tuscany, the _boni homines_ or _sapientes_. As the countess was
+frequently absent these _boni homines_ gave judgment without her, thus
+paving the way for a free commune. The citizens found themselves in
+opposition to the nobility of the hills around the city, Teutonic
+feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their
+commerce. Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other
+cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the
+citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations which
+were the germs of the _arti_ or gilds. After the death of Countess
+Matilda in 1115 the _grandi_ or _boni homines_ continued to rule and
+administer justice, but in the name of the people--a change hardly
+noticed at first, but which marks the foundation of the commune. After
+1138 the _boni homines_ began to be called _consules_, while the
+population was divided into the _grandi_ or _delle torri_, i.e. the
+noble families who had towers, and the _arti_ or trade and merchant
+gilds. At first the _consules_, of whom there seem to have been twelve,
+two for each _sestiere_ or ward, were chosen by the men of the towers,
+and assisted by a council of 100 _boni homines_, in which the _arti_
+were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few
+powerful families. The republic now proceeded to extend its power. In
+1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the
+_contado_ (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves,
+were still powerful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines
+to wage war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
+The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his
+authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former
+state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful
+counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152,
+made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Welf of Bavaria as
+margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to supply troops to the
+emperor for his Lombard campaigns, and he began to establish a
+centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a _potestas_,
+who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of "San Miniato al
+Tedesco"), to represent him and exercise authority in the _contado_;
+this double authority of the _consoli_ in the town and the _potestas_ or
+_podesta_ outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines were
+masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and
+Fiesole; but civil commotion within the city broke out between the
+_consoli_ and the greater nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened
+by the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles
+and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, though not
+victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted to the
+consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief cities of
+Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the Alberti whose castle
+of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later we find a _potestas_ within the
+city, elected for a year and assisted by seven councillors and seven
+_rectores super capitibus artium_. This represented the triumph of the
+feudal party, which had gained the support of the _arti minori_ or
+minor gilds. The _potestates_ subsequently were foreigners, and in 1207
+the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto of Milan; a new council was
+formed, the _consiglio del comune_, while the older senate still
+survived. The Florentines now undertook to open the highways of commerce
+towards Rome, for their city was already an important industrial and
+banking centre.
+
+
+  Comune and popolo.
+
+  Battle of Montaperti (1260).
+
+Discord among the great families broke out again, and the attempt to put
+an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti and a
+daughter of the Amidei, only led to further strife (1215), although the
+causes of these broils were deeper and wider, being derived from the
+general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the
+work of crushing the nobles of the _contado_ and of asserting the city's
+position among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war
+successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years
+against the Sienese with varying results; although the emperor supported
+the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure for Germany in 1235 they
+were forced to accept peace on onerous terms. During the interregnum
+(1241-1243) following on the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline
+cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was re-established. The
+tumults against the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many
+Ghibelline nobles favoured by the _podesta_ Pace di Pesamigola, indicate
+a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., having defeated his
+enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two Sicilies, appointed his natural
+son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil
+war broke out, entered the city with 1600 German knights. The
+Ghibellines now triumphed completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders
+were driven into exile--the first of many instances in Florentine
+history of exile _en masse_ of a defeated party. The attempt to seize
+Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
+failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six _caporali di
+popolo_, who formed the basis of the _primo popolo_ or body of citizens
+independent of the nobles, headed by the _capitano del popolo_. The
+Ghibellines being unable to maintain their supremacy, the city came to
+be divided into two almost autonomous republics, the _comune_ headed by
+the _podesta_, and the _popolo_ headed by the _capitano_ and militarily
+organized into twenty companies; the central power was represented by
+twelve _anziani_ or elders. The _podesta_, who was always a foreigner,
+usually commanded the army, represented the city before foreign powers,
+and signed treaties. He was assisted by the _consiglio speciale_ of 90
+and the _consiglio generale e speciale_ of 300, composed of nobles,
+while the _capitano del popolo_ had also two councils composed of
+burghers, heads of the gilds, _gonfalonieri_ of the companies, &c. The
+_anziani_ had a council of 36 burghers, and then there was the
+_parlamento_ or general assembly of the people, which met only on great
+occasions. At this time the _podesta's_ palace (the Bargello) was built,
+and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be accepted as the
+standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, although greatly
+strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be called the democrats as
+opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were by no means wholly
+victorious, and in 1251 they had to defend themselves against a league
+of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine
+Ghibellines; the Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after
+their plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in its
+hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession of
+Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines declared
+war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs of other towns was
+cunningly induced to believe that Siena would surrender at the first
+summons; but it was met by a Sienese army reinforced by Florentine
+exiles, including Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by
+the cavalry of Manfred (q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the
+count of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were totally routed
+at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. Count Giordano entered
+Florence, appointed Count Guido Novello _podesta_, and began a series of
+persecutions against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze
+the walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the
+idea, saying that "he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
+fatherland."
+
+
+  New constitution.
+
+During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the old liberties
+were abolished, and the _popolo_ was deprived of all share in the
+administration. But when Charles I. (q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy
+as champion of the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed (1266),
+the _popolo_, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, was ready
+to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were
+expelled, but it was not the _popolo_ who triumphed; the pope and
+Charles were the real masters of the situation, and the Florentines
+found they had exchanged a foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who
+was foreign and Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
+the _podesta_ who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 _buoni
+uomini_, and by the council of the 100 _buoni uomini del popolo_,
+"without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, "no great matter nor
+expenditure could be undertaken." Other bodies and magistrates were
+maintained, and the _capitano del popolo_, now called _capitano della
+massa di parte Guelfa_, tended to become a very important person. The
+property of the Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six
+_capitani di parte Guelfa_ appointed to administer it and in general to
+expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole constitution
+of the republic, although of very democratic tendencies, seemed designed
+to promote civil strife and weaken the central power.
+
+
+  Florentine trade and the gilds.
+
+While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed to argue
+small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, the people
+had built up a wonderful commercial organization. Each of the seven
+_arti maggiori_ or greater gilds was organized like a small state with
+its councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and in times of
+trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine cloth especially was
+known and sold all over Europe, and the Florentines were regarded as the
+first merchants of the age. If the life of the city went on
+uninterruptedly even during the many changes of government and the
+almost endemic civil war, it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who
+could carry on the administration without a government.
+
+
+  Cardinal Latino.
+
+After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines defeated
+the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan territory. As
+Charles perpetually interfered in their affairs, always favouring the
+_grandi_ or Guelph nobles, some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a
+counterpoise, which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph
+of Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come to terms
+with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 to give up his
+title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the
+interregnum following on the death of Frederick II. In 1279 Pope
+Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher Latino Frangipani
+Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal bishop of Ostia the same year,
+to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino to some
+extent succeeded, and was granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He
+raised the 12 _buoni uomini_ to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be
+changed every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. A
+force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the _podesta_ and
+_capitano_ (now both elected by the people) to keep order and oblige the
+_grandi_ to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.) by weakening
+Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed at complete independence
+of emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the _signoria_ was composed of
+the 3 (afterwards 6) _priori_ of the gilds, who ended by ousting the
+_buoni uomini_, while a _defensor artificum et artium_ takes the place
+of the _capitano_; thus the republic became an essentially trading
+community, governed by the _popolani grassi_ or rich merchants.
+
+
+  Battle of Campaldino (1289).
+
+  Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).
+
+The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power of the
+Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini were
+completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a battle made
+famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. War against the Pisans,
+who had been defeated by the Genoese in the naval battle of La Meloria
+in 1284, was carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was
+made. But the _grandi_, who had largely contributed to the victory of
+Campaldino, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were
+becoming more powerful, and Charles had increased their number by
+creating a great many knights; but their attempts to interfere with the
+administration of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were
+passed to reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the
+abolition of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in
+the number of _arti_, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 _maggiori_ and 14
+_minori_) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for the
+Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing power and
+arrogance of the _grandi_, who in spite of their exclusion from many
+offices were still influential and constituted independent clans within
+the state. The law obliged each member of the clan (_consorteria_) to
+_sodare_ for all the other members, i.e. to give a pecuniary guarantee
+to ensure payment of fines for offences committed by any one of their
+number, a provision made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted
+collectively. But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe
+ones were enacted. These were the famous _Ordinamenti della Giustizia_
+of 1293, by which all who were not of the _arti_ were definitely
+excluded from the signory. The _priori_ were to remain in office two
+months and elected the _gonfaloniere_, also for two months; there were
+the _capitudini_ or councils of the gilds, and two _savi_ for each
+_sestiere_, with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the
+_grandi_ families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters
+concerning the _Ordinamenti_ was delivered in a summary fashion without
+appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano della Bella, a noble
+who by engaging in trade had become a _popolano_; the _grandi_ now tried
+to make him unpopular with the _popolani grassi_, hoping that without
+him the _Ordinamenti_ would not be executed, and opened negotiations
+with Pope Boniface VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his
+authority in Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
+was driven into exile in 1295. The _grandi_ regained some of their power
+by corrupting the _podesta_ and by the favour of the _popolo minuto_ or
+unorganized populace; but their quarrels among themselves prevented them
+from completely succeeding, while the _arti_ were solid.
+
+
+  The Bianchi and the Neri.
+
+In 1295 a signory favourable to the _grandi_ enacted a law attenuating
+the _Ordinamenti_, but now the _grandi_ split into two factions, one
+headed by the Donati, which hoped to abolish the _Ordinamenti_, and the
+other by the Cerchi, which had given up all hope of their abolition;
+afterwards these parties came to be called _Neri_ (Blacks) and _Bianchi_
+(Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their influence over
+Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having been discovered (May
+1300), serious riots broke out between the Neri and the Bianchi. The
+pope's attempt to unite the _grandi_ having failed, he summoned Charles
+of Valois to come to his assistance, promising him the imperial crown;
+in 1301 Charles entered Italy, and was created by the pope _paciaro_ or
+peacemaker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and the
+_popolo_ and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles reached
+Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted Corso Donati
+and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new _podesta_, Cante dei
+Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, punished many of that
+faction; among those whom he exiled was the poet Dante (1302). Corso
+Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made
+himself many enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the
+_popolo grasso_, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in
+which he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg was
+elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he came to Italy
+in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines of Italy regarded
+him as a saviour and regenerator of the country, while the Guelphs of
+Florence on the contrary opposed both him and the pope as dangerous to
+their own liberties and accepted the protection of King Robert of
+Naples, disregarding Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was
+crowned emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
+ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances
+into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate free Italian
+communes. He besieged Florence without success, and died of disease in
+1313.
+
+
+  Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.
+
+The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that Henry was
+dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della Fagginola, imperial
+vicar in Genoa. A brave general and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca
+and defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini
+in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to
+fly from Tuscany. A new danger now threatened Florence in the person of
+Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.v.), who made himself lord
+of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, and other
+Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he harried the
+Florentines and defeated them several times, captured Pistoia,
+devastated their territory up to the walls of the city in spite of
+assistance from Naples under Raymundo de Cardona and the duke of
+Calabria (King Robert's son); never before had Florence been so
+humiliated, but while Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he
+died in 1328. Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been
+appointed protector of the city in 1325, died, and further
+constitutional reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by
+the _consiglio del popolo_, consisting of 300 _popolani_ and presided
+over by the _capitano_, and the _consiglio del comune_ of 250 members,
+half of them nobles and half _popolani_, presided over by the _podesta_.
+The _priori_ and other officers were drawn by lot from among the Guelphs
+over thirty years old who were declared fit for public office by a
+special board of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first,
+but abuses soon crept in, and many persons were unjustly excluded from
+office; trouble being expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was
+created. But the first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio,
+used his dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
+office no successor was chosen.
+
+
+  Attempt to capture Lucca.
+
+  The duke of Athens (1342-43).
+
+The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they might have
+acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's death for 80,000
+florins, but failed to do so owing to differences of opinion in the
+signory; Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in
+1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not then very
+flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make war on him. They
+were successful at first, but Venice made a truce with the Scala
+independently of the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they only
+obtained a part of Lucchese territory. At the same time they purchased
+from the Tarlati the protectorate over Arezzo for ten years. But
+misfortunes fell on the city: Edward III. of England repudiated the
+heavy debts contracted for his wars in France with the Florentine
+banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to
+their failure and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine
+credit all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums from
+the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions by accusing them
+of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought terrible havoc in Florence,
+and riots again broke out between the _grandi_ and the _popolo_, partly
+on account of the late unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of
+the finances. To put an end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke
+of Athens, was elected "conservator" and captain of the guard in 1342.
+An astute, dissolute and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine,
+he began his government by a policy of conciliation and impartial
+justice which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought the
+ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed by the
+populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of September was
+carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. The _podesta_ and the
+_capitano_ assenting to this treachery, he dismissed the
+_gonfaloniere_, reduced the _priori_ to a position of impotence,
+disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted the lordship of
+Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his
+bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, who behaved with the greatest
+licence and brutality; by his oppressive taxes, and his ferocious
+cruelty towards all who opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he
+concluded with Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
+_grandi_ were disappointed because he had not crushed the _popolo_, and
+the latter because he had destroyed their liberties and interfered with
+the organization of the _arti_. Many unsuccessful plots against him were
+hatched, and having discovered one that was conducted by Antonio degli
+Adimari, the duke summoned the latter to the palace and detained him a
+prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of
+wishing to consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
+the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the duke's
+abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came to the Florentines
+from neighbouring cities, the _podesta_ was expelled, and a _balia_ or
+provisional government of 14 was elected. The duke was forced to set
+Adimari and his other prisoners free, and several of his men-at-arms
+were killed by the populace; three of his chief henchmen, whom he was
+obliged to surrender, were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the
+1st of August he had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence
+under a strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
+his enactments.
+
+
+  New constitution.
+
+The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several measures to
+humble the _grandi_ still further, while the _popolo minuto_ or artisans
+began to show signs of discontent at the rule of the merchants, and the
+populace destroyed the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was
+restored a _balia_ was appointed to reform the government, in which task
+it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian ambassadors and by Simone da
+Battifolle. The _priori_ were reduced to 8 (2 _popolani grassi_, 3
+_mediani_ and 3 _artifici minuti_), while the _gonfaloniere_ was to be
+chosen in turn from each of those classes; the _grandi_ were excluded
+from the administration, but they were still admitted to the _consiglio
+del comune_, the _cinque di mercanzia_, and other offices pertaining to
+the commune; the _Ordinamenti_ were maintained but in a somewhat
+attenuated form, and certain _grandi_ as a favour were declared to be of
+the _popolo_. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial
+republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by commercial
+considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an ambition to gain
+secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism was the outcome of its
+determination to secure the bank-business of the papacy; and its desire
+to extend its territory in Tuscany to the necessity for keeping open the
+land trade routes. Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the
+walls of the city, for no one of the _contado_ nor any citizen of the
+subject towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the
+inhabitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.
+
+
+  Statistics.
+
+Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 inhabitants, of
+whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 churches, 39 religious
+houses; the shops of the _arte della lana_ numbered over 200, producing
+cloth worth 1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were
+found all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
+service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, derived
+chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 florins, whereas
+its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military matters and public
+buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already a centre of art and
+letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that
+the _grandi_ were suppressed politically, the lowest classes came into
+prominence, "adventurers without sense or virtue and of no authority for
+the most part, who had usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest
+practices" (Matteo Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.
+
+
+  The Great Plague (1348).
+
+  War with Milan (1351).
+
+In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed the next year
+by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, which carried off
+three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Yet in spite of
+these disasters the republic was by no means crushed; it soon regained
+the suzerainty of many cities which had broken off all connexion with it
+after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, and purchased the
+overlordship of Prato from Queen Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it
+from the duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and
+archbishop of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
+sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to dominating Florence,
+the city made war on him, and in violation of its Guelph traditions
+placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for
+his lifetime. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled the
+_grandi_, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still dominated
+the _parte Guelfa_, to reassert themselves. They had in 1347 succeeded
+in enacting a very stringent law against all who were in any way tainted
+with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves being above suspicion in that
+connexion, enabled them to drive from office many members of the _popolo
+minuto_. In 1358 the _parte Guelfa_ made these enactments still more
+stringent, punishing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines
+held office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming
+condemnations might be passed for this offence without hearing the
+accused; even a non-proved charge or an _ammonizione_ (warning not to
+accept office) might entail disfranchisement. Thus the _parte_,
+represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, came to exercise a
+veritable reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation might fall
+on him. The leader of the _parte_ was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief
+rivals were the Ricci family.
+
+
+  The condottieri.
+
+Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers of fortune.
+The first of these bands with whom Florence came into contact was the
+Great Company, commanded by the count of Lando, which twice entered
+Tuscany but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
+(1358-1359).
+
+In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of commercial
+differences, and because the former had acquired the lordship of
+Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa enlisted Sir John
+Hawkwood's English company; the latter won several battles, but were at
+last defeated at Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side
+having gained much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
+1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban V., Queen
+Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots to humble the
+Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should join the league. This
+they refused to do and armed themselves for defence, but eventually
+satisfied the emperor with a money payment.
+
+
+  The parte Guelfa.
+
+The tyranny of the _parte Guelfa_ still continued unabated, and the
+_capitani_ carried an enactment by which no measure affecting the
+_parte_ should be even discussed by the signory unless previously
+approved of by them. This infamous law, however, aroused so much
+opposition that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in
+secret to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
+the Ricci having weakened the _parte_, a _balia_ of 56 was agreed upon.
+Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from office for five
+years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was created to defend the
+laws and protect the weak against the strong. The _parte Guelfa_ and the
+Albizzi still remained very influential and the attempts to abolish
+admonitions failed.
+
+
+  War with the church (1375-78).
+
+In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed how the old party
+divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The papal legate at Bologna,
+Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet (d. 1394), although the church was then
+allied to Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to the
+Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines for grain from
+Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although
+a large part of the people disliked the idea of a conflict with the
+church, an alliance with Florence's old enemy Bernabo Visconti was made,
+war declared, and a _balia_ of 8, the _Otto della guerra_ (afterwards
+called the "Eight Saints" on account of their good management) was
+created to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and
+Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, including
+Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. placed Florence
+under an interdict, ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from
+foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious company of Bretons to invade
+the republic's territory. The Eight levied heavy toll on church property
+and ordered the priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the
+tables on the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
+order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope Clement
+VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, their captains were
+bribed by the republic not to molest its territory. By 1378 peace was
+made, partly through the mediation of St Catherine of Siena, and the
+interdict was removed in consideration of the republic's paying a fine
+of 200,000 florins to the pope.
+
+
+  Salvestro de' Medici.
+
+  The riot of the ciompi (1378).
+
+During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the city, but
+now the _parte Guelfa_, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio and Piero degli
+Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself by illicit interference in the
+elections and by a liberal use of "admonitions" (_ammonizioni_).
+Salvestro de' Medici, who had always opposed the _parte_, having been
+elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for the
+abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed (June 18,
+1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired to break the power
+of the _parte_ for good. Rioting occurred on the 21st of June, and the
+houses of the Albizzi and other nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile
+created a _balia_ of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the
+_parte_, and partly enfranchised the _ammoniti_. The people were still
+unsatisfied, the _arti minori_ demanded further privileges, and the
+workmen insisted that their grievances against the _arti maggiori_,
+especially the wool trade by whom they were employed, be redressed. A
+large body of _ciompi_ (wool carders) gathered outside the city and
+conspired to subvert the signory and establish a popular government.
+Although the plot, in which Salvestro does not seem to have played a
+part, was revealed, a good deal of mob violence occurred, and on the
+21st of July the populace seized the _podesta's_ palace, which they made
+their headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for the
+_popolo minuto_, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso Strozzi, as
+spokesman of the _ciompi_, obliged the signory to resign their powers to
+the Eight. Once the people were in possession of the palace, a _ciompo_
+named Michele di Lando took the lead and put a stop to disorder and
+pillage. He remained master of Florence for one day, during which he
+reformed the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de'
+Medici. Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
+from the _arti maggiori_, three from the _minori_, and three from the
+new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose the
+_gonfaloniere_ of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele di
+Lando. This did not satisfy the _ciompi_, and the disorders provoked by
+them resulted in a new government which reformed the two councils so as
+to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy the people several of the
+_grandi_, including Piero degli Albizzi, were put to death, on charges
+of conspiracy, and many others were exiled. There was perpetual rioting
+and anarchy, and interference in the affairs of the government by the
+working men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
+owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last in
+1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild companies.
+Again a new constitution was decreed by which the _gonfaloniere_ and
+half the _priori_ were to be chosen from the _arti maggiori_ and the
+other half from the _minori_; on several other boards the former were to
+be in the majority, and the three new gilds were abolished. The
+demagogues were executed or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with
+great ingratitude was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the
+_ciompi_, largely of an economic character, were put down, and the
+Guelph families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
+they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive the odious
+system of _ammonizioni_.
+
+
+  Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6).
+
+Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its position, and
+in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the lieutenant of Charles of
+Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, having made himself master of a
+large part of northern Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and
+Siena. Florence, alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an
+army of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord of
+Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic strengthened
+by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian states. In 1393 Maso
+degli Albizzi was made _gonfaloniere_, and for many years remained
+almost master of Florence owing to his influential position in the _Arte
+della Lana_. A severe persecution was initiated against the Alberti and
+other families, who were disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and
+conspiracies against the merchant oligarchy continued, and although they
+were unsuccessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles
+caused the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
+states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian Galeazzo
+Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany, acquired the
+lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood being dead, Florence
+purchased aid from the emperor Rupert. The Imperialists were beaten; but
+just as the Milanese were about to march on Florence, Visconti died. His
+territories were then divided between his sons and his _condottieri_,
+and Florence, ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
+Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished to regain
+Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and the allies were
+successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his ends he made peace,
+leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In 1404 their attempt to capture
+Pisa single-handed failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
+protection of the French king. The Florentines then made overtures to
+France, who had supported the anti-popes all through the great schism,
+and suggested that they too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict
+XIII., in exchange for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405
+the city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,[1]
+the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel, but a few
+days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured it from the
+mercenaries. There was great consternation in Florence at the news, and
+every man in the city "determined that he would go naked rather than not
+conquer Pisa" (G. Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by
+Giovanni Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
+mouth of the Arno. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered on terms
+(9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked, many of the
+citizens were exiled and others forced to live in Florence, a
+depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence now acquired a
+great seaport and was at last able to develop a direct maritime trade.
+
+
+  The council of Pisa (1408).
+
+Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic had taken no
+definite side in the great schism which had divided the church since
+1378, but in 1408 she appealed both to Pope Gregory XII. and the
+anti-pope Benedict XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in
+favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within her own
+territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee of
+theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council promoted by
+Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates met at Pisa. This nearly
+led to war with King Ladislas of Naples, because he had seized Rome,
+which he could only hold so long as the church was divided. The council
+deposed both popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of
+June). But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
+alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with Siena,
+Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan throne, to
+drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto, Viterbo and other cities
+were recovered for Alexander, and in January 1410 Rome itself was
+captured by the Florentines under Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander
+having died in May before entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was
+elected as John XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
+Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased Cortona of the
+pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal states once more, driving John
+from Rome, and threatened Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo
+Visconti, and other enemies of the republic, he too died most
+opportunely (6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after
+leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put an end to
+the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V. The new pope came to
+Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained Rome, which was held by
+Francesco Sforza for Queen Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there
+until the following year.
+
+No important changes in the constitution took place during this period
+except the appointment of two new councils in 1411 to decide on
+questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction headed by Maso
+degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had remained predominant,
+and at Maso's death in 1417 he was succeeded in the leadership of the
+party by Niccolo da Uzzano. In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected
+_gonfaloniere_ of justice, an event which marks the beginning of that
+wealthy family's power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn
+from the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of "Consuls
+of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Although 11,000,000 florins
+had been spent on recent wars Florence continued prosperous and its
+trade increased.
+
+
+  New war with the Visconti (1421-27).
+
+In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering most
+of Lombardy, seized Forli; this induced the Florentines to declare war
+on him, as they regarded his approach as a menace to their territory in
+spite of the opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de' Medici.
+The campaign was anything but successful, and the Florentines were
+defeated several times, with the result that their credit was shaken and
+several important firms failed. The pope too was against them, but when
+they induced the Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and
+Visconti was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
+terms (1427).
+
+
+  Fiscal reforms (1427).
+
+The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded to the needs
+of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various loans made to the
+state were consolidated into one national debt (_monte_). Subsequently
+all extraordinary expenditure was met by forced loans (_prestanze_), but
+the method of distribution aroused discontent among the lower classes,
+and in 1427 a general _catasto_ or assessment of all the wealth of the
+citizens was formed, and measures were devised to distribute the
+obligations according to each man's capacity, so as to avoid pressing
+too hardly on the poor. The _catasto_ was largely the work of Giovanni
+de' Medici, who greatly increased his popularity thereby. He died in
+1429.
+
+
+  Exile and return of Cosimo de' Medici (1433-34).
+
+An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with Venice, into
+another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The mismanagement of the
+campaign brought about a quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by
+Rinaldo degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni de'
+Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both had agreed to the war
+before it began. Rinaldo was determined to break the Medici party, and
+succeeded in getting Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen
+their position by conferring exceptional powers on the _capitano del
+popolo_ and by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had
+a great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a _coup d'etat_ met
+with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent the
+election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders of the
+party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of plotting against
+the state, to which he replied by collecting 800 armed followers. A
+revolution was only averted through the intervention of Pope Eugenius
+IV., who was then in Florence. A _parlamento_ was summoned, and the
+_balia_ appointed decreed the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo
+degli Albizzi, Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolo Barbadori, and others, in spite
+of the feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of October
+1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next three centuries the
+history of the city is identified with that of the house of Medici.[2]
+
+
+  Cosimo's rule.
+
+Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining nominally a
+private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, and governed by means
+of the _balie_, which, re-elected every five years, appointed all the
+magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and
+Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, Niccolo
+Piccinino (q.v.), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his
+train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the Florentines under
+Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the following year. The system
+of the _catasto_, which led to abuses, was abolished, and a progressive
+income-tax (_decima scalata_) was introduced with the object of
+lightening the burdens of the poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the
+expense of the rich; but as it was frequently increased the whole
+community came to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his
+own authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza to
+become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the war against
+Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick III. passed through
+Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome, and was received as a friend.
+During the last years of Cosimo's life, affairs were less under his
+control, and the _gonfaloniere_ Luca Pitti, a vain and ambitious man,
+introduced many changes, such as the abasement of the authority of the
+_podesta_ and of the _capitano_, which Cosimo desired but was glad to
+attribute to others.
+
+
+  Piero de' Medici (the Gouty).
+
+  Lorenzo the Magnificent.
+
+In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some opposition, by
+his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty. Various plots against him
+were hatched, the anti-Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio
+party because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill, while
+the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party because Piero's house was
+in the town below; the other opposition leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni
+and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes
+of his enemies. The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of
+Milan, and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
+Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements, in 1468,
+through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died in 1469, leaving
+two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at
+once assumed the reins of government and became ruler of Florence in a
+way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted; he established his
+domination by means of _balie_ consisting of the signory, the
+_accoppiatori_, and 240 other members, all Mediceans, to be renewed
+every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having arisen with Volterra
+on account of a dispute concerning the alum mines, Lorenzo sent an
+expedition against the city, which was sacked and many of the
+inhabitants massacred. Owing to a variety of causes an enmity arose
+between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an
+accomplice, at all events had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against
+the Medici (1478). The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano
+was murdered, Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or
+exiled numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who,
+together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against him; no great
+successes were registered on either side at first, but eventually the
+Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale (near Poggibonsi) and the
+city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's position was critical, but by his
+boldness in going to Naples he succeeded in concluding a peace with the
+king, which led to a reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was
+received with enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute
+master of the situation. In April 1480 a _balia_ was formed, and its
+most important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the Council
+of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became permanent,
+and all its members were Lorenzo's friends. From that time until his
+death the city was free from party strife under a _de facto_ despotism,
+but after the Rinuccini conspiracy of that year the Council of Seventy
+passed a law declaring attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason.
+Owing to his political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business
+interests of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
+seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, which was
+magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced loans necessary, and
+he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti, an insurance institution to
+provide dowries for girls.
+
+
+  Savonarola.
+
+An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general Italian
+war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile to Venice, and
+when peace was made in 1484 the republic gained some advantages. The
+following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand
+broke out, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained
+neutral at first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of
+power and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended by
+giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in Florence.
+Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms in 1486, and in
+1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa had taken from Florence nine
+years previously. The general disorders and ceaseless intrigues all over
+Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he succeeded in making
+Florence "the needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this time the
+Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.) was in Florence and aroused the
+whole city by his denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of
+that of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the source
+of the immorality of the people, and to some extent influenced public
+opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on Lorenzo, and Savonarola,
+whom he had summoned to his bedside, refused to give absolution to the
+destroyer of Florentine liberties. Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence
+had become one of the greatest centres of art and literature in Europe,
+died in 1492.
+
+
+  Piero de' Medici.
+
+  Expulsion of the Medici (1494).
+
+  Charles VIII. in Florence.
+
+  Piero Capponi.
+
+He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's capacity
+and made a number of political blunders. When Charles VIII. of France
+came to Italy to conquer Naples Piero decided to assist the latter
+kingdom, although the traditional sympathies of the people were for the
+French king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
+Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing him. The
+king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and other towns, which Piero
+granted, but on returning to Florence on the 8th of November 1494 he
+found the opposition greatly strengthened and his popularity forfeited,
+especially when the news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became
+known. He was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
+shout "Popolo e liberta!" in opposition to the Medicean cry of "Palle,
+Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort he fled from the
+city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. That same day Pisa
+rose in revolt against the Florentines, and was occupied by Charles. The
+expulsion of the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi (q.v.)
+and other prominent citizens succeeded in keeping the peace.
+Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola, were sent to treat with the
+French king, but no agreement was arrived at until Charles entered
+Florence on the 17th of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of
+their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at the seizure of
+Sarzana, and while they gave the king a splendid welcome, they did not
+like his attitude of conqueror. Charles was impressed with the wealth
+and refinement of the citizens, and above all with the solid
+fortress-like appearance of their palaces. The signory appointed Piero
+Capponi, a man of great ability and patriotism, and experienced in
+diplomacy, the _gonfaloniere_ Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
+Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi, syndics
+to conduct the negotiations with the French king. Charles's demands by
+no means pleased the citizens, and the arrogance and violence of his
+soldiers led to riots in which they were assailed with stones in the
+narrow streets. When the king began to hint at the recall of Piero de'
+Medici, whose envoys had gained his ear, the signory ordered the
+citizens to be ready to fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but
+Charles demanded an immense sum of money before he would leave the city;
+long discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
+ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in a
+threatening tone, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," whereupon Capponi
+tore up the document in his face and replied, "And we shall ring our
+bells." The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean,
+at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000 florins,
+agreeing to assume the title of "Protector and Restorer of the liberty
+of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had taken within two
+years, unless his expedition to Naples should be concluded sooner; the
+Medici were to remain banished, but the price on their heads was
+withdrawn. But Charles would not depart, a fact which caused perpetual
+disturbance in the city, and it was not until the 28th of November,
+after an exhortation by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he
+left Florence.
+
+
+  The revived republic.
+
+  Savonarola as a statesman.
+
+It was now intended to re-establish the government on the basis of the
+old republican institutions, but it was found that sixty years of Medici
+rule had reduced them to mere shadows, and the condition of the
+government, largely controlled by a _balia_ of 20 _accoppiatori_ and
+frequently disturbed by the summoning of the _parlamento_, was utterly
+chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of changing the
+constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer an upper class
+accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class was thoroughly
+demoralized. Many proposals were made, none of them of practical value,
+until Savonarola, who had already made a reputation as a moral reformer,
+began his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing confusion
+the people turned to him as their only hope, and gradually a new
+government was evolved, each law being enacted as the result of his
+exhortations. A Greater Council empowered to appoint magistrates and pass
+laws was formed, to which all citizens _netti di specchio_ (who had paid
+their taxes) and _beneficiati_ (i.e. who had sat in one of the higher
+magistracies or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had
+done so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200 such
+citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. The Greater
+Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens over forty years old,
+also to be changed every six months; this body, which the signory must
+consult once a week, together with the colleges and the signory itself,
+was to appoint ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
+confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished and a 10%
+tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a law of amnesty for
+political offenders enacted. Savonarola also proposed a court of appeal
+for criminal and political crimes tried by the _Otto di guardia e balia_;
+this too was agreed to, but the right of appeal was to be, not to a court
+as Savonarola suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to
+grave abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. The
+_parlamenti_ were abolished and a _monte di pieta_ to advance money at
+reasonable interest was created. But in spite of Savonarola's popularity
+there was a party called the _Bigi_ (greys) who intrigued secretly in
+favour of the return of the Medici, while the men of wealth, called the
+_Arrabbiati_, although they hated the Medici, were even more openly
+opposed to the actual regime and desired to set up an aristocratic
+oligarchy. The adherents of Savonarola were called the _Piagnoni_, or
+snivellers, while the _Neutrali_ changed sides frequently.
+
+
+  League against Charles VIII.
+
+  Alexander VI. against Florence.
+
+  Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498).
+
+A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain having been
+made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced to return to France.
+On his way back he passed through Florence, and; although the republic
+had refused to join the league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero
+de' Medici was in the king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the
+French camp, and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
+had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time Charles violated his
+promise by giving aid to the Pisans in their revolt against Florence,
+and did not restore the other fortresses. After the French had abandoned
+Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a number of
+mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the citizens, fired by
+Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and prepared for an energetic
+resistance; owing to Piero's incapacity and the exhaustion of his funds
+the expedition came to nothing. At the same time the conditions of the
+city were not prosperous; its resources were strained by the sums paid
+to Charles and by the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed,
+famine and plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was
+proceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of one of
+its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. The league
+now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was
+determined to destroy the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici
+temporarily and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians and
+Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was great misery in Florence.
+All this decreased Savonarola's popularity to some extent, but the enemy
+having been beaten at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the
+point of breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party
+was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were held,
+Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have
+temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival of 1497 remained
+famous for the burning of the "vanities" (i.e. indecent books and
+pictures and carnival masks and costumes). The friar's sermons against
+ecclesiastical corruption, and especially against the pope, resulted in
+his excommunication by the latter, in consequence of which he lost much
+of his influence and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero
+made another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots having
+been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent citizens were
+tried and put to death; but the party hostile to Savonarola gained
+ground and had the support of the Franciscans, who were hostile to the
+Dominican order. Pulpit warfare was waged between Savonarola and his
+opponents, and the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in
+a proposed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
+again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, but
+without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against the
+city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of Arrabbiati having
+been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's opponents attacked the
+convent of St Mark where he resided, and he himself was arrested and
+imprisoned. The commission appointed to try him on charges of heresy and
+treason was composed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had
+previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities were committed
+during the three trials, and the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The
+outgoing signory secured the election of another which was of their way
+of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola was condemned to
+death and executed the following day.
+
+
+  Piero Soderini.
+
+The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence was less
+critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was renewed, and in 1499
+the city might have been taken but for the dilatory tactics of the
+Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli, who was consequently arrested on a
+charge of treason and put to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent
+an army into Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
+Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in Romagna,
+suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the
+danger was only warded off by appointing him captain-general of the
+Florentine forces at a large salary (1501). The weakness of the
+government becoming every day more apparent, several constitutional
+changes were made, and many old institutions, such as that of the
+_podesta_ and _capitano del popolo_, were abolished; finally in 1502, in
+order to give more stability to the government, the office of
+_gonfaloniere_, with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was
+made a life appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini
+(1448-1522), an honest public-spirited man of no particular party, but
+lacking in strength of character. One useful measure which he took was
+the institution of a national militia at the suggestion of Niccolo
+Machiavelli (1505). In the meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without
+much headway being made. In 1503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI.
+had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who was at war
+with France over the partition of Naples, helped the Pisans as the
+enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504), but when the war was
+over the Florentines were able to lay siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509
+the city was driven by famine to surrender and became a dependency of
+Florence once more.
+
+
+  Schismatic council of Pisa (1510).
+
+  Return of the Medici (1512).
+
+  Second expulsion of the Medici (1527).
+
+  The siege of Florence.
+
+  Surrender of Florence (1530).
+
+Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai with France
+and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510, and raised the cry of
+"Fuori i Barbari" (out with the barbarians), with a view to expelling
+the French from Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
+council so as to create a schism in the Church, and demanded that it be
+held in Florentine territory. After some hesitation the republic agreed
+to the demand, and the council was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope
+immediately placed Florence under an interdict. At the request of the
+Florentines the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them
+from the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona and
+accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother Giuliano
+entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000 florins, the
+dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini
+offered to resign, but the Greater Council supported him and
+preparations for defence were made. In August the Spaniards took Prato
+by storm and committed hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence
+was in a panic, a group of the _Ottimati_, or nobles, forced Soderini to
+resign and leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz.
+the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an
+alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512 Giuliano and Giovanni
+de' Medici, and their nephew Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish
+troops; a _parlamento_ was summoned, and a packed _balia_ formed which
+abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution similar to that
+of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano became _de facto_ head of the
+government, but he did not pursue the usual vindictive policy of his
+house, although he resorted to the Laurentian method of amusing the
+citizens with splendid festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II.,
+Giovanni de' Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly
+enhanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano died, and
+was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke of Urbino. At his
+death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son of the Giuliano murdered
+in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge of the government; he met with some
+opposition and had to play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he
+did not rule badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of
+freedom. In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his
+relatives Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
+under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was styled
+the _Magnifico_ and destined to be ruler of the republic, but Cardinal
+Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the city was soon
+seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini showed himself
+quite unequal to coping with the situation. The Ottimati were mostly
+anti-Medicean, and by 1527 the position was untenable. When Filippo
+Strozzi, and above all his wife, threw their influence in the scales
+against the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion
+from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (17th of
+May 1527). A _Consiglio degli Scelti_ was summoned, and a constitution
+similar to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater
+Council was revived and Niccolo Capponi created _gonfaloniere_ for a
+year. But Florence was torn by factions--the Ottimati who desired an
+oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally supported them, the
+Adirati who opposed Capponi for his moderation, the Arrabbiati who were
+strongly anti-Medicean, and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. "It
+is almost impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as
+Florence then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
+chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted, their
+dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they would be hunted
+from their country or die of grief" (Benedette Varchi). Capponi did his
+best to reform the city and save the situation, and while adopting
+Savonarola's tone in internal affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign
+situation, realizing that a reconciliation between the pope and the
+emperor Charles V. would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement
+would certainly seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power.
+Having been re-elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of much opposition in
+1528, Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence
+with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high treason,
+and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave the city for
+six months. Francesco Carducci was elected _gonfaloniere_ in his place,
+and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and the emperor concluded a treaty
+by which the latter agreed to re-establish the Medici in Florence.
+Carducci made preparations for a siege, but a large part of the people
+were against him, either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the
+Frateschi, as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported
+him strongly. A body called the _Nove della Milizia_, of whom
+Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the defence of
+the city, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended the
+strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the
+chief command of the army was the appointment of Malatesta Baglioni. In
+August an imperial army under Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on
+the city. In September Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities
+fell before the Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the
+pope were unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. Although
+alone against papacy and empire, the citizens showed the greatest spirit
+and devotion, and were successful in many sorties. The finest figure
+produced by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.); by his
+defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and was
+appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid marches and
+counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the enemy unexpectedly,
+and harassing them continually. But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and
+hindered the defence of the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had
+recaptured Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the
+Imperialists in the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of
+August, but in spite of Ferruccio's heroism he was defeated and killed;
+the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. Malatesta
+contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous attack by the
+besieged. The sufferings from famine within the city were now very
+great, and an increasingly large part of the people favoured surrender.
+The signory, at last realizing that Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed
+him; but it was too late, and he now behaved as though he were governor
+of Florence; when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he
+turned his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that all
+hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante Gonzaga,
+the new imperial commander. On the 12th the capitulation was signed:
+Florence was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici were to
+be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government, "it being
+understood that liberty is to be preserved." Baccio Valori, a Medicean
+who had been in the imperialist camp, now took charge, and the city was
+occupied by foreign troops. A _parlamento_ was summoned, the usual
+packed _balia_ created, and all opposition silenced. The city was given
+over to Pope Clement, who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation,
+had Carducci and Girolami (the last _gonfaloniere_) hanged, and
+established Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of
+Urbino, as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year
+the signory was abolished, Alessandro created _gonfaloniere_ for life,
+and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial patent. Thus
+Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital of the duchy
+(afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see TUSCANY).
+
+
+  The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany.
+
+The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian Gastone in
+1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, duke of Lorraine.
+But it was governed by a regency until 1753, when it was conferred by
+the empress Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
+Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine was
+driven from the throne, and Tuscany was annexed to the French empire in
+1808. In 1809 Florence was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but
+after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in
+1833, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
+revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a constitution.
+But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke returned under
+an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the
+Austrians in Lombardy, by a bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was
+expelled and Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.
+
+In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, but after
+the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war, the
+capital was transferred to the Eternal City (1871).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Capponi's
+  _Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_ (2 vols., Florence, 1875), which
+  although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard work
+  based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, _Histoire de
+  Florence_ (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see
+  Pasquale Villari's _I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Eng.
+  ed., London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn's _Geschichte der Stadt Florenz_
+  (Berlin, 1896); P. Villari's _Savonarola_ (English ed., London, 1896)
+  is invaluable for the period during which the friar's personality
+  dominated Florence, and his _Machiavelli_ (English ed., London, 1892)
+  must be also consulted, especially for the development of political
+  theories. Among the English histories of Florence, Napier's
+  _Florentine History_ (6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope's
+  _History of the Commonwealth of Florence_ (4 vols., London, 1865) are
+  not without value although out of date. Francis Hyett's _Florence_
+  (London, 1903) is more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat
+  Medicean in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later
+  history, A. von Reumont's _Geschichte von Toscana_ (Gotha, 1876-1877)
+  is one of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises
+  and compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See
+  also the bibliographies in MEDICI, MACHIAVELLI, SAVONAROLA, TUSCANY,
+  &c.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian and
+    statesman of the same name (q.v.).
+
+  [2] The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in
+    greater detail in the article MEDICI, save for the periods from 1494
+    to 1512 and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was
+    restored. For the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under TUSCANY.
+
+
+
+
+FLORES, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, and
+forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 8137; area, 57 sq.
+m. Flores and the adjacent island of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.)
+constitute the westernmost group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly
+to belong to the archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely
+severed. They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to
+those who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good
+shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the cattle
+are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the abundance of the
+flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its capital is Santa Cruz
+das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the station of the English fleet
+before the famous sea fight between Sir R. Grenville's ship "Revenge"
+and a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels. See AZORES.
+
+
+
+
+FLORES, an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of the chain
+extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest breadth 37
+m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate, chalk, and
+sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights stretching west and
+east, indicates a similar structure to that of the other islands of the
+chain. Several volcanoes are active. Among the loftier summits are, on
+the south coast, Gunong Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the
+lesser but constantly active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the
+south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior is little
+explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive rounded gulfs, where
+are situated the principal villages (_kampongs_). On the north coast are
+Bari, Reo, Maumer and Geliting; on the east, Larantuka; and on the
+south, Sikka and Endeh. The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to
+be unnavigable. The mean temperature is 77 deg. to 80 deg. F., and the
+yearly rainfall 43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is
+divided into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government of
+Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and dependencies),
+attached to the residency of Timor. The population is estimated at
+250,000. The people live by trade, fishing, salt-making, shipbuilding,
+and the cultivation of rice, maize, and palms in the plain, but there is
+little industry or commerce. Some edible birds' nests, rice, sandalwood
+and cinnamon are exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of
+the coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines, who
+occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall and well-built,
+with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly. They are pure savages;
+their only religion is a kind of nature-worship. They consider the earth
+holy and inviolable; thus in severe droughts they only dig the
+river-beds for water as a last resource. Portugal claimed certain
+portions of the island until 1859.
+
+
+
+
+FLOREZ, ENRIQUE (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was born at Valladolid
+on the 14th of February 1701. In his fifteenth year he entered the order
+of St Augustine, was afterwards professor of theology at the university
+of Alcala, and published a _Cursus theologiae_ in five volumes
+(1732-1738). He afterwards devoted himself to historical studies. Of
+these the first-fruit was his _Clave Historial_, a work of the same
+class as the French _Art de verifier les dates_, and preceding it by
+several years. It appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In
+1747 was published the first volume of _Espana Sagrada, teatro
+geografico-historico de la Iglesia de Espana_, a vast compilation of
+Spanish ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation, and
+of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author's lifetime. It was
+continued after his death by Manuel Risco and others, and further
+additions have been made at the expense of the Spanish government. The
+whole work in fifty-one volumes was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its
+value is considerably increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles
+and documents not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good
+numismatist, and published _Medallas de las Colonias_ in 2 vols.
+(1757-1758), of which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was
+the _Memorias de las reynas Catolicas_, 2 vols. (1770). Florez led a
+retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid on the 20th
+of August 1773.
+
+  See F. Mendez, _Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez_
+  (Madrid, 1780).
+
+
+
+
+FLORIAN, SAINT, a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In the 8th century
+Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb, and on the site was built
+the celebrated monastery of canons regular, St Florian, which still
+exists. His _Acta_ are of considerable antiquity, but devoid of
+historical value. Their substance is borrowed from the _Acta_ of St
+Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult of St Florian was introduced into Poland,
+together with the relics of the saint, which were brought thither in
+1183 by Giles, bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a
+church at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially
+as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours out
+flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His day in the
+calendar is the 4th of May.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, _Scriptores rerum
+  Merovingicarum_, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, _Caracteristiques des saints_,
+  p. 490 (Paris, 1867).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE (1755-1794), French poet and romance
+writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at the chateau of Florian,
+near Sauve, in the department of Gard. His mother, a Spanish lady named
+Gilette de Salgues, died when he was quite a child. His uncle and
+guardian, the marquis of Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire,
+introduced him at Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the
+household of the duke of Penthievre, who remained his friend throughout
+his life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at
+Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain's commission in a dragoon
+regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed a boisterous
+behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle, meditative character of his
+works. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he retired to Sceaux,
+but he was soon discovered and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment
+was short he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th
+of September 1794.
+
+Florian's first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle
+_Voltaire et le serf du Mont Jura_ and an eclogue _Ruth_ were crowned by
+the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In 1782 also he
+produced a one-act prose comedy, _Le Bon Menage_, and in the next year
+_Galatee_, a romantic tale in imitation of the _Galatea_ of Cervantes.
+Other short tales and comedies followed, and in 1786 appeared _Numa
+Pompilius_, an undisguised imitation of Fenelon's _Telemaque_. In 1788
+he became a member of the French Academy, and published _Estelle_, a
+pastoral of the same class as _Galatee_. Another romance, _Gonzalve de
+Cordoue_, preceded by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in
+1791, and his famous collection of _Fables_ in 1792. Among his
+posthumous works are _La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Memoires d'un jeune
+Espagnol_ (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of _Don Quixote_, which,
+though far from being a correct representation of the original, had
+great and merited success.
+
+Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his style has
+all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the Gessnerian school.
+Perhaps the nearest example of the class in English literature is
+afforded by John Wilson's (Christopher North's) _Lights and Shadows of
+Scottish Life_. Among the best of his fables are reckoned "The Monkey
+showing the Magic Lantern," "The Blind Man and the Paralytic," and "The
+Monkeys and the Leopard."
+
+  The best edition of Florian's _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in Paris in
+  16 volumes, 1820; his _Oeuvres inedites_ in 4 volumes, 1824.
+
+  See "Vie de Florian," by L.F. Jauffret, prefixed to his _Oeuvres
+  posthumes_ (1802); A.J.N. de Rosny, _Vie de Florian_ (Paris, An V.);
+  Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; A. de Montvaillant,
+  _Florian, sa vie, ses oeuvres_ (1879); and _Lettres de Florian a Mme
+  de la Briche_, published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in
+  _Melanges_ published (1903) by the Societe des bibliophiles francais.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIANOPOLIS (formerly _Desterro_, _Nossa Senhora do Desterro_ and
+_Santa Catharina_, and still popularly known under the last
+designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of
+Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore of a large island of the
+same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, in 27 deg. 30' S., 48 deg.
+30' W. Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many Germans; (1902, estimate)
+16,000; of the municipality, including a large rural district and
+several villages (1890), 30,687. The harbour is formed by the widening
+of the strait separating the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2
+m. wide at this point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N.
+and S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous and
+wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly storms. The
+surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical in character, but the
+town itself is poorly built and unattractive. Its public buildings
+include the president's official residence, arsenal, lyceum, hospital
+and some old churches. The climate is warm for the latitude, but the
+higher elevations of the vicinity are noted for their mild climate and
+healthfulness. There are some German colonies farther up the coast whose
+products find a market here, and a number of small settlements along the
+mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The more distant
+inland towns are partly supplied from this point, but difficult mountain
+roads tend to restrict the trade greatly. There is a considerable trade
+in market produce with Rio de Janeiro, but the exports are
+inconsiderable. Santa Catharina was formerly one of the well-known
+whaling stations of the South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military
+and naval station.
+
+The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the Spanish;
+Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched hence across country to
+Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish failed to establish a permanent colony,
+however, and the Portuguese took possession. The island was captured by
+a Spanish expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty
+of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa Catharina fell
+into the possession of revolutionists against the government of
+President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse of the revolution the city
+was occupied by the government forces, and its name was then changed to
+Florianopolis in honour of the president of the republic.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDA, the most southern of the United States of America, situated
+between 24 deg. 30' and 31 deg. N. lat. and 79 deg. 48' and 87 deg. 38'
+W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the Atlantic
+Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it from Cuba, and by
+the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a
+chain of islands extending in a general south-westerly direction from
+Biscayne Bay, are included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key
+West, on an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe
+county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which 3805 sq.
+m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that of any other
+state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m. on the Gulf Coast.
+
+The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of "Peninsula State."
+The average elevation of the surface of the state above the sea-level is
+less than that of any other state except Louisiana, but there is not the
+monotony of unbroken level which descriptions and maps often suggest.
+The N.W. portion of the state is, topographically, similar to
+south-eastern Alabama, being a rolling, hilly country; the eastern
+section is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain; the western coast line
+is less regular than the eastern, being indented by a number of bays and
+harbours, the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and
+Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along nearly the
+whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand reefs and narrow
+islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies of water, such as Indian
+river and Lake Worth--called rivers, lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours.
+In the central part of the state there is a ridge, extending N. and S.
+and forming a divide, separating the streams of the east coast from
+those of the west. Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300
+ft. The central region is remarkable for its large number of lakes,
+approximately 30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake
+Okeechobee. They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused by
+solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes are connected
+by subterranean channels, and a change in the surface of one lake is
+often accompanied by a change in the surface of another. By far the
+largest of these lakes, nearly all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee,
+a body of water about 1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow,
+its depth seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing
+into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal outlet.
+Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George, Weir, Harris,
+Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and Istokpoga. The chief feature
+of the southern portion of the state is the Everglades (q.v.), the term
+"Everglade State" being popularly applied to Florida. Within the state
+there are many swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in
+the S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp,
+extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state.
+
+  A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number of
+  subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or less
+  extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size. Silver
+  Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and Orange City
+  Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near Marianna in
+  Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa in Hillsboro county,
+  Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee Springs in Suwanee county,
+  White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange
+  county, and Wakulla Spring, Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral
+  Spring in Wakulla county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs
+  have curative properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay
+  county, discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per
+  minute. Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea
+  itself with such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as
+  from a sunken reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake
+  systems are usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the
+  principal source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee,
+  while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one of
+  the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Florida.]
+
+Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which flows N. from
+about the middle of the peninsula, empties into the Atlantic a short
+distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable for about 250 m. from its
+mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing in a general north-westerly direction
+from its source in the N.E. part of Polk county, and forming near its
+entrance into the Gulf of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus
+counties, and four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the
+Apalachicola, and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and
+traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of its sand
+reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the west coast. The
+most important harbours are at Fernandina, St Augustine, and Miami on
+the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key West and Pensacola on the W. coast.
+
+  The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient.[1] They may be
+  divided into three classes: the pine lands, which often have a surface
+  of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam resting on a
+  substratum of clay, marl or limestone--areas of such soil are found
+  throughout the state; the "hammocks," which have soil of similar
+  ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands--large areas of
+  this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando, Pasco, Gadsden,
+  Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties; and the alluvial swamp
+  lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest class, which require
+  drainage to fit them for cultivation.
+
+As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more or less
+distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through Cedar Keys and
+Fernandina the climate is distinctly "southern," similar to that of the
+Gulf states; from this line to another extending from the mouth of the
+Caloosahatchee to Indian river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and
+is well suited to the cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is
+sub-tropical, well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the
+semi-tropical and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the Gulf
+Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their temperatures are more
+uniform than those of the zones of southern climate; indeed, the
+extremes of heat (103 deg. F.) and cold (13 deg. F.) are felt in the
+region of southern climate. The mean annual temperature of the state is
+70.8 deg. F., greater in the sub-tropical than in the other climate
+zones, and the Atlantic coast is in general warmer than the Gulf Coast.
+The rainfall averages 52.09 in. per annum. On account of its warm
+climate, Florida has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are
+especially popular in the season from January to April; the more
+important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach, Miami, Tampa,
+White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington Springs and Orange Springs.
+
+  No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal minerals
+  are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and river pebble
+  phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the "west coast"
+  about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to Lake Okeechobee.
+  The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in Marion county, and pebble
+  phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk, De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and
+  Hernando counties. Although the economic value of the phosphate
+  deposits was first realized about 1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida
+  produced, each year, more than half of all the phosphate rock produced
+  in the whole United States, the yield of Florida (1,357,365 long tons)
+  in 1907 being valued at $6,577,757; that of the whole country at
+  $10,653,558. Florida is also the principal source in the United States
+  for fuller's earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first
+  discovered in 1893; and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some
+  extent. Other minerals that have been discovered but have not been
+  industrially developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack
+  of a thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery of
+  other minerals--certainly it is responsible for a late recognition of
+  the economic value of the known mineral resources.
+
+  The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North
+  America; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation
+  of North America and that of South America and the West Indies, for
+  out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187 are
+  common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The forests cover
+  approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern part of the
+  state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine being
+  predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress, found
+  throughout the state, particularly abounds. About half of the
+  varieties of forest trees in the United States are found, and among
+  the peculiar species are the red bay or "Florida Mahogany," satinwood
+  and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both almost extinct. The
+  lumber industry is important: in 1905 the total factory product of
+  lumber and timber was valued at $10,901,650, and lumber and planing
+  mill products were valued at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most
+  valuable industry in the state; in 1905 it was second to the
+  manufacture of tobacco. The fauna is similar in general to that of the
+  southern United States. Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea
+  cow), alligator and crocodile, but the number of these has been
+  greatly diminished by hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild
+  cats (lynx) are found, but in decreasing numbers.
+
+  The fisheries are very valuable; the total number of species of fish
+  in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on one coast
+  are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are hunted for
+  sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout, sheepshead and
+  Spanish mackerel are of great economic value. The sponge and oyster
+  fisheries are also important. The total product of the fisheries in
+  1902 was valued at about $2,000,000.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--The principal occupation is agriculture, in
+which 44% of the labouring population was engaged in 1900, but only
+12.6% of the total land surface was enclosed in farms, of which only
+34.6% was improved, and the total agricultural product for 1899 was
+valued at $18,309,104. As the number of farms increased faster than the
+cultivated area from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined
+from 444 acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106.9 in 1900, the largest
+class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to 50 acres.
+Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were cultivated by their
+owners, but the cash tenantry system showed an increase of 100% since
+1890, being most extensively used in the cotton counties. One-third of
+the farms were operated by negroes, but one-half of these farms were
+rented, and the value of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of
+the entire farm property of the state. According to the state census of
+1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms, 31,233 were
+worked by whites.
+
+Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for 1907-8 of
+the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons, limes,
+grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes, figs, pecans, &c.)
+was $6,160,299, according to the report of the State Department of
+Agriculture. The discovery of Florida's adaptability to the culture of
+oranges about 1875 may be taken as the beginning of the state's modern
+industrial development. But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887,
+1894 and 1899 (the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures
+for this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of the
+orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-raising, and to
+various agricultural products. Orange culture has recovered much of its
+importance, but it is carried on in the more southern counties of the
+state. The cultivation of pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is
+proving successful, the product far surpassing that of California, the
+only other state in the Union in which pineapples are grown.
+Grape-fruit, guavas and lemons are also successfully produced in this
+part of the state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables
+(cabbage, cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers,
+water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard fruits,
+especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved successful. In
+1907-8, according to the State Department of Agriculture, the total
+value of vegetable and garden products was $3,928,657. In 1903,
+according to the statistics of the United States Department of
+Agriculture, Indian corn ranked next to fruits (as given in the state
+reports), but its product as compared with that of various other states
+is unimportant--in 1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is
+the only other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889,
+but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the
+Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product of rice in
+Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas, Louisiana, South
+Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally. Tobacco culture, which
+declined after 1860 on account of the competition of Cuba and Sumatra,
+has revived since 1885 through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran
+seed; the product of 1907 (6,937,500 lb.) was more than six times that
+of 1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 lb.) being more than twice that
+of 1889 (470,443 lb.), which in turn was more than twenty times that for
+1880 (21,182 lb.)--the smallest production recorded for many decades. In
+1907 the average farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per lb. higher than
+that of any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in
+Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also become very
+valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900 showed a decline in
+acreage and production of cotton. In 1907 the acreage (265,000 acres)
+was less than in any cotton-growing state except Missouri and Virginia;
+the crop for 1907-1908 was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high
+grade is grown in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the
+early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased. Pecan
+nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted after 1905. In
+1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of land in the state
+unoccupied. The low lands of the South are being drained partly by the
+state and partly by private companies. Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by
+the orange growers, has been adopted by other farmers, especially the
+tobacco-growers of Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the
+droughts, so common from February to June, are avoided. The value of
+farm property in the southern counties, which have been developed very
+recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county surpassing
+the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according to the state
+Department of Agriculture, the total value of all field crops (cotton,
+cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet potatoes, &c.) was
+$11,856,340, and the total value of all farm products (including live
+stock, $20,817,804, poultry and products, $1,688,433, and dairy
+products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320.
+
+  The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other states,
+  are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice the product
+  in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments under the
+  factory system only) was $50,298,290, i.e. 47.1% greater than in 1900.
+  The most important industries were those that depended upon the
+  forests, their product amounting to nearly 45% of the entire
+  manufactured product of the state. The lumber and timber products were
+  valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost twice their valuation in 1890,
+  and an increase of 1.2% over the product of 1900. The manufacture of
+  turpentine and rosin, material for which is obtained from the pine
+  forests, had increased greatly in importance between 1890 and 1900,
+  the product in 1890 being valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at
+  $6,469,605, and from the latter sum it increased in 1905 to
+  $9,901,905, an increase of more than one-half. In 1900 the state
+  ranked second and in 1905 first of all the states of the country in
+  the value of this product; in 1905 the state's product amounted to
+  41.4% of that of the entire country. The manufacture of cigars and
+  cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars, few cigarettes being
+  manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans at Key West and Tampa,
+  also increased in importance between 1890 and 1900, the products in
+  the latter year being valued at $10,735,826, or more than one-quarter
+  more than in 1890, and in 1905 there was a further increase of 56.2%,
+  the gross value being $16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total
+  factory product of the state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the
+  manufacture of tobacco among the states of the Union, being surpassed
+  by New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New
+  York and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from
+  Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has
+  greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the
+  raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida's
+  aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at
+  $1,590,371, an increase of 217.9% in five years.
+
+Florida's industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil War, for
+before that conflict a large part of the state was practically
+undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways. In 1880 the
+total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was 2489 m.; in 1900, 3255
+m., and in January 1909, 4,004.92 m. The largest system is the Atlantic
+Coast Line, the lines of which in Florida were built or consolidated by
+H.B. Plant (1819-1899) and once formed a part of the so-called "Plant
+System" of railways. The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product
+of one man's faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830).
+The Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Georgia
+Southern & Florida are the other important railways. The Southern
+railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville, over the tracks of
+the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway commission, whose members are
+elected by the people, has power to enforce its schedule of freight
+rates except when such rates would not pay the operating expenses of the
+railway. In 1882 the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation
+Co. was organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne
+Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and Halifax
+rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth, Hillsboro river, New
+river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this vast undertaking was completed. The
+development of marine commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours,
+but Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good. Since 1890
+much has been done by the national Government, aided in many cases by
+the local authorities and by private enterprise, to improve the harbours
+and to extend the limits of river navigation. With the increase of trade
+between the United States and the West Indies following the
+Spanish-American War (1898), the business of the principal ports,
+notably of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased.
+
+_Population._--The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493; in 1890,
+391,422, an increase of 45.2%; and in 1900, 528,542, or a further
+increase of 35%; and in 1905, by a state census, 614,845; and in 1910,
+752,619. In 1900, 95.5% were native born, 43.7% were coloured (including
+479 Chinese, Japanese and Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were
+little altered. The Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely
+known, live in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the
+basis of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16.6% of the
+total in 1900 and 22.7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida, as for
+other Southern States, being small as compared with the percentage for
+most of the other states of the Union. In 1900 there were 92, and, in
+1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and villages; but only 14 (in 1905,
+22) of these had a population of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a
+population of more than 5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville
+(28,429); Pensacola (17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The
+eight in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola
+(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City (6409),
+Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine (5121). Tallahassee is the capital
+of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest religious
+denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while the Roman Catholic,
+Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal churches were of relatively minor
+importance.
+
+_Government._--The present constitution was framed in 1885 and was
+ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important feature, when
+compared with the previous constitution of 1868, is its provision for
+the choice of state officials other than the governor (who was
+previously chosen by election) by elections instead of by the governor's
+appointment, but the governor, who serves for four years and is not
+eligible for the next succeeding term, still appoints the circuit
+judges, the state attorneys for each judicial circuit and the county
+commissioners; he may fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with
+the Senate remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a
+member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being the
+attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and the
+commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state,
+attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of public
+instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a Board of
+Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a member of the Board of
+Education. The office of lieutenant-governor was abolished by the
+present constitution. The legislature meets biennially, the senators
+being chosen for four, the representatives for two years. By an
+amendment of 1896 the Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House
+of Representatives of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of
+members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor's
+veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the circuit
+court serve for six years, those of the county courts for four years,
+and justices of the peace (one for each justice district, of which the
+county commissioners must form at least two in each county) hold office
+for four years. The constitutional qualifications for suffrage are: the
+age of twenty-one years, citizenship in the United States or
+presentation of naturalization certificates at registration centres,
+residence in the state one year and in the county six months, and
+registration. To these requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been
+added by legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized
+by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardianship are
+excluded by the constitution, and "all persons convicted of bribery,
+perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall make or become
+directly or indirectly interested in any bet or wager the result of
+which shall depend upon any election," or who shall participate as
+principal, second or challenger in any duel, are excluded by legislative
+enactment.
+
+Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths vote of
+each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote of the
+people. A revision of the Constitution may be made upon a two-thirds
+vote of all members of both Houses of the legislature, if ratified by a
+majority vote of the people; a Constitutional Convention is then to be
+provided for by the legislature, such convention to meet within six
+months of the passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number
+equal to the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned
+among the counties, as are the members of this House.
+
+A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an incorporated
+town or city, owned by the head of a family residing in the state, with
+personal property to the value of $1000 and the improvements on the real
+estate, is exempt from enforced sale except for delinquent taxes,
+purchase money, mortgage or improvements on the property. The wife holds
+in her own name property acquired before or after marriage; the
+intermarriage of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the
+fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional
+provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living in
+adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces may be
+secured only after two years' residence in the state and on the ground
+of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty, habitual indulgence
+in violent temper, habitual drunkenness, desertion for one year,
+previous marriage still existing, or such relationship of the parties as
+is within the degrees for which marriage is prohibited by law.
+Legitimacy of natural children can be established by subsequent marriage
+of the parents, and the age of consent is sixteen years.
+
+  The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period
+  (1865-1875). In 1871 7% 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000 were
+  issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the value of
+  $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the Educational Fund at
+  the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but $267,700 of the issue of
+  1871 had been retired and this amount was then refunded with 3% 50
+  year bonds which were taken by the Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800
+  of the 1873 issue was held by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by
+  individuals. The first part of this claim was refunded by a new bond
+  issue, also taken by the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an
+  Indian war claim of $692,946, received from the United States
+  government in 1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United
+  States government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus
+  reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt,
+  consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted to
+  $601,567.
+
+_Penal System._--There is no penitentiary; the convicts are hired to the
+one highest bidder who contracts for their labour, and who undertakes,
+moreover, to lease all other persons convicted during the term of the
+lease, and sub-leases the prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed
+under the care of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was
+amended so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will
+of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one state
+prison physician, and there are special laws designed to prevent abuses
+in the system. In 1908 the state received $208,148 from the lease of
+convicts. Decrepit prisoners were formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease
+excluded such as were thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women
+convicts were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convicts
+committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro males and
+75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and 27 were recaptured. The
+leased convicts are employed in the turpentine and lumber industries and
+in the phosphate works. The 1232 convicts "on hand" at the close of
+1908 were held in 38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum
+number, at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were
+maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are under the
+supervision of the governor and the supervisors of convicts. The state
+supervisors must inspect each state prison camp and each county prison
+camp every thirty days.
+
+_Education._--As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was made to form
+an adequate public school fund; the first real effort to establish a
+common school system for the territory was made after 1835; in 1840
+there were altogether 18 academies and 51 common schools, and in 1849
+the state legislature made an appropriation in the interest of the
+public instruction of white pupils, and this was supplemented by the
+proceeds of land granted by the United States government for the same
+purpose. In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860
+there were, according to a report of the United States census, 2032
+pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in "academies and
+other schools." The Civil War, however, interrupted the early progress,
+and the present system of common schools dates from the constitution of
+1868 and the school law of 1869. The school revenue derived from the
+interest of a permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and
+a poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita cost for
+each child of school age was $6.11 (white, $9.08; negro, $2.24), and the
+average school term was 108 days (112 for whites, 99 for negroes). The
+state constitution prescribes that "white and colored children shall not
+be taught in the same school, but impartial provision shall be made for
+both." The percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66;
+negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was 70%,--68%
+for white and 74% for negro schools. Before 1905 the state provided for
+higher education by the Florida State College, at Tallahassee, formerly
+the West Florida Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida,
+at Lake City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the
+Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida
+Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the normal school (for
+whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South Florida Military Institute
+at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature passed the Buckman bill
+abolishing all these state institutions for higher education and
+establishing in their place the university of the state of Florida and a
+state Agricultural Experiment Station, both now at Gainesville, and the
+Florida Female College at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for
+entrance and for graduation as the state university for men. Private
+educational institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De
+Land (Baptist); Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian),
+with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a school of
+expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and industrial
+arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901), at Sutherland
+(Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian College of Florida
+(1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute (1890), at Jasper, and the
+Florida Normal Institute at Madison. The negroes have facilities for
+advanced instruction in the Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman
+Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the
+Normal and Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park.
+There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St.
+Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a reform
+school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state, and a Confederate
+soldiers' and sailors' home at Tallahassee, which is partially supported
+by the state.
+
+_History._--The earliest explorations and attempts at colonization of
+Florida by Europeans were made by the Spanish. The Council of the Indies
+claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships had gone to Florida, and
+Florida is shown on the Cantino map of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon
+(c. 1460-1521), who had been with Christopher Columbus on his second
+voyage and had later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant
+authorizing him to discover and settle "Bimini,"--a fabulous island
+believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring whose waters would
+restore to old men their youth or at least had wonderful curative
+powers. Soon after Easter Day he came in sight of the coast of Florida,
+probably near the mouth of the St Johns river. From the name of the day
+in the calendar, _Pascua Florida_, or from the fact that many flowers
+were found on the coast, the country was named Florida. De Leon seems to
+have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the peninsula,
+and to have turned homeward fully convinced that he had discovered an
+immense island. He returned to Spain in 1514, and obtained from the king
+a grant to colonize "the island of Bimini and the island of Florida," of
+which he was appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another
+expedition, this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems
+to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account of the
+large number of turtles found there, and to have landed at several
+places, but many of his men succumbed to disease and he himself was
+wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in
+1516, another Spaniard, Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some
+distance along the west coast of the peninsula. The next important
+exploration of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed
+from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400), landed
+(early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola, and for six
+months remained in the country, he and his men suffering terribly from
+exposure, hunger and fierce Indian attacks. In September, his ships
+being lost and his force greatly reduced in number, he hastily
+constructed a crazy fleet, re-embarked probably at Apalachee Bay, and
+lost his life in a storm probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his
+men, including Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of
+Indian captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their way
+to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially explored by
+Ferdinando de Soto (q.v.) in 1539-1540. In the summer of 1559 another
+attempt at colonization was made by Tristan de Luna, who sailed from
+Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola Bay, and explored a part of Florida and
+(possibly) Southern Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make
+a permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his followers
+and gave up his attempt in 1561.
+
+In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band of French
+Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then at the mouth of the
+St Johns river, which he called the river of May, and on behalf of
+France claimed the country, which he described as "the fairest,
+fruitfullest and pleasantest of all the world"; but he made his
+settlement on an island near what is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In
+1564 Rene de Laudonniere (? -c. 1586), with another party of Huguenots,
+established Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony
+did not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonniere was about to return to France
+when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by Ribaut and about 300
+men from France. On the same day that Ribaut landed, a Spanish
+expedition arrived in the bay of St Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro
+Menendez de Aviles (1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the
+Huguenot settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire
+garrison at Fort Caroline "not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans," on the
+20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon afterwards wrecked
+near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his followers surrendered to
+Menendez and were executed. Menendez then turned his attention to the
+founding of a settlement which he named St Augustine (q.v.); he also
+explored the Atlantic coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and
+established forts at San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St
+Helena. In 1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.
+
+The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution of
+Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at the French
+court; but Dominique de Gourgues (c. 1530-1593), a friend of Ribaut but
+probably a Catholic, organized an expedition of vengeance, not informing
+his men of his destination until his three ships were near the Florida
+coast. With the co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba
+he captured Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where
+the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged his Spanish
+prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words, "I do this not as
+unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers and murderers." Feeling
+unable to attack St Augustine, de Gourgues returned to France.
+
+The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes. The Indians were
+hostile and the missionary efforts among them failed. In 1586 St
+Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir Francis Drake and it also suffered
+severely by an attack of Captain John Davis in 1665. Not until the last
+decade of the 17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend
+the settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French
+explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their attention to
+the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When the English colonies
+of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded, there was constant friction
+with Florida. The Spanish were accused of inciting the Indians to make
+depredations on the English settlements and of interfering with English
+commerce and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of
+the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were contending in
+Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish Succession, a force
+from South Carolina captured St Augustine and laid siege to the fort,
+but being unable to reduce it for lack of necessary artillery, burned
+the town and withdrew at the approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706
+a Spanish and French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina,
+failed, and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in
+1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Oglethorpe,
+governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made an unsuccessful
+attack upon St Augustine; two years later a Spanish expedition against
+Savannah by way of St Simon's Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe
+again appeared before the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the
+other centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied
+(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful history.
+
+By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England in return
+for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and West Florida were now
+formed, the boundaries of West Florida being 31 deg. N. lat. (when civil
+government was organized in 1767, the N. line was made 32 deg. 28'), the
+Chattahoochee, and the Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico,
+Mississippi Sound, Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the
+Mississippi river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of
+military government was instituted; immigration began; and Andrew
+Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of about 1500 Minorcans
+(1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation of indigo at New Smyrna.
+Roads were laid out, some of which yet remain; and in the last three
+years of English occupation the government spent $580,000 on the two
+provinces. Consequently, the people of Florida were for the most part
+loyal to Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In 1776,
+the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the indigo
+plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine, where they were
+protected by the authorities. Several plans were made to invade South
+Carolina and Georgia, but none matured until 1778, when an expedition
+was organized which co-operated with British forces from New York in the
+siege of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having declared
+war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez (1756-1794), the
+Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most of the English forts in
+West Florida, and in 1781 captured Pensacola.
+
+By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and, no
+religious liberty being promised, many of the English inhabitants left
+East and West Florida. A dispute with the United States concerning the
+northern boundary was settled by the treaty of 1795, the line 31 deg. N.
+lat. being established.
+
+The westward expansion of the United States made necessary American
+ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisition of West
+Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the aims of the
+negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. After the
+cession of Louisiana to the United States, the people of West Florida
+feared that that province would be seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore,
+through a convention at Buhler's Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated
+plans for a more effective government. When it was found that the
+Spanish governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another
+convention was held on the 26th of September which declared West Florida
+to be an independent state, organized a government and petitioned for
+admission to the American Union. On the 27th of October President James
+Madison, acting on a theory of Robert R. Livingston that West Florida
+was ceded by Spain to France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was
+therefore included by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United
+States in 1803, declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of
+the United States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the
+portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi rivers to
+Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of Louisiana), and that
+between the Pearl and the Perdido to the Mississippi Territory.
+
+In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United States was
+imminent. The American government asked the Spanish authorities of East
+Florida to permit an American occupation of the country in order that it
+might not be seized by Great Britain and made a base of military
+operations. When the request was refused, American forces seized
+Fernandina in the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the
+American government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized
+in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to organize a
+government at St Mary's was made by American sympathizers, and a petty
+civil war began between the Americans, who called themselves "Patriots,"
+and the Indians, who were encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British
+troops landed at Pensacola to begin operations against the United
+States. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but in
+a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then built a fort on the
+Apalachicola river, and there directed expeditions of Indians and
+runaway negroes against the American settlements, which continued long
+after peace was concluded in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing
+that the Spanish were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to
+attack the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of 1819
+Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United States; the
+treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States took formal
+possession, but civil government was not established until 1822.
+
+Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the new Territory
+of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have reached a stage of
+civilization somewhat similar to that of the Aztecs, were conquered and
+exterminated or absorbed by Creeks about the middle of the 18th century.
+There was a strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known
+as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne's Landing in 1832 and Fort Gibson
+in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their Florida lands for
+equal territory in the western part of the United States. But a strong
+sentiment against removal suddenly developed, and the efforts of the
+United States to enforce the treaty brought on the Seminole War
+(1836-42), which resulted in the removal of all but a few hundred
+Seminoles whose descendants still live in southern Florida.
+
+In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On the 10th of
+January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which declared Florida to be a
+"sovereign and independent nation," was adopted by a state convention,
+and Florida became one of the Confederate States of America. The
+important coast towns were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina,
+Pensacola and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an
+invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being repulsed
+in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864). In 1865 a
+provisional governor was appointed by President Andrew Johnson, and a
+new state government was organized. The legislature of 1866 rejected the
+Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards
+Florida was made a part of the Third Military District, according to the
+Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as voters by the
+military authorities, and another Constitutional Convention met in
+January and February 1868. A factional strife in the dominant party, the
+Republican, now began; fifteen delegates withdrew from the convention;
+the others framed a constitution, and then resolved themselves into a
+political convention. The seceding members with nine others then
+returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by General
+George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and was ratified by the
+electors, and Florida passed from under a quasi-military to a full civil
+government on the 4th of July 1868.
+
+The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a number of
+efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison Reed (1813-1899). The
+decisive year of the Reconstruction Period was 1876. The Canvassing
+Board, which published the election returns, cast out some votes, did
+not wait for the returns from Dade county, and declared the Republican
+ticket elected. George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for
+governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court restraining the
+board from going behind the face of the election returns; this was not
+obeyed and a similar mandamus was therefore obtained from the supreme
+court of Florida, which declared that the board had no right to
+determine the legality of a particular vote. According to the new count
+thus ordered, the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar
+process the board's decision in favour of the election of Republican
+presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors were
+declared the successful candidates; but the electoral commission,
+appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See ELECTORAL
+COMMISSION.)
+
+Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics.
+
+  American Governors of Florida.
+
+    Territorial Governors.
+
+  Andrew Jackson     1821-1822
+  William P. Duval   1822-1834
+  John H. Eaton      1834-1835
+  Richard K. Call    1835-1840
+  Robert R. Reid     1840-1841
+  Richard K. Call    1841-1844
+  John Branch        1844-1845
+
+    State Governors.
+
+  William D. Moseley   1845-1849 Democrat
+  Thomas Brown         1849-1853 Whig
+  James E. Broome      1853-1857 Democrat
+  Madison S. Perry     1857-1861    "
+  John Milton          1861-1865    "
+  William Marvin       1865      Provisional
+  David S. Walker      1865-1868 Democrat
+  Harrison Reed        1868-1872 Republican
+  Ossian B. Hart       1873-1874    "
+  Marcellus L. Stearns 1874-1877    "
+  George F. Drew       1877-1881 Democrat
+  William D. Bloxham   1881-1885    "
+  Edward A. Perry      1885-1889    "
+  Francis P. Fleming   1889-1893    "
+  Henry L. Mitchell    1893-1897    "
+  William D. Bloxham   1897-1901    "
+  William S. Jennings  1901-1905    "
+  Napoleon B. Broward  1905-1909    "
+  Albert W. Gilchrist  1909-        "
+
+  Bibliography.--Physical and economic conditions are discussed in a
+  pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of Agriculture,
+  _Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topography, Climate,
+  Soil, &c._ (Tallahassee, 1904); in _Climate, Soil and Resources of
+  Florida_ (United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1882);
+  _A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida_ (United States
+  Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin 13, 1898); C.L.
+  Norton's _Handbook of Florida_ (2nd edition, New York, 1892); the
+  volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United States (for 1900) which
+  treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and the Special Report on Mines
+  and Quarries for 1902. J.N. MacGonigle's "Geography of Florida"
+  (_National Geographic Magazine_, vol. 7), T.D.A. Cockerell's "West
+  Indian Fauna in Florida" (_Nature_, vol. 46), L.F. Pourtales's "Flora
+  and Fauna of the Florida Keys" (_American Naturalist_, vol. 11), and
+  C.F. Millspaugh's _Flora of the Sand Keys of Florida_ (Chicago, 1907),
+  a Field Columbian Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C.B.
+  Cory's _Hunting and Fishing in Florida_ (Boston, 1896) and A.W. and
+  J.A. Dimock's _Florida Enchantments_ (New York, 1908) are of
+  interest. For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum's _Civil Government
+  of Florida_ (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the _Revised Statutes of
+  Florida_ (1892). The standard history is that by G.R. Fairbanks,
+  _History of Florida_ (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supplemented
+  by D.G. Brinton's _Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its Literary
+  History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities_ (Philadelphia, 1859), which
+  has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early explorations;
+  Woodbury Lowery, _The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of
+  the United States_ (New York, vol. i., 1901; vol. ii., sub-title
+  _Florida_, 1905); R.L. Campbell's Historical Sketches of Colonial
+  Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the history of
+  Pensacola; H.E. Chambers's _West Florida and its Relation to the
+  Historical Cartography of the United States_ (Johns Hopkins Studies in
+  Historical and Political Science, Series 16, No. 5); and Herbert B.
+  Fuller's The _Purchase of Florida; its History and Diplomacy_
+  (Cleveland, O., 1906). The only published collections of documents
+  relating to the state are Buckingham Smith's _Colleccion de varios
+  documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes_
+  (London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French's _Historical Collections of
+  Louisiana_ (New York, 1846-1875).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous
+    sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried
+    the whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MONINO Y REDONDO, COUNT OF (1728-1808), Spanish
+statesman, was born at Murcia in 1728. He was the son of a retired army
+officer, and received a good education, which he completed at the
+university of Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of
+law. For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired
+a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him by the marquis
+of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who sent him ambassador to
+Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his mission, he was soon after appointed
+by Charles III. successor to his patron, and his administration was one
+of the most brilliant Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of
+Madrid, reformed many abuses, projected canals, established many
+societies of agriculture and economy and many philanthropical
+institutions, and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine
+arts. Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing
+disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were settled.
+He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with Portugal by a double
+marriage between the members of the royal houses, designing by this
+arrangement to place ultimately a Spanish prince on the throne of
+Portugal. But in this he failed. Floridablanca was the right-hand man of
+King Charles III. in his policy of domestic reform, and was much under
+the influence of French _philosophes_ and economic writers. Like other
+reformers of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal
+authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism. The French
+Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he advocated the support of
+the first coalition against France. He retained his office for three
+years under Charles IV.; but in 1792, through the influence of the
+favourite Godoy, he was dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of
+Pampeluna. Here he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of
+his brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates, and
+remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He was then
+called by his countrymen to take the presidency of the central junta.
+But his strength failed him, and he died at Seville on the 20th of
+November of the same year. He left several short treatises on
+jurisprudence.
+
+  See _Obras originales del Conde de Floridablanca_, edited, with
+  biographical introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the _Biblioteca de
+  Rivadeneyra_, vol. lix.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIDOR [JOSIAS DE SOULAS, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. c. 1671), French
+actor, was born in Brie early in the 17th century, the son of a
+gentleman of German family who had moved to France, married there, and
+become a Roman Catholic. The son entered the French army, but after
+being promoted ensign, quitted the army for the theatre, where he took
+the name of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three
+years later he was called to the company at the Hotel de Bourgogne,
+where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and comedy and became
+the head of his profession. He was a man of superb physique and
+excellent carriage, with a flexible and sonorous voice, and manners of
+rare distinction and elegance. He was much liked at court, and Louis
+XIV. held him in particular esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIN, the name applied to several coins of the continent of Europe and
+to two coins struck in England at different times. The word comes
+through the Fr. _florin_ from the Ital. _fiorino_, flower, Lat. _flos_,
+_florem_. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold coin issued at Florence
+in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains. This coin bore on the obverse
+a lily, from which it took its name of "the flower," on the reverse the
+Latin name of the city _Florentia_, from which it was also known as a
+"florence." "Florin" and "florence" seem to have been used in English
+indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin was
+held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and similar coins
+were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy, France, &c. The English
+gold florin was introduced by Edward III. in 1343, half and quarter
+florins being struck at the same time. This gold florin weighed 108
+grains and was to be current for six shillings. It was found, however,
+to be overvalued in proportion to the silver currency and was
+demonetized the following year. The florin did not again appear in the
+English coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having a
+nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were struck. When
+first issued the "Dei gratia" was omitted from the inscription, and they
+were frequently referred to as the "Godless" or "graceless" florins. The
+D.G. was added in 1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece
+was issued, but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of
+double florins issued during these years amounted to L533,125. (See also
+NUMISMATICS.)
+
+
+
+
+FLORIO, GIOVANNI (1553?-1625), English writer, was born in London about
+1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents being Waldenses who had fled
+from persecution in the Valtelline and taken refuge in England. His
+father, Michael Angelo Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant
+congregation in London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir
+William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He dedicated a
+book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert, and may have been a tutor
+in the family of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. Anthony a Wood says
+that the Florios left England on the accession of Queen Mary, but
+returned after her death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was
+appointed, about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of
+Durham, then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published a
+work entitled _First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry
+Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings_ (4to). This was
+accompanied by _A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English Tongues_.
+The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester. Three years later
+Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen College, and became a teacher
+of French and Italian in the university. In 1591 appeared his _Second
+Fruits, to be gathered of Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes
+to the Tongues of Italian and English men_; to which was annexed the
+_Garden of Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs_ (4to).
+These manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of
+dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer
+extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio had
+many patrons; he says that he "lived some years" with the earl of
+Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also befriended him. His Italian
+and English dictionary, entitled _A World of Words_, was published in
+folio in 1598. After the accession of James I., Florio was named French
+and Italian tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of
+the privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he also
+instructed in languages. His _magnum opus_ is the admirable translation
+of the _Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo.
+Michaell de Montaigne_, published in folio in 1603 in three books, each
+dedicated to two noble ladies. A second edition in 1613 was dedicated to
+the queen. Special interest attaches to the first edition from the
+circumstance that of the several copies in the British Museum library
+one bears the autograph of Shakespeare--long received as genuine but now
+supposed to be by an 18th-century hand--and another that of Ben Jonson.
+It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is satirized by Shakespeare
+under the character of Holofernes, the pompous pedant of _Love's
+Labour's Lost_, but it is much more likely, especially as he was one of
+the earl of Southampton's proteges, that he was among the personal
+friends of the dramatist, who may well have gained his knowledge of
+Italian and French from him. He had married the sister of the poet
+Daniel, and had friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben
+Jonson sent him a copy of _Volpone_ with the inscription, "To his loving
+father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson seals this
+testimony of his friendship and love." He is characterized by Wood, in
+_Athenae Oxonienses_, as a very useful man in his profession, zealous
+for his religion, and deeply attached to his adopted country. He died at
+Fulham, London, in the autumn of 1625.
+
+
+
+
+FLORIS, FRANS, or more correctly FRANS DE VRIENDT, called FLORIS
+(1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large family trained to the
+study of art in Flanders. Son of a stonecutter, Cornelis de Vriendt, who
+died at Antwerp in 1538, he began life as a student of sculpture, but
+afterwards gave up carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to
+Liege and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse, whose
+travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish into that of a
+mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps of Mabuse, Lambert
+Lombard had visited Florence, and caught the manner of Salviati and
+other pupils of Michelangelo and Del Sarto. It was about the time when
+Schoreel, Coxcie and Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating
+the masterpieces of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute
+Dutch-Italian works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula
+itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua. Fired by
+these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across the Alps, and
+appropriated without assimilation the various mannerisms of the schools
+of Lombardy, Florence and Rome. Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how
+easy it would be to earn a livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for
+engravers and painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He
+came home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a
+school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris
+painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish
+nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to have
+illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and the liberal
+arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of Antwerp, and adorned
+the duke of Arschot's palace of Beaumont with fourteen colossal panels.
+Comparatively few of his works have descended to us, partly because they
+came to be contemned for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to
+perish, partly because they were soon judged by a different standard
+from that of the Flemings of the 16th century. The earliest extant
+canvas by Floris is the "Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan" in the
+Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a "Last Judgment" (1566) in the
+Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate works at
+Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence, Leau, Madrid, St
+Petersburg and Vienna display any charm of originality in composition or
+in form. Whatever boldness and force they may possess, or whatever
+principles they may embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian
+models spoiled in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution
+reveals a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and
+Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which his works
+were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and Theodore de Galle. Whilst
+Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of
+equal size, for the grand prior of Spain, he was seized with illness,
+and died on the 1st of October 1570 at Antwerp.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.
+He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome
+from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by
+Augustus (25 B.C.). The work, which is called _Epitome de T. Livio
+Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo_, is written in a bombastic and
+rhetorical style, and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome,
+whose life is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood
+and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological
+details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the
+middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius Florus,
+Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From certain
+similarities of style he has been identified with Publius Annius Florus,
+poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author of a dialogue on the
+question whether Virgil was an orator or poet, of which the introduction
+has been preserved.
+
+  The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which contain
+  the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English
+  translation in Bohn's _Classical Library_.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, JULIUS, poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan age. His name
+has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated to him two of his
+_Epistles_ (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would appear that he composed
+lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The statement of Porphyrion, the old
+commentator on Horace, that Florus himself wrote satires, is probably
+erroneous, but he may have edited selections from the earlier satirists
+(Ennius, Lucilius, Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his
+personality, except that he was one of the young men who accompanied
+Tiberius on his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been
+variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and
+uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (_Instit_. x.
+3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus,
+_Ann_. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (_Odes_, ii. 14) and even
+with the historian Florus.
+
+
+
+
+FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS, Roman poet and rhetorician, identified by some
+authorities with the historian Florus (q.v.). The introduction to a
+dialogue called _Virgilius orator an poeta_ is extant, in which the
+author (whose name is given as Publius Annius Florus) states that he was
+born in Africa, and at an early age took part in the literary contests
+on the Capitol instituted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing
+to the prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust,
+and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher of
+rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to return to Rome,
+for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the
+well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius
+Spartianus (_Hadrian_ 16). Twenty-six trochaic tetrameters, _De
+qualitate vitae_, and five graceful hexameters, _De rosis_, are also
+attributed to him. Florus is important as being the first in order of a
+number of 2nd-century African writers who exercised a considerable
+influence on Latin literature, and also the first of the _poetae
+neoterici_ or _novelli_ (new-fashioned poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose
+special characteristic was the use of lighter and graceful metres
+(anapaestic and iambic dimeters), which had hitherto found little
+favour.
+
+  The little poems will be found in E. Bahrens, _Poetae Latini minores_
+  (1879-1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author
+  of the _Pervigilium Veneris_ (q.v.) see E.H.O. Muller, _De P. Annio
+  Floro poeta et de Pervigilio Veneris_ (1855), and, for the poet's
+  relations with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, _Hadrian und Florus_ (1882);
+  see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, i. pt. 2
+  (1894).
+
+
+
+
+FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON, FREIHERR (1812-1883), German
+composer, was born on his father's estate at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg,
+on the 27th of April 1812. Destined originally for the diplomatic
+profession, his passion for music induced his father to send him to
+Paris to study under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830
+caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-music
+and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There he produced
+_Pierre et Catherine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise_, but made his first
+real success with Le _Naufrage de la Meduse_ at the Renaissance Theatre
+in 1838. Greater, however, was the success which attended _Stradella_
+(1844) and _Martha_ (1847), which made the tour of the world. In 1848
+Flotow was again driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a
+few years he produced _Die Grossfurstin_ (1850), _Indra_ (1853),
+_Rubezahl_ (1854), _Hilda_ (1855) and _Albin_ (1856). From 1856 to 1863
+he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the latter
+year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced _L'Ombre_. From
+that time to the date of his death he lived in Paris or on his estate
+near Vienna. He died on the 24th of January 1883. Of his concert-music
+only the _Jubelouverture_ is now ever heard. His strength lay in the
+facility of his melodies.
+
+
+
+
+FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN, in English law, goods lost at sea, as
+distinguished from goods which come to land, which are technically
+designated _wreck_. Jetsam (the same word as _jettison_, from Lat.
+_jactare_, to throw) is when goods are cast into the sea, and there sink
+and remain under water; flotsam (_floatson_, from _float_, Lat.
+_flottare_) is where they continue floating on the surface of the waves;
+ligan (or _lagan_, from _lay_ or _lie_) is where they are sunk in the
+sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to be found again. Flotsam,
+jetsam and ligan belong to the sovereign in the absence only of the true
+owner. Wreck, on the other hand (i.e. goods cast on shore), was by the
+common law adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by
+the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original owner.
+This singular distinction which treated goods washed ashore as lost, and
+goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt to be explained by the
+primitive practice of plundering wrecked ships. (See WRECK.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOUNDER, a common term for flat-fish. The name is also more specially
+given to certain varieties, according to local usage. Thus the
+_Pleuronectes flesus_ is the common flounder of English terminology,
+found along the coasts of northern Europe from the Bristol Channel to
+Iceland. It is particularly partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine
+as far as Cologne. It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of
+1-1/2 lb. In American terminology the principal fish of the name are the
+"summer flounders" or "deep-sea flounders," also known in America as
+"plaice" (_Paralichthys dentatus_), as long as 3 ft. and as heavy as 15
+lb.; the "four-spotted flounders" (_Paralichthys oblongus_); the
+"common" or "winter" flounder (_Pseudopleuronectes americanus_); the
+"diamond flounder" (_Hysopsetta guttulata_); and the "pole flounder"
+(_Glyptocephalus cynoglossus_).
+
+
+
+
+FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The term "flour" (Fr. _fleur_, flower, i.e.
+the best part) is usually applied to the triturated farinaceous
+constituents of the wheat berry (see WHEAT); it is, however, also used
+of other cereals and even of leguminoids when ground into a fine powder,
+and of many other substances in a pulverulent state, though in these
+cases it is usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c. The flour
+obtained from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten
+flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17th centuries as meal, and up
+to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps later, the term mealing
+trade was not infrequently used of the milling trade.
+
+
+  Primitive grinding.
+
+The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone about the
+size of a man's fist, with which grain or nuts were pounded and crushed
+into a rude meal. These stones are generally of hard sandstone and were
+evidently used against another stone, which by dint of continual
+hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher was used on the
+surface of rocks. St Bridget's stone, on the shore of Lough Macnean, is
+supposed to have been a primitive Irish mill; there are many depressions
+in the face of the table-like rock, and it is probable that round this
+stone several women (for in early civilization the preparation of flour
+was peculiarly the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather
+pound, meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in
+Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands, and it
+is on record that some of these stones have been used for flour-making
+within historic times. Richard Bennett in his _History of Corn Milling_
+remarks that the Seneca Indians to this day boil maize and crush it into
+a paste between loose stones. In the same way the Omahas pound this
+cereal in holes in the rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound
+the capsules of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by
+Herodotus in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the
+Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between a round
+stone or "muller," and a cuplike hollow in the surface of a rock.
+Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging from the primitive
+ball-like implement to an elongated shape resembling the pestle of a
+mortar. Mullers of the latter type are not infrequent among prehistoric
+remains in America, while Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of
+the globular form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also
+among the ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived
+in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are now
+altogether extinct.
+
+
+  Saddle-stone.
+
+The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive pounder,
+or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct ancestor of the
+millstones still used to some extent in the manufacture of flour. The
+saddle-stone, the first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone
+with a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and in
+and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into coarse meal.
+Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand caves of Italy, among the
+lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the dolmens of France, in the pit
+dwellings of the British Isles, and among the remains of primitive folk
+all the world over. The Romans of the classical period seem to have
+distinguished the saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the
+_mola trusatilis_, which may be translated "the thrusting mill"; this
+would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The _mola
+versatilis_ evidently referred to the revolving millstone or quern. In
+primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not yet extinct, as for
+instance in Mexico. It is known as the _metata_, and is used both for
+grinding maize and for making the maize cakes known as tortillas. The
+same implement is apparently still in use in some parts of South
+America, notably in Chile.
+
+
+  Quern.
+
+According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete milling
+machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability not older than
+the 2nd century B.C. This is, however, a controverted point. Querns are
+still used in most primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have
+altogether disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland.
+Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling. The rotary
+motion of millstones became the essential principle of the trituration
+of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the roller mill. The early
+quern appears to have differed from its descendants in that it was
+somewhat globular in shape, the lower stone being made conical, possibly
+with the idea that the ground flour should be provided with a downward
+flow to enable it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however,
+persist. Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the two
+stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone was a species
+of funnel, through which the grain passed as through a hopper, making
+its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the space between the
+running and the bed stone. The ground meal was discharged at the
+periphery. The runner, or upper stone, was provided with a wooden handle
+by which the stone was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan
+age may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have been a
+public _pistrinum_ or mill, were found four pairs of millstones. The
+circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. high, and
+upon it was fastened the _meta_, a blunt cone about 2 ft. high, on which
+fitted the upper millstone or _catillus_, also conical. These mills were
+evidently rotated by slave labour, as there was no room for the
+perambulation of a horse or donkey, while the side-lugs in which the
+handle-bars were inserted are plainly visible. Slave labour was
+generally used up to the introduction of Christianity, but was finally
+abolished by the emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills
+continued to be driven by criminals.
+
+
+  Use of power.
+
+The Romans are credited by some authorities with having first applied
+power to the driving of millstones, which they connected with
+water-wheels by a horizontal spindle through the intervention of bevel
+gearing. But long after millstones had been harnessed to water power
+slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The watermill of
+the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period into Britain.
+Domesday Book shows that England was covered by mills of a kind at the
+time of the Norman conquest, and mentions some 500 mills in the
+counties of Norfolk and Suffolk alone. No doubt the _mola_ of Domesday
+Book consisted of one pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a
+water-wheel. Windmills are said to have been introduced by the
+Crusaders, who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed to
+have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close of the
+18th century, when Boulton & Watt installed a steam engine in the Albion
+Flour Mills in London, erected under the care of John Rennie. Another
+great engineer, Sir William Fairbairn, in the early days of the 19th
+century, left the impress of his genius on the mill and all its
+accessories. He was followed by other clever engineers, and in the days
+immediately preceding the roller period many improvements were
+introduced as regards the balancing and driving of millstones. The
+introduction of the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a
+great step in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen
+or linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the 19th century, marked
+another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before the
+introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 4-1/2 ft. in diameter by
+some 12 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous stone,
+known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry of La
+Ferte-sous-Jouarre, in France.
+
+
+  Roller milling.
+
+Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the flour
+consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is, mills in
+which the wheat is broken and floured by means of rollers, some grooved
+in varying degrees of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded
+and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All roller mills
+worthy of the name are completely automatic, that is to say, from the
+time the raw material enters the mill warehouse till it is sacked,
+either in the shape of finished flour or of offals, it is touched by no
+human hand.
+
+The history of roller milling extends back to the first half of the 19th
+century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines fitted with rolls set
+either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely, for the grinding of
+corn, are said to have been used as far back as the 17th century, but if
+this be so it is certain that they were only used in a tentative manner.
+Towards the middle of the 19th century the firm of E.R. & F. Turner, of
+Ipswich, began to build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary
+to the conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls
+were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges, which
+must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments of the berry.
+These mills were built to the design of a German engineer, of the name
+of G.A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at the London exhibition of 1862,
+but they never came into general use. It has also been stated that as
+early as 1823 a French engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a
+roller mill, while five years later a certain Malar took out another
+French patent, the specification of which speaks of grooves and
+differential speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the
+present day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th
+century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus was rather
+cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it was fitted consumed a
+large amount of power relatively to the work effected. But the Pester
+Walz-Muhle, founded in 1839 by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman,
+which took its name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by
+Sulzberger, was for many years a great success; some of its roller mills
+are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty years, and one
+at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.
+
+
+  Hungarian practice.
+
+It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and well adapted
+for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction, as now understood,
+was more or less practised in Hungary, even before the introduction of
+roller milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used, yet the
+wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical low or flat
+grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive operations. In
+the first break the stones would be placed just wide enough apart to
+"end" the wheat, and in each succeeding operation the stones were
+brought closer together. But Hungarian milling was not then automatic in
+the sense in which British millers understand the word. For a long time
+a great deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of
+Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to another for
+further treatment. This practice may have been partly due to the cheap
+labour available, but it was also the deliberate policy of Hungarian
+millers to handle in this way the middlings and fine "dunst," because it
+was maintained that only thus could certain products be delivered to the
+machine by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition.
+The results were good so far as the finished products were concerned,
+but in the light of modern automatic milling the system appears
+uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately large staff, but
+it further increased the labour bill by the demand it made on the number
+of sub-foremen who were occupied in classifying, largely by touch, the
+various products, and directing the labourers under them. Hungarian
+milling still differs widely from milling as practised in Great Britain
+in being a longer system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of
+products, a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour
+and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate varieties
+of middlings and "dunst" for which no corresponding terms are available
+in an English miller's vocabulary.
+
+
+  Semolina, middlings, dunst.
+
+It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three terms
+constantly used by millers, namely, _semolina_, _middlings_ and _dunst_.
+These three products of roller mills are practically identical in
+composition, but represent different stages in the process of reducing
+the endosperm of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered by several
+layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury kernel or
+endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to tear and break up.
+The largest of these more or less cubical particles are known as
+semolina, whilst the medium-sized are called middlings and the smallest
+sized termed dunst. The last is a German word, with several meanings,
+but is used in this particular sense by German and Austrian millers,
+from whom it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in
+England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour beside a
+sample of small dunst the two would be easy to distinguish, but place a
+magnifying glass over the flour and it would look very like the dunst.
+If we were to repeat this experiment on dunst and fine middlings, the
+former would under the glass present a strong resemblance to the
+middlings. The same effect would be produced by the putting side by side
+of large middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of
+semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are more apt to
+vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter is the product of the
+later stages of the milling process and represents small particles of
+the floury kernel tolerably free from such impurities as bran or fluff.
+The flour producing middlings must not be confounded with the variety of
+wheat offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings.
+This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with a
+certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only fit for
+feeding beasts.
+
+
+  Porcelain rolls.
+
+The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was undoubtedly
+accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls, by Friedrich Wegmann, a
+Swiss miller, which were brought into general use in the seventh decade
+of the 19th century, and are still widely employed. They are admirably
+fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and dunst into flour;
+and for reducing pure middlings, that is, middlings containing no bran
+or wheat husk, there is perhaps nothing that quite equals them. They
+were introduced into Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were
+used for several years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from
+British mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date
+they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep the rolls
+perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their inadaptability to
+over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and perhaps still more the
+American, miller is frequently obliged to resort. However, since the
+beginning of the 20th century some of the most advanced flour mills in
+England have again taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of
+their reduction process.
+
+
+  Roller milling in England.
+
+The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to date from
+1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer, erected a set of
+roller mills in the Tradeston Mills, in Glasgow. This was long before
+the introduction of automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the
+millstone system were not seriously disturbed till 1877, when a party of
+leading British and Irish millers visited Vienna and Budapest with the
+object of studying roller milling in its native home. In 1878 J.H.
+Carter installed in the mill of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably
+the first complete automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom,
+and in 1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
+London, showed the automatic roller system in complete operation. From
+that time the roller system made great progress. By 1885 many of the
+leading British millers had installed full roller plants, and in the
+succeeding ten years small roller plants were installed in many country
+mills. For a time there was a transition stage in which there was in
+operation a number of so-called "combined" plants, that is to say, mills
+in which the wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the
+middlings were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out
+of being.
+
+Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably the best
+fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear from comparison
+with their American competitors. It is true that American millers were
+rather quicker to copy Hungarian milling methods so far as gradual
+reduction was concerned. But from about 1880 the British miller was
+quite awake to his position and was straining every nerve to provide
+himself with a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has
+often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world. This is
+true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always command the exact
+kind of wheat he requires at the price required to meet foreign
+competition. Therein he is at a disadvantage. But engineers have done
+their best to meet this weak point, and by their assistance he is able
+to compete under almost all conditions with the millers of the whole
+world.
+
+_Processes of Milling._--Fully to appreciate the various processes of
+modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the wheat as
+delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and even more
+objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many light grains and
+seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient for the miller to
+be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most approved principles; he
+must also have at command the means of freeing it from foreign
+substances, and further of "conditioning" it, should it be damp or over
+dry and harsh. Again, his operations must be conducted with reference to
+the structure of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a
+seed, the actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body
+which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with the
+plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in roller milling
+easily separated from the rest of the berry, being flattened instead of
+crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted from the stock. The germ
+contains a good deal of fatty matter, which, if allowed to remain, would
+not increase the keeping qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish
+five skins on the berry--epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and
+embryous membrane--but for practical purposes the number of integuments
+may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the outer and
+second skins together, which are largely composed of woody fibre; it
+contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but although these are made up
+of a certain proportion of proteids, on account of the discolouring and
+diastasic action of the cerealin in flour they are best eliminated. The
+endosperm, or floury kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of
+starch granules which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a
+net. This network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes
+are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are usually finer
+and more dense near the husk than in the interior of the kernel. This
+glutinous portion is of great importance to the baker because on its
+quantity and quality depends the "strength" or rising power of the
+flour, and the aim of modern roller milling is to retain it as
+completely as possible, a matter of some difficulty owing to its close
+adherence to the husk, especially in the richest wheats. Another organ
+of the wheat berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the
+miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the berry
+with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the food which
+the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up the crease of the
+berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being protected on the outer
+side by the first and having the third or inner skin on its other side.
+A good deal of the matters filtered by the placenta are mineral in their
+nature, and such portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This
+is the matter which millers call "crease dirt." It is highly
+discolouring to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end
+of the berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs
+are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture. They
+have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See also WHEAT.)
+
+  In the old "flat" or "low" milling the object was to grind as
+  perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the
+  grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and
+  outer skins constituting the bran. In "high" milling, on the other
+  hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim
+  being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the
+  wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or
+  "breaking" part of the process. It is impossible altogether to avoid
+  the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and worked
+  break-rolls will make as little as 15% of "break-flour," which is of
+  less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and also because it
+  is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which adhere more
+  readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, sometimes called Graham
+  flour, consists of the entire grain ground up to a uniform mass.
+
+
+    Dry cleaning.
+
+  Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good
+  milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department of the
+  mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery almost equal in
+  range and variety to that in the mill itself. The wheat, drawn by an
+  elevator from the barge, or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a
+  machine known as a warehouse separator. This apparatus accomplishes
+  its work by means of flat sieves, some of which will be of much
+  coarser mesh than others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which
+  is a more delicate task than might appear. The warehouse separator
+  serves to free dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth,
+  stones, straws and sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize,
+  oats and barley. Great care has to be exercised in all operations of
+  the screen house lest wheat should pass away with the screenings.
+  Besides the warehouse separator, which is made in different types and
+  sizes, grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and
+  barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders
+  are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch seeds
+  which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or oats,
+  which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be followed by
+  machines known as scourers, the function of which is to free the wheat
+  from adherent impurities. These machines are of different types, but
+  all depend on percussive action. A vertical scourer consists of a
+  number of steel or iron beaters attached to a vertical spindle which
+  revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated casing, the whole being
+  fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers with horizontal spindles
+  are also in great favour. Not every wheat is suitable for scouring,
+  but some wheats are so mingled with impurities that a severe action
+  between the beaters and the perforated case is absolutely necessary.
+  The most efficient scourer is that which frees the wheat from the
+  greatest amount of impurity with a minimum of abrasion. The beaters
+  should be adjustable to suit different kinds of wheat. Scourers are
+  followed by brush machines which are similar to the last and are of
+  three distinct types: solid, divided and cone brushes. In the solid
+  variety the brush surface is continuous around the circumference of a
+  revolving cylinder; in divided brushes there is often a set of beaters
+  or bars covered with brush but leaving intermediate spaces; while the
+  cone brush consists of beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones
+  around a vertical spindle. The object of all these brushes, the
+  cylinder containing them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to
+  polish the wheat and remove adhering impurities which the percussive
+  action of the scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the
+  beard or fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the
+  miller must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and
+  unnecessarily abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his
+  flour, the triturated bran breaking under the rolls and producing
+  powder which will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic
+  fragments as nails, pieces of wire, &c., magnets are used. These may
+  either be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at
+  the head of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates
+  set at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to
+  place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they
+  should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might
+  otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves,
+  and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also be made
+  of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling value of
+  the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same, though
+  details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for a given
+  weight of grain. As soon as the receiving hopper has poured through a
+  valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at one end of a beam
+  scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the weight hung at the
+  other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is automatically cut off and
+  the skip is discharged, automatically returning to take another
+  charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded on a dial. In this way
+  a record can be kept of the gross weight of the uncleaned wheat
+  entering the warehouse and of the net weight of the cleaned wheat. The
+  difference between the two weighings will, of course, represent the
+  loss by cleaning. The percentage of flour obtained from a given wheat
+  can be ascertained in the mill itself. In practice the second weigher
+  is placed just before the first break.
+
+
+    Wet cleaning and conditioning.
+
+  The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the close
+  of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of England
+  some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said that certain wheats
+  are washed to free them from extraneous matters such as adherent earth
+  and similar impurities which could not be removed by dry cleaning
+  without undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and hard
+  Russians, and these require not only washing but also conditioning, by
+  which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With another
+  class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians, spring
+  Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Californians and the
+  harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by heat is also
+  desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the moisture
+  penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the kernel. In a
+  third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many kinds of
+  Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally admitted that
+  while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from the
+  application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class must
+  be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing machines is
+  to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign matters are
+  washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off in the waste
+  water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archimedean worm
+  conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizontally or
+  vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving in a tank
+  partly filled with water. Another function of washing machines is to
+  separate stones of the same size which are found in several varieties
+  of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing a current of water
+  as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not strong enough to
+  carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity than wheat. This
+  current may be led up an inclined worm or may flow horizontally over a
+  revolving tray. The washer is followed by a whizzer, which is an
+  apparatus intended to free the berry by purely mechanical means from
+  superfluous moisture. The typical whizzer is a vertical column fed at
+  the bottom and delivering at the top. The wet wheat ascends by
+  centrifugal force in a spiral direction round the column to the top,
+  and by the time it is discharged from the spout at the top it has
+  thrown off from its outer skin almost all its moisture, the water
+  escaping through the perforated cover of the machine. But there still
+  remains a certain amount of water which has penetrated the integuments
+  more or less deeply, and to condition the berry it is treated by a
+  combination of hot and cold air. The wheat is passed between
+  perforated metal plates and subjected to a draught first of hot and
+  then of cold air. The perforated plates are usually built in the shape
+  of a column, or leg as it is often called, and this is provided with
+  two air chambers, an upper one serving as a reservoir for hot, and the
+  lower for cold air. The air from both chambers is discharged by
+  pressure through the descending layers of wheat, which should not be
+  more than an inch thick; the air is drawn in by a steel-plate fan,
+  which is often provided with a divided casing, one side being used for
+  cold, and the other for hot air. Coupled with the hot air side is a
+  heater consisting of a series of circulating steam-heated pipes. The
+  temperature of the heated air can be regulated by the supply of steam
+  to the heater. This process of washing and conditioning, one of the
+  most important in a flour mill, is characteristically British; millers
+  have to deal with wheats of the most varied nature, and one object of
+  conditioning is to bring hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as
+  nearly as possible to a common standard of condition before being
+  milled. Wheat is sometimes washed to toughen the bran, an end which
+  can also be attained by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes
+  along an inclined worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass
+  wheat through a heated cylinder, while again another process known as
+  steaming consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a
+  metal hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to
+  warm and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but
+  these processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and
+  conditioning plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long
+  immersion in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and
+  drying are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard
+  wheats already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer
+  and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this
+  necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the
+  softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds is
+  desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately
+  and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters
+  the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing. It is
+  claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are
+  positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably
+  true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when
+  native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant and
+  cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be an
+  excellent substitute.
+
+
+    Effect of damp.
+
+  Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during harvest
+  do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a question of
+  the amount of moisture absorbed. But it must be remembered that it is
+  not so much the water itself which degrades the constituents of the
+  wheat (starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness
+  produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for damp
+  wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by kiln or
+  steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120 deg. F., until the moisture
+  has been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from wheat
+  so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound. The practice
+  of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before the roller
+  milling period it was found that only flour which had been dried (in a
+  kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially when the
+  vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted that in the
+  days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to produce good
+  keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up and triturated in one
+  operation, the flour necessarily contained a large proportion of
+  branny particles in which cerealin, an active diastasic constituent,
+  was present in very sensible proportions. Again, the elimination of
+  the germ by the roller process is favourable to the production of a
+  sounder flour, because the germ contains a large amount of oleaginous
+  matter and has a strong diastasic action on imperfectly matured
+  starches. The tendency of flours containing germ to become rancid is
+  well marked. During the South African War of 1899-1902 the British
+  army supply department had a practical proof of the diastasic action
+  of branny particles in flour. Soldiers' bread is not usually of white
+  colour, and the military authorities not unnaturally believed that
+  comparatively low-grade flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for
+  use in the field bakeries. But in the climate of South Africa flour of
+  this description soon developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the
+  supply department gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and
+  it is understood that the most suitable flour proved to be certain
+  patents milled in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not
+  only did they contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but
+  they were also the driest that could be found.
+
+
+    Break-rolls.
+
+  After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into
+  increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or "breaks." In the earlier
+  years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks than is now
+  the case. The first pair of break-rolls used to be called the
+  splitting rolls, because their function was supposed to be to split
+  the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as to give the miller an
+  opportunity of removing the dirt between the two lobes of the berry by
+  means of a brush machine. The dirt was in many cases no more than the
+  placenta already described, which shrivelling up took, like all
+  vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat split along the crease was not,
+  however, achieved in more than 10% of the berries so treated. Where
+  such rolls are still in use they are really serving as a sort of
+  adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system. Four or five breaks are now
+  thought sufficient, but three breaks are not recommended, except in
+  very short systems for small country mills. Rolls are now used up to
+  60 in. in length, though in one of the most approved systems they
+  never exceed 40 in.; they are made of chilled iron, and for the
+  breaking of wheat are provided with grooving cut at a slight twist,
+  the spiral averaging 1/4 in. to the foot length, though for the last
+  set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran, the spiral is sometimes
+  increased to 1/2 in. per foot. The grooves should have sharp edges
+  because they do better work than when blunt, giving larger semolina
+  and middlings, with bran adherent in big flakes; small middlings, that
+  is, little pieces of the endosperm torn away by blunt grooves, and
+  comminuted bran, make the production of good class flour almost
+  impossible; cut bran, moreover, brings less money. The break-rolls
+  should never work by pressure, but nip the material fed between them
+  at a given point; to cut or shear, not to flatten and crush, is their
+  function. Rolls may be set either horizontally or vertically; an
+  oblique setting has also come into favour. The feed is of the utmost
+  importance to the correct working of a roller mill. The material
+  should be fed in an even stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of
+  the roll uncovered. The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal
+  speeds, 2-1/2 to 1 being the usual ratio on the three first breaks,
+  while the last break is often speeded at 3 to 1 or 3-1/2 to 1; in one
+  of the oblique mills the difference is obtained by making the diameter
+  of one roll 13 and of the other 10 in. and running them at equal
+  speed. For break-rolls up to 36 in. in length 9 in. is the usual
+  diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the standard. To do good work
+  rolls must run in perfect parallelism; otherwise some parts of the
+  material will pass untouched, while others will be treated too
+  severely.
+
+
+    Scalpers.
+
+  The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known as
+  scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products for
+  further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving reels or flat
+  sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of scalper on account of its
+  gentle action. Scalping requires a separating and sifting, not a
+  scouring action. The break products are usually separated on a sieve
+  covered with wire or perforated zinc plates. Generally speaking, two
+  sieves are in one frame and are run at a slight incline. The throughs
+  of the top sieve fall on the sieve below, while the rejections or
+  overtails of the first sieve are fed to the next break. The
+  "throughs," or what has passed this sieve, are graded by the next
+  sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the throughs may be
+  freed from what flour adheres to them by a centrifugal dressing
+  machine and then treated by another purifier. A form of scalper which
+  has come into general use on the continent of Europe, and to a lesser
+  extent in Great Britain and America, is known as the plansifter. This
+  machine, of Hungarian origin, is simply a collection of superimposed
+  flat sieves in one box, and will scalp or sort out any kind of break
+  stock very efficiently. A system of grading the tailings, that is, the
+  rejections of the scalpers, introduced by James Harrison Carter
+  (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known as pneumatic sorting. Its object was
+  to supplement the work of the scalpers by classifying the tailings by
+  means of air-currents. To this end each scalper was followed by a
+  machine arranged somewhat like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a
+  current of air drawn through the casing of the sorter allowed the
+  heaviest and best material to drop down straight, while the lighter
+  stuff was deposited in one or other of further compartments formed by
+  obliquely placed adjustable cant boards. So searching was this
+  grading, that from the first sorter of a four-break plant four
+  separations would be obtained, the first going to the second break,
+  the second joining the first separation from the second sorter and
+  being fed to the third break, while the third went with the best
+  separation of the third sorter to the fourth break, and the last
+  separation from all the sorters went straight into the bran sack. The
+  work of the break-rolls was greatly simplified and reduced by this
+  sorting process, as each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that
+  pair of break-rollers for which it was suitable, instead of all the
+  material being run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and
+  thereby being cut up with the necessary result of increasing the
+  production of small bran.
+
+
+    Purifiers.
+
+  The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers have
+  lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the semolina and
+  middlings as much impure matter as possible, that those products may
+  be pure, as millers say, for reduction to flour by the smooth rolls.
+  The purifiers used in British mills take advantage of the fact that
+  the more valuable portions of the wheat berry are heavier than the
+  less valuable particles, such as bran and fibrous bodies, and a
+  current of air is employed to weigh these fragments of the wheat berry
+  as in a balance and to separate them while they pass over a
+  silk-covered sieve. To this end the semolina or middlings are fed on a
+  sieve vibrated by an eccentric and set at a slight downward angle.
+  This sieve is installed in an air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber
+  with glass windows on either side, through which the process of
+  purifying can be watched. Upwards through this sieve a fan constantly
+  draws a current of air, which, raising the stock upwards, allows the
+  heavier and better material to remain below while the lighter
+  particles are lifted off and fall on side platforms or channels,
+  whence they are carried forward and delivered separately. The good
+  material drops through the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a
+  worm. It is usual to clothe the sieve in sections with several
+  different meshes of silk so that stock of almost identical value, but
+  differing size, may be treated with uniform accuracy. In good
+  purifiers the strength of the current can be regulated at will in each
+  section. The tailings of a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of
+  the feed. The clothing of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to
+  the clothing of the preceding machines. Repurification and even
+  tertiary purification may be necessary under certain conditions. In
+  Hungary and other parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use.
+  Here the material is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle,
+  while an air-current is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve
+  may be arranged a series of inclined boards, the position of which can
+  be varied as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist
+  the current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried
+  off to further divisions.
+
+
+    Smooth rolls.
+
+  From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may require
+  other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made into
+  flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise great care and
+  discretion. Many of the remarks already made in regard to break-rolls
+  apply to smooth rolls, notably in respect of parallelism. But instead
+  of a cutting action, the smooth rolls press the material fed to them
+  into flour. This pressure, however, must be applied with great
+  discrimination, large semolina with impurities attached requiring
+  quite different treatment from that called for by small pure
+  middlings. The pressure on the stock must be just sufficient and no
+  more. Reduction rolls are usually run at a differential speed of about
+  2 to 3. The feed must be carefully graded, because to pass stock of
+  varying size through a pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good
+  work. Scratch rolls very finely grooved are used for cracking impure
+  semolina or for reducing the tailings of purifiers. The latter often
+  hold fragments of bran, which are best detached by rolls grooved about
+  36 to the inch and run at a differential of 3 to 1. The reduction
+  requires even more roll surface than the break system. To do
+  first-class work a mill should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the
+  breaks and 50 in. on the reduction for each sack of 280 lb. of flour
+  per hour. Many engineers consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch
+  and smooth rolls not too much.
+
+
+    Dressing.
+
+  The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth rolls
+  is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist of a
+  slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal shaft on which are
+  keyed a number of iron beaters that run at a speed of about 200
+  revolutions a minute, and fling the feed against the silk clothing of
+  the cylinder. What goes through the silk is collected by a worm
+  conveyor at the bottom of the machine. Most centrifugals have
+  so-called "cut-off" sheets, with internal divisions in the tail end;
+  these are intended to separate some intermediate products, which,
+  having been freed from floury particles, are treated on some other
+  machine, such as a pair of rolls either direct or after a purifier.
+  The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient flour separator, but the
+  plansifters already mentioned are also good flour-dressers, especially
+  in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have no centrifugals, except
+  one or two at the tail end where the material gets more sticky and
+  requires more severe treatment.
+
+  The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to
+  73% of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very
+  small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various
+  grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have been
+  found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In millstone milling
+  the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, but a certain
+  proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of the flour
+  yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of the
+  kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class patents may
+  be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight grade, i.e. a
+  flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance as can be won
+  from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale for rich offals,
+  that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another there may be
+  no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general principles of
+  roller milling as given above hold good all over the country, yet in
+  practice the work of each mill is varied more or less to suit the
+  peculiarities of the local trade.
+
+
+    Bleaching of flour.
+
+  Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J.J.E. Poutet, discovered
+  that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some fluid and
+  semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow tinge and converting
+  a considerable portion of their substance into a white solid. The
+  importance of this discovery, when the physical constitution of wheat
+  is considered, is obvious, but it was years before any attempt was
+  made to bleach flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have
+  been made on the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a
+  process was patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and
+  about 1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of
+  electrolysed sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating
+  grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was proposed
+  to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric currents.
+  In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour by means of
+  fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another inventor proposed
+  to employ the Rontgen rays for the same purpose. In 1898 Emile Frichot
+  took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized air for
+  flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by J. & S.
+  Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve greatly if
+  kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the invention it
+  covered was to bring about this improvement or conditioning not only
+  immediately after grinding, but also to a greater extent than can be
+  effected by keeping. The process consisted in subjecting the flour to
+  the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing medium; the inventors
+  preferred air carrying a minute quantity of nitric acid or peroxide of
+  nitrogen, but they did not confine themselves to those compounds,
+  having found that chlorine, bromine and other substances capable of
+  liberating oxygen were also more or less efficacious. They claimed
+  that while exercising no deleterious action their treatment made the
+  flour whiter, improved its baking qualities, and rendered it less
+  liable to be attacked by mites or other organisms. Under the patent,
+  No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J.N. Alsop of Kentucky the flour was
+  treated with atmospheric air which had been subjected to the action of
+  an arc or flaming discharge of electricity, with the purpose of
+  purifying it and improving its nutritious properties. The Andrews and
+  Alsop patents became the objects of extended litigation in the English
+  courts, and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was
+  substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though produced
+  electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the Alsop
+  process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various other
+  patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken out.
+       (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOURENS, GUSTAVE (1838-1871), French revolutionist and writer, a son of
+J.P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist, was born at Paris on the
+4th of August 1838. In 1863 he undertook for his father a course of
+lectures at the College de France, the subject of which was the history
+of mankind. His theories as to the manifold origin of the human race,
+however, gave offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from
+delivering a second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published
+his lectures under the title of _Histoire de l'homme_ (1863); he next
+visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan insurrection
+of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article of his in the
+_Popolo d'Italia_ caused his arrest and imprisonment, and finally,
+having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a duel with Paul de
+Cassagnac, editor of the _Pays_. In Paris he devoted his pen to the
+cause of republicanism, and at length, having failed in an attempt to
+organize a revolution at Belleville on the 7th of February 1870, found
+himself compelled to flee from France. Returning to Paris on the
+downfall of Napoleon, he soon placed himself at the head of a body of
+500 tirailleurs. On account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was
+taken prisoner at Creteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional
+government, and confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was
+released by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of March
+he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of the commune by the
+20th arrondissement, and was named colonel. He was one of the most
+active leaders of the insurrection, and in a sortie against the
+Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd of April was killed in a
+hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near Malmaison. Besides his _Science de
+l'homme_ (Paris, 1869), Gustave Flourens was the author of numerous
+fugitive pamphlets.
+
+  See C. Proles, _Les Hommes de la revolution de 1871_ (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE (1794-1867), French physiologist, was born
+at Maureilhan, near Beziers, in the department of Herault, on the 15th
+of April 1794. At the age of fifteen he began the study of medicine at
+Montpellier, where in 1823 he received the degree of doctor. In the
+following year he repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from
+A.P. de Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him
+kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens engaged
+in physiological research, occasionally contributing to literary
+publications; and in 1821, at the Athenee there, he gave a course of
+lectures on the physiological theory of the sensations, which attracted
+much attention amongst men of science. His paper entitled _Recherches
+experimentales sur les proprietes et les fonctions du systeme nerveux
+dans les animaux vertebres_, in which he, from experimental evidence,
+sought to assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora
+quadrigemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory
+report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences in 1822. He
+was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a course of lectures on
+natural history at the College de France, and in the same year became,
+in succession to L.A.G. Bosc, a member of the Institute, in the division
+"Economie rurale." In 1830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on
+human anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the post
+of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship of
+comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the Jardin the same
+year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the dying request of Cuvier,
+was appointed a perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences; and in
+1838 he was returned as a deputy for the arrondissement of Beziers. In
+1840 he was elected, in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J.F.
+Michaud at the French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of
+the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France. In March
+1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy of Sciences to the
+anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals. On the revolution of 1848
+he withdrew completely from political life; and in 1855 he accepted the
+professorship of natural history at the College de France. He died at
+Montgeron, near Paris, on the 6th of December 1867.
+
+  Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens
+  published--_Essai sur quelques points de la doctrine de la revulsion
+  et de la derivation_ (Montpellier, 1813); _Experiences sur le systeme
+  nerveux_ (Paris, 1825); _Cours sur la generation, l'ovologie, et
+  l'embryologie_ (1836); _Analyse raisonnee des travaux de G. Cuvier_
+  (1841); _Recherches sur le developpement des os et des dents_ (1842);
+  _Anatomie generale de la peau et des membranes muqueuses_ (1843);
+  _Buffon, histoire de ses travaux et de ses idees_ (1844); _Fontenelle,
+  ou de la philosophie moderne relativement aux sciences physiques_
+  (1847); _Theorie experimentale de la formation des os_ (1847);
+  _Oeuvres completes de Buffon_ (1853); _De la longevite humaine et de
+  la quantite de vie sur le globe_ (1854), numerous editions; _Histoire
+  de la decouverte de la circulation du sang_ (1854); _Cours de
+  physiologie comparee_ (1856); _Recueil des eloges historiques_ (1856);
+  _De la vie et de l'intelligence_ (1858); _De la raison, du genie, et
+  de la folie_ (1861); _Ontologie naturelle_ (1861); _Examen du livre de
+  M. Darwin sur l'Origine des Especes_ (1864). For a list of his papers
+  see the Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_.
+
+
+
+
+FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-1899), English biologist, was born at
+Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November 1831. Choosing medicine as his
+profession, he began his studies at University College, London, where he
+showed special aptitude for physiology and comparative anatomy and took
+his M.B. degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and
+went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal with
+four clasps. On his return to England he became a member of the surgical
+staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in 1861 succeeded J.T.
+Quekett as curator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons of England. In 1870 he also became Hunterian professor, and in
+1884, on the death of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the
+directorship of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died
+in London on the 1st of July 1899. He made valuable contributions to
+structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete and accurate
+measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls, and as a comparative
+anatomist he ranked high, devoting himself especially to the study of
+the mammalia. He was also a leading authority on the arrangement of
+museums. The greater part of his life was spent in their administration,
+and in consequence he held very decided views as to the principles upon
+which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the importance
+of distinguishing between collections intended for the use of
+specialists and those designed for the instruction of the general
+public, pointing out that it was as futile to present to the former a
+number of merely typical forms as to provide the latter with a long
+series of specimens differing only in the most minute details. His
+ideas, which were largely and successfully applied to the museums of
+which he had charge, gained wide approval, and their influence entitles
+him to be looked upon as a reformer who did much to improve the methods
+of museum arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original
+papers, he was the author of _An Introduction to the Osteology of the
+Mammalia_ (1870); _Fashion in Deformity_ (1881); _The Horse: a Study in
+Natural History_ (1890); _Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living
+and Extinct_ (1891); _Essays on Museums and other Subjects_ (1898). He
+also wrote many articles for the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+FLOWER (Lat. _flos_, _floris_; Fr. _fleur_), a term popularly used for
+the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the fairest,
+choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various technical
+senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical interest. It is
+impossible to give a rigid botanical definition of the term "flower."
+The flower is a characteristic feature of the highest group of the plant
+kingdom--the flowering plants (Phanerogams)--and is the name given to
+the association of organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are
+concerned with the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical
+works the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta). As
+the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized by the
+pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are two, viz. the
+pollen-bearer or _stamen_ and the ovule-bearer or _carpel_. These are
+with few exceptions foliar structures, known in comparative morphology
+as sporophylls, because they bear the spores, namely, the microspores or
+pollen-grains which are developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs,
+and the megaspore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.
+
+In Gymnosperms (q.v.), which represent the more primitive type of
+seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally associated,
+often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which the term "flower"
+has been applied. But there is considerable difference of opinion as to
+the relation between these cones and the more definite and elaborate
+structure known as the flower in the higher group of seed-plants--the
+Angiosperms (q.v.)--and it is to this more definite structure that we
+generally refer in using the term "flower."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Proliferous Rose.
+
+  s, Sepals transformed into leaves.
+
+  p, Petals multiplied at the expense of the stamens, which are reduced
+  in number.
+
+  c, Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels.
+
+  a, Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex.]
+
+Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots arise from
+leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance to each other as
+regards the arrangement and the development of their parts; and it
+sometimes happens, from injury and other causes, that the part of the
+axis which, in ordinary cases, would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to
+a flower-bud. A flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power
+of extension by the continuous development of its apex. In this respect
+it differs from a leaf-bud. In some cases, however, of monstrosity,
+especially seen in the rose (fig. 1), the central part is prolonged, and
+bears leaves or flowers. In such cases the flowers, so far as their
+functional capabilities are concerned, are usually abortive. This
+phenomenon is known as proliferation of the floral axis.
+
+Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil of leaves, which
+are called _bracts_.
+
+
+  Bracts.
+
+The term _bract_ is properly applied to the leaf from which the primary
+floral axis, whether simple or branched, arises, while the leaves which
+arise on the axis between the bract and the outer envelope of the flower
+are _bracteoles_ or _bractlets_. Bracts sometimes do not differ from the
+ordinary leaves, as in _Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca_, _Anagallis_ and
+_Ajuga_. In general as regards their form and appearance they differ
+from ordinary leaves, the difference being greater in the upper than in
+the lower branches of an inflorescence. They are distinguished by their
+position at the base of the flower or flower-stalk. Their arrangement is
+similar to that of the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are
+often applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with it,
+as in the order Malvaceae and species of _Dianthus_ and winter aconite
+(_Eranthis_), where they have received the name of _epicalyx_ or
+_calyculus_. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present, due to the
+formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In many cases bracts
+act as protective organs, within or beneath which the young flowers are
+concealed in their earliest stage of growth.
+
+When bracts become coloured, as in _Amherstia nobilis_, _Euphorbia
+splendens_, _Erica elegans_ and _Salvia splendens_, they may be mistaken
+for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes mere scales or threads, and
+at other times are undeveloped, giving rise to the _ebracteate_
+inflorescence of Cruciferae and some Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are
+empty, no flower-buds being produced in their axil. A series of empty
+coloured bracts terminates the inflorescence of _Salvia Horminum_. The
+smaller bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a
+branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus
+anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally
+persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the peduncles, but
+more usually they are deciduous, falling off early by an articulation.
+In some instances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorporated
+with other organs. Thus, the cones of firs and the stroboli of the hop
+are composed of a series of spirally arranged bracts covering fertile
+flowers; and the scales on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same
+nature. At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl
+of bracts often exists, called a _general involucre_, and at the base of
+the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl called
+an _involucel_ or _partial involucre_. In some instances, as in
+fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an involucel;
+while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15), neither involucre
+nor involucel is developed. In Compositae the name involucre is applied
+to the bracts surrounding the head of flowers (fig. 2, i), as in
+marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke. This involucre is frequently
+composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or of
+different forms and lengths, and often lie over each other in an
+imbricated manner. The leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and
+in teazel (_Dipsacus_), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or
+verticillate bracts generally remain separate (_polyphyllous_), but may
+be united by cohesion (_gamophyllous_), as in many species of
+_Bupleurum_ and in _Lavatera_. In Compositae besides the involucre there
+are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each flower, and
+in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each flower. These structures
+are of the nature of an epicalyx. In the acorn the _cupule_ or cup (fig.
+3) is formed by a growing upwards of the flower-stalk immediately
+beneath the flower, upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it
+is of the nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of
+the hazel-nut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head (capitulum) of Marigold (_Calendula_),
+showing a congeries of flowers, enclosed by rows of bracts, i, at the
+base, which are collectively called an involucre.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 3.--Cupule of _Quercus Aegilops_. cp, Cupule; gl, fruit. (After
+Duchartre.)]
+
+When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several rows, it
+often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, that is, are
+empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated scales or bracts
+are in this condition, and it is from the membranous white scales or
+bracts (_paleae_) forming the choke attached to the edible receptacle
+that the flowers are produced. The sterile bracts of the daisy
+occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to the hen-and-chickens
+daisy. In place of developing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain
+circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous plants, produce
+leaf-buds.
+
+A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called a _spathe_.
+It is common among Monocotyledons, as _Narcissus_ (fig. 4), snow-flake,
+_Arum_ and palms. In some palms it is 20 ft. long, and encloses 200,000
+flowers. It is often associated with that form of inflorescence termed
+the _spadix_, and may be coloured, as in _Anthurium_, or white, as in
+arum lily (_Richardia aethiopica_). When the spadix is compound or
+branching, as in palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate
+parts of the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their
+young state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down
+in a withered form, as in some palms, _Typha_ and _Pothos_. In grasses
+the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile bracts (fig. 5,
+gl); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs of reproduction. Bracts
+are frequently changed into complete leaves. This change is called
+_phyllody_ of bracts, and is seen in species of _Plantago_, especially
+in the variety of _Plantago media_, called the rose-plantain in gardens,
+where the bracts become leafy and form a rosette round the flowering
+axis. Similar changes occur in _Plantago major_, _P. lanceolata_, _Ajuga
+reptans_, dandelion, daisy, dahlia and in umbelliferous plants. The
+conversion of bracts into stamens (_staminody_ of bracts) has been
+observed in the case of _Abies excelsa_. A lengthening of the axis of
+the female strobilus of Coniferae is not of infrequent occurrence in
+_Cryptomeria japonica_, larch (_Larix europaea_), &c., and this is
+usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and
+sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of
+the scales.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Flowers of Narcissus (_Narcissus Tazetta_)
+bursting from a sheathing bract b.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of Oat (_Avena sativa_) laid open,
+showing the sterile bracts gl, gl, or empty glumes; g, the fertile or
+floral glume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; fs, an abortive flower.]
+
+The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of the
+floral axis, is called the _inflorescence_. The primary axis of the
+inflorescence is sometimes called the _rachis_; its branches, whether
+terminal or lateral, which form the stalks supporting flowers or
+clusters of flowers, are _peduncles_, and if small branches are given
+off by it, they are called _pedicels_. A flower having a stalk is called
+_pedunculate_ or _pedicellate_; one having no stalk is _sessile_. In
+describing a branching inflorescence, it is common to speak of the
+rachis as the _primary_ floral axis, its branches as the _secondary_
+floral axes, their divisions as the _tertiary_ floral axes, and so on;
+thus avoiding any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms
+_rachis_, _peduncle_ and _pedicel_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Peduncle of Fig (_Ficus Carica_), ending in a
+hollow receptacle, enclosing numerous male and female flowers.]
+
+The _peduncle_ is simple, bearing a single flower, as in primrose; or
+branched, as in London-pride. It is sometimes succulent, as in the
+cashew, in which it forms the large coloured expansion supporting the
+nut; spiral, as in _Cyclamen_ and _Vallisneria_; or spiny, as in
+_Alyssum spinosum_. When the peduncle proceeds from radical leaves, that
+is, from an axis which is so shortened as to bring the leaves close
+together in the form of a cluster, as in the primrose, auricula or
+hyacinth, it is termed a _scape_. The floral axis may be shortened,
+assuming a flattened, convex or concave form, and bearing numerous
+flowers, as in the artichoke, daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis
+sometimes appears as if formed by several peduncles united together,
+constituting a fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb, in which the flowers
+form a peculiar crest at the apex of the flattened peduncles. Adhesions
+occasionally take place between the peduncle and the bracts or leaves of
+the plant, as in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The adhesion of the peduncles
+to the stem accounts for the extra-axillary position of flowers, as in
+many Solanaceae. When this union extends for a considerable length along
+the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where the
+peduncle becomes free and the leaf whence it originated, and it may be
+difficult to trace the connexion. The peduncle occasionally becomes
+abortive, and in place of bearing a flower, is transformed into a
+tendril; at other times it is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently to
+form the lower part of the outer whorl of floral leaves as in
+_Eschscholtzia_. The termination of the peduncle, or the part on which
+the whorls of the flower are arranged, is called the _thalamus_, _torus_
+or _receptacle_.
+
+[Illustration: (From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by
+permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.)
+
+FIG. 7.--Inflorescence of the Lime (_Tilia platyphyllos_) (nat. size).
+
+  a, Branch.
+
+  b, Petiole with axillary bud. Attached to the peduncle is the bract
+  (h).
+
+  k, Calyx.
+
+  c, Corolla.
+
+  s, Stamens.
+
+  f, Ovary.
+
+  kn, Flower-bud.]
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 8.--Raceme of _Linaria striata_. d, bract.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Head of flowers (capitulum) of _Scabiosa
+atropurpurea_. The inflorescence is simple and indeterminate, and the
+expansion of the flowers centripetal, those at the circumference opening
+first.]
+
+
+  Inflorescence.
+
+There are two distinct types of inflorescence--one in which the flowers
+arise as lateral shoots from a primary axis, which goes on elongating,
+and the lateral shoots never exceed in their development the length of
+the primary axis beyond their point of origin. The flowers are thus
+always _axillary_. Exceptions, such as in cruciferous plants, are due to
+the non-appearance of the bracts. In the other type the primary axis
+terminates in a single flower, but lateral axes are given off from the
+axils of the bracts, which again repeat the primary axis; the
+development of each lateral axis is stronger than that of the primary
+axis beyond its point of origin. The flowers produced in this
+inflorescence are thus _terminal_. The first kind of inflorescence is
+_indeterminate_, _indefinite_ or _axillary_. Here the axis is either
+elongated, producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first
+(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers expand
+first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus _centripetal_, that
+is, from base to apex, or from circumference to centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing
+determinate inflorescence.]
+
+The second kind of inflorescence is _determinate_, _definite_ or
+_terminal_. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary
+flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are
+produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the
+axis is shortened and flattened, producing a number of separate floral
+axes, the central one expanding first, while the others are developed in
+succession farther from the centre. The expansion of the flowers is in
+this case _centrifugal_, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to
+circumference. It is illustrated in fig. 10, _Ranunculus bulbosus_; a'
+is the primary axis swollen at the base in a bulb-like manner b, and
+with roots proceeding from it. From the leaves which are radical
+proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal flower f'. About the
+middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from which a secondary
+floral axis a" is produced, ending in a single flower f", less advanced
+than the flower f'. This secondary axis bears a leaf also, from which a
+tertiary floral axis a"' is produced, bearing an unexpanded solitary
+flower f"'. From this tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of
+formation. Here f' is the termination of the primary axis, and this
+flower expands first, while the other flowers are developed
+centrifugally on separate axes.
+
+A third series of inflorescences, termed _mixed_, may be recognized. In
+them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging to the opposite type
+from that of the branches, or vice versa. According to the mode and
+degree of development of the lateral shoots and also of the bracts,
+various forms of both inflorescences result.
+
+Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral shoot
+produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant ends in
+a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, as in
+_Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca minor_ and _Lysimachia nemorum_. The
+flower in this case is _solitary_, and the ordinary leaves become bracts
+by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their number, like that
+of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, varying with the vigour
+of the plant. Usually, however, the floral axis, arising from a more or
+less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending in a solitary flower, is
+prolonged, and bears numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles
+are produced, and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar
+way. Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very
+complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary peduncle or
+floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off pedicels, ending
+in single flowers, a _raceme_ is produced, as in currant, hyacinth and
+barberry. If the secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the
+raceme is branching, and forms a _panicle_, as in _Yucca gloriosa_. If
+in a raceme the lower flower-stalks are developed more strongly than the
+upper, and thus all the flowers are nearly on a level, a _corymb_ is
+formed, which may be simple, as in fig. 11, where the primary axis a'
+gives off secondary axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or
+branching, where the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are
+very short or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a _spike_ is
+produced, as in _Plantago_ and vervain (_Verbena officinalis_) (fig.
+12). If the spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig.
+13), it is an _amentum_ or _catkin_, hence such trees are called
+_amentiferous_; at other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous
+flowers, surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it
+constitutes a _spadix_, which may be simple, as in _Arum maculatum_
+(fig. 14), or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers
+only, and covered with scales, is a _strobilus_, as in the hop. In
+grasses there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small
+spikes, called _locustae_ or _spikelets_, which are either set closely
+along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by the
+branching of the central one; to the latter form the term panicle is
+applied.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 11.--Corymb of _Cerasus Mahaleb_, terminating an abortive branch,
+at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales, e. a',
+Primary axis; a", secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract in the axils
+of which the secondary axes arise.
+
+FIG. 12.--Spike of Vervain (_Verbena officinalis_), showing sessile
+flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the spike
+have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full bloom, and
+those at the top are only in bud.
+
+FIG. 13.--Amentum or catkin of Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), consisting of
+an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales, each of
+which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting
+beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating from the
+branch by an articulation.]
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 14.--Spadix of _Arum maculatum_. (After Wossidlo.) a, Female
+flowers; b, male flowers; c, hairs representing sterile flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Compound umbel of Common Dill (_Anethum
+graveolens_), having a primary umbel a, and secondary umbels b, without
+either involucre or involucel.]
+
+If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, it
+gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the axis is
+so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common point, and
+spread out as _radii_ of nearly equal length, each ending in a single
+flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, an _umbel_ is
+produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral axis a the secondary
+axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like manner, and end in small
+umbels b, which are called _partial umbels_ or _umbellules_. This
+inflorescence is seen in hemlock and other allied plants, which are
+hence called umbelliferous. If there are numerous flowers on a
+flattened, convex or slightly concave receptacle, having either very
+short pedicels or none, a _capitulum_ (head) is formed, as in
+dandelion, daisy and other composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious
+(fig. 9) and teazel. In the American button-bush the heads are globular,
+in some species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite
+plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold, they
+are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly hollowed, or
+convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle be developed upwards,
+the centre not developing, a concave receptacle is formed, which may
+partially or completely enclose a number of flowers that are generally
+unisexual. This gives rise to the peculiar inflorescence of _Dorstenia_,
+or to that of the fig (fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the
+inner surface of the hollow receptacle, and are provided with
+bracteoles. This inflorescence has been called a _hypanthodium_.
+
+Lastly, we have what are called _compound indefinite_ inflorescences. In
+these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally upon the primary
+axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which floral shoots arise which may
+have a centripetal arrangement similar to that on the mother shoot, or
+it may be different. Thus we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a
+racemose manner on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or
+compound raceme, as in _Astilbe_. In the same way we may have compound
+umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound spike,
+as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound
+capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens daisy. Again, there may be a
+raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a racemose
+manner, as in _Petasites_, a raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all
+the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition. In
+_Eryngium_ the shortening of the pedicels changes an umbel into a
+capitulum.
+
+The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is seen in
+_Anemone nemorosa_ and in gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_), where the
+axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers being produced upon
+the plant. This is a _solitary terminal_ inflorescence. If other flowers
+were produced, they would arise as lateral shoots from the bracts below
+the first-formed flower. The general name of _cyme_ is applied to the
+arrangement of a group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A
+_cymose_ inflorescence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis
+before terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral
+axes which repeat the process--the development being only limited by the
+vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus centrifugally developed.
+The cyme, according to its development, has been characterized as
+_biparous_ or _uniparous_. In fig. 16 the biparous cyme is represented
+in the flowering branch of _Cerastium_. Here the primary axis t ends in
+a flower, which has passed into the state of fruit. At its base two
+leaves are produced, in each of which arise secondary axes t' t', ending
+in single flowers, and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite
+leaves is produced, giving rise to tertiary axes t" t", ending in single
+flowers, and so on. The term _dichasium_ has also been applied to this
+form of cyme.
+
+In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial form of
+inflorescence is very general. In some members of the order, as
+_Dianthus barbatus_, _D. carthusianorum_, &c., in which the peduncles
+are short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal
+expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a contracted dichasium, and
+receives the name of _fascicle_. When the axes become very much
+shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the
+nature of the inflorescence can only be recognized by the order of
+opening of the flowers. In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle
+(_Lamium_), the flowers are produced in the axil of each of the foliage
+leaves of the plant, and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of
+flowers. But on examination it is found that there is a central flower
+expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring bearing
+solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal. The inflorescence
+is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers being sessile, or
+nearly so, and the clusters are called _verticillasters_ (fig. 17).
+Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium, owing to the
+exhaustion of the growing power of the plant, only one of the bracts
+gives origin to a new axis, the other remaining empty; thus the
+inflorescence becomes unilateral, and further development is arrested.
+In addition to the dichasial form there are others where more than two
+lateral axes are produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in
+turn produces numerous axes. To this form the terms _trichasial_ and
+_polychasial cyme_ have been applied; but these are now usually
+designated _cymose umbels_. They are well seen in some species of
+_Euphorbia_. Another term, _anthela_, has been used to distinguish such
+forms as occur in several species of _Luzula_ and _Juncus_, where
+numerous lateral axes arising from the primary axis grow very strongly
+and develop in an irregular manner.
+
+[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.)
+
+FIG. 16.--Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of _Cerastium collinum_;
+t-t"", successive axes. (After Duchartre.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle
+(_Lamium album_). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant,
+and produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called
+verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a
+centrifugal manner.]
+
+In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively developed
+one from the other, but the axis of each successive generation, instead
+of producing a pair of bracts, produces only one. The basal portion of
+the consecutive axes may become much thickened and arranged more or less
+in a straight line, and thus collectively form an apparent or false
+axis or _sympodium_, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In
+the true raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in
+succession a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as
+lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the floral
+axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but in the
+uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal portions of
+which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the opposite side of
+the axis to the bract from which it apparently arises (fig. 18). The
+bract is not, however, the one from which the axis terminating in the
+flower arises, but is a bract produced upon it, and gives origin in its
+axil to a new axis, the basal portion of which, constituting the next
+part of the false axis, occupies the angle between this bract and its
+parent axis--the bract from which the axis really does arise being
+situated lower down upon the same side of the axis with itself. The
+uniparous cyme presents two forms, the _scorpioid_ or _cicinal_ and the
+_helicoid_ or _bostrychoid_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 18.--Helicoid cyme of a species of _Alstroemeria_. a1, a2, a3, a4,
+&c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the
+corresponding bracts b2, b3, b4, &c., and ending in a flower f2, f3, f4,
+&c. The whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the
+internodes.
+
+FIG. 19.--Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (_Myosotis
+palustris_).
+
+FIG. 20.--Diagram of definite floral axes a, b, c, d, e, &c.
+
+FIG. 21.--Flowering stalk of Ragwort (_Senecio_). The flowers are in
+heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an
+indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other hand,
+taken collectively, expand centrifugally--the central one a first.]
+
+In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a double
+row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts when
+developed forming a second double row on the opposite side; the whole
+inflorescence usually curves on itself like a scorpion's tail, hence its
+name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic sketch of this arrangement. The
+false axis, a b c d, is formed by successive generations of unifloral
+axes, the flowers being arranged along one side alternately and in a
+double row; had the bracts been developed they would have formed a
+similar double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole
+inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence in
+the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid cymes.
+
+In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal
+portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in a double
+row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix round the false
+axis. In _Alstroemeria_, as represented in fig. 18, the axis a1 ends in
+a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. From the axil of this
+leaf, that is, between it and the primary axis a1 arises a secondary
+axis a2, ending in a flower f2, and producing a leaf about the middle.
+From the axil of this leaf a tertiary floral axis a3, ending in a flower
+f3, takes origin. In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows
+along one side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals,
+so as to form an elongated spiral round it.
+
+Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, but in
+_Streptocarpus polyanthus_ and in several calceolarias we probably have
+examples. Here there are _scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers_, each
+pair consisting of an older and a younger flower.
+
+
+  Mixed inflorescence.
+
+Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite and indefinite
+types are represented--_mixed_ inflorescences. Thus in Composite plants,
+such as hawk weeds (_Hieracia_) and ragworts (_Senecio_, fig. 21), the
+_heads_ of flowers, taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the
+terminal head first, while the _florets_, or small flowers on the
+receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference first. So
+also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (_Lamium_), the different whorls
+of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while the florets of the
+verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed character presents
+difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where the leaves, in place of
+retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and thus might lead to the
+supposition of the whole series of flowers being one inflorescence. In
+such cases the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled,
+according to circumstances. In _Saxifraga umbrosa_ (London-pride) and in
+the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; in
+sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a
+glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of dichasial cymes; a
+scorpioid cyme of capitula in _Vernonia scorpioides_. The so-called
+catkins of the birch are, in reality, spikes of contracted dichasial
+cymes. In the bell-flower (_Campanula_) there is a racemose uniparous
+cyme. In the privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_) there are numerous racemes of
+dichasia arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole
+inflorescence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and
+has been called a _thyrsus_.
+
+  TABULAR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCES
+
+  A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.
+      I. Flowers solitary, axillary. _Vinca_, _Veronica hederifolia_.
+     II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate.
+           1. Elongated form (Raceme), _Hyacinth_, _Laburnum_, _Currant_.
+                (Corymb), _Ornithogalum_.
+           2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), _Cowslip_,
+                _Astrantia_.
+    III. Flowers in groups, sessile.
+           1. Elongated form (Spike), _Plantago_.
+                    (Spikelet), _Grasses_.
+                    (Amentum, Catkin), _Willow_, _Hazel_.
+                    (Spadix) _Arum_, some _Palms_.
+                    (Strobilus), _Hop_.
+           2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), _Daisy_,
+                _Dandelion_, _Scabious_.
+     IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.
+           a. Compound Spike, _Rye-grass_.
+           b. Compound Spadix, _Palms_.
+           c. Compound Raceme, _Astilbe_.
+           d. Compound Umbel, _Hemlock_ and most _Umbelliferae_.
+           e. Raceme of Capitula, _Petasites_.
+           f. Raceme of Umbels, _Ivy_.
+  B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.
+      I. Flowers solitary, terminal. _Gentianella_, _Tulip_.
+     II. Flowers in Cymes.
+           1. Uniparous Cyme.
+                a. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).
+                    Elongated form, _Alstromeria_.
+                    Contracted form, _Witsenia corymbosa_.
+
+                b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows).
+                    Elongated form, _Forget-me-not_, _Symphytum_,
+                    _Henbane_.
+                   Contracted form, _Erodium_, _Alchemilla arvensis_.
+           2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5 chotomous
+                Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela).
+                a. Elongated form, _Cerastium_, _Stellaria_.
+                b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), _Dead-nettle_,
+                     _Pelargonium_.
+           3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. _Streptocarpus
+                polyanthus_, many _Calceolarias_.
+  C. Mixed Inflorescence.
+              Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, _Horse-chestnut_.
+              Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, _Vernonia scorpioides_.
+              Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, _Laurustinus_.
+              Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus),
+                 _Sea-pink_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 22.--Flower of _Sedum rubens_. s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c,
+carpels.
+
+FIG. 23.--Diagram of a completely symmetrical flower, consisting of four
+whorls, each of five parts, s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c,
+carpels.
+
+FIG. 24.--Monochlamydeous (apetalous) flower of Goosefoot
+(_Chenopodium_), consisting of a single perianth (calyx) of five parts,
+enclosing five stamens, which are opposite the divisions of the
+perianth, owing to the absence of the petals.
+
+FIG. 25.--Stamen, consisting of a filament (stalk) f and an anther a,
+containing the pollen p, which is discharged through slits in the two
+lobes of the anther.
+
+FIG. 26.--The pistil of Tobacco (_Nicotiana Tabacum_), consisting of the
+ovary o, containing ovules, the style s, and the capitate stigma g. The
+pistil is placed on the receptacle r, at the extremity of the peduncle.]
+
+
+  The flower.
+
+The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls (stamens
+and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes. The axis is
+usually very much contracted, no internodes being developed, and the
+portion bearing the floral leaves, termed the _thalamus_ or _torus_,
+frequently expands into a conical, flattened or hollowed expansion; at
+other times, though rarely, the internodes are developed and it is
+elongated. Upon this torus the parts of the flower are arranged in a
+crowded manner, usually forming a series of verticils, the parts of
+which alternate; but they are sometimes arranged spirally especially if
+the floral axis be elongated. In a typical flower, as in fig. 22, we
+recognize four distinct whorls of leaves: an outer whorl, the _calyx_ of
+_sepals_; within it, another whorl, the parts alternating with those of
+the outer whorl, the _corolla_ of _petals_; next a whorl of parts
+alternating with the parts of the corolla, the _androecium_ of
+_stamens_; and in the centre the _gynoecium_ of _carpels_. Fig. 23 is a
+diagrammatic representation of the arrangement of the parts of such a
+flower; it is known as a _floral diagram_. The flower is supposed to be
+cut transversely, and the parts of each whorl are distinguished by a
+different symbol. Of these whorls the two internal, forming the
+sporophylls, constitute the _essential_ organs of reproduction; the two
+outer whorls are the protective coverings or floral _envelopes_. The
+sepals are generally of a greenish colour; their function is mainly
+protective, shielding the more delicate internal organs before the
+flower opens. The petals are usually showy, and normally alternate with
+the sepals. Sometimes, as usually in monocotyledons, the calyx and
+corolla are similar; in such cases the term _perianth_, or _perigone_,
+is applied. Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily, hyacinth, we speak of the
+parts of the perianth, in place of calyx and corolla, although in these
+plants there is an outer whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner
+(corolla), of a similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of
+the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be _petaloid_,
+as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the appearance of sepals,
+then they are _sepaloid_, as in Juncaceae. In plants, as _Nymphaea
+alba_, where a spiral arrangement of the floral leaves occurs, it is not
+easy to say where the calyx ends and the corolla begins, as these two
+whorls pass insensibly into each other. When both calyx and corolla are
+present, the plants are _dichlamydeous_; when one only is present, the
+flower is termed _monochlamydeous_ or _apetalous_, having no petals
+(fig. 24). Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is _achlamydeous_,
+or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential organs,
+collectively termed the _androecium_, is composed of the
+microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or _stamens_. In their
+most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the _filament_ (fig.
+25, f), supporting at its summit the anther (a), consisting of the
+pollen-sacs which contain the powdery _pollen_ (p), the microspores,
+which is ultimately discharged therefrom. The _gynoecium_ or _pistil_ is
+the central portion of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It
+consists of one or more _carpels_ (megasporophylls), either separate
+(fig. 22, c) or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the
+pistil are the _ovary_ (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion
+enclosing the _ovules_ destined to become seeds, and the _stigma_ (g), a
+portion of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the
+pollen is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary,
+as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion called
+the _style_ (s). The androecium and gynoecium are not present in all
+flowers. When both are present the flower is hermaphrodite; and in
+descriptive botany such a flower is indicated by the symbol
+[female/male]. When only one of those organs is present the flower is
+_unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and is either male (_staminate_), [male] or
+female (_pistillate_), [female]. A flower then normally consists of the
+four series of leaves--calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium--and
+when these are all present the flower is _complete_. These are usually
+densely crowded upon the thalamus, but in some instances, after apical
+growth has ceased in the axis, an elongation of portions of the
+receptacle by intercalary growth occurs, by which changes in the
+position of the parts may be brought about. Thus in _Lychnis_ an
+elongation of the axis betwixt the calyx and the corolla takes place,
+and in this way they are separated by an interval. Again, in the
+passion-flower (_Passiflora_) the stamens are separated from the corolla
+by an elongated portion of the axis, which has consequently been termed
+the _androphore_, and in _Passiflora_ also, fraxinella (fig. 27),
+Capparidaceae, and some other plants, the ovary is raised upon a
+distinct stalk termed the _gynophore_; it is thus separated from the
+stamens, and is said to be _stipitate_. Usually the successive whorls of
+the flower, disposed from below upwards or from without inwards upon the
+floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or are a multiple of the
+same number of parts, those of one whorl alternating with those of the
+whorls next it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Calyx and pistil of Fraxinella (_Dictamnus
+Fraxinella_). The pistil consists of several carpels, which are elevated
+on a stalk or _gynophore_ prolonged from the receptacle.]
+
+In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or less convex,
+and the series of organs follow in regular succession, culminating in
+the carpels, in the formation of which the growth of the axis is closed
+(fig. 28). This arrangement is known as hypogynous, the other series
+(calyx, corolla and stamens) being beneath (_hypo-_) the gynoecium. In
+other cases, the apex of the growing point ceases to develop, and the
+parts below form a cup around it, from the rim of which the outer
+members of the flower are developed around (_peri-_) the carpels, which
+are formed from the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup.
+This arrangement is known as _perigynous_ (fig. 29). In many cases this
+is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over by the
+carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring from the edge of
+the receptacle which is immediately above the ovary (epigynous), hence
+the term epigyny (fig. 30).
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 28, 29 and 30.--Diagrams illustrating hypogyny,
+perigyny and epigyny of the flower. a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals;
+s, sepals.]
+
+
+  Symmetry of the flower.
+
+When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said to be
+_cyclic_, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts and are
+alternate it is _eucyclic_ (figs. 22, 23). In contrast to the cyclic
+flowers are those, as in Magnoliaceae, where the parts are in spirals
+(_acyclic_). Flowers which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at
+another, as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed _hemicyclic_. In spiral
+flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually
+there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to staminal
+parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs. 31, 32),
+although in some plants there is no such distinction, the parts being
+all petaloid, as in _Trollius_. Normally, the parts of successive whorls
+alternate; but in some cases we find the parts of one whorl opposite or
+_superposed_ to those of the next whorl. In some cases, as in the
+vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems to be the ordinary mode of
+development, but the superposition of the stamens on the sepals in many
+plants, as in the pink family, Caryophyllaceae, is due to the
+suppression or abortion of the whorl of petals, and this idea is borne
+out by the development, in some plants of the order, of the suppressed
+whorl. As a rule, whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on
+those of another we may suspect some abnormality.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission
+of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
+
+FIGS. 31 and 32.--White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32, successive
+stages, a-f, in the transition from petals to stamens. (After
+Wossidlo.)]
+
+A flower is said to be _symmetrical_ when each of its whorls consists of
+an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any one whorl are
+multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical flower may have five
+sepals, five petals, five stamens and five carpels, or the number of any
+of these parts may be ten, twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a
+diagram of a symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl,
+alternating with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical
+flower of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten
+stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the staminal
+whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case the additional
+five parts form a second row alternating with the others. In the
+staminal whorl especially it is common to find additional rows. Fig. 34
+shows a symmetrical flower, with five parts in the three outer rows, and
+ten divisions in the inner. In this case it is the gynoecium which has
+an additional number of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with
+four divisions of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and
+four divisions of the pistil. In fig. 36 there are three parts in each
+whorl; and in fig. 37 there are three divisions of the calyx, corolla
+and pistil, and six stamens in two rows. In all these cases the flower
+is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons it is usual for the staminal whorl to
+be double, it rarely having more than two rows, whilst amongst
+dicotyledons there are often very numerous rows of stamens. The floral
+envelopes are rarely multiplied. Flowers in which the number of parts in
+each whorl is the same, are _isomerous_ (of equal number); when the
+number in some of the whorls is different, the flower is _anisomerous_
+(of unequal number). The pistillate whorl is very liable to changes. It
+frequently happens that when it is fully formed, the number of its parts
+is not in conformity with that of the other whorls. In such
+circumstances, however, a flower has been called symmetrical, provided
+the parts of the other whorls are normal,--the permanent state of the
+pistil not being taken into account in determining symmetry. Thus fig.
+38 shows a pentamerous symmetrical flower, with dimerous pistil.
+Symmetry, then, in botanical language, has reference to a certain
+definite numerical relation of parts. A flower in which the parts are
+arranged in twos is called _dimerous_; when the parts of the whorls are
+three, four or five, the flower is _trimerous_, _tetramerous_ or
+_pentamerous_, respectively. The symmetry which is most commonly met
+with is trimerous and pentamerous--the former occurring generally among
+monocotyledons, the latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous
+symmetry occur also among dicotyledons.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 33.--Diagrammatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of
+Stone-crop (_Sedum_), consisting of five sepals (s), five petals (p)
+alternating with the sepals, ten stamens (a) in two rows, and five
+carpels (c) containing ovules. The dark lines (d) on the outside of the
+carpels are glands.
+
+FIG. 34.--Diagram of the flower of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five
+sepals (s), five petals (p), five stamens (a), and five carpels (c),
+each of which is partially divided into two. The dots represent a whorl
+of stamens which has disappeared. It is pentamerous, complete,
+symmetrical and regular.
+
+FIG. 35.--Diagram of the flower of Heath (_Erica_), a regular
+tetramerous flower.
+
+FIG. 36.--Diagram of the trimerous symmetrical flower of Iris.
+
+FIG. 37.--Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary
+(_Fritillaria_).
+
+FIG. 38.--Diagram of the flower of Saxifrage (_Saxifraga
+tridactylites_). The calyx and corolla consist of five parts, the
+stamens are ten in two rows, while the pistil has only two parts
+developed.]
+
+The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation to the
+axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one sepal is next
+the axis, and is called _superior_ or _posterior_; another is next the
+bract, and is _inferior_ or _anterior_, and the other two are _lateral_;
+and certain terms are used to indicate that position. A plane passing
+through the anterior and posterior sepal and through the floral axis is
+termed the _median plane_ of the flower; a plane cutting it at right
+angles, and passing through the lateral sepals, is the _lateral plane_;
+whilst the planes which bisect the angles formed by the lateral and
+median planes are the _diagonal planes_, and in these flowers the petals
+which alternate with the sepals are cut by the diagonal planes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Diagram of flower of Sweet-pea (_Lathyrus_),
+showing five sepals (s), two superior, one inferior, and two lateral;
+five petals (p), one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; ten
+stamens in two rows (a); and one carpel (c).
+
+FIG. 40.--Flower of Pea (_Pisum sativum_), showing a papilionaceous
+corolla, with one petal superior (st) called the standard (vexillum),
+two inferior (car) called the keel (carina), and two lateral (a) called
+wings (alae). The calyx is marked c.]
+
+In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the calyx of
+Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in the calyx of
+Leguminosae (fig. 39)--the reverse, by the law of alternation, being the
+case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom of the pea (figs. 39, 40),
+the odd petal (vexillum) st is superior, while the odd sepal is
+inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae one of the two carpels is
+posterior and the other anterior, whilst in Convolvulaceae the carpels
+are arranged laterally. Sometimes the twisting of a part makes a change
+in the position of other parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the
+ovary changes the position of the labellum.
+
+When the different members of each whorl are like in size and shape, the
+flower is said to be _regular_; while differences in the size and shape
+of the parts of a whorl make the flower _irregular_, as in the
+papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a flower can be
+divided by a single plane into two exactly similar parts; then it is
+said to be _zygomorphic_. Such flowers as Papilionaceae, Labiatae, are
+examples. In contrast with this are _polysymmetrical_ or actinomorphic
+flowers, which have a radial symmetry and can be divided by several
+planes into several exactly similar portions; such are all regular,
+symmetrical flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or
+some multiple of the others, then the flower is _asymmetrical_. This
+want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways. Alteration in the
+symmetrical arrangement as well as in the completeness and regularity of
+flowers has been traced to _suppression_ or the _non-development_ of
+parts, _degeneration_ or imperfect formation, _cohesion_ or union of
+parts of the same whorl, _adhesion_ or union of the parts of different
+whorls, _multiplication_ of parts, and _deduplication_ (sometimes called
+_chorisis_) or splitting of parts.
+
+By _suppression_ or non-appearance of a part at the place where it ought
+to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry or completeness of
+the flower is disturbed. This suppression when confined to the parts of
+certain verticils makes the flower asymmetrical. Thus, in many
+Caryophyllaceae, as _Polycarpon_ and _Holosteum_, while the calyx and
+corolla are pentamerous, there are only three or four stamens and three
+carpels; in _Impatiens Noli-me-tangere_ the calyx is composed of three
+parts, while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are
+five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and in
+_Tropaeolum pentaphyllum_ there are five sepals, two petals, eight
+stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of symmetry is
+traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the last-mentioned plant
+the normal number is five, hence it is said that there are three petals
+suppressed, as shown by the position of the two remaining ones; there
+are two rows of stamens, in each of which one is wanting; and there are
+two carpels suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards
+suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally
+some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower. By the
+suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the carpels, flowers
+become _unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and by the suppression of one or both
+of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous and achlamydeous flowers are
+produced. The suppression of parts of the flower may be carried so far
+that at last a flower consists of only one part of one whorl. In the
+Euphorbiaceae we have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of
+parts, where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to
+one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms where two
+of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which the calyx is
+suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or three bracts (so that
+the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), and only one or two
+stamens are produced. And finally, we find flowers consisting of a
+single stamen with a bract. There is thus traced a _degradation_, as it
+is called, from a flower with three stamens and three divisions of the
+calyx, to one with a single bract and a single stamen.
+
+_Degeneration_, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise either
+to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in form. In unisexual
+flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges of the undeveloped stamens
+in the form of filiform bodies or scales. In double flowers
+transformations of the stamens and pistils take place, so that they
+appear as petals. In _Canna_, what are called petals are in reality
+metamorphosed stamens. In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find
+the florets converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may
+appear as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae
+and _Valeriana_. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears as a
+scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in _Pentstemon_, it
+assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place of an
+anther.
+
+_Cohesion_, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and _adhesion_, or
+the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes of change
+both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in _Cucurbita_ the stamens are
+originally five in number, but subsequently some cohere, so that three
+stamens only are seen in the mature flower. Adhesion is well seen in the
+_gynostemium_ of orchids, where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In
+Capparidaceae the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the
+axis is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens are
+united.
+
+_Multiplication_, or an increase of the number of parts, gives rise to
+changes. We have already alluded to the interposition of new members in
+a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the staminal whorl, but usually the
+additional parts produced form a symmetrical whorl with the others. In
+some instances, however, this is not the case. Thus in the
+horse-chestnut there is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven
+stamens are formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical.
+
+Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of _deduplication_,
+or _chorisis_, i.e. the splitting of a part so that two or more parts
+are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous plants
+the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens and two short ones
+(_tetradynamous_). The symmetry in the flower is evidently dimerous, and
+the abnormality in the androecium, where the four long stamens are
+opposite the posterior sepals, takes place by a splitting, at a very
+early stage of development, of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases
+of what was considered chorisis are in reality due to the development of
+stipules from the staminal leaf. Thus in _Dicentra_ and _Corydalis_
+there are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle
+alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther, and
+are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching of stamens
+also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus, in the so-called
+polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there are really only five stamens
+which give off numerous branches, but the basal portion remaining short,
+the branches have the appearance of separate stamens, and the flower
+thus seems asymmetrical.
+
+_Cultivation_ has a great effect in causing changes in the various parts
+of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and adhesion of parts
+are due to the art of the horticulturist. The changes in the colour and
+forms of flowers thus produced are endless. In the dahlia the florets
+are rendered quilled, and are made to assume many glowing colours. In
+pelargonium the flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and
+such is also the case with the _Ranunculus_, the auricula and the
+carnation. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state, as
+columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and others, as
+_Linaria_, in which one petal only is usually spurred, are altered so as
+to have all the petals spurred, and to present what are called
+_pelorian_ varieties.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 41.--Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the Nettle
+(_Urtica_).
+
+FIG. 42.--Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in
+which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.
+
+FIG. 43.--Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned
+inwards at the edges.]
+
+As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the parts of the
+flower, _floral formulae_ have been devised. Several modes of expression
+are employed. The following is a very simple mode which has been
+proposed:--The several whorls are represented by the letters S (sepals),
+P (petals), St (stamens), C (carpels), and a figure marked after each
+indicates the number of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S5P5St5C5
+means that the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the
+whorls being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would
+be represented by the formula S5P5St_(5+5)C5, where St_(5+5) indicates
+that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each. A
+flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be
+expressed S4P0St4C0. When no other mark is appended the whorls are
+supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark the position of
+the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus, to express the
+superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is drawn between them,
+e.g. the symbol S5P5 | St5C5 is the formula of the flower of
+Primulaceae.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 44.--Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate
+aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned
+outwards at the edges.
+
+FIG. 45.--Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in
+which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, and
+are twisted on their axis.
+
+FIG. 46.--Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in which
+the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that 1 and 2
+are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly external and
+partly overlapped by 1.]
+
+The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud with
+respect to each other before opening is the _aestivation_ or
+_praefloration_. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud in the
+same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive names have
+been given to the different arrangements exhibited, both by the leaves
+individually and in their relations to each other. As regards each leaf
+of the flower, it is either spread out, as the sepals in the bud of the
+lime-tree, or folded upon itself (conduplicate), as in the petals of
+some species of _Lysimachia_, or slightly folded inwards or outwards at
+the edges, as in the calyx of some species of clematis and of some
+herbaceous plants, or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or
+folded transversely, becoming _crumpled_ or _corrugated_, as in the
+poppy. When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are
+applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping or being
+folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel, the aestivation is
+_valvate_ (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts may be turned either
+inwards or outwards; in the former case the aestivation is _induplicate_
+(fig. 43), in the latter case _reduplicate_ (fig. 44). When the parts of
+a single whorl are placed in a circle, each of them exhibiting a torsion
+of its axis, so that by one of its sides it overlaps its neighbour,
+whilst its side is overlapped in like manner by that standing next to
+it, the aestivation is _twisted_ or _contorted_ (fig. 45). This
+arrangement is characteristic of the flower-buds of Malvaceae and
+Apocynaceae, and it is also seen in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae.
+When the flower expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but
+sometimes, as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation
+are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under
+_circular_ aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different
+arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of _Camellia japonica_ cover
+each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation is
+_imbricate_. At other times, as in the petals of _Camellia_, the parts
+envelop each other completely, so as to become _convolute_. This is also
+seen in a transverse section of the calyx of _Magnolia grandiflora_,
+where each of the three leaves embraces that within it. When the parts
+of a whorl are five, as occurs in many dicotyledons, and the imbrication
+is such that there are two parts external, two internal, and a fifth
+which partially covers one of the internal parts by its margin, and is
+in its turn partially covered by one of the external parts, the
+aestivation is _quincuncial_ (fig. 46). This quincunx is common in the
+corolla of Rosaceae. In fig. 47 a section is given of the bud of
+_Antirrhinum majus_, showing the imbricate spiral arrangement. In this
+case it will be seen that the part marked 5 has, by a slight change in
+position, become overlapped by 1. This variety of imbricate aestivation
+has been termed _cochlear_. In flowers such as those of the pea (fig.
+40), one of the parts, the vexillum, is often large and folded over the
+others, giving rise to _vexillary_ aestivation (fig. 48), or the carina
+may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is _carinal_, as
+in the Judas-tree (_Cercis Siliquastrum_). The parts of the several
+verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation. Thus, in Malvaceae
+the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate, or reduplicate; in St
+John's-wort the calyx is imbricate, and the corolla contorted. In
+Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is twisted, and has its parts arranged
+in a circle, the calyx is imbricate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement.
+In _Guazuma_ the calyx is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The
+circular aestivation is generally associated with a regular calyx and
+corolla, while the spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as
+well as with regular forms.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 47.--Diagram to illustrate imbricated aestivation, in which the
+parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, following the order indicated by
+the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
+
+FIG. 48.--Diagram of a papilionaceous flower, showing vexillary
+aestivation.
+
+  1 and 2, The alae or wings.
+
+  3, A part of the carina or keel.
+
+  4, The vexillum or standard, which, in place of being internal, as
+  marked by the dotted line, becomes external.
+
+  5, The remaining part of the keel.
+
+  The order of the cycle is indicated by the figures.]
+
+
+  Calyx.
+
+The _sepals_ are sometimes _free_ or separate from each other, at other
+times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the former case,
+the calyx is _polysepalous_, in the latter _gamosepalous_ or
+_monosepalous_. The divisions of the calyx present usually the
+characters of leaves, and in some cases of monstrosity they are
+converted into leaf-like organs, as not infrequently happens in
+primulas. They are usually entire, but occasionally they are cut in
+various ways, as in the rose; they are rarely stalked. Sepals are
+generally of a more or less oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their
+apices either blunt or acute. In their direction they are erect or
+reflexed (with their apices downwards), spreading outwards (_divergent_
+or _patulous_), or arched inwards (_connivent_). They are usually of a
+greenish colour (_herbaceous_); but sometimes they are coloured or
+_petaloid_, as in the fuchsia, tropaeolum, globe-flower and pomegranate.
+Whatever be its colour, the external envelope of the flower is
+considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles sometimes form a prominent
+rib, which indicates the middle of the sepal; at other times they form
+several ribs. The venation is useful as pointing out the number of
+leaves which constitute a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx
+the number of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus, a
+calyx which has three sepals is _trisepalous_; one with five sepals is
+_pentasepalous_. The sepals occasionally are of different forms and
+sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet (_galeate_). In a
+gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in various ways, sometimes very
+slightly, and their number is marked by the divisions at the apex. These
+divisions either are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse
+teeth (fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about
+half-way, the calyx being _trifid_ (three-cleft), _quinquefid_
+(five-cleft), &c., according to their number; or they reach to near the
+base in the form of partitions, the calyx being _tripartite_,
+_quadripartite_, _quinquepartite_, &c. The union of the parts may be
+complete, and the calyx may be quite entire or _truncate_, as in some
+Correas, the venation being the chief indication of the different parts.
+The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a greater
+extent than others; thus a two-lipped or _labiate_ calyx is formed. The
+upper lip is often composed of three parts, which are thus posterior or
+next the axis, while the lower has two, which are anterior. The part
+formed by the union of the sepals is called the _tube_ of the calyx; the
+portion where the sepals are free is the _limb_.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 49.--Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (_Lychnis_).
+
+FIG. 50.--Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (_Rubia_) adherent to the pistil,
+in the form of a rim.
+
+FIG. 51.--Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel (_Senecio
+vulgaris_).
+
+FIG. 52.--Caducous calyx (c) of Poppy. There are two sepals which fall
+off before the petals expand.
+
+FIG. 53.--Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent
+calyx (s), surrounding the berry (fr), derived from the ovary. (After
+Duchartre.)]
+
+Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked enlargement. In
+the violet the calycine segments are prolonged downwards beyond their
+insertions, and in the Indian cress (_Tropaeolum_) this prolongation is
+in the form of a spur (_calcar_), formed by three sepals; in Delphinium
+it is formed by one. In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is
+adherent to the flower-stalk. In _Potentilla_ and allied genera an
+_epicalyx_ is formed by the development of stipules from the sepals,
+which form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with
+the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the bracteoles.
+Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it becomes dry, scaly and
+glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), as in the rushes (Juncaceae);
+hairy, as in Compositae; or a mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and
+Acanthaceae, and in Madder (_Rubia tinctorum_, fig. 50), when it is
+called _obsolete_ or _marginate_. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and
+Valerianaceae the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is
+developed in the form of hairs called _pappus_ (fig. 51). This pappus is
+either simple (_pilose_) or feathery (_plumose_). In _Valeriana_ the
+superior calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it
+is shown to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft
+the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower expands, as
+in poppies, and is _caducous_ (fig. 52); or along with the corolla, as
+in _Ranunculus_, and is _deciduous_; or it remains after flowering
+(_persistent_) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, and Boraginaceae; or
+its base only is persistent, as in _Datura Stramonium_. In
+_Eschscholtzia_ and _Eucalyptus_ the sepals remain united at the upper
+part, and become disarticulated at the base or middle, so as to come off
+in the form of a lid or funnel. Such a calyx is _operculate_ or
+_calyptrate_. The existence or non-existence of an articulation
+determines the deciduous or persistent nature of the calyx.
+
+The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the pistil, and
+enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the apple, pear, &c.
+In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at the apex. Sometimes a
+persistent calyx increases much after flowering, and encloses the fruit
+without being incorporated with it, becoming _accrescent_, as in various
+species of _Physalis_ (fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered
+or _marcescent_ form, as in _Erica_; sometimes it becomes _inflated_ or
+_vesicular_, as in sea campion (_Silene maritima_).
+
+
+  Corolla.
+
+The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral
+envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present in the
+greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ more from ordinary leaves
+than sepals do, and are much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl.
+In some cases, however, they are transformed into leaves, like the
+calyx, and occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil They are
+seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as in some
+species of _Cobaea_, _Hoya viridiflora_, _Gonolobus viridiflorus_ and
+_Pentatropis spiralis_. As a rule they are highly coloured, the
+colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue or red
+flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow flowers,
+or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish flowers. The
+attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or in part to surface
+markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a pelargonium, when viewed
+with a 1/2 or 1/4-in. object-glass, shows beautiful hexagons, the
+boundaries of which are ornamented with several inflected loops in the
+sides of the cells.
+
+Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some instances, hairs
+are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs, though sparse and
+scattered, present occasionally the same arrangement as those which
+occur on the leaves; thus, in Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured
+hairs are seen on the petals of _Menyanthes_, and on the segments of the
+perianth of _Iris_. They serve various purposes in the economy of the
+flower, often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower
+to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of
+pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate in their
+texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy, as in _Stapelia_ and
+_Rafflesia_; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and stiff, as in _Xylopia_. A
+petal often consists of two portions--the lower narrow, resembling the
+petiole of a leaf, and called the _unguis_ or _claw_; the upper broader,
+like the blade of a leaf, and called the _lamina_ or _limb_. These parts
+are seen in the petals of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often
+wanting, as in the crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are
+then _sessile_. According to the development of veins and the growth of
+cellular tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves.
+Thus the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These
+teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the petal
+becomes _fimbriated_, as in the pink; or _laciniated_, as in _Lychnis
+Flos-cuculi_; or _crested_, as in _Polygala_. Sometimes the petal
+becomes pinnatifid, as in _Schizopetalum_. The median vein is
+occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in the form of a
+long process, as in _Strophanthus hispidus_, where it extends for 7 in.;
+or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards or inflexed, as in
+Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches the base. The limb of the
+petal may be flat or concave, or hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the
+petals become folded in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in
+aconite (fig. 58) some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn,
+supported on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57),
+snapdragon and _Centranthus_, one or all of them are prolonged in the
+form of a spur, and are _calcarate_. In _Valeriana_, _Antirrhinum_ and
+_Corydalis_, the spur is very short, and the corolla or petal is said to
+be _gibbous_, or _saccate_, at the base. These spurs, tubes and sacs
+serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing of nectar.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 54.--Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus
+Cheiri_). c, The claw or unguis; l, the blade or lamina.
+
+FIG. 55.--Petal of Crowfoot (_Ranunculus_), without a claw, and thus
+resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous
+scale is seen.
+
+FIG. 56.--Tubular petal of Hellebore (_Helleborus_).
+
+FIG. 57.--Pansy (_Viola tricolor_). Longitudinal section of flower; v,
+bracteole on the peduncle; l, sepals; ls, appendage of sepal; c, petals;
+cs, spur of the lower petals; fs, glandular appendage of the lower
+stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.)
+
+(From Vines' Students' _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan
+Sonnenschein & Co.)
+
+FIG. 58.--Part of the flower of Aconite (_Aconitum Napellus_), showing
+two irregular horn-like petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o).
+These serve as nectaries, s, the whorl of stamens inserted on the
+thalamus and surrounding the pistil.]
+
+A corolla is _dipetalous_, _tripetalous_, _tetrapetalous_ or
+_pentapetalous_ according as it has two, three, four or five separate
+petals. The general name of _polypetalous_ is given to corollas having
+separate petals, while _monopetalous_, _gamopetalous_ or _sympetalous_
+is applied to those in which the petals are united. This union generally
+takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the apex; in
+_Phyteuma_ the petals are united at their apices also. In some
+polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are separate at
+the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals are equal as regards
+their development and size, the corolla is _regular_; when unequal, it
+is _irregular_. When a corolla is gamopetalous it usually happens that
+the lower portion forms a tube, while the upper parts are either free or
+partially united, so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the
+two portions being the _throat_, which often exhibits a distinct
+constriction or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla
+can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth,
+crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the
+corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal among the
+parts, or some may unite more than others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Rosaceous corolla (c) of the Strawberry
+(_Fragaria vesca_), composed of five petals without claws.]
+
+Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the _rosaceous_
+corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading petals, having no
+claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry and _Potentilla_; the
+_caryophyllaceous_ corolla, in which there are five petals with long,
+narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the pink tribe; the _cruciform_,
+having four petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite in the form of a
+cross, as seen in wallflower, and in other plants called _cruciferous_.
+Of irregular polypetalous corollas the most marked is the
+_papilionaceous_ (fig. 40), in which there are five petals:--one
+superior (posterior), st, placed next to the axis, usually larger than
+the rest, called the _vexillum_ or _standard_; two lateral, a, the
+_alae_ or wings; two inferior (anterior), partially or completely
+covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their lower margins,
+so as to form a single keel-like piece, _car_, called _carina_, or keel,
+which embraces the essential organs. This form of corolla is
+characteristic of British leguminous plants.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 60.--Flower of _Campanula medium_; d, bract; v, bracteoles.]
+
+Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes _campanulate_ or
+_bell-shaped_, as in (_Campanula_) (fig. 60); _infundibuliform_ or
+_funnel-shaped_, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the limb
+becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; _hypocrateriform_ or
+_salver-shaped_, when there is a straight tube surmounted by a flat
+spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); _tubular_, having a long
+cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the limb, as in _Spigelia_
+and comfrey; _rotate_ or _wheel-shaped_, when the tube is very short,
+and the limb flat and spreading, as in forget-me-not, _Myosotis_ (when
+the divisions of the rotate corolla are very acute, as in _Galium_, it
+is sometimes called _stellate_ or _star-like_); _urceolate_ or
+_urn-shaped_, when there is scarcely any limb, and the tube is narrow at
+both ends, and expanded in the middle, as in bell-heath (_Erica
+cinerea_). Some of these forms may become irregular in consequence of
+certain parts being more developed than others. Thus, in _Veronica_, the
+rotate corolla has one division much smaller than the rest, and in
+foxglove (_Digitalis_) there is a slightly irregular companulate
+corolla. Of irregular gamopetalous corollas there may be mentioned the
+_labiate_ or _lipped_ (fig. 62), having two divisions of the limb in the
+form of lips (the upper one, u, composed usually of two united petals,
+and the lower, l, of three), separated by a gap. In such cases the tube
+varies in length, and the parts in their union follow the reverse order
+of what occurs in the calyx, where two sepals are united in the lower
+lip and three in the upper. When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is
+much arched, and the lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called
+_ringent_ (fig. 62). The labiate corolla characterizes the natural order
+Labiatae. When the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to
+leave only a chink between them, the corolla is said to be _personate_,
+as in snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas the
+two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in calceolaria,
+assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what occurs in the
+labellum of some orchids, as _Cypripedium_. When a tubular corolla is
+split in such a way as to form a strap-like process on one side with
+several tooth-like projections at its apex, it becomes _ligulate_ or
+_strap-shaped_ (fig. 63). This corolla occurs in many composite plants,
+as in the florets of dandelion, daisy and chicory. The number of
+divisions at the apex indicates the number of united petals, some of
+which, however, may be abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become
+more united than others, and then the corolla assumes a _bilabiate_ or
+_two-lipped_ form, as seen in the division of Compositae called
+Labiatiflorae.
+
+Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole corolla is
+absent. In _Amorpha_ and _Afzelia_ the corolla is reduced to a single
+petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely wanting. In
+the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such as _Ranunculus_,
+globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and corolla, while others, such
+as clematis, anemone and _Caltha_, have only a coloured calyx. Flowers
+become double by the multiplication of the parts of the corolline whorl;
+this arises in general from a metamorphosis of the stamens.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 61.--Flower of cowslip (_Primula veris_) cut vertically. s, Sepals
+joined to form a gamosepalous calyx; c, corolla consisting of tube and
+spreading limb; a, stamens springing from the mouth of the tube; p,
+pistil.
+
+FIG. 62.--Irregular gamopetalous labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle
+(_Lamium album_). The upper lip u is composed of two petals united, the
+lower lip (l) of three. Between the two lips there is a gap. The throat
+is the part where the tube and the labiate limb join. From the arching
+of the upper lip this corolla is called ringent.
+
+FIG. 63.--Irregular gamopetalous ligulate flower of Ragwort (_Senecio_).
+It is a tubular floret, split down on one side, with the united petals
+forming a straplike projection. The lines on the flat portion indicate
+the divisions of the five petals. From the tubular portion below, the
+bifid style projects slightly.]
+
+Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which received
+in former days the name of _nectaries_. The term nectary was very
+vaguely applied by Linnaeus to any part of the flower which presented an
+unusual aspect, as the crown (_corona_) of narcissus, the fringes of the
+Passion-flower, &c. If the name is retained it ought properly to include
+only those parts which secrete a honey-like substance, as the glandular
+depression at the base of the perianth of the fritillary, or on the
+petal of _Ranunculus_ (fig. 55), or on the stamens of Rutaceae. The
+honey secreted by flowers attracts insects, which, by conveying the
+pollen to the stigma, effect fertilization. The horn-like nectaries
+under the galeate sepal of aconite (fig. 58) are modified petals, so
+also are the tubular nectaries of hellebore (fig. 56). Other
+modifications of some part of the flower, especially of the corolla and
+stamens, are produced either by degeneration or outgrowth, or by
+_chorisis_, or _deduplication_. Of this nature are the scales on the
+petals in _Lychnis_, _Silene_ and _Cynoglossum_, which are formed in the
+same way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus, the
+scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered stamens.
+In _Narcissus_ the appendages are united to form a crown, consisting of
+a membrane similar to that which unites the stamens in _Pancratium_. It
+is sometimes difficult to say whether these structures are to be
+referred to the corolline or to the staminal row.
+
+Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base. When this
+attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals fall off either
+immediately after expansion (_caducous_) or after fertilization
+(_deciduous_). A corolla which is continuous with the axis and not
+articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths, may be persistent, and
+remain in a withered or marcescent state while the fruit is ripening. A
+gamopetalous corolla falls off in one piece; but sometimes the base of
+the corolla remains persistent, as in _Rhinanthus_ and _Orobanche_.
+
+The _stamens_ and the _pistil_ are sometimes spoken of as the essential
+organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required in order that
+perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions the stamen
+represents a leaf which has been specially developed to bear the pollen
+or microspores, it is spoken of in comparative morphology as a
+microsporophyll; similarly the carpels which make up the pistil are the
+megasporophylls (see ANGIOSPERMS). _Hermaphrodite_ or _bisexual_ flowers
+are those in which both these organs are found; _unisexual_ or
+_diclinous_ are those in which only one of these organs appears,--those
+bearing stamens only, being _staminiferous_ or "male"; those having the
+pistil only, _pistilliferous_ or "female." But even in plants with
+hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided against by
+the structure of the parts or by the period of ripening of the organs.
+For instance, in _Primula_ and _Linum_ some flowers have long stamens
+and a pistil with a short style, the others having short stamens and a
+pistil with a long style. The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed
+primroses (fig. 61), the latter in the "pin-eyed." Such plants are
+called _dimorphic_. Other plants are _trimorphic_, as species of
+_Lythrum_, and proper fertilization is only effected by combination of
+parts of equal length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before
+the pistil; these are called _proterandrous_, as in _Ranunculus repens_,
+_Silene maritima_, _Zea Mays_. In other plants, but more rarely, the
+pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in _Potentilla argentea_,
+_Plantago major_, _Coix Lachryma_, and they are termed _proterogynous_.
+Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs are called
+_dichogamous_. When in the same plant there are unisexual flowers, both
+male and female, the plant is said to be _monoecious_, as in the hazel
+and castor-oil plant. When the male and female flowers of a species are
+found on separate plants, the term _dioecious_ is applied, as in
+_Mercurialis_ and hemp; and when a species has male, female and
+hermaphrodite flowers on the same or different plants, as in
+_Parietaria_, it is _polygamous_.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 64.--Flower of _Paeonia peregrina_, in longitudinal section. k,
+Sepal; c, petal; a, stamens; g, pistil. (1/2 nat. size.)]
+
+
+  Stamens.
+
+The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the petals, with
+which they generally alternate, forming one or more whorls, which
+collectively constitute the _androecium_. Their normal position is below
+the pistil, and when they are so placed (fig. 64, a) upon the thalamus
+they are hypogynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or
+are _epipetalous_, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar,
+so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent of the
+calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous or epigynous
+(fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur, especially amongst
+Saxifragaceae, where the parts are _half superior_ or _half inferior_.
+Where the stamens become adherent to the pistil so as to form a column,
+the flowers are said to be _gynandrous_, as in _Aristolochia_ (fig. 66).
+These arrangements of parts are of great importance in classification.
+The stamens vary in number from one to many hundreds. In acyclic flowers
+there is often a gradual transition from petals to stamens, as in the
+white water-lily (fig. 31). When flowers become double by cultivation,
+the stamens are converted into petals, as in the paeony, camellia, rose,
+&c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are usually equal in number
+to the sepals or petals, and are arranged opposite to the former, and
+alternate with the latter. The flower is then _isostemonous_. When the
+stamens are not equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is
+_anisostemonous_. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the
+parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl
+preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication of parts
+than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of stamens is
+_haplostemonous_. If the stamens are double the sepals or petals as
+regards number, the flower is _diplostemonous_; if more than double,
+_polystemonous_. The additional rows of stamens may be developed in the
+usual centripetal (acropetal) order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be
+interposed between the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e.
+develop centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the
+flower is said to be _obdiplostemonous_. When the stamens are fewer than
+twenty they are said to be _definite_; when above twenty they are
+_indefinite_, and are represented by the symbol [infinity]. The number
+of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the term
+_androus_; thus a flower with one stamen is _monandrous_, with two,
+three, four, five, six or many stamens, di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or
+polyandrous, respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Flower of Aralia in vertical section. c, Calyx;
+p, petal; e, stamen; s, stigmas. The calyx, petals and stamens spring
+from above the ovary (o) in which two chambers are shown each with a
+pendulous ovule; d, disc between the stamens and stigmas.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 66.--Flowers of _Aristolochia Clematitis_ cut through
+longitudinally. I. Young flower in which the stigma (N) is receptive and
+the stamens (S) have not yet opened; II. Older flower with the stamens
+(S) opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs on the corolla dried up.]
+
+The function of the stamen is the development and distribution of the
+pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted portion,
+often thread-like, termed the _filament_ (fig. 25 f), and a broader
+portion, usually of two lobes, termed the _anther_ (a), containing the
+powdery _pollen_ (p), and supported upon the end of the filament. That
+portion of the filament in contact with the anther-lobes is termed the
+_connective_. If the anther is absent the stamen is abortive, and cannot
+perform its functions. The anther is developed before the filament, and
+when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in the
+mistletoe.
+
+The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-like,
+and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit. It is often,
+however, thickened, compressed and flattened in various ways, becoming
+_petaloid_ in _Canna_, _Marania_, water-lily (fig. 32); _subulate_ or
+slightly broadened at the base and drawn out into a point like an awl,
+as in _Butomus umbellatus_; or clavate, that is, narrow below and broad
+above, as in _Thalictrum_. In some instances, as in _Tamarix gallica_,
+_Peganum Harmala_, and _Campanula_, the base of the filament is much
+dilated, and ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these
+cases the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in _Allium_
+and _Alyssum calycinum_. The filament varies much in length and in
+firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that of the pistil,
+and to the position of the flower, whether erect or drooping. The
+filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support the anther in an
+erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses, and other wind-pollinated
+flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like, so that the anther is
+pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is generally continuous from one end
+to the other, but in some cases it is bent or jointed, becoming
+_geniculate_; at other times, as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is
+colourless, or of different colours. Thus in fuchsia and _Poinciana_, it
+is red; in _Adamia_ and _Tradescantia virginica_, blue; in _Oenothera_
+and _Ranunculus acris_, yellow.
+
+Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are sometimes
+times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (_Tradescantia
+virginica_) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or
+necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation of the
+protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the thalamus or torus,
+and the stamens fall off after fertilization; but in _Campanula_ and
+some other plants they are continuous with the torus, and the stamens
+remain persistent, although in a withered state. Changes are produced in
+the whorl of stamens by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less
+extent, while the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the
+androecium may unite, forming a tube round the pistil, or a central
+bundle when the pistil is abortive, the stamens becoming _monadelphous_,
+as occurs in plants of the Mallow tribe; or they may be arranged in two
+bundles, the stamens being _diadelphous_, as in _Polygala_, _Fumaria_
+and Pea; in this case the bundles may be equal or unequal. It frequently
+happens, especially in Papilionaceous flowers, that out of ten stamens
+nine are united by their filaments, while one (the posterior one) is
+free (fig. 68). When there are three or more bundles the stamens are
+_triadelphous_, as in _Hypericum aegyptiacum_, or _polyadelphous_, as in
+_Ricinus communis_ (castor-oil). In some cases, as in papilionaceous
+flowers, the stamens cohere, having been originally separate, but in
+most cases each bundle is produced by the branching of a single stamen.
+When there are three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral
+ones as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect stamens,
+each having at the base of the filament two abortive stamens or
+staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules. Filaments sometimes are
+adherent to the pistil, forming a column (_gynostemium_), as in
+_Stylidium_, Asclepiadaceae, _Rafflesia_, and Aristolochiaceae (fig.
+66); the flowers are then termed _gynandrous_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened
+out. a, b, Barren glumes; c, fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower
+with its pale, d; the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bears long silky hairs.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 68.--Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_). The stamens are
+diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments (f), while one
+of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx.
+
+FIG. 69.--Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus_). ce,
+Exothecium; cf, endothecium; highly magnified.
+
+FIG. 70.--Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering Rush
+(_Butomus umbellatus_). The anther entire (a) with its filament; section
+of anther (b) showing the four loculi.]
+
+
+  The anther.
+
+The _anther_ consists of lobes containing the minute powdery pollen
+grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure or opening of
+some sort. There is a double covering of the anther--the outer, or
+_exothecium_, resembles the epidermis, and often presents stomata and
+projections of different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or _endothecium_,
+is formed by a layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the
+cells of which have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the
+wall. The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner
+towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears entirely.
+The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that when the anther
+attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and these by their
+elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The anther is developed
+before the filament, and is always sessile in the first instance, and
+sometimes continues so. It appears at first as a simple cellular papilla
+of meristem, upon which an indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon
+these projections the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen,
+usually four in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation
+takes place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer
+of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells. Those
+central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the
+small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium,
+the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer.
+
+In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for each
+anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete it is a
+_quadrilocular_ or _tetrathecal_ anther (fig. 70). Sometimes, however,
+only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of the sacs in each
+lobe, in which case the anther is said to be _bilocular_ or _dithecal_.
+Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and becomes _unilocular_, or
+_monothecal_, or _dimidiate_, either by the disappearance of the
+partition between the two lobes, or by the abortion of one of its lobes,
+as in _Styphelia laeta_ and _Althaea officinalis_ (hollyhock).
+Occasionally there are numerous cavities in the anther, as in _Viscum_
+and _Rafflesia_. The form of the anther-lobes varies. They are generally
+of a more or less oval or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as
+in _Mercurialis annua_; at other times linear or clavate: curved,
+flexuose, or sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of
+union of the lobes and the unequal development of different parts of
+their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced. That part of the
+anther to which the filament is attached is the _back_, the opposite
+being the _face_. The division between the lobes is marked on the face
+of the anther by a groove or _furrow_, and there is usually on the face
+a _suture_, indicating the line of dehiscence. The suture is often
+towards one side in consequence of the valves being unequal. The stamens
+may cohere by their anthers, and become _syngenesious_, as in composite
+flowers, and in lobelia, jasione, &c.
+
+
+  The connective.
+
+The anther-lobes are united to the _connective_, which is either
+continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the filament
+is continuous with the connective, and is prolonged so that the
+anther-lobes appear to be united to it throughout their whole length,
+and lie in apposition to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said
+to be _adnate_ or _adherent_; when the filament ends at the base of the
+anther, then the latter is _innate_ or _erect_. In these cases the
+anther is to a greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the
+attachment is very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are
+movable (_versatile_) and are easily turned by the wind, as in
+_Tritonia_, grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only
+to the middle of the connective. The connective may unite the
+anther-lobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short
+and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or free.
+At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes, assuming
+various forms, as in _Acalypha_ and oleander; or it is extended
+backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71), forming a
+nectar-secreting spur. In _Salvia officinalis_ the connective is
+attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as to separate the
+two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which contains pollen, the other
+being imperfectly developed and sterile. The connective is joined to the
+filament by a movable joint forming a lever which plays an important
+part in the pollination-mechanism. In _Stachys_ the connective is
+expanded laterally, so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and
+bring them into a horizontal line.
+
+
+  Antherdehiscence.
+
+The opening or _dehiscence_ of the anthers to discharge their contents
+takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores. When the
+anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the line of the
+suture--_longitudinal dehiscence_ (fig. 25). At other times the slit is
+horizontal, from the connective to the side, as in _Alchemilla arvensis_
+(fig. 73) and in _Lemna_; the dehiscence is then _transverse_. When the
+anther-lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the
+connective, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear to be
+transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole length of the
+anther-lobe at once, but often for a time it extends only partially. In
+other instances the opening is confined to the base or apex, each
+loculament opening by a single pore, as in _Pyrola_, _Tetratheca
+juncea_, Rhododendron, _Vaccinium_ and _Solanum_ (fig. 74), where there
+are two, and _Poranthera_, where there are four; whilst in the mistletoe
+the anther has numerous pores for the discharge of the pollen. Another
+mode of dehiscence is the valvular, as in the barberry (fig. 75), where
+each lobe opens by a valve on the outer side of the suture, separately
+rolling up from base to apex; in some of the laurel tribe there are two
+such valves for each lobe, or four in all. In some Guttiferae, as
+_Hebradendron cambogioides_ (the Ceylon gamboge plant), the anther opens
+by a lid separating from the apex (_circumscissile_ dehiscence).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 71.--Two stamens of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), with their two
+anther-lobes and the connectives (p) extending beyond them. One of the
+stamens has been deprived of its spur, the other shows its spur c.
+
+FIG. 72.--Anther of _Salvia officinalis_. lf, fertile lobe full of
+pollen; ls, barren lobe without pollen; e, connective; f, filament.
+
+FIG. 73.--Stamen of Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla_), with the anther
+opening transversely.
+
+FIG. 74.--Stamen of a species of Nightshade (_Solanum_), showing the
+divergence of the anther-lobes at the base, and the dehiscence by pores
+at the apex.
+
+FIG. 75.--The stamen of the Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), showing one
+of the valves of the anther (v) curved upwards, bearing the pollen on
+its inner surface.]
+
+The anthers dehisce at different periods during the process of
+flowering; sometimes in the bud, but more commonly when the pistil is
+fully developed and the flower is expanded. They either dehisce
+simultaneously or in succession. In the latter case individual stamens
+may move in succession towards the pistil and discharge their contents,
+as in _Parnassia palustris_, or the outer or the inner stamens may first
+dehisce, following thus a centripetal or centrifugal order. These
+variations are intimately connected with the arrangements for
+transference of pollen. The anthers are called _introrse_ when they
+dehisce by the surface next to the centre of the flower; they are
+_extrorse_ when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they dehisce by
+the sides, as in _Iris_ and some grasses, they are _laterally_
+dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature, anthers originally
+introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower and _Oxalis_.
+
+The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great variety
+in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in the poppy and
+tulip, orange in _Eschscholtzia_, &c. The colour and appearance of the
+anthers often change after they have discharged their functions.
+
+Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or
+non-development of the anthers, when they are known as _staminodia_, or
+rudimentary stamens. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears in the
+form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons it is reduced to a filament
+with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at the apex. In other cases, as in
+double flowers, the stamens are converted into petals; this is also
+probably the case with such plants as _Mesembryanthemum_, where there
+is a multiplication of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in _Canna_,
+one of the anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is
+produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. Some are
+enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in _Cinchona_ (_included_);
+others are _exserted_, or extend beyond the flower, as in _Littorella_
+or _Plantago_. Sometimes the stamens in the early state of the flower
+project beyond the petals, and in the progress of growth become
+included, as in _Geranium striatum_. Stamens also vary in their relative
+lengths. When there is more than one row or whorl in a flower, those on
+the outside are sometimes longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times
+those in the interior are longest, as in _Luhea_. When the stamens are
+in two rows, those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those
+which alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single
+stamen is longer than all the rest. A definite relation, as regards
+number, sometimes exists between the long and the short stamens. Thus,
+in some flowers the stamens are _didynamous_, having only four out of
+five stamens developed, and the two corresponding to the upper part of
+the flower longer than the two lateral ones. This occurs in Labiatae and
+Scrophulariaceae (fig. 76). Again, in other cases there are six stamens,
+whereof four long ones are arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and
+alternate with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to
+_tetradynamous_ flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their
+direction, may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In
+the last-mentioned case they are called _declinate_, as in amaryllis,
+horse-chestnut and fraxinella.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Corolla of foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), cut
+in order to show the didynamous stamens (two long and two short) which
+are attached to it.]
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 77.--Tetradynamous stamens (four long and two short) of wallflower
+(_Cheiranthus Cheiri_).]
+
+The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist of
+small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled mother-cells
+formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia) of the young
+anther. These mother-cells are either separated from one another and
+float in the granular fluid which fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac,
+or are not so isolated. A division takes place, by which four cells are
+formed in each, the exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and
+monocotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase in size
+and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into an outer
+cuticular layer, or _extine_, and an inner layer, or _intine_. Then the
+walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-grains float
+freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually disappears, and
+the mature grains form a powdery mass within the anther. They then
+either remain united in fours, or multiples of four, as in some acacias,
+_Periploca graeca_ and _Inga anomala_, or separate into individual
+grains, which by degrees become mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane
+of the mother-cell is not completely absorbed, and traces of it are
+detected in a viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in
+Onagraceae. In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into
+masses, or _pollinia_ (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids
+each of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (_caudicle_) which
+adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (_rostellum_) by
+means of a viscid gland (_retinaculum_) which is either naked or
+covered. The term _clinandrium_ is sometimes applied to the part of the
+column in orchids where the stamens are situated. In some orchids, as
+_Cypripedium_, the pollen has its ordinary character of separate grains.
+The number of pollinia varies; thus, in _Orchis_ there are usually two,
+in _Cattleya_ four, and in _Laelia_ eight. The two pollinia in _Orchis
+Morio_ contain each about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small
+masses, when bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In
+Asclepiadaceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79),
+belonging to two contiguous anther-lobes--each pollen-mass having a
+caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of which they
+are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia are also provided
+with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80). The exine is a firm
+membrane, which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour
+to it. It is either smooth, or covered with numerous projections (fig.
+81), granules, points or crested reticulations. The colour is generally
+yellow, and the surface is often covered with a viscid or oily matter.
+The intine is uniform in different kinds of pollen, thin and
+transparent, and possesses great power of extension. In some aquatics,
+as _Zostera_, _Zannichellia_, _Naias_, &c., only one covering exists.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 78.--Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (g) or
+viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (p) are
+supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily detached
+by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.
+
+FIG. 79.--Pistil of _Asclepias_ (a) with pollen-masses (p) adhering to
+the stigma (s). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united by a
+gland-like body. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 80.--Stamen of _Asclepias_, showing filament f, anther a, and
+appendages p. Enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pollen of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_), highly
+magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: _From Vines' Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by
+permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
+
+FIG. 82.--Germinating pollen-grain of Epilobium (highly mag.) bearing a
+pollen-tube s; e, exine; i, intine; abc, the three spots where the exine
+is thicker in anticipation of the formation of the pollen-tube developed
+in this case at a.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Male flower of Pellitory (_Parietaria
+officinalis_), having four stamens with in-curved elastic filaments, and
+an abortive pistil in the centre. When the perianth (p) expands, the
+filaments are thrown out with force as at a, so as to scatter the
+pollen.]
+
+Pollen-grains vary from 1/300 to 1/700 of an inch or less in diameter.
+Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is ellipsoidal,
+more or less narrow at the extremities, which are called its _poles_, in
+contradistinction to a line equidistant from the extremities, which is
+its equator. Pollen-grains are also spherical; cylindrical and curved,
+as in _Tradescantia virginica_; polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and
+Compositae; nearly triangular in section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae
+(fig. 82). The surface of the pollen-grain is either uniform and
+homogeneous, or it is marked by folds formed by thinnings of the
+membrane. There are also rounded portions of the membrane or pores
+visible in the pollen-grain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and
+through one or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination
+of the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only one,
+while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards; when numerous, the
+pores are either scattered irregularly, or in a regular order,
+frequently forming a circle round the equatorial surface. Sometimes at
+the place where they exist, the outer membrane, in place of being thin
+and transparent, is separated in the form of a lid, thus becoming
+_operculate_, as in the passion-flower and gourd. Within the
+pollen-grain is the granular protoplasm with some oily particles, and
+occasionally starch. Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes
+place in the pollen-grain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which
+the tube is developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides
+to form the male cells (see ANGIOSPERMS and GYMNOSPERMS).
+
+
+  Pollination.
+
+When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the pollen is
+shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the pollen must be
+conveyed to the stigma of the pistil. This process, termed _pollination_
+(see POLLINATION), is promoted in various ways,--the whole form and
+structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some plants,
+as _Kalmia_ and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity of the
+filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants pollination is
+effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees, grasses, &c., and
+in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are produced. These plants
+are _anemophilous_. But the common agents for pollination are insects.
+To allure and attract them to visit the flower the odoriferous
+secretions and gay colours are developed, and the position and
+complicated structure of the parts of the flower are adapted to the
+perfect performance of the process. It is comparatively rare in
+hermaphrodite flowers for self-fertilization to occur, and the various
+forms of dichogamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent
+this.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Flower of Tree Paeony (_Paeonia Moutan_),
+deprived of its corolla, and showing the disk in the form of a fleshy
+expansion (d) covering the ovary.]
+
+
+  Disk.
+
+Under the term _disk_ is included every structure intervening between
+the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures that the name of
+_nectary_ was applied by old authors. It presents great varieties of
+form, such as a ring, scales, glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c.,
+and in the progress of growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus
+becoming truly nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by
+degeneration or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of
+processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens, and thus
+representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be opposite to the
+stamens. In some flowers, as _Jatropha Curcas_, in which the stamens are
+not developed, their place is occupied by glandular bodies forming the
+disk. In Gesneraceae and Cruciferae the disk consists of tooth-like
+scales at the base of the stamens. The parts composing the disk
+sometimes unite and form a glandular ring, as in the orange; or they
+form a dark-red lamina covering the pistil, as in _Paeonia Moutan_ (fig.
+84); or a waxy lining of the hollow receptacle, as in the rose; or a
+swelling at the top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae, in which the disk
+is said to be epigynous. The enlarged torus covering the ovary in
+_Nymphaea_ (_Castalia_) and _Nelumbium_ may be regarded as a form of
+disk.
+
+
+  The pistil.
+
+The pistil or _gynoecium_ occupies the centre or apex of the flower, and
+is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes when these are
+present. It constitutes the innermost whorl, which after flowering is
+changed into the fruit and contains the seeds. It consists essentially
+of two parts, a basal portion forming a chamber, the _ovary_, containing
+the ovules attached to a part called the _placenta_, and an upper
+receptive portion, the _stigma_, which is either seated on the ovary
+(_sessile_), as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called
+the _style_, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil
+consists of one or more modified leaves, the _carpels_ (or
+_megasporophylls_). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is
+_simple_ or monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several
+carpels, more or less united, it is _compound_ or _polycarpellary_ (fig.
+86). In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are
+synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when present), and
+stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded leaf, the upper
+surface of which is turned inwards towards the axis, and the lower
+outwards, while from its margins are developed one or more _ovules_.
+This comparison is borne out by an examination of the flower of the
+double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit is produced, and the pistil
+consists merely of sessile leaves, the limb of each being green and
+folded, with a narrow prolongation upwards, as if from the midrib, and
+ending in a thickened portion. In _Cycas_ the carpels are ordinary
+leaves, with ovules upon their margin.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 85.--Pistil of Broom (_Cytisus_) consisting of ovary o, style s,
+and stigma t. It is formed by a single carpel.
+
+FIG. 86.--Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (_Helleborus
+niger_). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct
+carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite,
+and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous).
+
+FIG. 87.--Fruit of the Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), consisting of an
+enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry
+seed-like fruits (achenes).
+
+FIG. 88.--Fruit of _Rosa alba_, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis
+s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels fr. The stamens (c) have
+withered. (After Duchartre.)
+
+FIG. 89.--Pistil of _Ranunculus_. x, Receptacle with the points of
+insertion of the stamens a, most of which have been removed.
+
+FIG. 90.--Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five
+carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are
+separate.]
+
+A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels may be
+arranged either at the same or nearly the same height in a verticil, or
+at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they remain separate and
+distinct, thus showing at once the composition of the pistil, as in
+_Caltha, Ranunculus_, hellebore (fig. 86), and _Spiraea_, the term
+_apocarpous_ is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 22) the pistil consists of
+five verticillate carpels o, alternating with the stamens e. In magnolia
+and _Ranunculus_ (fig. 89) the separate carpels are numerous and are
+arranged in a spiral cycle upon an elongated axis or receptacle. In the
+raspberry the carpels are on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on
+a swollen succulent one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a
+hollow one. When the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and
+chickweed, the pistil becomes _syncarpous_. The number of carpels in a
+pistil is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple pistil
+is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three carpels,
+trigynous, &c.
+
+The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete; it may take
+place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and stigmas remain free
+(fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries form apparently a single
+body, the organ receives the name of _compound_ ovary; or the union may
+take place by the ovaries and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or
+by the stigmas and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate
+states exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where
+they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as in
+Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base; but in
+Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and in
+Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When the union is
+incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound pistil may be
+determined by the number of styles and stigmas; when complete, the
+external venation, the grooves on the surface, and the internal
+divisions of the ovary indicate the number.
+
+
+  The placenta.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Pistil of Pea after fertilization of the
+ovules, developing to form the fruit. f, Funicle or stalk of ovule (ov);
+pl, placenta; s, withered style and stigma; c, persistent calyx.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 92.--Trilocular ovary of the Lily (_Lilium_), cut transversely. s,
+Septum; o, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle of each
+chamber. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 93.--Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed of
+five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet in the
+centre forming the septa, s. The ovules (o) are attached to a central
+placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures. Dorsal
+suture, l.
+
+FIG. 94.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which the
+edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules o, are not folded
+inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules appear sessile on
+the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 95.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which
+the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the
+placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the
+placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, l.
+
+FIG. 96.--Pistil of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), enlarged. 1, Vertical;
+2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p,
+placenta; s, stigma.
+
+FIG. 97.--Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (_Cucumis
+Melo_), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The three
+carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From the centre,
+processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas bearing the
+ovules.
+
+FIG. 98.--Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary, in
+which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (o) are
+attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with the
+walls of the ovary.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 99.--Pistil of _Cerastium hirsutum_ cut vertically. o, Ovary; p,
+free central placenta; g, ovules; s, styles.
+
+FIG. 100.--The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as
+to show the interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central
+placenta p, covered with ovules g.]
+
+The ovules are attached to the _placenta_, which consists of a mass of
+cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels pass to the ovule.
+The placenta is usually formed on the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig.
+91)--_marginal_. In many cases, however, the placentas are formations
+from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary leaves.
+In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing the placenta is
+the _inner_ or _ventral suture_, corresponding to the margin of the
+folded carpellary leaf, while the _outer_ or _dorsal suture_ corresponds
+to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. As the placenta is formed on each
+margin of the carpel it is essentially double. This is seen in cases
+where the margins of the carpel do not unite, but remain separate, and
+consequently two placentas are formed in place of one. When the pistil
+is formed by one carpel the inner margins unite and form usually a
+common marginal placenta, which may extend along the whole margin of the
+ovary as far as the base of the style (fig. 91), or may be confined to
+the base or apex only. When the pistil consists of several separate
+carpels, or is apocarpous, there are generally separate placentas at
+each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil, on the other hand, the
+carpels are so united that the edges of each of the contiguous ones, by
+their union, form a _septum_ or _dissepiment_, and the number of these
+septa consequently indicates the number of carpels in the compound
+pistil (fig. 92). When the dissepiments extend to the centre or axis,
+the ovary is divided into cavities or _cells_, and it may be
+_bilocular_, _triloculur_ (fig. 92), _quadrilocular_, _quinquelocular_,
+or _multilocular_, according as it is formed by two, three, four, five
+or many carpels, each carpel corresponding to a single cell. In these
+cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a
+single _central_ one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the
+central angle of the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do
+not fold inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the
+walls of the ovary, then the ovary is _unilocular_ (fig. 95) and the
+placentas are _parietal_, as in _Viola_ (fig. 96). In these instances
+the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous
+leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be united, each
+developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of the carpels, which fold
+in to the centre, split there into two lamellae, each of which is curved
+outwards and projects into the loculament, dilating at the end into a
+placenta. This is well seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), _Pyrola_, &c.
+The carpellary leaves may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be
+applied in a valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the
+placentas then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or
+thickenings along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the
+placentas are not connected with the walls of the ovary, and form what
+is called a _free central placenta_ (fig. 98). This is seen in many of
+the Caryophyllaceae and Primulaceae (figs. 99, 100). In Caryophyllaceae,
+however, while the placenta is free in the centre, there are often
+traces found at the base of the ovary of the remains of septa, as if
+rupture had taken place, and, in rare instances, ovules are found on the
+margins of the carpels. But in Primulaceae no vestiges of septa or
+marginal ovules can be perceived at any period of growth; the placenta
+is always free, and rises in the centre of the ovary. Free central
+placentation, therefore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by
+supposing that the placentas in the early state were formed on the
+margins of carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development
+these leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules free
+in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not _marginal_ but
+_axile_ formations, produced by an elongation of the axis, and the
+carpels verticillate leaves, united together around the axis. The first
+of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae, the second to Primulaceae.
+
+Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not formed by
+the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called _spurious
+dissepiments_. They are often horizontal, as in _Cathartocarpus
+Fistula_, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations from
+the walls of the ovary, only developed after fertilization, and
+therefore more properly noticed under fruit. At other times they are
+vertical, as in _Datura_, where the ovary, in place of being two-celled,
+becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae, where the prolongation of the
+placentas forms a vertical partition; in _Astragalus_ and _Thespesia_,
+where the dorsal suture is folded inwards; and in _Oxytropis_, where the
+ventral suture is folded inwards.
+
+The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form,
+sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times hairy and
+grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions between the carpels
+and correspond to the dissepiments. The dorsal suture may be marked by a
+slight projection or by a superficial groove. When the ovary is situated
+on the centre of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its
+base is above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed _superior_, as
+in _Lychnis_, _Primula_ (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig.
+28). When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying
+with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion of
+the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary leaves
+alone closing in the apex, the ovary is _inferior_, as in pomegranate,
+aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see fig. 30). In some plants,
+as many Saxifragaceae, there are intermediate forms, in which the term
+_half-inferior_ is applied to the ovary, whilst the floral whorls are
+_half-superior_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 101.--Carpel of Lady's-mantle (_Alchemilla_) with lateral style s;
+o, ovary, _st_, stigma. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 102.--Pistil of Primrose (_Primula_) composed of five carpels which
+are completely united; o, ovary; s, style; st, stigma. Enlarged.
+
+FIG. 103.--Gynoecium of the Flower-de-Luce (_Iris_), consisting of an
+inferior ovary (o) and a style which divides into three petaloid
+segments (s), each bearing a stigma (st).
+
+FIG. 104.--Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores (p), under the radiating
+peltate stigma (s).]
+
+
+  The style.
+
+The _style_ proceeds from the summit of the carpel (fig. 102), and is
+traversed by a narrow canal, in which there are some loose projecting
+cells, a continuation of the placenta, constituting what is called
+conducting tissue, which ends in the stigma. This is particularly
+abundant when the pistil is ready for fertilization. In some cases,
+owing to more rapid growth of the dorsal side of the ovary, the style
+becomes _lateral_ (fig. 101); this may so increase that the style
+appears to arise from near the base, as in the strawberry, or from the
+base, as in _Chrysobalanus Icaco_, when it is called _basilar_. In all
+these cases the style still indicates the organic apex of the ovary,
+although it may not be the apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the
+style of each carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were
+depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression in the
+midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus. Such a style is
+_gynobasic_, and is well seen in Boraginaceae. The form of the style is
+usually cylindrical, more or less filiform and simple; sometimes it is
+grooved on one side, at other times it is flat, thick, angular,
+compressed and even petaloid, as in _Iris_ (fig. 103) and _Canna_. In
+Goodeniaceae it ends in a cuplike expansion, enclosing the stigma. It
+sometimes bears hairs, which aid in the application of the pollen to the
+stigma, and are called _collecting hairs_, as in _Campanula_, and also
+in _Aster_ and other Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth
+of the style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and
+carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the
+mature stigma of other flowers. In _Vicia_ and _Lobelia_ the hairs
+frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous
+pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they alternate with
+the septa; when united completely, the style is said to be _simple_
+(fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of each carpel of a
+compound pistil, may also be divided. Each division of the tricarpellary
+ovary of _Jatropha Curcas_ has a _bifurcate_ or forked style, and the
+ovary of _Emblica officinalis_ has three styles, each of which is twice
+forked. The length of the style is determined by the relation which
+should subsist between the position of the stigma and that of the
+anthers, so as to allow the proper application of the pollen. The style
+is deciduous or persists after fertilization.
+
+
+  The stigma.
+
+The _stigma_ is the termination of the conducting tissue of the style,
+and is usually in direct communication with the placenta. It consists of
+loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter which detains the
+pollen, and causes it to germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly
+speaking, the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the
+divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated. The
+stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous pistil, or, in
+other words, corresponds with the back of the loculaments; but in some
+cases it would appear that half the stigma of one carpel unites with
+half that of the contiguous carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the
+dissepiments, that is, alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Flower of a grass with glumes removed, showing
+three stamens and two feathery styles. p, Pale; l, lodicules. Enlarged.]
+
+The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which compose the
+pistil. Thus in _Campanula_ a five-cleft stigma indicates five carpels;
+in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or
+bilamellar stigma indicates a bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in
+Gramineae, the stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be
+terminal or lateral. In _Iris_ it is situated on a cleft on the back of
+the petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as those
+of _Mimulus_, present sensitive flattened laminae, which close when
+touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may be globular, as in
+_Mirabilis Jalapa_; orbicular, as in _Arbutus Andrachne_; umbrella-like,
+as in _Sarracenia_, where, however, the proper stigmatic surface is
+beneath the angles of the large expansion of the apex of the style;
+ovoid, as in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral; radiating, as in the
+poppy (fig. 104), where the true stigmatic rays are attached to a sort
+of _peltate_ or shield-like body, which may represent depressed or
+flattened styles; _cucullate_, i.e. covered by a hood, in calabar bean.
+The lobes of a stigma are flat and pointed as in _Mimulus_ and
+_Bignonia_, fleshy and blunt, smooth or granular, or they are feathery,
+as in many grasses (fig. 105) and other wind-pollinated flowers. In
+Orchidaceae the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column
+beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are united to the face
+of the anthers, and along with them form a solid mass.
+
+
+  The ovule.
+
+The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become the seed.
+Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of the carpellary
+leaves, but are also formed over the whole surface of the leaf, as in
+_Butomus_. In other instances they rise from the floral axis itself,
+either terminal, as in Polygonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in
+Primulaceae and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary,
+and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed
+_angiospermous_; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no proper
+ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being denominated
+_gymnospermous_. In _Cycas_ the altered leaf, upon the margin of which
+the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales, from which they are
+pendulous in _Zamia_, are regarded by all botanists as carpellary
+leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion has arisen regarding the
+morphology of parts in many genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes
+united in such a way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil,
+so that the ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In _Leontice
+thalictroides_ (Blue Cohosh), species of _Ophiopogon_, _Peliosanthes_
+and _Stateria_, the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the
+ovules are exposed; and in species of _Cuphea_ the placenta ultimately
+bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing the
+exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either directly,
+when it is _sessile_, or by means of a prolongation _funicle_ (fig. 110,
+f). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after fertilization. The
+part by which the ovule is attached to the placenta or cord is its
+_base_ or _hilum_, the opposite extremity being its _apex_. The latter
+is frequently turned round in such a way as to approach the base. The
+ovule is sometimes embedded in the placenta, as in _Hydnora_.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIGS. 106 and 107.--Successive stages in the development of an ovule. n,
+Nucellus; i, inner; o, outer integument in section; m, micropyle.
+
+FIG. 108.--Orthotropous ovule of _Polygonum_ in section, showing the
+embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular coverings, the
+base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with its
+micropyle m.
+
+FIG. 109.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine (_Pinus
+austriaca_), showing the nucellus a, consisting of delicate cellular
+tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b. The micropyle m
+is very wide.]
+
+The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from the
+placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or less enlarged
+ovate form constituting what has been called the _nucellus_ (fig. 106,
+n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This nucellus may remain
+naked, and alone form the ovule, as in some orders of parasitic plants
+such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae, &c.; but in most plants it becomes
+surrounded by certain coverings or integuments during its development.
+These appear first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the
+nucellus, which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In
+some cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous
+dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also in walnut, &c. But
+usually besides the single covering another is developed subsequently
+(fig. 106, o), which gradually extends over that first formed, and
+ultimately covers it completely, except at the apex. There are thus two
+integuments to the nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do
+not completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed
+the _micropyle_ is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex of the
+ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to form the
+_embryo-sac_ or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac increases in
+size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the nucellus until it
+is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it may actually extend at
+the apex beyond it, as in _Phaseolus_ and _Alsine media_; or it may pass
+into the micropyle, as in _Santalum_. In Gymnosperms it usually remains
+deep in the nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue
+(fig. 109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore,
+and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization is
+formed the embryo, see GYMNOSPERMS and ANGIOSPERMS.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 110.--Campylotropous ovule of wall-flower (_Cheiranthus_), showing
+the funicle f, which attaches the ovule to the placenta; p, the outer,
+s, the inner coat, n, the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The ovule is curved
+upon itself, so that the micropyle is near the funicle.
+
+FIG. 111.--Anatropous ovule of Dandelion (_Taraxacum_), n, nucellus,
+which is inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is removed from the base or
+hilum h, while the micropyle f is near the base. The connexion between
+the base of the ovule and the base of the nucellus is kept up by means
+of the raphe r.]
+
+The point where the integuments are united to the base of the nucellus
+is called the _chalaza_ (figs. 111, 112). This is often coloured, is of
+a denser texture than the surrounding tissue, and is traversed by
+fibro-vascular bundles, which pass from the placenta to nourish the
+ovule.
+
+When the ovule is so developed that the chalaza is at the hilum (next
+the placenta), and the micropyle is at the opposite extremity, there
+being a short funicle, the ovule is _orthotropous_. This form is well
+seen in Polygonaceae (fig. 112), Cistaceae, and most gymnosperms. In
+such an ovule a straight line drawn from the hilum to the micropyle
+passes along the axis of the ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one
+side than on the other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is
+curved upon itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and
+ultimately is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the
+ovule is _campylotropous_ (fig. 110). Curved ovules are found in
+Cruciferae, and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or _anatropous_ ovule
+(fig. 111) is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the
+apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment of the
+funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated at the opposite
+extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the side usually next the
+placenta, coalesces with the ovule and constitutes the _raphe_ (r),
+which often forms a ridge. The anatropous ovule arises from the placenta
+as a straight or only slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows,
+gradually becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the
+integuments (cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round
+it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes adherent
+to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument be formed it
+covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not form on the side to
+which the raphe is adherent. These may be taken as the three types of
+ovule; but there are various intermediate forms, such as
+_semi-anatropous_ and others.
+
+The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When there is a
+single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached to the placenta
+at the base of the ovary (_basal placenta_), and is then _erect_, as in
+Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be inserted a little above the
+base, on a parietal placenta, with its apex upwards, and then is
+_ascending_, as in _Parietaria_. It may hang from an apicilar placenta
+at the summit of the ovary, its apex being directed downwards, and is
+_inverted_ or _pendulous_, as in _Hippuris vulgaris_; or from a parietal
+placenta near the summit, and then is _suspended_, as in _Daphne
+Mezereum_, Polygalaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle
+arises from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and there
+bending over suspends the ovule, as in _Armeria_ (sea-pink); at other
+times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the ovule becomes
+_horizontal_. When there are two ovules in the same cell, they may be
+either _collateral_, that is, placed side by side (fig. 92), or the one
+may be erect and the other inverted, as in some species of _Spiraea_ and
+_Aesculus_; or they may be placed one above another, each directed
+similarly, as is the case in ovaries containing a moderate or definite
+number of ovules. Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the
+ovules, o, are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the
+other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each margin of
+the carpel. When the ovules are _definite_ (i.e. are uniform, and can be
+counted), it is usual to find their attachment so constant as to afford
+good characters for classification. When the ovules are very numerous
+(_indefinite_), while at the same time the placenta is not much
+developed, their position exhibits great variation, some being directed
+upwards, others downwards, others transversely; and their form is
+altered by pressure into various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it
+frequently happens that some of the ovules are arrested in their
+development and become abortive.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 112.--Ovary of _Polygonum Convolvulus_ in longitudinal section
+during fertilization. (X 48.)
+
+  fs, Stalk-like base of ovary,
+  fu, Funicle.
+  cha, Chalaza.
+  nu, Nucellus.
+  mi, Micropyle.
+  ii, inner, ie, outer integument,
+  e, Embryo-sac.
+  ek, Nucleus of embryo-sac.
+  ei, Egg-apparatus.
+  an, Antipodal cells.
+  g, Style.
+  n, Stigma.
+  p, Pollen-grains.
+  ps, Pollen-tubes.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Scotch
+Fir (_Pinus sylvestris_) in May of the second year, showing the enlarged
+embryo-sac b, full of endosperm cells, and pollen-tubes c, penetrating
+the summit of the nucellus after the pollen has entered the large
+micropyle.]
+
+
+  Fertilization.
+
+When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes ready
+for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and the
+pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angiosperms, or the summit of
+the nucellus in gymnosperms, it is detained there, and the viscid
+secretion from the glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the
+nucellus in the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a
+pollen-tube through the pores of the grain. The pollen-tube or tubes
+pass down the canal (fig. 112), through the conducting tissue of the
+style when present, and reach the interior of the ovary in angiosperms,
+and then pass to the micropyle of the ovule, one pollen-tube going to
+each ovule. Sometimes the micropyle lies close to the base of the style,
+and then the pollen-tube enters it at once, but frequently it has to
+pass some distance into the ovary, being guided in its direction by
+various contrivances, as hairs, grooves, &c. In gymnosperms the
+pollen-grain resting on the apex of the nucellus sends out its
+pollen-tubes, which at once penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113). In
+angiosperms when the pollen-tube reaches the micropyle it passes down
+into the canal, and this portion of it increases considerably in size.
+Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in contact with the tip of the
+embryo-sac and perforates it. The male cells in the end of the
+pollen-tube are then transmitted to the embryo-sac and fertilization is
+effected. Consequent upon this, after a longer or shorter period, those
+changes commence in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the
+embryo plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into
+the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of nutriment
+for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization confined to the
+ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant. The ovary enlarges, and,
+with the seeds enclosed, constitutes the fruit, frequently incorporated
+with which are other parts of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In
+gymnosperms the pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down
+the tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer
+or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are discussed
+in a separate article--FRUIT.     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Imitations of natural flowers are sometimes made
+for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass flowers at Harvard
+University, which illustrates the flora of the United States), but more
+often as articles of decoration and ornament. A large variety of
+materials have been used in their manufacture by different peoples at
+different times--painted linen and shavings of stained horn by the
+Egyptians, gold and silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese,
+silkworm cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South
+America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the 18th
+century the French, who originally learnt the art from the Italians,
+made great advances in the accuracy of their reproductions, and towards
+the end of that century the Paris manufacturers enjoyed a world-wide
+reputation. About the same time the art was introduced into England by
+French refugees, and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The
+industry is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of
+operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes may be
+distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various fabrics and
+materials employed into shapes suitable for forming the leaves, petals,
+&c.; this may be done by scissors, but more often stamps are employed
+which will cut through a dozen or more thicknesses at one blow. The
+veins of the leaves are next impressed by means of a die, and the petals
+are given their natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various
+shapes. The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the
+flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the fourth is to
+mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron wire wrapped round
+with suitably coloured material, and to fasten on the leaves required to
+complete the spray.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYD, JOHN (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in Cambridgeshire in
+1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when at Rome in 1592 and is also
+known as Daniel a Jesu, Hermannus Loemelius, and George White, the names
+under which he published a score of controversial treatises. He had
+considerable fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently
+arrested in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died at
+St Omer on the 15th of September 1649. His brother Edward Floyd was
+impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for speaking
+disparagingly of the elector palatine.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (1807-1863), American politician, was born at
+Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He was the son of John
+Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in Congress from 1817 to 1829 and
+governor of Virginia from 1830 to 1834. After graduating at South
+Carolina College in 1826, the son practised law in his native state and
+at Helena, Arkansas, and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia,
+which in 1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state
+legislature. Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governor of Virginia,
+in which position he recommended to the legislature the enactment of a
+law laying an import tax on the products of such states as refused to
+surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters. In March 1857 he
+became secretary of war in President Buchanan's cabinet, where his lack
+of administrative ability was soon apparent. In December 1860, on
+ascertaining that Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government
+contractors in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested
+his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for malversation
+in office, but the indictment was overruled on technical grounds. There
+is no proof that he profited by these irregular transactions; in fact he
+went out of the office financially embarrassed. Though he had openly
+opposed secession before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that
+event, especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion,
+and he was accused of having sent large stores of government arms to
+Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In the last days of
+his term he apparently had such an intention, but during the year 1860
+the Southern States actually received less than their full quota of
+arms. After the secession of Virginia he was commissioned a
+brigadier-general in the Confederate service. He was first employed in
+some unsuccessful operations in western Virginia, and in February 1862
+became commander of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which
+he fled with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the
+night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to surrender to
+General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis relieved him of his
+command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 26th of August 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FLOYER, SIR JOHN (1649-1734), English physician and author, was born at
+Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated at Oxford. He practised in
+Lichfield, and it was by his advice that Dr Johnson, when a child, was
+taken by his mother to be touched by Queen Anne for the king's evil on
+the 30th of March 1714. He died on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was
+an advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the
+rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the pathological
+changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.
+
+  His writings include:--[Greek: Pharmako-Basanos]: _or the Touchstone
+  of Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and
+  Animals, by their Tastes and Smells_ (2 vols., 1687); _The
+  praeternatural State of animal Humours described by their sensible
+  Qualities_ (1696); _An Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the
+  hot, cold and temperate Baths in England_ (1697); _A Treatise of the
+  Asthma_ (1st ed., 1698); _The ancient_ [Greek: Psychrolousia]
+  _revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing both safe and useful_
+  (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged, Manchester, 1844,
+  12mo); _The Physician's Pulse-watch_ (1707-1710); _The Sibylline
+  Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and compared with the
+  sacred Prophecies_ (1st ed., 1713); _Two Essays: the first Essay
+  concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of good and bad
+  Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System of the World_
+  (Nottingham, 1717); _An Exposition of the Revelations_ (1719); _An
+  Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism_ (1722);
+  _Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old Men's
+  Healths_ (1st ed., 1724); _A Comment on forty-two Histories described
+  by Hippocrates_ (1726).
+
+
+
+
+FLUDD, or FLUD, ROBERT [ROBERTUS DE FLUCTIBUS] (1574-1637), English
+physician and mystical philosopher, the son of Sir Thomas Fludd,
+treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France and the Low Countries, was
+born at Milgate, Kent. After studying at St John's College, Oxford, he
+travelled in Europe for six years, and became acquainted with the
+writings of Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a
+member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ultimately became
+a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised in London with
+success, though it is said that he combined with purely medical
+treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following Paracelsus, he
+endeavoured to form a system of philosophy founded on the identity of
+physical and spiritual truth. The universe and all created things
+proceed from God, who is the beginning, the end and the sum of all
+things, and to him they will return. The act of creation is the
+separation of the active principle (light) from the passive (darkness)
+in the bosom of the divine unity (God). The universe consists of three
+worlds; the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm
+(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both
+sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is possible for
+man (and even for the mineral and the plant) to undergo transformation
+and to win immortality. Fludd's system may be described as a
+materialistic pantheism, which, allegorically interpreted, he put
+forward as containing the real meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam
+by God himself, handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs,
+and revealed a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the
+honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne. Though rapt in
+mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied attainments. He did not
+disdain scientific experiments, and is thought by some to be the
+original inventor of the barometer. He was an ardent defender of the
+Rosicrucians, and De Quincey considers him to have been the immediate,
+as J.V. Andrea was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the
+8th of September 1637.
+
+  See J.B. Craven, _Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian_ (1902), where
+  a list of his works is given; A.E. Waite, _The Real History of the
+  Rosicrucians_ (1887); De Quincey, _The Rosicrucians and Freemasons_;
+  J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (1870), i. 240 seq. His works
+  were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.
+
+
+
+
+FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT (1802-1870), German orientalist, was born at
+Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802. He received his early education at
+the gymnasium of his native town, and studied theology and philology at
+Leipzig. Gradually he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental
+languages, which he studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became
+professor at the _Furstenschule_ of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health
+compelled him to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to
+Vienna, where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and
+Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden on the 5th
+of July 1870.
+
+  Flugel's chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and
+  encyclopaedic lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols.,
+  London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition of the
+  Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed _Concordantiae
+  Corani arabicae_ (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); _Mani, seine Lehren
+  und seine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1862); _Die grammatischen Schulen der
+  Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862); and _Ibn Kutlubugas Krone der
+  Lebensbeschreibungen_ (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of
+  _Kitab-al-Fihrist_, prepared by him, was published after his death.
+
+
+
+
+FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1788-1855), German lexicographer, was born at
+Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of November 1788. He was originally a
+merchant's clerk, but emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a
+special study of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819,
+was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the university
+of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and subsequently
+representative and correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution at
+Washington and several other leading American literary and scientific
+institutions. He died at Leipzig on the 24th of June 1855.
+
+  The fame of Flugel rests chiefly on the _Vollstandige
+  englisch-deutsche und deutsch-englische Worterbuch_, first published
+  in 2 vols. (Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation
+  not only in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was
+  assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition, edited by
+  his son Felix Flugel (1820-1904), was published at Brunswick
+  (1890-1892). Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel
+  Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London & New York) in 1906.
+  Among his other works are--_Vollstandige engl. Sprachlehre_
+  (1824-1826); _Triglotte, oder kaufmannisches Worterbuch in drei
+  Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Franzosisch_ (1836-1840); _Kleines
+  Kaufmannisches Handworterbuch in drei Sprachen_ (1840); and
+  _Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz_ (1827, 9th ed.
+  1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition,
+  Flugel also published in the English language: _A series of Commercial
+  Letters_ (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in 1874
+  under the title _Practical Mercantile Correspondence_ and a _Practical
+  Dictionary of the English and German Languages_ (2 vols., Hamburg and
+  Leipzig, 1847-1852; 15th ed., Leipzig, 1891). The last was continued
+  and re-edited by his son Felix.
+
+
+
+
+FLUKE (probably connected with the Ger. _flach_, flat), a name given to
+several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the common flounder;
+also the name of a trematoid worm, resembling a flounder in shape, which
+as a parasite infects the liver and neighbouring organs of certain
+animals, especially sheep, and causes liver-rot. The most common is the
+_Fasciola hepatica_ (see TREMATODES). It is also the name of a species
+of kidney potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish,
+"fluke" is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in shape, at
+the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular extremities of
+the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang expression for a
+lucky accident appears to have been first applied in billiards to an
+unintentional scoring shot.
+
+
+
+
+FLUME (through an O. Fr. word _flum_, from the Lat. _flumen_, a river),
+a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly for the tail of a
+mill-race. It is used in America for a very narrow gorge running between
+precipitous rocks, with a stream at the bottom, but more frequently is
+applied to an artificial channel of wood or other material for the
+diversion of a stream of water from a river for purposes of irrigation,
+for running a sawmill, or for various processes in the hydraulic method
+of gold-mining (see AQUEDUCT).
+
+
+
+
+FLUMINI MAGGIORE, a town of the province of Cagliari, Sardinia, 10 m. by
+road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast. Pop. (1901) town 3908;
+commune 9647. It is the centre of a considerable lead and zinc mining
+district. Three miles to the S. are the ruins of a temple erected
+probably in the time of Commodus (_Corpus inscr. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883,
+No. 7539). They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on
+the coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining
+district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found two
+ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian's name.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORANTHENE, C15H10, also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon occurring with
+phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other substances in "Stupp" fat (the
+fat obtained in working up the mercury ores in Idria), and also in the
+higher boiling fractions of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered
+by R. Fittig in 1878, who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its
+constitution (see _Ann._, 1879, 200, p. 1). The hydrocarbons are
+separated from the "Stupp" by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on
+distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene and
+fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be fractionally
+precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated from most of the
+pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial vacuum. In either case
+the two hydrocarbons are finally separated by fractional crystallization
+of their picrates, which are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene
+crystallizes in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at
+109-110 deg. C. and boiling at 250-251 deg. C. (60 mm.). It is easily
+soluble in hot alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with
+chromic acid it forms a quinone, C15H8O2, and an [alpha]-diphenylene
+ketocarboxylic acid
+
+  C6H4 \
+  .     >   CO
+  C6H3 / -- CO2H.
+
+The picrate melts at 182-183 deg. C.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORENE ([alpha]-diphenylene methane), C13H10 or (C6H4)2CH2, a
+hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher boiling
+fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene, by fractional
+distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340 deg. C. being taken.
+The fluorene is separated from this by placing it in a freezing mixture,
+and is then redistilled or crystallized from glacial acetic acid, or
+purified by means of its picrate. It may be prepared by distilling
+diphenylene ketone over zinc dust, or by heating it with hydriodic acid
+and phosphorus to 150-160 deg. C.; and also by passing the vapour of
+diphenyl methane through a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless
+plates, possessing a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113 deg. and
+boiling at 293-295 deg. C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial
+acetic acid solution, it is converted into diphenylene ketone
+(C6H4)2.CO; whilst on heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to
+250-260 deg. C. it gives a hydro derivative of composition C18H22.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORESCEIN, or RESORCIN-PHTHALEIN, C20H12O5, in chemistry, a compound
+discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by the condensation of phthalic
+anhydride with resorcin at 195-200 deg. C. (_Ann._, 1876, 183, p. 1). The
+two reacting substances are either heated alone or with zinc chloride for
+some hours, and the melt obtained is boiled out with water, washed by
+dilute alcohol, extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so
+obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well washed with
+water and then dried. By repeating this process two or three times, the
+fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure condition. It forms a yellow
+amorphous powder, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, and
+crystallizing from the alcoholic solution in small dark red nodules. It
+is readily soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, the solution
+being of a dark red colour and showing (especially when largely diluted
+with water) a brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of
+this last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid
+solution, _eosin_ (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same compound
+being formed by heating 3.5-dibrom-2.4-dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid above its
+melting point (R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes
+from alcohol in yellowish red needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted
+cotton a fine pink colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields
+dibromresorcin and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding iodo
+compound is known as _erythrosin_. Fluorescein is readily nitrated,
+yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to conditions. The
+entrance of the negative nitro group into the molecule weakens the
+central pyrone ring in the fluorescein nucleus and the di-and tetra-nitro
+compounds readily yield hydrates (see J.T. Hewitt and B.W. Perkins,
+_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines
+the di-nitro fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F.
+Reverdin, _Ber_., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from
+fluorescein are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and
+rose Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein).
+
+  On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin, C6H4(OH)2,
+  and monoresorcin phthalein (dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid), (HO)2C6H3.CO.C
+  H4.COOH. With zinc dust and caustic soda it yields fluorescin. By
+  warming fluorescein with excess of phosphorus pentachloride it yields
+  fluorescein chloride, C20H10O3Cl2 (A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from
+  alcohol in small prisms, melting at 252 deg. C. When heated with
+  aniline and aniline hydrochloride, fluorescein yields a colourless
+  anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ber_., 1893, 26, p. 2236), which is
+  readily methylated by methyl iodide and potash to a
+  fluoresceinanilidedimethyl ether, which when heated for six hours to
+  150 deg. C. with acetic and hydrochloric acids, is hydrolysed and
+  yields a colourless fluoresceindimethyl ether, which melts at 198 deg.
+  C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic potash,
+  methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow) dimethyl ether,
+  melting at 208 deg. C. is obtained (Fischer and Hepp). By heating the
+  coloured dimethyl ether with caustic soda, the monomethyl ether is
+  obtained (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 397); this
+  crystallizes in triclinic tables, and melts at 262 deg. C. It is to be
+  noted that the colourless monomethyl ether fluoresces strongly in
+  alkaline solution, the dimethyl ether of melting point 208 deg.
+  fluoresces only in neutral solution (e.g., in alcoholic solution), and
+  the dimethyl ether of melting point 198 deg. C. only in concentrated
+  hydrochloric or sulphuric acid solution (Fischer and Hepp).
+  Considerable discussion has taken place as to the position held by the
+  hydroxyl groups in the fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (_Ber_., 1895,
+  28, p. 28) asserting that they were in the ortho position to the
+  linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller
+  (_Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 312), however, showed that
+  monoresorcin-phthalein when brominated in glacial acetic acid gives a
+  dibrom derivative which, with fuming sulphuric acid, yields
+  dibromxanthopurpurin (1.3-dioxy-2.4-dibromanthraquinone), a reaction
+  which is only possible if the fluorescein (from which the
+  monoresorcin-phthalein is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in
+  the para position to the linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride
+  residue.
+
+
+
+
+FLUORESCENCE. In a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable phenomenon he had
+discovered to which he gave the name of "internal dispersion." On
+admitting a beam of sunlight, condensed by a lens, into a solution of
+chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of leaves (see fig. 1), he was
+surprised to find that the path of the rays within the fluid was marked
+by a bright light of a blood-red colour, strangely contrasting with the
+beautiful green of the fluid when seen in moderate thickness. Brewster
+afterwards observed the same phenomenon in various vegetable solutions
+and essential oils, and in some solids, amongst which was fluor-spar. He
+believed this effect to be due to coloured particles held in suspension.
+A few years later, Sir John Herschel independently discovered that if a
+solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted light,
+appears colourless and transparent like water, were illuminated by a
+beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue colour was seen in a thin
+stratum of the fluid adjacent to the surface by which the light entered.
+The blue light was unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of
+the fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the stratum
+from which the blue light came, was not sensibly enfeebled or coloured,
+but yet it had lost the power of producing the characteristic blue
+colour when admitted into a second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam
+of light modified in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel
+"epipolized." Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case
+of internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays
+capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken up by Sir G.G.
+Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present knowledge of the subject
+is due. Stokes's first paper "On the Change of the Refrangibility of
+Light" appeared in 1852. He repeated the experiments of Brewster and
+Herschel, and considerably extended them. These experiments soon led him
+to the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had
+imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but that
+the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from the light
+which excited it. He therefore termed it "true internal dispersion" to
+distinguish it from the scattering of light, which he called "false
+internal dispersion." As this name, however, is apt to suggest
+Brewster's view of the phenomenon, he afterwards abandoned it as
+unsatisfactory, and substituted the word "fluorescence." This term,
+derived from fluor-spar after the analogy of opalescence from opal, does
+not presuppose any theory. To examine the nature of the fluorescence
+produced by quinine, Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun's rays in
+the usual manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine
+sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum and then
+gradually moved along the spectrum to the other extremity. No
+fluorescence was observed as long as the tube remained in the more
+luminous portion, but as soon as the violet was reached, a ghost-like
+gleam of blue light shot right across the tube. On continuing to move
+the tube, the blue light at first increased in intensity and afterwards
+died away, but not until the tube had been moved a considerable distance
+into the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first
+appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before disappearing
+it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side at which the exciting
+rays entered. Stokes varied this experiment by placing a vessel filled
+with the dilute solution in a spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The
+appearance is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part
+of the light passed freely as if through water, but from about half-way
+between the Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond the extreme violet,
+the incident rays gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour, which
+emanated in all directions from the portion of the fluid (represented
+white in fig. 2) which was under the influence of the incident rays. The
+anterior surface of the blue space coincided, of course, with the inner
+surface of the glass vessel. The posterior surface marked the distance
+to which the incident rays were able to penetrate before they were
+absorbed. This distance was at first considerable, greater than the
+diameter of the vessel, but decreased with great rapidity as the
+refrangibility of the incident light increased, so that from a little
+beyond the extreme violet to the end, the blue space was reduced to an
+excessively thin stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to
+the ultra-violet rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part
+of the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather planes,
+intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the fluorescent light is
+not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident rays to a narrow band of
+homogeneous light, and examining the dispersed beam through a prism, he
+found that the blue light consisted of rays extending over a wide range
+of refrangibility, but not into the ultra-violet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in examining
+different substances for fluorescence, was as follows. Two coloured
+media were prepared, one of which transmitted the upper portion of the
+spectrum and was opaque to the lower portion, while the second was
+opaque to the upper and transparent to the lower part of the spectrum.
+These were called by Stokes "complementary absorbents." No pair could be
+found which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition was
+approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses or
+solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue solution of
+ammioniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass coloured with silver. The
+two media together were almost opaque. The light of the sun being
+admitted through a hole in the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet
+was laid on a shelf fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel
+containing the blue solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the
+tablet was viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered
+the eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid on
+the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs of
+complementary absorbents were required according to the colour of the
+fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly that the light which
+passed through the first absorbent and which would have been stopped by
+the second gave rise in the fluorescent substance to rays of a different
+wave-length which were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered
+light, with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was
+eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second absorbent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Spectrum of Chlorophyll.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Spectrum of Aesculin.]
+
+Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton's method of crossed
+prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light. A spectrum
+was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit being horizontal
+instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow spectrum was projected on
+a white paper moistened with a fluorescent solution, and viewed through
+a second prism with its refracting edge perpendicular to that of the
+first prism. In addition to the sloping spectrum seen under ordinary
+circumstances, another spectrum due to the fluorescent light alone, made
+its appearance, as seen in figs. 3 and 4. In this spectrum the colours
+do not run from left to right, but in horizontal lines. Thus the dark
+lines of the solar spectrum lie across the colours. The spectra in figs.
+3 and 4 were obtained by V. Pierre with an improved arrangement of
+Stokes's method. It will be seen that, in the case of chlorophyll, the
+whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet, gives rise to a short range
+of red fluorescent light, while the effective part of the exciting light
+in the case of aesculin (a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark)
+begins a little above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers
+a wide range extending from orange to blue.
+
+Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number of vegetable
+extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly fluorescent. Stokes
+found that most organic substances show signs of fluorescence. Green
+fluor-spar from Alston Moor exhibits a violet, uranium glass a
+yellowish-green fluorescence. Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a
+greenish light, and the extract of seeds of _Datura stramonium_ a pale
+green light. Ordinary paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium
+platinocyanide, which is much used in the fluorescent screens employed
+in work with the Rontgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with
+ordinary light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the
+remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light, the
+colour and plane of polarization depending on the position of the
+crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized light is
+used, on the plane of polarization of the latter.
+
+_Stokes's Law._--In all the substances examined by Stokes, the
+fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the light
+which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this lowering of
+the refrangibility of the light was a general law which held for all
+substances. This is known as Stokes's law. It has been shown, however,
+by E. Lommel and others, that this law does not hold generally. Lommel
+distinguishes two kinds of fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the
+first kind are those which possess strong absorption bands, of which
+only one remains appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are
+always strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids)
+surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the
+fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption. Stokes's
+law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be produced by means
+of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility than a great part of the
+fluorescent light. The second kind of fluorescence is the most common,
+and is exhibited by bodies which show absorption only in the upper part
+of the spectrum, i.e. they are usually yellow or brown or (if the
+absorption is in the ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also
+are different from those of substances of the first kind, for they
+readily disappear on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by
+those substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.
+
+_Nature of Fluorescence._--No complete theory of fluorescence has yet
+been given, though various attempts have been made to explain the
+phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to phosphorescence (q.v.),
+the difference consisting in the duration of the effect after the
+exciting cause is removed. Liquids which fluoresce only do so while the
+exciting light is falling on them, ceasing immediately the exciting
+light is cut off. In the case of solids, on the other hand, such as
+fluor-spar or uranium glass, the effect, though very brief, does not die
+away quite instantaneously, so that it is really a very brief
+phosphorescence. The property of phosphorescence has been generally
+attributed to some molecular change taking place in the bodies
+possessing it. That some such change takes place during fluorescence is
+rendered probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state
+of the sensitive substance; some bodies, such as barium platinocyanide,
+fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while others, such
+as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluorescence is always
+associated with absorption, but many bodies are absorbent without
+showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory would have to account for
+these facts as well as for the production of waves of one period by
+those of another, and the non-homogeneous character of the fluorescent
+light. Quite recently W. Voigt has sought to give a theory of
+fluorescence depending on the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory
+assumes that the electrons which constitute the molecule of the
+sensitive body can exist in two or more different configurations
+simultaneously, and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the
+molecule in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different
+periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would
+happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with that of
+the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter, and if they
+then underwent a transformation into a different configuration with a
+different period, this absorbed energy would be given out in waves of a
+period corresponding to that of the new configuration.
+
+_Applications of Fluorescence._--The phenomenon of fluorescence can be
+utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of reflection and
+refraction in lecture experiments since the path of a ray of light
+through a very dilute solution of a sensitive substance is rendered
+visible. The existence of the dark lines in the ultra-violet portion of
+the solar spectrum can also be demonstrated in a simple manner. In
+addition to the foregoing applications, Stokes made use of this property
+for studying the character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different
+sources of illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property
+would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a small
+quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture. Fluorescent
+screens are largely used in work with Rontgen rays. There appears to be
+some prospect of light being thrown on the question of molecular
+structure by experiments on the fluorescence of vapours. Some very
+interesting experiments in this direction have been performed by R.W.
+Wood on the fluorescence of sodium vapour.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Sir G.G. Stokes, _Mathematical and Physical Papers_,
+  vols. iii. and iv.; Muller-Pouillet, _Lehrbuch der Physik_, Bd. ii.
+  (1897); A. Wullner, _Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik_, Bd. iv. (1899);
+  A.A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch der Physik_, Bd. vi. (1906); R.W. Wood,
+  _Physical Optics_ (1905).     (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FLUORINE (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element of the halogen
+group. It is never found in the uncombined condition, but in combination
+with calcium as fluor-spar CaF2 it is widely distributed; it is also
+found in cryolite Na3AlF6, in fluor-apatite, CaF2.3Ca3P2O8, and in
+minute traces in sea-water, in some mineral springs, and as a
+constituent of the enamel of the teeth. It was first isolated by H.
+Moissan in 1886 by the electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid
+containing dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic
+vessel and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium, the
+limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar, and
+fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases evolved.
+Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus is kept at a
+constant temperature of -23 deg. C. by means of liquid methyl chloride.
+The fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at the anode, is passed
+through a well cooled platinum vessel, in order to free it from any acid
+fumes that may be carried over, and finally through two platinum tubes
+containing sodium fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric
+acid; it is then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar
+plates. B. Brauner (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained
+fluorine by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF.HF.PbF4. At 200 deg. C.
+this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between 230-250
+deg. C. fluorine is liberated.
+
+Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell; its
+specific gravity is 1.265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied, the
+liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at -187 deg. C. It is
+the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact with hydrogen
+combination takes place between the two gases with explosive violence,
+even in the dark, and at as low a temperature as -210 deg. C; finely
+divided carbon burns in the gas, forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is
+decomposed even at ordinary temperatures, with the formation of
+hydrofluoric acid and "ozonised" oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus
+melt and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides,
+and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides; it does
+not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds are rapidly
+attacked by the gas.
+
+Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known, namely
+_hydrofluoric acid_, HF or H2F2, which was first obtained by C. Scheele
+in 1771 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated sulphuric acid, a
+method still used for the commercial preparation of the aqueous solution
+of the acid, the mixture being distilled from leaden retorts and the
+acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha bottles. The perfectly anhydrous
+acid is a very volatile colourless liquid and is best obtained,
+according to G. Gore (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the
+double fluoride of hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum
+retort fitted with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing
+mixture, and having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be
+prepared in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen
+over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most
+dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly diluted with
+air having an exceedingly injurious action on the respiratory organs,
+whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is followed by death. The anhydrous
+acid boils at 19.5 deg. C. (H. Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid
+mass at -102.5 deg. C, which melts at -92.3 deg. C. (K. Olszewski,
+_Monats. fur Chemie_, 1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily
+dissolve in the anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation
+of fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and
+dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is that it
+rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass to form
+gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for etching. T.E.
+Thorpe (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1889, 55, p. 163) determined the vapour
+density of hydrofluoric acid at different temperatures, and showed that
+there is no approach to a definite value below about 88 deg. C. where it
+reaches the value 10.29 corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at
+temperatures below 88 deg. C. the value increases rapidly, showing that
+the molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see J.N.
+Friend, _The Theory of Valency_ (1909), p. 111.) The aqueous solution
+behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen acids; E.
+Deussen (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408; 1906, 49, p. 297)
+found the solution of constant boiling point to contain 43.2% HF and to
+boil at 110 deg. (750 mm.).
+
+  The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as _fluorides_ and are easily
+  obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides,
+  hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of
+  silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those of
+  the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of the
+  alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of
+  hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative
+  elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other
+  metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power of
+  etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid; or by warming them in a
+  glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a moistened
+  glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently gelatinizes
+  owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed. The atomic
+  weight of fluorine has been determined by the conversion of calcium,
+  sodium and potassium fluorides into the corresponding sulphates. J.
+  Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride into silver chloride,
+  obtained the value 19.44, and by analysing calcium fluoride the value
+  19.16; the more recent work of H. Moissan gives the value 19.05.
+
+  See H. Moissan, _Le Fluor et ses composes_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+FLUOR-SPAR, native calcium fluoride (CaF2), known also as FLUORITE or
+simply FLUOR. In France it is called fluorine, whilst the term fluor is
+applied to the element (F). All these terms, from the Lat. _fluere_, "to
+flow," recall the fact that the spar is useful as a flux in certain
+metallurgical operations. (Cf. its Ger. name _Flussspat_ or _Fluss_.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in cubes, either
+alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, four-faced
+cube, &c. The four-faced cube has been called the fluoroid. In fig. 1, a
+is the cube (100), d the rhombic dodecahedron (110), and f the
+four-faced cube (310). Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of
+interpenetrant cubes. The crystals are sometimes polysynthetic, a large
+octahedron, e.g., being built up of small cubes. The faces are often
+etched or corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the
+octahedron.
+
+Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife,
+though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3.2. The
+colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral is too
+soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome material for
+vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed in bands, regularly
+following the contour of the crystal. As the colour is usually expelled,
+or much altered, by heat, it is believed to be due to an organic
+pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons has been detected in many
+specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and other observers. H.W. Morse (_Proc. Amer.
+Acad._, 1906, p. 587) obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen
+and nitrogen and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by
+heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decomposition of an
+organic colouring matter, which has, however, no connexion with the
+fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of the mineral. Certain crystals
+from Cumberland are beautifully fluorescent, appearing purple with a
+bluish internal haziness by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted
+light. Fluor-spar, though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double
+refraction, probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar
+are thermo-luminescent, i.e. they glow on exposure to a moderate heat,
+and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety which exhibits a
+green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces under the Rontgen rays.
+Cavities containing liquid occasionally occur in crystals of fluor-spar,
+notably in the greasy green cubes of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet
+fluor-spar from Wolsendorf in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when
+struck, and has been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a
+violet fluor-spar from Quincie, dep. Rhone, France. In both cases the
+spar evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.
+
+Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially in
+lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and
+ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries, and has
+been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in the reduction
+of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric acid, which it
+evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The mineral is also used in the
+production of opal glass and enamel ware. In consequence of its low
+refractive and dispersive power, colourless pellucid fluor-spar is
+valuable in the construction of apochromatic lenses, but this variety is
+rare. The dark violet fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as "Blue
+John," is prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively
+at Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the
+workmen "bull beef," may be changed, by heat, to a rich amethystine
+tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult to work on the
+lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin. F. Corsi, the eminent
+Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was the material of the famous
+murrhine vases.
+
+Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the finest
+crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous Limestone series
+in the north of England, especially at Weardale, Allendale and Alston
+Moor. It is also found in the lead and copper-mines of Cornwall and S.
+Devon, notably near Liskeard, where fine crystals have been found, with
+faces of the six-faced octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In
+Cornwall fluor-spar is known to the miners as "cann." Fine yellow
+fluor-spar occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red
+octahedra are found in the Alps, near Goschenen. Many localities in the
+United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked commercially in a few
+places, notably at Rosiclare in southern Illinois.
+
+
+
+
+FLUSHING, formerly a township and a village of Queens county, New York,
+U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing Bay, since the 1st of
+January 1898 a part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Flushing is
+served by the Long Island railroad and by electric lines. It was settled
+in 1644 by a company of English non-conformists who had probably been
+residents of Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its
+name. Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in 1672
+George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the War of
+Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich New Yorkers and
+colonial officials.
+
+
+
+
+FLUSHING (Dutch _Vlissingen_), a fortified seaport in the province of
+Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of Walcheren, at the
+mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt, 4 m. by rail S. by W. of
+Middelburg, with which it is also connected by steam tramway and by a
+ship canal. There is a steam ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the
+coast of Zeeland-Flandres. Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval
+station and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the
+care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial port. In 1872
+the railway was opened which, in conjunction with the regular day and
+night service of steamers to Queenborough in the county of Kent, forms
+one of the main routes between England and the east of Europe. In 1873
+the great harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the
+navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or Antwerp,
+the tonnage being in 1899 about 7.9% of that of the kingdom. As a summer
+resort, however, Flushing has acquired considerable popularity,
+sea-baths and a large modern hotel being situated on the fine beach
+about three-quarters of a mile north-west of the town. It possesses a
+town hall, containing a collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an
+exchange, an academy of sciences and a school of navigation. The
+Jakobskerk, or Jacob's church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to
+Admiral de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786),
+who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town are
+connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery, the state
+railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron and steel works'
+depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture. The chief imports are
+colonial produce and wine, wood and coal. The exports include
+agricultural produce (wheat and beans), shrimps and meat.
+
+
+
+
+FLUTE, a word adapted from O. Fr. _fleute_, modern _flute_; from O. Fr.
+have come the Span. _flauta_, Ital. _flauto_ and Ger. _Flote_. The _New
+English Dictionary_ dismisses the derivations suggested from Lat.
+_flatuare_ or _flavitare_; ultimately the word must be referred to the
+root seen in "blow," Lat. _flare_, Ger. _blasen_, &c.
+
+1. In music "flute" is a general term applied to wood-wind instruments
+consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and blown directly
+through the mouthpiece without the intervention of a reed. The flute
+family is classified according to the mouthpiece used to set in
+vibration the column of air within the tube: i.e. (1) the simple lateral
+mouth-hole or embouchure which necessitates holding the instrument in a
+transverse position; (2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows
+the performer to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There
+is a third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no
+mouthpiece of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration
+by blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the ancient
+Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (q.v.). The transverse flute
+has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which has survived only in
+the so-called penny whistle, in the "flute-work" of the organ (q.v.),
+and in the French flageolet.
+
+_The Transverse Flute_ or _German Flute_ (Fr. _flute traversiere_,
+_flute allemande_: Ger. _Flote_, _Querflote_, _Zwerchpfeiff_,
+_Schweitzerpfeiff_; Ital. _flauto traverso_) includes the _concert
+flute_ known both as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (q.v.) or
+octave flute, and the fife (q.v.). The modern flute consists of a tube
+open at one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug or
+cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one giving the
+consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a stretched string.
+The primitive flute was made in one piece, but the modern instrument is
+composed of three adjustable joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the
+upper end and containing at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole
+or embouchure. This embouchure, always open when the instrument is being
+played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an acoustical
+sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys necessary to produce
+the scale which gave the flute its original designation of D flute, the
+head and body together, when the holes are closed, giving the
+fundamental note D. Before the invention of keys, this fundamental note
+and the notes obtained by the successive opening of the six holes
+produced the diatonic scale of D major. All other semitones were
+obtained by what is known as cross fingering (Fr. _doigte fourchu_; Ger.
+_Gabelgriffe_). It became usual to consider this the typical fingering
+nomenclature, whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute, and
+to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the six lateral
+holes are covered by the fingers. The result is that the tonality is
+always a tone lower than the name of the instrument indicates. Thus the
+D flute is really in C, the F flute is E[flat], &c. (3) The foot-joint
+or tail-joint containing the two additional keys for C[sharp] and C
+which extend the compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C
+in the fundamental octave.
+
+The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with chromatic
+semitones from [notes] to [notes]. The sound is produced by holding the
+flute transversely with the embouchure turned slightly outwards, the
+lower lip resting on the nearer edge of the embouchure, and blowing
+obliquely across, not into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the
+lips, known as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the
+embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces in the
+stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsations or
+vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rarefaction of the
+air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional to the length of the
+stationary column, which is practically somewhat longer than the length
+of the tube.[1] The length of this column is varied by opening the
+lateral finger-holes. The current or air-reed thus acts upon the air
+column within the flute, without passing through the tube, as a plectrum
+upon a string, setting it in vibration. The air column of the flute is
+the sound-producer, whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the
+vibrating reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air
+column, acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed
+by vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle[2] at which the current
+of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure be made less
+acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same time increased, the
+frequency of the alternate pulses of compression and rarefaction within
+the tube will be increased two, three or fourfold, forming a
+corresponding number of nodes and loops which results in harmonics or
+upper partials, respectively the octave, the twelfth, the double octave.
+By this means sounds of higher pitch are produced without actually
+shortening the length of the column of air by means of lateral holes.
+The acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which
+there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be
+treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult the works of
+Rockstro,[3] Helmholtz,[4] and others.[5] The effect of boring lateral
+holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of the air column,
+which may be regarded as being effective only between the hole in
+question and the mouthpiece. In order to obtain this result the diameter
+of the hole should be equal to that of the bore; as long as the holes
+were covered by the fingers, this was obviously impossible. The holes,
+therefore, being smaller than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be
+placed proportionally nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening
+the pitch and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by
+wind-instrument makers of classic Greece (see AULOS and CLARINET), and
+has been explained by Chladni[6] and Gottfried Weber.[7]
+
+The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably
+cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century a
+modification took place, the head joint alone remaining cylindrical
+while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone having its
+smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The conoidal bore
+greatly improved the quality of tone and the production of the higher
+harmonics of the third octave. Once the conical bore had been adopted,
+the term flute was exclusively applied to the new instruments, the
+smaller flutes, then cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife
+(q.v.). At the present day in England, France and America, the favourite
+mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm, and known as
+the "cylinder flute with the parabolic head," of which more will be said
+further on. The successive opening of the holes and keys on the flute
+produces the chromatic scale of the first or fundamental octave. By
+increasing the pressure of the breath and slightly altering the position
+of the lips over the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes
+of the fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave of
+the compass is obtained by the production of the higher harmonics (Fr.
+_sons harmoniques_; Ger. _Flageolettone_), of the fundamental scale,
+facilitated by the opening of certain of the finger-holes as "vent
+holes." The quality of tone depends somewhat on the material of which
+the flute is made; silver and gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite
+delicacy suitable for solo music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow
+tone of considerable power suitable for orchestral music. The tone
+differs further in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough,
+the medium sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The
+proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air chamber
+situated between it and the embouchure are mainly influential in giving
+the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre, due to the paucity of the
+upper partials of which according to Helmholtz[8] only the octave and
+twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley[9] states, however, that when the
+fundamental D is played, he can discern the seventh partial. The
+technical capabilities of the flute are practically unlimited to a good
+player who can obtain sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic
+and chromatic scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps,
+turns, shakes, &c. By the articulation with the tongue of the syllables
+_te-ke_ or _ti-ke_ repeated quickly for groups of double notes, or of
+_te-ke-ti_ for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced, known
+respectively as _double_ or _triple tonguing_, a device understood early
+in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin Agricola,[10] who gives the
+syllables as _de_ for sustained notes, di-ri for shorter notes, and
+_tel-lel-lel_ for staccato passages in quick tempo.[11]
+
+[Illustration: From Captain Day's _Catalogue, &c._, by permission of
+Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode.
+
+FIG. 1.--Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.]
+
+[Illustration: Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co.
+
+FIG. 2.--Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model.]
+
+  Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is set
+  in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air
+  directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice
+  serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The
+  Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of blowing
+  from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long pipe held
+  obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its upper
+  extremity; it was known as _Saib-it_[12] and was frequently figured on
+  the monuments. The same instrument, called "nay," is still used in
+  Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the Greeks,
+  plagiaulos,[13] was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first blown
+  from the end as described above,[14] since we know that the Greeks
+  were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx or pan-pipe.
+  The instruments preserved at the British Museum[15] having lateral
+  embouchures show, however, that they were also acquainted--probably
+  through the Hindus--with the transverse flute, although in the case of
+  these specimens a reed must have been inserted into the mouth-hole or
+  no sound would have been obtained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century A.D. From
+  the Tope at Amarabati, British Museum.]
+
+  The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe is generally
+  admitted; the flute evidently penetrated from the East at some period
+  not yet determined. A transverse flute is seen on Indian sculptures of
+  the Gandhara school showing Greek influence, and dating from the
+  beginning of our era (fig. 3). But although the transverse flute was
+  evidently known to the Greeks and Romans, it did not find the same
+  favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no evidence of
+  the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the Roman
+  empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources during the
+  early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a group of
+  caskets[16] of Italo-Byzantine work of the 9th or 10th century, while
+  of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek
+  MSS.[17] preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere.
+  There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev[18] an
+  orchestra depicted on frescoes said to date from the 11th century;
+  among the musicians is a flautist.
+
+  The first essentially western European trace of the transverse flute
+  occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated _Hortus
+  deliciarum_ of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg.[19] Fol. 221 shows a
+  syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad explains in a
+  legend as _tibia_; in the vocabulary the latter is translated swegel.
+  In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of the fifty-one
+  musicians in the beautiful MS. _Las Cantigas de Santa Maria_ in the
+  Escorial, Madrid.[20] Eustache Deschamps, a French poet of the 14th
+  century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the "flute
+  traversaine," and we are justified in supposing that he refers to the
+  transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in the 15th
+  century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Virdung's
+  celebrated work,[21] where it is called "Zwerchpfeiff," and, with the
+  drums, it already constituted the principal element of the military
+  music. Agricola (op. cit.) alludes to it as the "Querchpfeiff" or
+  "Schweizerpfeiff," the latter designation dating, it is said, from the
+  battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops used it for the first
+  time in war.
+
+  From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family, said
+  to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass--[notes] or
+  [notes] respectively. Praetorius[22] designates the transverse flute
+  as "Flauta traversa' Querpfeiff" and "Querflot," and gives the pitch
+  of the bass in [notes] the tenor and alto in [notes] and the discant
+  in [notes] as varieties then in use. A flute concert at that time
+  included two discants, four altos or tenors, and two basses. The same
+  author distinguishes between the "Traversa" and the "Schweizerpfeiff"
+  or fife (which he also calls "Feldpfeiff," i.e. military flute),
+  although the construction was the same. There were two kinds of
+  "Feldpfeiff," in [notes] and [notes] respectively; they were employed
+  exclusively with the military drum.
+
+  Mersenne's[23] account of the transverse flute, then designated "flute
+  d'Allemagne" or "flute allemande" in France, and an "Air de Cour" for
+  four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in use
+  in France the soprano flute in [notes] the tenor or alto flute in
+  [notes] and the bass flute descending to [notes]. The museum of the
+  Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses specimens of all these
+  varieties except the last. All of them are laterally pierced with six
+  finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore, and are fashioned out of a
+  single piece of wood. Their compass consists of two octaves and a
+  fifth. Mersenne's tablature for fingering the flute differs but little
+  from those of Hotteterre-le-Romain[24] and Eisel[25] for the diatonic
+  scale; he does not give the chromatic semitones and the flute had as
+  yet no keys.
+
+  The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in [notes] at the
+  French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per second. It measures
+  0.95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to the lower extremity of
+  the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes is such that it is
+  impossible to cover them with the fingers if the flute is held in the
+  ordinary way. The instrument must be placed against the mouth in an
+  almost vertical direction, inclining the extremity of the tube either
+  to the right or the left. This inconvenient position makes it
+  necessary that the instrument should be divided into two parts,
+  enabling the player to turn the head joint that the embouchure may be
+  most commodiously approached by the lips, which is not at all easy.
+  The first and fourth of the six lateral holes are double in order to
+  accommodate both right- and left-handed players, the holes not in use
+  being stopped up with wax. The bass flute shown in fig. 4 is the
+  facsimile of an instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona. The
+  original, unfortunately no longer fit for use, is nevertheless
+  sufficiently well preserved to allow of all its proportionate
+  measurements being given. The lowest note, E[flat], is obtained with a
+  remarkable amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very prevalent opinion
+  that it is impossible to produce by lateral insufflation sounds which
+  go a little lower than the ordinary limit downwards of the modern
+  orchestral flute.[26]
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  FIG. 4.--Bass Flute. From Museo Civico, Verona (facsimile).
+
+  FIG. 5.--Bass Flute. Brussels Museum.]
+
+  The bass flute cited by Mersenne should not differ much from that of
+  the Museo Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have been in [notes], and
+  that it was furnished with an open key like that which was applied to
+  the recorders (_flutes douces_) of the same epoch, the function of the
+  key being to augment by another note the compass of the instrument in
+  the lower part. A bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5 is
+  figured and described in Diderot and D'Alembert's encyclopaedia [27]
+  (1751). According to Quantz,[28] it was in France and about the middle
+  of the 17th century that the first modifications were introduced in
+  the manufacture of the flute. The improvements at this period
+  consisted of the abandonment of the cylindrical bore in favour of a
+  conical one, with the base of the cone forming the head of the
+  instrument. At the same time the flute was made of three separate
+  pieces called head, body, and tail or foot, which were ultimately
+  further subdivided. The body or middle joint was divided into two
+  pieces, so that the instrument could be tuned to the different pitches
+  then in use by a replacement with longer or shorter pieces. It was
+  probably about 1677, when Lully introduced the German flute into the
+  opera, that recourse was had for the first time to keys, and that the
+  key of D# was applied to the lower part of the instrument.[29] The
+  engraving of B. Picart, dated 1707, given in Hotteterre's book,
+  represents the flute as having reached the stage of improvement of
+  which we have just spoken. In 1726 Quantz,[30] finding himself in
+  Paris, had a second key applied to the flute, placed nearly at the
+  same height as the first, that of the [notes], intended to
+  differentiate the D# and the E[flat].[31] This innovation was
+  generally well received in Germany, but does not appear to have met
+  with corresponding success in other countries. In France and England
+  manufacturers adopted it but rarely; in Italy it was declared
+  useless.[32] About the same time flutes were constructed with the
+  lower extremity lengthened sufficiently to produce the fundamental C,
+  and furnished with a supplementary key to produce the C[sharp]. This
+  innovation, spoken of by Quantz,[33] did not meet with a very
+  favourable reception, and was shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing
+  mention may be made of the drawing of a flute with a C key in the
+  _Music-Saal_ of J.F.B. Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45.
+
+  The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected by
+  changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or shorter
+  upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences in the
+  pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion of it
+  were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the different
+  parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications in the
+  length, it was conceived that the just relation could be
+  re-established by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key.
+  These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was
+  asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened
+  proportionately to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus
+  improved took the name of "flutes a registre." The register system
+  was, about 1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint[34] and, the
+  embouchure section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable
+  to the performer, according to the opinion of this professor, to lower
+  the pitch of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other
+  lengthening pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.
+
+  The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice, is
+  closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork
+  depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is
+  in its right place when the accompanying octaves [notes] are true.
+  Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions the use of a nut-screw
+  to give the required position to the cork.[35] He does not name the
+  inventor of this appliance, but, according to Tromlitz,[36] the
+  improvement was due to Quantz himself. The invention goes back to
+  1726.
+
+  When the _Method_ of Quantz appeared there were still in use, besides
+  the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the low
+  fourth flute in A, and the flute d'amour a note higher; in France they
+  had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave). A bass flute in
+  D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When Ribock published his
+  _Bemerkungen uber die Flote_[37] the flute had already the five keys
+  here shown. [notes] This author states that the inventor of these new
+  keys is not known to him, but that either Kusder, a musical
+  instrument-maker in London, or Johann Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was
+  the originator, since he has not been able to trace those keys on the
+  flutes of any other maker. Although Tromlitz does not claim for
+  himself the invention of the keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], he
+  states that "he had occupied himself for several years in applying
+  these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing, but on the
+  contrary to render the handling of them as easy as possible."[38] In
+  the later work published in 1800,[39] however, he seems to attribute
+  the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of London; he says that
+  he has never yet been fortunate enough to come across a good flute by
+  that maker--"the flute has certainly gained by the addition of the
+  keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], but this is not everything, for on
+  such a flute much must perforce be left unattempted.... Only a flute
+  with eight keys according to my invention is capable of everything."
+  It would seem, moreover, from circumstantial evidence stated clearly
+  and on good authority by Rockstro[40] that the keys for F, G[sharp]
+  and B[flat] must have been used first in England and made by Richard
+  Potter before 1774. The higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz,
+  we believe to have been first recommended by Ribock (1782).[41]
+  Tromlitz in _Uber Floten_ describes at length what may be termed the
+  first systematic effort to overcome the difficulties created by the
+  combination of open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the
+  question by determining the positions of the holes according to the
+  exigencies of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more
+  arbitrary theories connected with the musical scale.
+
+  In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz's slide applied to the head
+  joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system of
+  tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document[42]
+  describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the
+  holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the
+  keys. Potter's patent conical valves were an adaptation of the
+  contrivance first invented by J.F. Boie or Boye of Gottingen,[43] who
+  used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The keys
+  mentioned in the patent were four--D[sharp], F, G[sharp], A[sharp].
+  The idea of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up
+  again about the same time by two players of the flute in London named
+  Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C and C#,
+  and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In Dr
+  Arnold's _New Instructions for the German Flute_ occurs a tablature,
+  the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century, and
+  bears the following title, "A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale and
+  Description of Tacet and Florio's new invented German Flute, with all
+  the additional keys explained." It explains the use of six keys--C,
+  C#, D#, F, G#, A#--that are not always figured, because the employment
+  of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz himself, who, however,
+  made flutes with nine keys--adding E[flat], another F, and C[natural],
+  declared that he was not in favour of so great a complication, and
+  that he preferred the flute with only two keys, D[sharp] and E[flat],
+  with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the head joint.
+  This instrument met all requirements. He was always much opposed to
+  the use of the old keys for C[natural] and C[sharp], because they
+  altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When
+  Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become
+  modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flute
+  d'amour a minor third lower, a "third" flute a minor third higher,
+  and, finally, the little octave flute.
+
+  While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of augmenting
+  the compass of the flute downwards by employing open keys for
+  C[natural] and C[sharp], an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi,[44]
+  increased the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of
+  five new keys, viz. B, B[flat], A, A[flat], and G. At the same time
+  that he produced this invention [45] he conceived the plugging of the
+  lateral holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But
+  it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral
+  holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there
+  were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of
+  Orazi proved a failure.
+
+  In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan,[46] of Stratford, near London,
+  conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring,
+  permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was
+  being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the embryo
+  of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the system of
+  the flute. Two years later Macgregor,[47] a musical-instrument maker
+  in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower than the ordinary
+  flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the existence of the bass
+  flute mentioned above. The difference between the two instruments lies
+  in the mechanism of the keys. That employed by Macgregor consisted of
+  a double lever, a contrivance dating from before the middle of the
+  18th century, of which the application is seen in an oboe of large
+  dimensions preserved in the National Museum at Munich.[48]
+
+  In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra D[natural] hole and
+  key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern
+  construction.[49]
+
+  About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more keys,
+  those of F[sharp] and C[sharp], and a key, called "de cadence," to
+  facilitate the accompanying shakes.
+
+  To increase the number of keys, to improve their system of plugging,
+  and to extend the [notes] scale of the instrument in the lower
+  region,--these had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in
+  the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose labours
+  we have called attention, had as yet devoted his attention to the
+  rational division of the column of air by means of the lateral holes.
+  In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to be in London, was
+  struck with the power of tone the celebrated English performer Charles
+  Nicholson drew from his instrument. Boehm learned, and not without
+  astonishment, that his English colleague obtained this result by
+  giving the lateral holes a much greater diameter than was then usually
+  admitted. About the same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an
+  amateur player named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he
+  had bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a
+  key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These
+  innovations set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the
+  instrument.[50] He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832
+  he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument is
+  distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger holes
+  disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.
+
+  Boehm's system had preserved the key of G[sharp] open; Coche,[51] a
+  professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet the
+  younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified Boehm's
+  flute by closing the G[sharp] with a key, wishing thus to render the
+  new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a key,
+  facilitating the shake upon C[sharp] with D[sharp], and brought about
+  some other changes in the instrument of less importance.
+
+  Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had been
+  conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however, he made
+  further experiments, and the results obtained were put in practice by
+  the construction of a new instrument, of which the body was given a
+  cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was modified at the
+  embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic (see fig. 2). The
+  inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in the tones of the lower
+  octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect accuracy of intonation,
+  by establishing the more exact proportions which a column of air of
+  cylindrical form permitted.
+
+  The priority of Boehm's invention was long contested, his detractors
+  maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the flute was due
+  to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindicates the claim of the
+  former to the invention of the large lateral holes.[52] His greatest
+  title to fame is the invention of the mechanism which allows the
+  production of the eleven chromatic semitones intermediate between the
+  fundamental note and its first harmonic by means of eleven holes so
+  disposed that in opening them successively they shorten the column of
+  air in exact proportional quantities.[53] Boehm (_Essays_, &c.)
+  published a diagram or scheme to be adopted in determining the
+  position of the note-holes of wind instruments for every given pitch.
+  This diagram gives the position of the intermediate holes which he had
+  been enabled to establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of
+  the lengths of strings.
+
+  The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection it has
+  reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there are players
+  who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering required for
+  some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derangement of the
+  mechanism, have something to do with this. In England especially, the
+  ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to the improvements
+  introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in 1845 (Patent No.
+  10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A lower, and covered them
+  with open keys. He added some keys, and made a better disposition of
+  the other lateral holes, of which he increased the diameter, producing
+  thus a sonorousness almost equal to that of the Boehm flute, while yet
+  preserving the old fingering for the notes of the first two octaves.
+  But in spite of these improvements the old flute will not bear an
+  impartial comparison with that of Boehm.
+
+  A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signor Carlo Tommaso
+  Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of the instrument
+  on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal features of this
+  flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper extremity of the
+  tube instead of at the side, which allows the instrument to be held in
+  a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is required. There are eleven
+  holes mathematically placed in the tube which give the semitones of
+  the scale; there are no keys. The eleven holes are fingered by the
+  fingers and thumbs, the C[sharp] hole being closed by the side of the
+  left fore-finger. All the notes are obtained by means of simple
+  fingering as far as G[sharp] of the third octave, the remaining notes
+  of which are produced by cross-fingering. For the convenience of
+  players with short fingers keys can be added, and the head of the
+  Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute. The compass of the
+  Georgi flute [notes] is almost the same as that of the concert flute;
+  viz. If the lower C and C[sharp] are required, extra holes and keys
+  can be added. Everything that is possible on the Boehm flute is
+  possible on the Georgi and more, owing to the simplicity of the
+  fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform, all trills are
+  equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant and
+  sympathetic.[54]
+
+  The old English _fipple flute_, or _flute a bec_, is described under
+  the headings RECORDER and FLAGEOLET.     (V. M.; K. S.)
+
+2. In architecture the name "flute" is given to the vertical channels
+(segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal section) employed
+on the shafts of columns in the classic styles. The flutes are separated
+one from the other by an "arris" in the Doric order and by a "fillet" in
+the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The earliest fluted columns are those
+in Egypt, at first with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at
+Karnac (1400 B.C.) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about
+one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one of the
+"beehive" tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and are the earliest
+Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric temples at Metapontum and
+Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the flutes are also segmental, but in later
+examples in order to emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs
+and are known as "false ellipses," and this applies to nearly all the
+fluting in Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or
+Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52 in the
+archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52 flutes in the
+Persian columns according to the diameter of the column. In the Greek
+Doric column 20 is the usual number, but there are 16 only in the
+temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and the temple of Apollo at Syracuse;
+18 in one of the temples of Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse,
+and 24 in the temple of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also
+varies; in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of
+the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius of the
+central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the smaller
+arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar accentuation
+is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where the flutes are
+separated by fillets, and their section is always elliptical in Greek
+work, the depth of the flute, however, being always greater than in the
+Doric order. Thus, in the temple of Ilissus and the Ionic column in the
+cella of the temple at Bassae, the depth is about one-quarter of the
+width, in the Propylaea at Priene it is about one-third, and in the
+Erechtheum and other examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more
+than one-half. The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one
+quarter of the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek
+Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, the
+flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth being about one
+third of the width in the Doric column, and in all Ionic, Corinthian and
+Composite columns half the width of the flute. The fillet also is much
+broader in Roman examples, being about one-third of the width of the
+flute. In Roman columns sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the
+shaft, about one-third of the height, are partly filled with a convex
+moulding, "cabling" being the usual term applied to this treatment. The
+French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this decorative
+feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the Louvre carved a
+series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian buildings, instead of
+the fluting of the column being vertical, it twines round the column and
+is known as spiral fluting; a fine example is found in the Bevilacqua
+palace at Verona by San Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into
+capitals, as in the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at
+Cnidos, the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one of
+the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which are
+sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many of the Roman
+temples were carved with flutes. In medieval buildings, fluting was
+occasionally introduced in imitation of Roman work, as in the churches
+of central Syria and of Autun and Langres in France, but in the south of
+Italy and Sicily it would seem to have been brought in as a variety of
+treatment, in the decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of
+cloisters, as at Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and
+St Paul-outside-the-Walls at Rome.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See E.F.F. Chladni, _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.
+
+  [2] See Sonreck, "Uber die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung der
+    Luftsaule in offenen und gedeckten Rohren," _Pogg. Ann._, 1876, vol.
+    158.
+
+  [3] _The Flute_ (London, 1890), S 90-105, pp. 34-40.
+
+  [4] _Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Rohren mit offenen Enden_
+    (Berlin, 1896). Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No.
+    80.
+
+  [5] V.C. Mahillon, _Experimental Studies on the Resonance of
+    Trunco-Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns_, translated by F.A. Mahan
+    (London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, _Acoustics in Relation to Wind
+    Instruments_ (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die
+    musikalischen Instrumente, &c._ (Giessen, 1855); _idem._ "Sur le
+    mouvement vibratoire de l'air dans les tuyaux," _Comptes rendus_,
+    1855, vol. 41, &c.
+
+  [6] _Op. cit._, S 73, pp. 87-88, note 1.
+
+  [7] "Akustik der Blasinstrumente," _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig,
+    1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, _Zur
+    Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_. Inaugural
+    Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitat. (Berlin, 15th of March
+    1899), p. 9.
+
+  [8] _Lehre von der Tonempfindung_ (Braunschweig, 1877).
+
+  [9] See additions by D. J. B. to article "Flute" in Grove's
+    _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ (London, 1904).
+
+  [10] _Musica instrumentalis deutsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528).
+
+  [11] See also L'Artusi, _Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna_
+    (Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cacilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.
+
+  [12] See "Les Anciennes Flutes egyptiennes," by Victor Loret in
+    _Journal asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two
+    careful articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still
+    extant. See also Lauth, "Uber die agyptische Instrumente," _Sitzungs.
+    der philos., philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu
+    Munchen_ (1873).
+
+  [13] See Albert A. Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_,
+    iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.
+
+  [14] Representations of flutes blown as here described have been
+    found in Europe. See _Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale
+    archeologique_ (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same
+    date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, _Wandgemalde_, No.
+    7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18;
+    Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, _Les Figurines_, p. 136.
+
+  [15] There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9
+     and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood
+     encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head of
+     a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube. This
+     hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The pipe is
+     stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern flute.
+     There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus in
+     the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in _History of
+     Discoveries at Halicarnassus_ (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre
+     has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing satyrs
+     playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles have been
+     restored, especially in the details affecting our present subject,
+     and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another statue
+     representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum. The
+     instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but
+     erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which
+     the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the
+     intervention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column
+     of air.
+
+  [16] Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze,
+    _Catalogo_ (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in
+    _Gallerie nazionali italiane_, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263,
+    L'Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, "Antike Vorlagen
+    byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs," in _Jahrb. d. K. Preuss.
+    Kunst-Sammlungen_ (Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven,
+    "Ein Reliquienkastchen aus Pirano," id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl.
+    iii.
+
+  [17] Greek MS. 510, Gregoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliotheque
+    Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, _L'Epopee
+    byzantine a la fin du dizieme siecle_ (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i.
+    p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b.
+    written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A
+    cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being
+    uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol. 72a,
+    A.D. 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, "Der Bilderkreis des
+    griechischen Physiologus," in _Byzantinisches Archiv_ (Leipzig,
+    1899), Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, _Histoire de l'art byzantin_
+    (Paris, 1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; "Kuseyr' Amra," issued by _K.
+    Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv.
+
+  [18] A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes has
+    been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue,
+    sect. "Academies," St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab. 1325a).
+
+  [19] This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century,
+    was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
+    during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in
+    facsimile published by the _Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
+    historiques d'Alsace_. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller
+    (Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, _Herrad von
+    Landsperg und ihr Werk_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1818), twelve
+    plates.
+
+  [20] MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in _Critical and Bibliographical Notes
+    on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887), p. 119.
+
+  [21] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [22] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.
+
+  [23] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), _Livre_ v. p. 241.
+
+  [24] Principes de la flute traversiere ou flute d'Allemagne, de la
+   flute a bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38.
+
+  [25] _Musicus [Greek: autodidaktos] oder der sich selbst informirende
+    Musicus_ (Erfurt, 1738), p. 85.
+
+  [26] Fetis, _Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique a
+    l'Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855_.
+
+  [27] See _Recueil de planches_, vol. iv., and article "Basse de flute
+    traversiere," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also _The Flute_, by R.S.
+    Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced
+    together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the
+    Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted
+    French maker Delusse.
+
+  [28] _Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen_
+    (Berlin, 1752).
+
+  [29] Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in
+    describing the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute
+    in D, which is considered to be typical of the family.
+
+  [30] "Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
+    entworfen," in the _Historisch-Kritische Beytrage zur Aufnahme der
+    Musik_, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor of
+    the flute to Frederick the Great.
+
+  [31] See Johann Georg Tromlitz, _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher
+    Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_ (Leipzig, 1791), 1, S 7, and _Uber
+    Floten mit mehrern Klappen_ (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. S 21.
+
+  [32] Antonio Lorenzoni, _Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso_
+    (Vicenza, 1779).
+
+  [33] See _Anweisung_, i. S 15.
+
+  [34] See _Lebenslauf_, _loc. cit._ p. 248, where Quantz states that
+    he invented the adjustable head for the flute.
+
+  [35] See _Anweisung_, i. SS 10-13 and iv. S 26.
+
+  [36] _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_
+    (Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. S 20. Compare Schilling, _Univ.-Lexikon_
+    (Leipzig, 1835).
+
+  [37] Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R.,
+    see p. 2).
+
+  [38] _Kurze Abhandlung von Flotenspielen_ (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.
+
+  [39] _Uber Floten_, &c., pp. 133 and 134.
+
+  [40] See _The Flute_, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.
+
+  [41] See op. cit. pp. 51 and 62.
+
+  [42] English patent, No. 1499.
+
+  [43] See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197.
+
+  [44] _Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico
+    che ha i suoni bassi del violino_ (Rome, 1797).
+
+  [45] The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by
+    Trexler of Vienna, who called it the "panaulon."
+
+  [46] Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
+    diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
+
+  [47] Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
+    diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
+
+  [48] Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775, and
+    called "Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the Paris
+    Conservatoire.
+
+  [49] See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber in
+    _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation
+    of which is given by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 279 and 280.
+
+  [50] See _Uber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen
+    desselben_ (Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, _An Essay on the
+    Construction of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm,
+    published with the addition of Correspondence and other Documents_
+    (London, 1882).
+
+  [51] _Examen critique de la flute ordinaire comparee a la flute
+    Boehm_ (Paris, 1838).
+
+  [52] They existed long before, however, in the Chinese _Ty_ and the
+    Japanese _Fuye_.
+
+  [53] The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's _History of
+    the Boehm Flute_ (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating
+    to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
+    impartiality.
+
+  [54] For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments
+    of the Orchestra_, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is
+    given, and Paul Wetzger, _Die Flote_ (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24,
+    and Tafel iv. No. 20.
+
+
+
+
+FLUX (Lat. _fluxus_, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the
+English term in medicine, &c.), in metallurgy, a substance introduced in
+the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to remove objectionable
+impurities in the form of a slag. The substances in commonest use
+are:--lime or limestone, to slag off silica and silicates, fluor-spar
+for lead, calcium and barium sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica
+for removing basic substances such as limestone. Other substances are
+also used, but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium and
+potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica; mixed with
+potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable oxidizing fusion
+mixture; "black flux" is a reducing flux composed of finely divided
+carbon and potassium carbonate, and formed by deflagrating a mixture of
+argol with 1/4 to 1/2 its weight of nitre. Borax is very frequently
+employed; it melts to a clear liquid and dissolves silica and many
+metallic oxides. Potassium bisulphate is useful in the preliminary
+treatment of refractory aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used
+in silver and gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any
+metallic oxides present.
+
+
+
+
+FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. _fleugan_, to
+fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of many
+insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see LEPIDOPTERA),
+dragon-fly (q.v.), may-fly (q.v.), caddis-fly (q.v.), &c.; also
+specially employed by entomologists to mean any species of the
+two-winged flies, or Diptera (q.v.). In ordinary parlance _fly_ is often
+used in the sense of the common house-fly (_Musca domestica_); and by
+English colonists and sportsmen in South Africa in that of a species of
+tsetse-fly (_Glossina_), or a tract of country ("belt") in which these
+insects abound (see TSETSE-FLY).
+
+Apart from the house-fly proper (_Musca domestica_), which in England is
+the usual one, several species of flies are commonly found in houses;
+e.g. the _Stomoxys calcitrans_, or stable-fly; _Pollenia rudis_, or
+cluster-fly; _Muscina stabulans_, another stable-fly; _Calliphora
+erythrocephala_, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly, with smaller
+sorts of blue-bottle, _Phormia terraenovae_ and _Lucilia caesar_;
+_Homalomyia canicularis_ and _brevis_, the small house-fly; _Scenopinus
+fenestralis_, the black window-fly, &c. But _Musca domestica_ is far the
+most numerous, and in many places, especially in hot weather and in hot
+climates, is a regular pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau
+of Entomology U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in
+1900 he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different
+parts of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808
+were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is of the
+widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard filth, so
+great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially cholera and
+typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent source of danger;
+and various sanitary regulations have been made, or precautions
+suggested, for getting rid of it. These are discussed by Mr Howard in
+the paper referred to, but in brief they all amount to measures of
+general hygiene, and the isolation, prompt removal, or proper
+sterilization of the animal or human excrement in which these flies
+breed.
+
+
+
+
+FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray, being a translation
+of the _Muscicapa_ of older authors, and applied by Pennant to an
+extremely common English bird, the _M. grisola_ of Linnaeus. It has
+since been used in a general and very vague way for a great many small
+birds from all parts of the world, which have the habit of catching
+flies on the wing. Ornithologists who have trusted too much to this
+characteristic and to certain merely superficial correlations of
+structure, especially those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill
+and a gape beset by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the
+title of _Muscicapidae_ an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of forms
+much reduced in number by later systematists. Great advance has been
+made in establishing as independent families the _Todidae_ and
+_Eurylaemidae_, as well as in excluding from it various members of the
+_Ampelidae_, _Cotingidae_, _Tyrannidae_, _Vireonidae_, _Mniotiltidae_,
+and perhaps others, which had been placed within its limits. These steps
+have left the _Muscicapidae_ a purely Old-World family of the order
+_Passeres_, and the chief difficulty now seems to lie in separating it
+from the _Campephagidae_ and the _Laniidae_. Only a very few of the
+forms of flycatchers (which, after all the deductions above mentioned,
+may be reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps 250
+species) can here be even named.[1]
+
+The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens to be the
+type of the Linnaean genus _Muscicapa_--the spotted or grey flycatcher
+(_M. grisola_). It is a common summer visitant to nearly the whole of
+Europe, and is found throughout Great Britain, though less abundant in
+Scotland than in England, as well as in many parts of Ireland, where,
+however, it seems to be but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one
+of the latest migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands
+till the latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
+bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever and
+anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap of its bill
+some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot it has
+quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as before. It
+has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note, uttered from
+time to time with a jerking gesture of the wings and tail. It makes a
+neat nest, built among the small twigs which sprout from the bole of a
+large tree, fixed in the branches of some plant trained against a wall,
+or placed in any hole of the wall itself that may be left by the falling
+of a brick or stone. The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale
+greenish-blue, closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and
+inconspicuous as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the
+closest vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost
+everybody. A second British species is the pied flycatcher (_M.
+atricapilla_), a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except
+in the hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to
+Cumberland, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere. It is
+not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed in Ireland. More
+of a woodland bird than the former, the brightly-contrasted black and
+white plumage of the cock, together with his agreeable song, readily
+attracts attention where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all
+western Europe, but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly
+allied species (_M. collaris_) in which the white of the throat and
+breast extends like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species
+(_M. parva_), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
+also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west of
+England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range, which has
+received generic recognition under the name of _Erythrosterna_, and it
+has several relations in Asia and particularly in India, while the
+allies of the pied flycatchers (_Ficedula_ of Brisson) are chiefly of
+African origin, and those of the grey or spotted flycatcher (_Muscicapa_
+proper[2]) are common to the two continents.
+
+One of the most remarkable groups of _Muscicapidae_ is that known as the
+paradise flycatchers, forming the genus _Tchitrea_ of Lesson. In nearly
+all the species the males are distinguished by the growth of exceedingly
+long feathers in their tail, and by their putting on, for some part of
+the year at least, a plumage generally white, but almost always quite
+different from that worn by the females, which is of a more or less deep
+chestnut or bay colour, though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy
+steel-blue. They are found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical
+Asia to Japan, and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than
+the open country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian _T.
+paradisi_; but the Chinese _T. incii_, and the Japanese _T. princeps_,
+from being very commonly represented by the artists of those nations on
+screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the cock of the last
+named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and eyes surrounded by
+bare skin of the same colour--though these are characters possessed in
+some degree by all the species--seems to be the most beautiful of the
+genus. _T. bourbonnensis_, which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius
+and Reunion, appears to be the only species in which the outward
+difference of the sexes is but slight. In _T. corvina_ of the
+Seychelles, the adult male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers
+are not only very long but very broad. In _T. mutata_ of Madagascar,
+some of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
+elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates
+over the whole body; but whether this sex is here actually dimorphic, or
+whether the one dress is a passing phase of the other, is at present
+undetermined. Some of the African species, of which many have been
+described, seem always to retain the rufous plumage, but the long
+tail-feathers serve to mark the males.
+
+A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they exhibit,
+as _Myiagra azurea_, and others as _Monarcha_ (or _Arses_) _chrysomela_
+by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned to the
+_Muscicapidae_ are very varied. _Sisura inquieta_ has some of the habits
+of a water-wagtail (_Motacilla_), and hence has received the name of
+"dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of England on its analogue; and the
+many species of _Rhipidura_ or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in
+various parts of the Australian Region, have manners still more
+singular--turning over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as
+they catch their prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority
+of the _Muscicapidae_, and especially of the numerous African forms,
+hardly anything is known.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his
+    _Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers_
+    (published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the _Muscicapidae_
+    at all, and one of them, _Todus_, not even to the order _Passeres_.
+    It is perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose
+    substance so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson
+    wrote it filled with faith in the so-called "Quinary System"--that
+    fanciful theory, invented by W.S. Macleay, which misled and kept back
+    so many of the best English zoologists of his generation from the
+    truth,--and, unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was
+    warped to fit his hypothesis.
+
+  [2] By some writers this section is distinguished as _Butalis_ of
+    Boie, but to do so seems contrary to rule.
+
+
+
+
+FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE (1807-1892), Swedish novelist, was born in
+Stromstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father, Rutger Smith, was a
+retired sea-captain who had settled down as a small merchant, and she
+often accompanied him on the voyages he made along the coast. She
+married in 1827 a doctor named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live
+in the province of Smaland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her
+old home and published in 1838 her first novel, _Waldemar Klein_. In the
+next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the jurist and
+poet, Johan Gabriel Carlen (1814-1875). Her house became a meeting-place
+for Stockholm men of letters, and for the next twelve years she produced
+one or two novels annually. The premature death of her son Edvard
+Flygare (1829-1853), who had already published three books, showing
+great promise, was followed by six years of silence, after which she
+resumed her writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are _Rosen
+pa Tistelon_ (1842; Eng. trans. _The Rose of Tistelon_, 1842);
+_Enslingen pa Johannesskaret_ (1846; Eng. trans. _The Hermit_, 4 vols.,
+1853); and _Ett Kopemanshus i skargarden_ (1859; _The Merchant's House
+on the Cliffs_). Fru Carlen published in 1878 _Minnen af svenskt
+forfattarlif_ 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888 three volumes of _Efterskord
+fran en 80- arings forfattarbana_, containing her last tales. She died
+at Stockholm on the 5th of February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlen
+(1836-1883), was also a popular novelist.
+
+  Emilie Flygare-Carlen's novels were collected in thirty-one volumes
+  (Stockholm, 1869-1875).
+
+
+
+
+FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture, the term given to a structural feature
+employed to transmit the thrust of a vault across an intervening space,
+such as an aisle, chapel or cloister, to a buttress built outside the
+latter. This was done by throwing a semi-arch across to the vertical
+buttress. Though employed by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it
+was generally masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but
+in the 12th century it was recognized as rational construction and
+emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in the
+cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims, &c. Sometimes,
+owing to the great height of the vaults, two semi-arches were thrown one
+above the other, and there are cases where the thrust was transmitted to
+two or even three buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical
+buttress, placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to
+thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical
+buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built outside the
+chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical buttresses are, as a
+rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to give them greater power of
+resistance.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING COLUMN, in military organization, an independent corps of troops
+usually composed of all arms, to which a particular task is assigned. It
+is almost always composed in the course of operations, out of the troops
+immediately available. Mobility being its _raison d'etre_, a flying
+column is when possible composed of picked men and horses accompanied
+with the barest minimum of baggage. The term is usually, though not
+necessarily, applied to forces under the strength of a brigade. The
+"mobile columns" employed by the British in the South African War of
+1899-1902, were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a
+battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry--almost exactly half
+that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in savage or
+guerrilla warfare.
+
+
+
+
+"FLYING DUTCHMAN," a spectre-ship popularly believed to haunt the waters
+around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend has several variants, but the
+commonest is that which declares that the captain of the vessel,
+Vanderdecken, was condemned for his blasphemy to sail round the cape for
+ever, unable to "make" a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the
+ghost of the Dutch seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the "Flying
+Dutchman" is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German
+legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that he is
+condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship without helm
+or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with the devil. Sir Walter
+Scott says the "Flying Dutchman" was originally a vessel laden with
+bullion. A murder was committed on board, and thereafter the plague
+broke out among the crew, which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft.
+The legend has been used by Wagner in his opera _Der fliegende
+Hollander_.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-FISH, the name given to two different kinds of fish. The one
+(_Dactylopterus_) belongs to the gurnard family (_Triglidae_), and is
+more properly called flying gurnard; the other (_Exocoetus_) has been
+called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the gar-pike than to
+the herring. Some other fishes with long pectoral fins (_Pterois_) have
+been stated to be able to fly, but this has been proved to be incorrect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Dactylopterus volitans._]
+
+The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the _Exocoeti_ with
+regard to individuals as well as species, there being only three or four
+species known of the former, whilst more than fifty have been described
+of the latter, which, besides, are found in numerous shoals of
+thousands. The _Dactylopteri_ may be readily distinguished by a large
+bony head armed with spines, hard keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c.
+The _Exocoeti_ have thin, deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the
+ventrals placed far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have
+long barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly
+prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in many
+species of _Exocoetus_ the ventral fins are similarly enlarged, and
+evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes. Flying-fishes
+are found in the tropical and sub-tropical seas only, and it is a
+singular fact that the geographical distribution of the two kinds is
+nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently observed in rough
+weather and in a disturbed sea than during calms; they dart out of the
+water when pursued by their enemies or frightened by an approaching
+vessel, but frequently also without any apparent cause, as is also
+observed in many other fishes; and they rise without regard to the
+direction of the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended,
+without any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air
+whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of the
+wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship going 10
+m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not extending
+beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer when the fishes fly
+against, than with or at an angle to, the wind. Any vertical or
+horizontal deviation from a straight line is not caused at the will of
+the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they retain a horizontally
+straight course when flying with or against the wind, but are carried
+towards the right or left whenever the direction of the wind is at an
+angle with that of their flight. However, it sometimes happens that the
+fish during its flight immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a
+stroke of its tail turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line
+of their flight is always also vertically straight or rather parabolic,
+like the course of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough
+sea, when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then
+frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the pressure of
+the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of vessels, but this
+never happens during a calm or from the lee side, but during a breeze
+only and from the weather side. In day time they avoid a ship, flying
+away from it, but during the night when they are unable to see, they
+frequently fly against the weather board, where they are caught by the
+current of the air, and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the
+surface of the water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep
+close to it. All these observations point clearly to the fact that any
+deflection from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and
+not to voluntary action on the part of the fish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Exocoetus callopterus._]
+
+A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been
+discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water
+flying-fish. It has been named _Pantodon buchholzi_. It has very large
+pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached to the inner
+ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the Congo region, and
+has been caught in its flight above the water in a butterfly-net.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-FOX, or, more correctly, FOX-BAT. The first name is applied by
+Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the genus _Pteropus_,
+which contains more than half the family (_Pteropidae_). This genus is
+confined to the tropical regions of the Eastern hemisphere and
+Australia. It comprises numerous species, a considerable proportion of
+which occur in the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes
+are the largest of the bats, the kalong of Java (_Pteropus edulis_)
+measuring about a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane
+measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal bats,
+suspending themselves during the day head-downwards by thousands from
+the branches of trees, where with their wings gathered about them, they
+bear some resemblance to huge shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of
+some peculiar fruit. In Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend
+themselves chiefly from the branches of dead trees, where they are
+easily caught or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home
+in basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices, and "are
+really very good eating, something like hare." Towards evening these
+bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies to the village
+plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit, and so numerous and
+voracious are they that no garden crop has much chance of being gathered
+which is not specially protected from their attacks. The flying-fox of
+India (_Pteropus medius_) is a smaller species, but is found in great
+numbers wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula.
+
+
+
+
+FLYING-SQUIRREL, properly the name of such members of the squirrel-group
+of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like expansion of the skin of the
+flanks, with attachments to the limbs, by means of which they are able
+to take long flying-leaps from tree to tree. The parachute is supported
+by a cartilage attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the
+lateral membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front
+of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third
+(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long tail.
+Of the two widely distributed genera, _Pteromys_ includes the larger and
+_Sciuropterus_ the smaller species. The two differ in certain details of
+dentition, and in the greater development in the former of the
+parachute, especially the interfemoral portion, which in the latter is
+almost absent. In _Pteromys_ the tail is cylindrical and comparatively
+thin, while in _Sciuropterus_ it is broad, flat and laterally expanded,
+so as to compensate for the absence of the interfemoral membrane by
+acting as a supplementary parachute.
+
+[Illustration: Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel (_Idiurus zenkeri_).]
+
+In general appearance flying-squirrels resemble ordinary squirrels,
+although they are even more beautifully coloured. Their habits, food,
+&c., are also very similar to those of the true squirrels, except that
+they are more nocturnal, and are therefore less often seen. The Indian
+flying-squirrel (_P. oral_) leaps with its parachute extended from the
+higher branches of a tree, and descends first directly and then more and
+more obliquely, until the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a
+horizontal direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch
+or trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these
+rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. _Sciuropterus_
+is represented by _S. velucella_ in eastern Europe and northern Asia,
+and by a second species in North America, but the other species of this
+genus and all those of _Pteromys_ are Indo-Malayan. A third genus,
+_Eupetaurus_, typified by a very large, long-haired, dark-grey species
+from the mountains to the north-west of Kashmir (_Eu. cinereus_),
+differs from all other members of the squirrel-family by its
+tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a total length of 37 in., of which 22
+are taken up by the tail.
+
+In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members of a
+very different family of rodents, the _Anomaluridae_, which are provided
+with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is absent in some
+members of the family, the most distinctive character is the presence of
+a double row of spiny scales on the under surface of the tail, which
+apparently aid in climbing. The flying species are also distinguished
+from ordinary flying-squirrels by the circumstance that the additional
+bone serving for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane
+rises from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is
+represented by two flying genera, _Anomalurus_ and _Idiurus_; the latter
+containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut) characterized
+by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the species are West
+African. In habits these rodents appear to be very similar to the true
+flying-squirrels. The species without a parachute constitutes the genus
+_Zenkerella_, and looks very like an ordinary squirrel (see RODENTIA).
+
+In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied to such
+marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals which naturalists
+prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see MARSUPIALIA) (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+FLYSCH, in geology, a remarkable formation, composed mainly of
+sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending from S.W.
+Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone to the Vienna basin,
+whence it may be followed round the northern flanks of the Carpathians
+into the Balkan peninsula. It is represented in the Pyrenees, the
+Apennines, the Caucasus and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like
+deposits are related to the Himalayas as the European formations are to
+the Alps. The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the
+western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong to the
+Eocene period, but the principal development is of Oligocene age; as it
+is traced eastward we find in the east Alps that it descends into the
+upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna region and the Carpathians it
+contains intercalations which clearly indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon
+for the lower parts. It appears indeed that this type of formation was in
+progress of deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated
+above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of fossils from
+enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation with other
+formations difficult; often the only indications of organisms are the
+abundant markings supposed to represent Algae (Chondrites, &c.), which
+have given rise to the term "Hieroglyphic-sandstone." The most noteworthy
+exceptions are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene
+nummulitic beds in Calabria, and the _Aptychus_ beds of Waidhofen. Local
+phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is the "Vienna" or
+"Carpathian" sandstone of those regions; the "macigno" (a soft sandstone
+with calcareous cement) of the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the
+"scagliose" (scaly clays) and "alberese" (limestones) of the same places
+are portions of this formation. The _gris de Menton_, the _gris d'Annot_
+of the Basses Alps, and the _gris d'Embrun_ of Chaillot appear in
+Switzerland as the _gris de Taveyannaz_. At several places the upper
+layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Leman and at
+the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the "Red-Flysch."
+Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &c., occur in the Flysch in
+Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of granite, gneiss and
+other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates are found near Vienna,
+near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near Lake Thun (Wild Flysch) and at other
+points, which have been variously regarded as indications of glaciation
+or of coastal conditions.
+
+
+
+
+FOCA (pronounced _Fawtcha_), a town of Bosnia, situated at the
+confluence of the Drina and Cehotina rivers, and encircled by wooded
+mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the headquarters of a thriving
+industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid weapons, for which it was
+famous. With its territories enclosed by the frontiers of Montenegro and
+Novi Bazar, Foca, then known as _Chocha_, was the scene of almost
+incessant border warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this
+period are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful
+mosques, which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining towns
+of Foca, Gorazda and Ustikolina were trading-stations of the Ragusans in
+the 14th century, if not earlier. In the 16th century, Benedetto
+Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the Porte, described the town, in
+his _Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi_, as _Cozza_, "a large settlement,
+with good houses in Turkish style, and many shops and merchants. Here
+dwells the governor of Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the
+whole of Servia. Through this place all goods must pass, both going and
+returning, between Ragusa and Constantinople."
+
+
+
+
+FOCHABERS, a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the Spey, about 9 m. E. by S.
+of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway connecting at
+Orbliston Junction with the main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was
+rebuilt in its present situation at the end of the 18th century, when
+its earlier site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon
+Castle, in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead
+at right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are held.
+The public buildings include a library and reading-room, the court-house
+and the Milne school, named after Alexander Milne, who endowed it with a
+legacy of L20,000. Adjoining the town, surrounded by a park containing
+many magnificent old trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the
+duke of Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The antiquary
+George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William Marshall
+(1748-1833) were natives of the burgh.
+
+
+
+
+FOCSHANI (Rumanian _Focsani_, sometimes incorrectly written _Fokshani_
+or _Fokshan_), the capital of the department of Putna, Rumania; on the
+river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier of the former
+principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop. (1900) 23,783; of whom
+6000 were Jews. The chief buildings are the prefecture, schools,
+synagogues, and many churches, including those of the Armenians and
+Protestants. Focshani is a commercial centre of some importance, the
+chief industries being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large
+wine trade is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to
+Galatz. The annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government
+explorations in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in
+minerals, such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line
+Focshani-Galatz is covered by a very strong line of fortifications,
+known as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish
+diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbourhood the
+Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and Russians in 1789.
+
+
+
+
+FOCUS (Latin for "hearth" or "fireplace"), a point at which converging
+rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from which diverging rays
+are directed; in the latter case called the virtual focus (see
+MICROSCOPE; TELESCOPE; LENS). In geometry the word is used to denote
+certain points (see GEOMETRY; CONIC SECTION; and PERSPECTIVE).
+
+
+
+
+FOG, the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid particles in
+the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders surrounding objects
+notably indistinct or altogether invisible according to their distance.
+In its more intense forms it hinders and delays travellers of all kinds,
+by sea or land, by railway, road or river, or by the mountain path. It
+is sometimes so thick as to paralyse traffic altogether. According to
+the _New English Dictionary_ the word "appears to be" a back formation
+from the adjective "foggy," a derivative of "fog" used with its old
+meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain, of
+"moss." Such a formation would be reasonable, because wreaths of fog in
+the atmospheric sense are specially characteristic of meadows and
+marshes where fog, in the more ancient sense, grows.
+
+Two other words, _mist_ and _haze_, are also in common use with
+reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface layers of
+the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and in ordinary
+literature the three words are used almost according to the fancy of the
+writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction between mist and haze
+that would be fairly well supported by usage. Mist may be defined as a
+cloud of water particles at the surface of land or sea, and would only
+occur when the air is nearly or actually saturated, that is, when there
+is little or no difference between the readings of the dry and wet
+bulbs; the word haze, on the other hand, may be reserved for the
+obscuration of the surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.
+
+It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this
+distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic code of
+the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for mist and
+haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had no separate letter
+for haze (now indicated by z), though it distinguished between f, fog,
+and m, mist. It is possible, however, that these practices may arise,
+not from confusion of idea, but from economy of symbols, when the
+meaning can be made out from a knowledge of the associated observations.
+
+As regards the distinction between mist and fog, careful consideration
+of a number of examples leads to the conclusion that the word "fog" is
+used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological nature of the
+obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers whether on land or
+sea. It is, generally speaking, "in a fog" that a traveller loses
+himself, and indeed the phrase has become proverbial in that sense. A
+"fog-bell" or "fog-horn" is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that
+the aid of sound is required for navigation. A vessel is "fog-logged" or
+"fog-bound" when it is stopped or detained on account of thick
+atmosphere. A "fog-signal" is employed on railways when the ordinary
+signals are obliterated within working distances. A "fog-bow" is the
+accompaniment of conditions when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his
+way.
+
+These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the cloud which
+interferes with effective vision and necessitates the special provision;
+the word "mist" is seldom used in similar connexion. We may thus define
+a fog as a surface cloud sufficiently thick to cause hindrance to
+traffic. It will be a _thick mist_ if the cloud consists of water
+particles, a _thick haze_ if it consists of smoke or dust particles
+which would be persistent even in a dry atmosphere.
+
+It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use of the
+word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm weather, and
+that the obscurity of the atmosphere when it is blowing hard and perhaps
+raining hard as well should be indicated by the terms "thick weather" or
+"very thick weather" and not by "fog"; but the term "fog" would be quite
+correctly used on such occasions from the point of view of cautious
+navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or heavy rain cause such obscurity
+that passing ships are not visible within working distances the sounding
+of a fog-horn becomes a duty.
+
+The number of occasions upon which fog and mist may be noted as
+occurring with winds of different strengths may be exemplified by the
+following results of thirty years for St Mary's, Scilly Isles, where the
+observations have always been made by men of nautical experience.
+
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+  |        Wind Force.         |0 & 1| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7  |8-12|  All  |
+  |                            |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    | Winds.|
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+  |Number of occasions of fog  |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |       |
+  |  per 1000 observations     |  8  | 7 | 9 |14 | 6 | 3 | <1 | <1 |  47   |
+  |Number of occasions of mist |     |   |   |   |   |   |    |    |       |
+  |  per 1000 observations     |  5  | 6 |11 |22 |20 |12 |  6 |  2 |  84   |
+  +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+
+
+The use of the word "fog" in the connexion "high fog," to describe the
+almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally noted in London and
+other large cities due to the persistent opaque cloud in the upper air
+without serious obscuration of the surface layers, is convenient but
+incorrect.
+
+Regarding "fog" as a word used to indicate the state of the atmosphere
+as regards transparency considered with reference to its effect upon
+traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced for use on land or
+at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is indicated by the numbers 1
+to 5 in the table following. At sea or in the country a fog, as a rule,
+is white and consists of a cloud of minute water globules, of no great
+vertical thickness, which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection
+but is fully translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or
+coloured fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the
+Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns the fog
+cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some cases may be
+regarded as due entirely to the smoke.
+
+_Description of Effects._
+
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+  |       Name.      | No. |         On Land.         |           On Sea.           |        On River.       |
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+  |                  |  1  | Objects indistinct, but  |   Horizon invisible, but    | Objects indistinct, but|
+  |Slight Fog or Mist|     |   traffic by rail or road|     lights and landmarks    |   navigation unimpeded |
+  |                  |     |   unimpeded              |     visible at working      |                        |
+  |                  |     |                          |     distances               |                        |
+  |                  | / 2 | Traffic by rail requires | / Lights, passing vessels   | Navigation impeded,    |
+  |Moderate Fog      |<    |   additional caution     |<    and landmarks generally |   additional caution   |
+  |                  | | 3 | Traffic by rail or road  | |   indistinct under a mile.|   required             |
+  |                  | \   |   impeded                | \   Fog signals are sounded |                        |
+  |                  | / 4 | Traffic by rail or road  | / Ships' lights and vessels | Navigation suspended   |
+  |Thick Fog         |<    |   impeded                |<    invisible at 1/4 mile or|                        |
+  |                  | | 5 | Traffic by rail or road  | |   less                    |                        |
+  |                  | \   |   totally disorganized   | \                           |                        |
+  +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+
+
+The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles are
+complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account for the
+formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth's surface; and the
+process of cloud-formation which is probably most usual in nature,
+namely, the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the reduction of
+pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the case of the fogs
+forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps not fairly included.
+We have to fall back upon the only other process hitherto recognized as
+causing cloudy condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the
+mixing of masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is
+brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow motion is
+probably essential to the phenomenon.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia,
+  round by the Azores._
+
+  +------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+  | Successive Temperatures of sea     | 68 deg. | 68 deg. | 67 deg. | 59 deg. | 54 deg. F.|
+  |     "            "      "  air     | 68 deg. | 70 deg. | 67 deg. | 60 deg. | 56 deg. F.|
+  |     "     States of the atmosphere |  clear  |  clear  |  clear  |  shower |    mist   |
+  +------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland._
+
+  +-------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------------+
+  |Successive Temperatures of sea | 67 deg. | 63 deg. |    54 deg. F.   |
+  |    "           "       "  air | 66 deg. | 64 deg. |    53 deg. F.   |
+  |    "      State of atmosphere |   fair  |  shower | mist with shower|
+  +-------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------------+
+
+Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a surface
+layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The amount of motion of
+the air must be sufficient to prevent the condensation taking place at
+the sea surface without showing itself as a cloud. In a research on the
+Life History of Surface Air Currents the changes incidental to the
+movement of the air over the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great
+care, and the above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72 of the
+work referred to are typical of the formation of sea fog by the cooling
+of a relatively warm current passing over cold water.
+
+In conformity with this suggestion we find that fog is most liable to
+occur over the open ocean in those regions where, as off the
+Newfoundland banks, cold-water currents underlie warm air, and that it
+is most frequent at the season of the year when the air temperature is
+increasing faster than the water temperature. But it is difficult to
+bring this hypothesis always to bear upon actual practice, because the
+fog is representative of a temperature difference which has ceased to
+exist. One cannot therefore observe under ordinary circumstances both
+the temperature difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only
+the initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which
+favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and
+consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog, the
+characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From the
+conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the
+mast-head than it is on deck.
+
+One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm sea surface
+would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air and hence cause
+cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers rather than surface fog, but
+one cannot resist the conclusion that sea fog is sometimes formed by
+slow transference of cold air over relatively warm water, giving rise to
+what may be called a "steaming-pot" fog. In such a case the actual
+surface layer in contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog
+would be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour is
+more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in comparison with
+the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold current over warm water
+were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current of warm air over cold water
+appears to be, the geographical distribution of notable fog would be
+much more widespread than it actually is, and the seasonal distribution
+of fog would also be other than it is.
+
+The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more complicated
+process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases mistiness amounting
+to fog arises from the replacement of cold surface air which has chilled
+the earth and the objects thereon by a warm current. But this process
+can hardly give rise to detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary
+land or valley fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the
+combination of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of
+air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more
+particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow (in the
+absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower levels following
+roughly the course of the natural water drainage of the land, and
+thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation from warm moist soil or
+from the relatively warm water surface of river or lake. In this way
+steaming-pot fog gradually forms and is carried downward by the natural
+though slow descent of the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and
+banks in the lowest parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled
+with a cloud of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is
+minutely described by J.B. Cohen (_Q.J. Roy. Met. Soc._ vol. 30, p. 211,
+1904).
+
+It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances
+favourable for fog formation are (1) a site near the bottom level of the
+drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an evening or night
+of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant moisture in the
+surface-soil. These conditions define with reasonable accuracy the
+circumstances in which fog is actually observed.
+
+The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable when one
+considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however small they may be,
+must be continually sinking through the air which holds them, and that
+unless some upward motion of the air keeps at least a balance against
+this downward fall, the particles of the cloud must reach the earth or
+water and to that extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys
+it is easy to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and
+colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers
+displaced from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the result of
+the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface cloud gets
+thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and persistence of land
+fog seems too great to be accounted for by persistent radiation cooling.
+For example, in the week before Christmas of 1904 the whole of England
+south of the Humber was covered with fog for several days. It is of
+course possible that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the
+sides of mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the
+fog, as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but
+without more particulars such a statement seems almost incredible.
+Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems capricious and
+unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-formation, so that one is
+tempted to invoke the aid of electrification of the particles or some
+other abnormal condition to account for the persistence of fog. The
+observations at Kew observatory show that the electrical potential is
+abnormally high during fog, but whether that is the cause or the result
+of the presence of the water particles, we are not yet in a position to
+say. It must be remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as
+being, generally speaking, _in process of formation_ by mixing.
+Observations upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show
+that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still for
+only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear. The
+apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due to the fact that
+mixing is still going on in the persistent ones, but is completed in the
+disappearing ones.
+
+One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness of the
+foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun's rays falling
+upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable example may be quoted
+from the case of London, which was under fog all day on 28th January
+1909. The maximum temperature only reached 31 deg. F., whereas at
+Warlingham in Surrey from which the fog lifted it was as high as 46 deg.
+F.
+
+_A priori_ we might suppose that the formation of fog would arrest
+cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a protection of
+plants against frost. The condensation of water evaporated from wet
+ground, which affords the material for making fog, does apparently act
+as a protection, and heavy watering is sometimes used to protect plants
+from frost, but the same cannot be said of fog itself--cooling appears
+to go on in spite of the formation of fog.
+
+A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a cloud from
+above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls for remark. In
+so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules of clouds and rain
+and are therefore independent of surface conditions.
+
+These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with advantage in
+relation to the geographical distribution of fog. Statistics on this
+subject are not very satisfactory on account of the uncertainty of the
+distinction between fog and mist, but a good deal may be learned from
+the distribution of fog over the north Atlantic Ocean and its various
+coasts as shown in the Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north
+Atlantic issued by the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of
+the North Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog,
+which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent in
+the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most extensive and
+frequent in the spring and summer. By June the fog area has extended
+from the Great Banks over the ocean to the British Isles, in July it is
+most intense, and by August it has notably diminished, while in
+November, which is proverbially a foggy month on land, there is hardly
+any fog shown over the ocean.
+
+The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in London
+were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council by Captain A.
+Carpenter and Mr R.G.K. Lempfert, based upon special observations made
+in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1902-1903 in order to examine the
+possibility of more precise forecasts of fog.
+
+The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially important
+for large towns in consequence of the economic and hygienic results
+which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The fogs of London in
+particular have long been a subject of inquiry. It is difficult to get
+trustworthy statistics on the subject in consequence of the vagueness of
+the practice as regards the classification of fog. For large towns there
+is great advantage in using a fog scale such as that given above, in
+which one deals only with the practical range of vision irrespective of
+the meteorological cause.
+
+Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog and haze or
+mist, but not between the two latter terms, as equivalent to specifying
+fog when the thickness amounts to the figure 2 or more on the fog scale,
+we are enabled to compare the frequency of fog in London by the
+comparison of the results at the London observing stations. The
+comparison was made by Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal
+Meteorological Society (_Quarterly Journal_, vol. 31, p. 15), and it
+appears therefrom that in recent years there has been a notable
+diminution of fog frequency, as indicated in the following table of the
+total number of days of fog in the years from 1871:--
+
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | 1871.| 1872.| 1873.| 1874.| 1875.| 1876.| 1877.| 1878.| 1879.| 1880.| 1881.| 1882.| 1883.| 1884.| 1885.| 1886.| 1887.| 1888.| 1889.|
+  +-------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |  42  |  35  |  75  |  53  |  49  |  40  |  46  |  63  |  69  |  74  |  59  |  69  |  61  |  53  |  69  |  86  |  83  |  62  |  75  |
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | 1890.| 1891.| 1892.| 1893.| 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| 1900.| 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.| 1907.| 1908.|
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |  65  |  69  |  68  |  31  |  51  |  48  |  43  |  48  |  47  |  56  |  13  |  45  |  42  |  26  |  44  |  19  |  16  |  37  |  19  |
+  +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog it must not
+be understood that the atmosphere of London is approaching that of the
+surrounding districts as regards transparency. Judged by the autographic
+records it is still almost opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the
+card of the recorder during the winter months.
+
+  The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to
+  fog, mist and haze in the _Bibliography of Meteorology_ (part ii.) of
+  the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among more
+  recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in the text,
+  may be mentioned:--Koppen, "Bodennebel," _Met. Zeit._ (1885); Trabert,
+  _Met. Zeit._ (1901), p. 522; Elias in _Ergebnisse des aeronautischen
+  Observatoriums bei Berlin_, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott, _Q.J.R. Met.
+  Soc._ xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, "Fog Studies," _Amer. Inv._ ix.
+  (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, "Fogs on the Coasts of
+  Scotland," _Journ. Scot. Met. Soc._ xii. p. 3.     (W. N. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842-   ), Italian novelist and poet, was born at
+Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate Zanella, one of the best of
+the modern Italian poets, whose tender, thoughtful and deeply religious
+spirit continued to animate his literary productions. He began his
+literary career with _Miranda_, a poetical romance (1874), followed in
+1876 by _Valsolda_, which, republished in 1886 with considerable
+additions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which is
+not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and D'Annunzio's
+impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes a Wordsworthian simplicity
+and pathos, contributing to modern Italian literature wholesome elements
+of which it would otherwise be nearly destitute. His novels, _Malombra_
+(1882), _Daniele Cortis_ (1887), _Misterio del Poeta_ (1888), obtained
+considerable literary success upon their first publication, but did not
+gain universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by
+French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious, and a new
+work, _Piccolo Mondo antico_ (1896), which critics far from friendly to
+Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas pronounced the best
+Italian novel since _I Promessi Sposi_, went through numerous editions.
+Even greater sensation was caused by his novel _Il Santo_ (_The Saint_,
+1906), on account of its being treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and
+Fogazzaro's sympathy with the Liberal Catholic movement--his own
+Catholicism being well known--made this novel a centre of discussion in
+the Roman Catholic world.
+
+  See the biography by Molmenti (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or BENGT) ERLAND (1786-1854), Swedish sculptor, was
+born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August 1786. His father, a
+copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited taste for design, sent
+him in 1801 to Stockholm, where he studied at the school of art. There
+he came much under the influence of the sculptor Sergell, who
+communicated to him his own enthusiasm for antique art and natural
+grace. Fogelberg worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his
+instinct for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality
+of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a government
+pension enabled him to travel. He studied from one to two years in
+Paris, first under Pierre Guerin, and afterwards under the sculptor
+Bosio, for the technical practice of sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg
+realized a dream of his life in visiting Rome, where the greater part of
+his remaining years were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and
+the careful study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his
+native country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great
+enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence of those
+remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural beauty to which he
+had been so long accustomed. Returning to Italy, he died suddenly of
+apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd of December 1854. The subjects of
+Fogelberg's earlier works are mostly taken from classic mythology. Of
+these, "Cupid and Psyche," "Venus entering the Bath," "A Bather" (1838),
+"Apollo Citharede," "Venus and Cupid" (1839) and "Psyche" (1854) may be
+mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian mythology Fogelberg
+showed, perhaps for the first time, that he had powers above those of
+intelligent assimilation and imitation. His "Odin" (1831), "Thor"
+(1842), and "Balder" (1842), though influenced by Greek art, display
+considerable power of independent imagination. His portraits and
+historical figures, as those of Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles
+XII. (1851), of Charles XIII. (1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of
+Stockholm (1853), are faithful and dignified works.
+
+  See Casimir Leconte, _L'Oeuvre de Fogelberg_ (Paris, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+FOGGIA, a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level, in
+the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E. of Ancona and
+123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 49,031; commune, 53,134.
+The name is probably derived from the pits or cellars (_foveae_) in
+which the inhabitants store their grain. The town is the medieval
+successor of the ancient Arpi, 3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after
+conquering the district from the Eastern empire, gave it its first
+importance. The date of the erection of the cathedral is probably about
+1179; it retains some traces of Norman architecture, and the facade has
+a fine figured cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals
+of the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much altered
+after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace of the emperor
+Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia) is also preserved. Here
+died his third wife, Isabella, daughter of King John of England. Charles
+of Anjou died here in 1284. After his son's death, it was a prey to
+internal dissensions and finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who
+converted the pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445,
+and made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be paid
+and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town are modern.
+Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance for the produce of the
+surrounding country, and is also a considerable railway centre, being
+situated on the main line from Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where
+this is joined by the line from Benevento and Caserta. There are also
+branches to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino,
+Potenza, or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.
+
+
+
+
+FOHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch _favongn_, _favoign_, from
+Lat. _favonius_), a warm dry wind blowing down the valleys of the Alps
+from high central regions, most frequently in winter. The Fohn wind
+often blows with great violence. It is caused by the indraft of air from
+the elevated region to areas of low barometric pressure in the
+neighbourhood, and the warmth and dryness are due to dynamical
+compression of the air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local
+winds occur in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes
+of the Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Fohn wind is
+often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different from the
+true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes from the Sahara
+dies hard; and still finds expression in some textbooks.
+
+  For a full account of these winds see Hann, _Lehrbuch der
+  Meteorologie_, p. 594.
+
+
+
+
+FOHR, a German island in the North Sea, belonging to the province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast. Pop. 4500. It comprises
+an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by a regular steamboat service from
+Husum and Dagebull on the mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort
+on the E. coast of the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the
+Sandwall, a promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach.
+Fohr, the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally
+marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous
+pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of which the
+most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum. The inhabitants are
+mainly engaged in the fishing industry, and are known as excellent
+sailors.
+
+
+
+
+FOIL. 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. _folium_, a leaf, modern Fr.
+_feuille_), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names, such as
+the "trefoil" clover; and hence applied to anything resembling a leaf.
+In architecture, the word appears for the small leaf-like spaces formed
+by the cusps of tracery in windows or panels, and known, according to
+the number of such spaces, as "quatrefoil," "cinquefoil," &c. The word
+is also found in "counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book,
+containing memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the
+receiver or drawer as a "counter" or check. "Foil" is particularly used
+of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape as much as in
+thinness. In thickness foil comes between "leaf" and "sheet" metal. In
+jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper, sometimes known as Dutch foil,
+is used as a backing for paste gems, or stones of inferior lustre or
+colour. This is coated with a mixture of isinglass and translucent
+colour, varying with the stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is
+required, left uncoloured, but highly polished. From this use of "foil,"
+the word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by
+contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive
+qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The commonest
+"foil" is that generally known as "tinfoil." The ordinary commercial
+"tinfoil" usually consists chiefly of lead, and is used for the wrapping
+of chocolate or other sweetmeats, tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese
+variegated foil gives the effect of "damaskeening." A large number of
+thin plates of various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with
+alloys of different metals are soldered together in a particular order,
+a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is hammered
+or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then appearing in the
+order in which the various metals were placed.
+
+2. (From an O. Fr. _fuler_ or _foler_, modern _fouler_, to tread or
+trample, to "full" cloth, Lat. _fullo_, a fuller), an old hunting term,
+used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks, to confuse
+the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in wrestling, of a
+"throw." Thus comes the common use of the word, in a figurative sense,
+with reference to both these meanings, of baffling or defeating an
+adversary, or of parrying an attack.
+
+3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see FOIL-FENCING) the word
+is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based on a supposed similar use
+of Fr. _fleuret_, literally a "little flower," for the weapon, is that
+foil means a leaf, and must be referred in origin to Lat. _folium_. A
+second suggestion is that it means "blunted," and is the same as (2). A
+third is that it is an adaptation of an expression "at foils," i.e.
+"parrying." Of these suggestions, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, the first has nothing to support it, the second is not
+supported by any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to
+blunt. The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that the
+word is an alteration of an old word "foin," meaning a thrust with a
+pointed weapon. The origin of this word is probably an O. Fr. _foisne_,
+from the Lat. _fuscina_, a three-pronged fork.
+
+
+
+
+FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil. The
+word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the English
+writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in the sense of a
+weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of a real weapon. Blunt
+swords for practice in fencing have been used in all ages. For the most
+part these were of wood and flat in general form, but when, towards the
+close of the 17th century, all cutting action with the small-sword was
+discarded (see FENCING), foil-blades were usually made of steel, and
+either round, three-cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button
+covering the point. The foil is called in French _fleuret_, and in
+Italian _fioretto_ (literally "bud") from this button. The classic
+small-sword play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the
+present time by fencing with the _epee de combat_ (fighting-rapier),
+which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a button (see
+EPEE-DE-COMBAT), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing is a conventional
+art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule that no hits except
+those on the body shall be considered good, and not even those unless
+they be given in strict accordance with certain standard precepts. In
+epee-fencing on the contrary, a touch on any part of the person, however
+given, is valid. Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as
+practice is concerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, epee or
+sabre.
+
+There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and the
+Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted everywhere
+except in Italy, is described in this article, reference being made to
+the important differences between the two schools.
+
+_The Foil._--The foil consists of the "blade" and the "handle." The
+blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section, consists of two
+parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard to the button, and the
+"tongue," which runs through the handle and is joined to the pommel. The
+blade proper is divided into the "forte," or thicker half (next the
+handle), and the "foible" or thinner half. Some authorities divide the
+blade proper into three parts, the "forte," "middle" and "foible." The
+handle is comprised of the "guard," the "grip" and the "pommel." The
+guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr.
+_lunettes_, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of the
+same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a hollow piece of
+wood, usually wound with twine, through which the tongue of the blade
+passes. The pommel is a piece of metal, usually pear-shaped, to which
+the end of the tongue is joined and which forms the extremity of the
+handle. The blade from guard to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5),
+though a somewhat shorter and lighter blade is generally used by ladies.
+The handle is about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards.
+
+The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the blade a
+trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the handle, which
+consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from 4 to 5 in. in
+diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining the grip with
+the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends slightly on each side. Of
+late years many Italian masters use French blades and even discard the
+cross-bar, retaining, however, the bell-guard.
+
+In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex surface of
+the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than the top and
+bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other three sides. This is
+the position of "supination," or thumb-up. "Pronation" is the reverse
+position, with the knuckles up. The French lay stress upon holding the
+foil lightly, the necessary pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb
+and forefinger, the other fingers being used more to guide the direction
+of the executed movements. This is in order to give free scope to the
+_doigte_ (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil
+by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility of
+changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying, the
+end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even less, of the
+guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near the pommel as
+possible, in order to gain additional length. It will be seen that
+_doigte_ is impossible with the Italian foil, in holding which the
+forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar, preventing any
+movement of the hand. The lightness of grasp inculcated by the French is
+illustrated by the rule of the celebrated master Lafaugere: "Hold your
+sword as if you had a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent
+its escape, yet not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a
+consequence that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the
+French school.
+
+_To Come on Guard._--The position of "on guard" is that in which the
+fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence. It is taken from
+the position of "attention"; the feet together and at right angles with
+each other, head and body erect, facing forward in the same direction as
+the right foot, left arm and hand hanging in touch with the body, and
+the right arm and foil forming a straight line so that the button is
+about 1 yd. in front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this
+position the movements to come "on guard" are seven in number:--
+
+  1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary (or
+  master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye.
+
+  2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from the
+  floor.
+
+  3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally
+  backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers
+  of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and
+  along the blade.
+
+  4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above
+  the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept
+  horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.
+
+  5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position,
+  the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring
+  the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from it;
+  keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed towards
+  the opponent's eye.
+
+  6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without moving
+  the feet.
+
+  7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the
+  right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the
+  height of the fencer).
+
+In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right arm
+fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder thrown
+farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At the present time,
+however, many of the best Italian fencers have adopted the guard with
+crooked sword-arm, owing to their abandonment of the old long-foil
+blade.
+
+_The Recover_ (at the close of the lesson or assault).--To recover "in
+advance": extend the right arm at right angles with the body, drop the
+left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the rear foot up to the one
+in advance. To recover "to the rear": extend the right arm and drop the
+left as before, and straighten the legs by drawing the forward foot back
+to that in the rear.
+
+_The Salute_ always follows the recover, the two really forming one
+manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a position just in
+front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical with point upwards;
+then lower and extend the arm with nails up until the point is 4 in.
+from the floor and slightly to the right.
+
+_To Advance._--Being on guard, take a short step forward with the right
+foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same distance, the
+position of the body not being changed. However the step, or series of
+steps, is made, the right foot should always move first.
+
+_To Retreat._--This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot always
+moving first.
+
+_The Calls_ (_deux appels_).--Being on guard, tap the floor twice with
+the right foot without altering the position of any other part of the
+person. The object of the calls is to test the equilibrium of the body,
+and they are usually executed as a preliminary to the recover.
+
+_The Lunge_ is the chief means of attack. It is immediately preceded by
+the movement of "extension," in fact the two really form one combined
+movement. Extension is executed by quickly extending the right arm, so
+that point, hand and shoulder shall have the same elevation; no other
+part of the person is moved. The "lunge" is then carried out by
+straightening the left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that
+it shall be planted as far forward as possible without losing the
+equilibrium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard. The
+left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is
+advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand open and
+thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the position of guard is
+accomplished by smartly throwing the body back by the exertion of the
+right leg, until its weight rests again on the left leg, the right foot
+and arms resuming their on-guard positions. The point upon which the
+French school lays most stress is, that the movement of extension shall,
+if only by a fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the
+right foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge,
+i.e. the direction of the point.
+
+_The Gain._--This consists in bringing up the left foot towards the
+right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In this
+manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can be made
+without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common stratagem of
+fencers whose reach is short.
+
+_Defence._--For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the fencer's
+jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters, the two upper
+ones being called the "high lines," and the two lower ones the "low
+lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upper part of the breast is called
+an attack in the high lines. In like manner the parries are named from
+the different quarters they are designed to protect. There are four
+traditional parries executed with the hand in supination, and four
+others, practically identical in execution, made with the hand held in
+pronation. Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of
+the jacket are "sixte" (sixth; with the hand in supination) and "tierce"
+(third; hand in pronation). Those defending the upper left-hand quarter
+are "quarte" (fourth; in supination) and "quinte" (fifth; in pronation).
+Those defending the lower right-hand quarter are "octave" (eighth; in
+supination) and "seconde" (second; in pronation). Those defending the
+lower left-hand quarter are "septime" (seventh; in supination), more
+generally called "demicircle," or "half-circle"; and "prime" (first; in
+pronation).
+
+_The Parries._--The tendency of the French school has always been
+towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present day the
+parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although recognized and
+taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong adversary in
+foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in turning the hand.
+The theory of parrying is to turn aside the opponent's foil with the
+least possible expenditure of time and exertion, using the arm as little
+as possible while letting the hand and wrist do the work, and opposing
+the "forte" of the foil to the "foible" of the adversary's. The foil is
+kept pointed as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the
+parries are made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade.
+The slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is the
+most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, "simple," in which
+the attack is warded off by a single movement, and "counter," in which a
+narrow circle is described by the point of the foil round that of the
+opponent, which is thus enveloped and thrown aside. There are also
+complex parries, composed of combinations of two or more parries, which
+are used to meet complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into
+simple parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.
+
+_Simple Parries._--The origin of the numerical nomenclature of the
+parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that they
+received their names from the positions assumed in the process of
+drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position of the hand
+and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard on the left side, is
+practically that of the first, or "prime," parry. To go from "prime" to
+"seconde" it is only necessary to drop the hand and carry it across the
+body to the left side; thence to "tierce" is only a matter of raising
+the point of the sword, &c.
+
+_Parry of Prime_ (to ward off attacks on the--usually lower--left-hand
+side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite the left eye and
+the point directed towards the opponent's knee. This parry is now
+regarded more as an elegant evolution than a sound means of defence, and
+is little employed.
+
+_Parry of Seconde_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side). This
+is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand downwards and
+slightly to the right, knuckles up.
+
+_Parry of Tierce_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). A
+quick, dry beat on the adversary's "foible" is given, forcing it to the
+right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the middle of the
+right breast. This parry has been practically discarded in favour of
+"sixte."
+
+_Parry of Quarte_ (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side). This
+parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing the
+adversary's blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in
+supination, opposite the left breast.
+
+_Parry of Quinte_ (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like
+"quarte"). This is practically a low "quarte," and is little used.
+
+_Parry of Sixte_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). This
+parry is, together with "quarte," the most important of all. It is
+executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right breast, a
+quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's blade to the right.
+
+_Parry of Septime or Half-Circle_ (against thrusts at the lower
+left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the foil a
+small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand moving a few
+inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.
+
+_Parry of Octave_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side) is
+executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle
+downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few inches in the same
+direction, but kept thumb up.
+
+_Counter Parries_ (Fr. _contre_).--Although the simple parries are
+theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived by
+feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in which the blade
+describes narrow circles, following that of the adversary and meeting
+and turning it aside; thus the point describes a complete circle while
+the hand remains practically stationary. Each simple parry has its
+counter, made with the hand in the same position and on the same side as
+in the simple parry. The two most important are the "counter of quarte"
+and the "counter of sixte," while the counters of "septime" and "octave"
+are less used, and the other four at the present time practically never.
+
+_Counter of Quarte._--Being on guard in quarte (with your adversary's
+blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under and thrusts in
+sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe a narrow circle
+with your point round his blade, downward to the right and then up over
+to the left, bringing hand and foil back to their previous positions and
+catching and turning aside his blade on the way. The "Counter of Sixte"
+is executed in a similar manner, but the circle is described in the
+opposite direction, throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The
+"Counters of Septime and Octave" are similar to the other two but are
+executed in the low lines.
+
+_Complex or Combined Parries_ are such as are composed of two or more
+parries executed in immediate succession, and are made in answer to
+feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g. being on guard in
+quarte, should the adversary drop his point under and feint at the right
+breast but deflect the point again and really thrust on the left, it is
+evident that the simple parry of sixte would cover the right breast but
+would leave the real point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The
+sixte parry is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by
+the parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are
+numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.
+
+_Engagement_ is the junction of the blades, the different engagements
+being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in the position
+of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte. To engage in another
+line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from quarte to sixte, the point is
+lowered and passed under the adversary's blade, which is pressed
+slightly outward, so as to be well covered (called "opposition").
+"Double Engagement" is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in
+succession in the high lines, the last with opposition.
+
+_Attack._--The attack in fencing comprises all movements the object of
+which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's breast,
+body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space upon which hits
+count is called the "target" and differs according to the rules
+prevailing in the several countries, but is usually as above stated. In
+Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones count, while in America the
+target is only the left breast between the median line and a line
+running from the armpit to the belt. The reason for this limitation is
+to encourage accuracy.
+
+Attacks are either "primary" or "secondary." _Primary Attacks_ are those
+initiated by a fencer before his adversary has made any offensive
+movement, and are divided into "Simple," "Feint" and "Force" attacks.
+
+_Simple Attacks_, the characteristic of which is pace, are those made
+with one simple movement only and are four in number, viz. the "Straight
+Lunge," the "Disengagement," the "Counter-disengagement" and the
+"Cut-over." The Straight-Lunge (_coup droit_), used when the adversary
+is not properly covered when on guard, is described above under "Lunge."
+The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil under the
+opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the other side. It is
+often used to take an opponent unawares or when he presses unduly hard
+on your blade. The Counter-disengagement is used when the adversary
+moves his blade, i.e. changes the line of engagement, upon which you
+execute a narrow circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original
+line. The Cut-over (_coupe_) is a disengagement executed by passing the
+point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the opposite
+line. The preliminary movement of raising the point is made by the
+action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn back.
+
+_Feint Attacks_, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded by
+one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the adversary into
+thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple extension, often with a
+slight movement of the body, threatening the adversary in a certain
+line, for the purpose of inducing him to parry on that side and thus
+leave the other open for the real thrust. At the same time any movement
+of the blade or any part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in
+regard to the nature of the attack about to follow, must also be
+considered a species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the
+"One-Two," the "One-Two-Three" and the "Double."
+
+The "One-Two" is a feint in one line, followed (as the adversary
+parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement. Thus, being
+engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the adversary's blade and
+extend your arm as if to thrust at his left breast, but instead of doing
+this, the instant he parries you move your point back again and lunge in
+quarte, i.e. on the side on which you were originally engaged. In
+feinting it is necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so
+complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a part of a
+real thrust in that line.
+
+The "One-Two-Three" consists of two feints, one at each side, followed
+by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the original engagement.
+Thrusts preceded by three feints are also sometimes used. It is evident
+that the above attacks are useless if the adversary parries by a counter
+(circular parry), which must be met by a "Double." This is executed by
+feinting and, upon perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular
+parry, by following the circle described by his point with a similar
+circle, deceiving (i.e. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting
+home.
+
+The "Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is a
+combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.
+
+_Force-Attacks_, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent by
+assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones being
+the "Beat," the "Press," the "Glide" and the "Bind." The "Beat" is a
+quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon the foible of the
+adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way for a straight lunge which
+follows instantly. The blow is made with the hand only. A "false beat"
+is a lighter blow made for the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting
+the opponent, and is often followed by a disengagement. The "Press" is
+similar in character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse
+blade, a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy
+to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A "false
+press" may be used to entice the adversary into a too heavy responsive
+pressure, which may then be taken advantage of by a disengagement. The
+"Traverse" (Fr. _froisse_, Ital. _striscio_) is a prolonged press
+carried sharply down the adverse blade towards the handle. The "Glide"
+("Graze," Fr. _coule_) is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of
+the adversary, without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made
+inside his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The
+"Bind" (_liement_) consists in gaining possession of the adversary's
+foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across into the
+opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home, the adversary's
+blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be also carried out from a
+low line into a high one. The bind is less used in the French school
+than in the Italian. The "Flanconnade" is a bind made by capturing the
+adversary's blade in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the
+outside line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by means
+of a twist and thrust is the "Cross" (_croise_), which is executed when
+the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's point over his wrist
+and forcing down both blades into seconde with a full extension of the
+arm. The result is to create a sudden and wide opening, and often
+disarms the adversary.
+
+_Secondary Attacks_ are those made (1) just as your adversary himself
+starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the completion of
+his attack if it fails.
+
+1. "Attacks on the Preparation" are a matter of judgment and quickness.
+They are usually attempted when the adversary is evidently preparing a
+complicated attack, such as the "one-two-three" or some other manoeuvre,
+involving one or more preliminary movements. At such a time a quick
+thrust will often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for
+preparation attacks are often given when the adversary attempts a beat
+preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an "absence of the
+blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid contact with his by a narrow
+movement, and your point thrust home into the space left unguarded by
+the force of his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an
+"absence" by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades, in the
+hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will fly off to
+one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared for his
+"absence" a straight thrust will score.
+
+2. The chief "Attacks on the Development," or "Counter Attacks," are the
+"Stop Thrust" and the "Time Thrust," both made while the adversary is
+carrying out his own attack. The "Stop Thrust" (_coup d'arret_) is one
+made after the adversary has actually begun an attack involving two or
+more movements, and is only justified when it can be brought off without
+your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of the
+person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree that
+the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this and
+attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his opponent while
+totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he, however, be touched,
+even on the foot or mask, by the adversary, his touch, however good, is
+invalid. If both touches are good, that of the original attacker only
+counts. Stop thrusts are employed mostly against fencers who attack
+wildly or without being properly covered. The "Time Thrust" is delivered
+with opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving
+several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the original
+attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer employing it is
+touched on any part of the person.
+
+3. "Attacks on the Completion" (i.e. of the adversary's attack) are
+"Ripostes," "Counter-ripostes," "Remises" and "Renewals of Attack."
+
+The _Riposte_ (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately after
+parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm, the body
+remaining immovable. The "counter-riposte" is a riposte made after
+parrying the adversary's riposte, and generally from the position of the
+lunge, or while recovering from it, since one must have attacked with a
+full lunge if the adversary has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte.
+There are three kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a
+pause.
+
+The "direct _riposte_" may be made instantly after parrying the
+adversary's thrust by quitting his blade and straightening the arm, so
+that the point will touch his body on the nearest and most exposed part;
+or by not quitting his blade but running yours quickly down his and at
+the same time keeping a strong opposition ("riposte d'opposition"). The
+quickest direct riposte is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a
+right-hand fencer), and is called by the French the riposte of
+"_tac-au-tac_," imitative of the sudden succession of the click of the
+parry and the tap of the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's
+breast. In making "ripostes with a feint" the point is not jabbed on to
+the opponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more
+preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a
+disengagement, a cut-over or a double.
+
+_Ripostes_ with a pause (_a temps perdu_, with lost time) are made after
+a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers are too near
+for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the adversary time to make a
+quick parry, which is then deceived.
+
+The _remise_ is a thrust made after one's first thrust has been parried
+and in the same line; it must be made in such a way that the adversary's
+justified riposte is at the same time parried by opposition or
+completely avoided. It is really a renewal of the attack in the original
+line, while the so-called "renewal of attack" ("_redoublement
+d'attaque_") is a second thrust which ignores the adversary's riposte,
+but made in a different line. Both the remise and the renewal are valid
+only when the adversary's riposte does not hit.
+
+"False Attacks" are broad movements made for the purpose of drawing the
+adversary out or of disconcerting him. They may consist of an advance,
+an extension, a change of engagement, an intentional uncovering by
+taking a wide guard (called "invitation guard"), or any movement or
+combination of movements tending to make the adversary believe that a
+real attack is under way.
+
+"The Assault" is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in public,
+while formal fencing in private is called "loose play" or a "friendly
+bout." Bouts between fencers take place on a platform about 24 ft. long
+and 6 ft. wide (in the United States 20 X 3 ft.). Formal bouts are
+usually for a number of touches, or for a certain number of minutes, the
+fencer who touches oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five)
+are sometimes empowered to score one or more points against a competitor
+for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space limits. In the
+United States bouts are for four minutes, with a change of places after
+two minutes, and the competitors are not interrupted, the winner being
+indicated by a vote of the judges, who take into account touches and
+style. In all countries contestants are required to wear jackets of a
+light colour, so that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of
+all touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered to
+be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great Britain under
+the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association, and in the United States
+under those of the Amateur Fencers' League of America.
+
+  _Fencing Terms_ (not mentioned above): "_Cavazione_," Ital. for
+  disengagement. "Contraction, Parries of," those which do not parry in
+  the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another line,
+  e.g. to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte.
+  "_Controtempo_," Ital. for time-thrust. "Coronation," an attack
+  preceded by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and
+  vice versa) made famous by Lafaugere. "_Corps-a-corps_" (body to
+  body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters that
+  their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again come on
+  guard. "_Coule_," Fr. for glide. "Disarm," to knock the foil out of
+  the adversary's hand; it is of no value in the French school. "Double
+  Hit," when both fencers attack and hit at the same time; neither hit
+  counts. "_Filo_," Ital. for glide (graze). "Flying Cut-over," a
+  cut-over executed as a continuation of a parry, the hand being drawn
+  back towards the body. "_Incontro_," Ital. for double attack. "Give
+  the blade," to allow the adversary easy contact with the foil; it is
+  often resorted to in order to tempt the adversary into a beat or bind.
+  "Menace," to threaten the adversary by an extension and forward
+  movement of the trunk. "_Mur_," see "Salute." "Passage of arms," a
+  series of attacks and parries, ending in a successful hit. "Phrase of
+  arms," a series of attacks and parries ending in a hit or
+  invalidation. "Invalidation," a hit on some part of the person outside
+  the target, made by the fencer whose right it is at that moment to
+  attack or riposte; such a hit invalidates one made simultaneously or
+  subsequently by his opponent, however good. "Rebeat," two beats,
+  executed as quickly as possible together, one on each side of the
+  adversary's blade. "_Reprises d'attaque_," Fr. for renewed attacks.
+  "Salute," the courteous salutation of the public and the adversary
+  before and after a bout. A more elaborate salute, called by the French
+  the _Mur_, consists of a series of parries, lunges and other
+  evolutions carried out by both fencers at the same time. Important
+  exhibition assaults are usually preceded by the _Mur_, which is called
+  in English the Grand Salute. "_Septime enveloppee_," a riposte by
+  means of a twist and thrust after a parry in septime. It envelops and
+  masters the adverse blade, whence the name. "Secret thrusts," the
+  French "_bottes secretes_," pretended infallible attacks of which the
+  user is supposed alone to know the method of execution; they have no
+  real existence. "_Sforza,_" Ital. for disarmament. "_Scandaglio,_"
+  Ital for examination, studying the form of an opponent at the
+  beginning of a bout. "_Toccato!_" Ital. for "Touched!",. Fr.
+  "_Touche._"
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of foil-fencing is practically identical
+  with that of the art in general (see FENCING). The following modern
+  works are among the best. French School: _Fencing_, in the Badminton
+  library (1897); _Foil and Sabre_, by L. Rondelle (Boston, 1892);
+  "Fencing," by C. Prevost in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_ (1901);
+  _Fencing_, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906). Italian school:
+  _Istruzione per la scherma, &c._, by S. de Frae (Milan, 1885); _La
+  Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola_, by F. Masiello (Florence,
+  1887).     (E. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FOIX, PAUL DE (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist. He studied
+Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence at Toulouse,
+where shortly after finishing his curriculum he delivered a course of
+lectures on civil law, which gained him great reputation. At the age of
+nineteen he was named councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in
+this capacity expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild
+measures in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was
+arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained the favour
+of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent ambassador to
+England, where he remained four years. He was then sent to Venice, and
+returned a short time afterwards to England to negotiate a marriage
+between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled
+several important missions during the reign of Henry III. of France. In
+1577 he was made archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed
+ambassador to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.
+
+  _Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et
+  ambassadeur pour le roy aupres du pape Gregoire XIII, au roi Henry
+  III_, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to their
+  authenticity. See _Gallia Christiana_ (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret,
+  _Oraison funebre de Paul de Foix_ (Paris, 1584); "Lettres de Catherine
+  de Medicis," edited by Hector de la Ferriere (Paris, 1880 seq.) in the
+  _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de France_.
+
+
+
+
+FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages capital of the
+counts of Foix, and now capital of the department of Ariege, 51 m. S. of
+Toulouse, on the Southern railway from that city to Ax. Pop. (1906)
+town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is situated between the Ariege and the
+Arget at their confluence. The old part of the town, with its ill-paved
+winding streets and old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated
+rock crowned by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th
+centuries), while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de
+Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic building of
+the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture, a court of
+assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycee, training
+colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
+Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on. Foix probably owes its
+origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne. This afterwards became an
+abbey, in which were laid the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of
+Tours in the 5th century.
+
+The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the modern
+department of Ariege, a region watered chiefly by the Ariege and its
+affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted of an agglomeration
+of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though subordinate to the counts
+of Foix, had some voice in the government of the district. Protestantism
+obtained an early entrance into the county, and the religious struggles
+of the 16th and 17th centuries were carried on with much implacability
+therein. The estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th
+century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable power and
+virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed one of the
+thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was incorporated in
+the department of Ariege.
+
+_Counts of Foix._--The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished
+French family which flourished from the 11th to the 15th century. They
+were at first feudatories of the counts of Toulouse, but chafing under
+this yoke they soon succeeded in throwing it off, and during the 13th
+and 14th centuries were among the most powerful of the French feudal
+nobles. Living on the borders of France, having constant intercourse
+with Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they were in
+a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of independence, and
+acted rather as the equals than as the dependents of the kings of
+France.
+
+The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of Bernard
+Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of Carcassonne (d.
+1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and the adjoining lands, which
+had hitherto formed part of the county of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064,
+Roger was succeeded by his brother Peter, who died six years later, and
+was succeeded in turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the
+crusade of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II.
+for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased the
+anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died in 1125 he was
+succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of Roger III. about 1149, and
+of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188, brought the county to Roger
+Bernard's only son, Raymond Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French
+king, Philip Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the
+capture of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the
+Albigenses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to Simon
+IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to terms with the church
+and recovered his estates before his death in 1223, was a patron of the
+Provencal poets, and counted himself among their number. He was
+succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted
+Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance
+to the French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated on
+two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who followed, died
+in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard III., who, more
+famous as a poet than as a warrior, was taken prisoner both by Philip
+III. of France and by Peter III. of Aragon. This count married
+Marguerite, daughter and heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Bearn (d.
+1290), and this union led to the outbreak of a long feud between the
+houses of Foix and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger
+Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count in 1302,
+inheriting both Foix and Bearn. Becoming embroiled with the French king,
+Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle with the count of Armagnac,
+Gaston was imprisoned in Paris; but quickly regaining his freedom he
+accompanied King Louis X. on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and
+died on his return to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston
+II., was the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of
+Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and Spain,
+dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his son, Gaston III.
+(1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed Phoebus on account of his
+beauty, was the most famous member of the old Foix family. Like his
+father he assisted France in her struggle against England, being
+entrusted with the defence of the frontiers of Gascony; but when the
+French king, John II., showed a marked preference for the count of
+Armagnac, Gaston left his service and went to fight against the heathen
+in Prussia. Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble
+ladies from the attacks of the adherents of the _Jacquerie_ at Meaux,
+and was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle he
+also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in
+Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI. he made
+peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued to fight
+against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362, was defeated and compelled
+to pay a ransom; and this war lasted until 1377, when peace was made.
+Early in 1380 the count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when
+Charles VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this
+appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the royal command,
+and supported by the communes of Languedoc, Gaston fought for about two
+years against John, duke of Berry, who had been chosen as his successor,
+until, worsted in the combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to
+his estates, remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had
+married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), by his
+wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he divorced in 1373,
+he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have been incited by his
+uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison his father, and who met
+his death in 1381. It is probable, as Froissart says, that he was killed
+by his father. Left without legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded
+to bequeath his lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and
+Bearn when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond of
+hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature. Several
+beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed by his
+orders, and he himself wrote _Deduits de la chasse des bestes sauvaiges
+et des oiseaulx de proye_. Froissart, who gives a graphic description of
+his court and his manner of life, speaks enthusiastically of Gaston,
+saying: "I never saw none like him of personage, nor of so fair form,
+nor so well made," and again, "in everything he was so perfect that he
+cannot be praised too much."
+
+Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI. granted the
+county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, a descendant of Count
+Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, Matthew's lands were seized by
+Archambault, count of Grailly and captal de Buch, the husband of his
+sister Isabella (d. 1426), who became count of Foix in 1401.
+Archambault's eldest son, John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his
+father's lands and titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter
+of Charles III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
+Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the royal
+representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between Foix and
+Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle between the Burgundians
+and the Armagnacs, he intrigued with both parties, and consequently was
+distrusted by the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the
+cause of France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
+when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
+allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc and
+Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding bands which were
+devastating France; fought for Aragon against Castile; and aided his
+brother, the cardinal of Foix, to crush some insurgents in Aragon.
+Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of
+Grailly, and was made archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent
+part in the struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
+the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's son, Gaston
+IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of John, king of Aragon
+and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty of Narbonne, and having
+assisted King Charles VII. in Guienne, he was made a peer of France in
+1458. In 1455 his father-in-law designated him as his successor in
+Navarre, and Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
+Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and Guienne; but
+these marks of favour did not prevent him from joining a league against
+Louis in 1471. His eldest son, Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a
+daughter of Charles VII. of France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV.
+died two years later, his lands descended to his grandson, Francis
+Phoebus (d. 1483), who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded
+by his sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516).
+Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret and
+subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of Navarre became king
+of France in 1589 the lands of the counts of Foix-Grailly became part of
+the French royal domain. A younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d.
+1500), who received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and
+married Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
+terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death of his nephew
+Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom of Navarre against Jean
+d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted
+until 1497, when John renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix
+(1489-1512), the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
+who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. In 1507
+Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with King Louis XII. for the
+duchy of Nemours, and as duke of Nemours he took command of the French
+troops in Italy. Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston
+encountered the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
+after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. From
+the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also sprung the
+viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of Benanges and Candale,
+and of Gurson and Fleix.
+
+  See D.J. Vaissete, _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, tome iv. (Paris,
+  1876); L. Flourac, _Jean I^er, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de
+  Bearn_ (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Anselme, _Histoire genealogique_, tome
+  iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, _Histoire du comte de Foix_
+  (Toulouse, 1852); Madaune, _Gaston Phoebus, comte de Foix et souverain
+  de Bearn_ (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce
+  and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).
+
+
+
+
+FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1669-1752), French soldier and
+military author, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February 1669. His
+military ardour was first awakened by reading Caesar's _Commentaries_,
+and he ran away from home and joined the army. He soon saw active
+service, and, young as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the
+manuscript of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal
+Belleisle on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and
+aide-de-camp to the duke of Vendome, then in command of the French
+forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendome's brother, the
+Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant feat of
+arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at the battle of
+Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was during his tedious
+recovery from his wounds that he conceived the tactical theories to the
+elucidation of which he devoted most of his life. In 1706 he again
+rendered good service in Italy, and in 1708 distinguished himself
+greatly in the operations attempted by Vendome and the duke of Burgundy
+for the relief of Lille, the failure of which was due in part to the
+disagreement of the French commanders; and it is no small testimony to
+the ability and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
+Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his services were
+rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. He saw further active
+service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles XII. of Sweden in the north, and
+under the duke of Berwick in the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII.
+he regarded as the first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm
+that Folard began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on
+Polybius. On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his
+papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, and in
+1724 appeared his _Nouvelles Decouvertes sur la guerre dans une
+dissertation de Polybe_, followed (1727-1730) by _Histoire de Polybe
+traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... de M. de Folard,
+Chevalier de l'Ordre de St Louis_. Folard spent the remainder of his
+life in answering the criticisms provoked by the novelty of his
+theories. He died friendless and in obscurity at Avignon in 1752.
+
+An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not a
+connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of independent
+ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far more often
+extravagant. The central point of his tactics was his proposed column
+formation for infantry. Struck by the apparent weakness of the thin line
+of battle of the time, and arguing from the [Greek: embolon] or _cuneus_
+of ancient warfare, he desired to substitute the shock of a deep mass of
+troops for former methods of attack, and further considered that in
+defence a solid column gave an unshakable stability to the line of
+battle. Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst some
+famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido Starhemberg, approved
+it and put it in practice, the weight of military opinion throughout
+Europe was opposed to it, and eventually history justified this
+opposition. Amongst the most discriminating of his critics was Frederick
+the Great, who is said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian
+king certainly caused a _precis_ to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
+wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like others by
+Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its publication (Paris,
+1760) under the title _Esprit du Chev. Folard_, created a great
+impression. "Thus kept within bounds," said the prince de Ligne,
+"Folard was the best author of the time." Frederick himself said tersely
+that "Folard had buried diamonds in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the
+controversy between line and column formations, which long continued and
+influenced the development of tactics up to the most modern times.
+Folard's principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy
+and Menil Durand.
+
+  See _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard_
+  (Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's
+  works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jahns, _Geschichte
+  der Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
+  1890).
+
+
+
+
+FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any surface,
+whence its particular application in geology with which this article
+deals. The verb "to fold" (O. Eng. _fealdan_) meant originally to double
+back a piece of cloth or other material so as to form a pleat, whence
+has evolved its various senses of to roll up, to enclose, enfold or
+embrace as with the arms, to clasp the hands or arms together, &c. The
+word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _falten_, Dutch _vouwen_
+(for _vouden_), &c., and the ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr.
+[Greek: plekein], Lat. _plicare_, _plectere_, to plait, pleat, weave,
+and in the suffixes of such words as [Greek: diplasios], _duplex_,
+double, _simplex_, &c. Similarly the termination "-fold" is added to
+numbers implying "so many," e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. "manifold."
+The similar word for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for
+sheep, and hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of
+worshippers, or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's
+flock, must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is _falaed_, and cognate
+forms are found in Dutch _vaalt_, &c. It apparently meant a planked or
+boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. _fjael_, Swed. _fjol_, plank.
+
+In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified rocks of the
+earth's crust, whereby they have been made to take up less horizontal
+space. The French equivalents are _pli_, _plissement_, _ridement_; in
+Germany, _Falte_, _Faltung_, _Sattelung_ are the terms usually employed.
+It is comparatively rarely that bedded rocks are observed in the
+position in which they were first deposited, a certain amount of
+buckling up or sagging down of the crust being continually in progress
+in one region or another. In every instance therefore where, in walking
+over the surface, we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and
+without dislocations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part
+of a great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.
+
+Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on some
+cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
+mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his researches in
+the field without discovering that the rocks of the earth's crust have
+been almost everywhere thrown into curves, usually so broad and gentle
+as to escape observation except when specially looked for. The outcrop
+of beds at the surface is commonly the truncation of these curves. The
+strata must once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
+may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, the
+intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of the Isle of Wight--a Monoclinal
+Curve, a, Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d,
+Bagshot series; e, Headon series; f, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.]
+
+The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or gently
+inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and then an
+immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping character. The
+strata are thus bent up and continue on the other side of the tilt at a
+higher level. Such bends are called _monoclines_, _monoclinal folds_ or
+_flexures_, because they present only one fold, or one half of a fold,
+instead of the two which we see in an arch or trough. The most notable
+instance of this structure in Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of
+which a section is given in fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south
+side of the island rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly
+vertical. The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip,
+but rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable cases
+of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. Powell in his
+survey of the Colorado region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.]
+
+It much more frequently happens that the strata have been bent into
+arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping under the surface
+on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up again on the other
+side. Where they dip away from the axis of movement the structure is
+termed an _anticline_ or _anticlinal fold_; where they dip towards the
+axis, it is a _syncline_ or _synclinal fold_. The diagram in fig. 2 may
+be taken to represent a series of strata (1-17) thrown into an anticline
+(AA') and syncline (BB'). A section drawn across these folds in the line
+CD would show the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the
+part of the anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4
+forms the crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
+On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
+succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under the
+next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the centre of a
+trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on the east side the same
+beds rise to the surface which passed beneath it on the west side. The
+particular bed marked EF has been entirely removed by denudation from
+the top of the anticline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the
+syncline.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the
+line CD (fig. 2).]
+
+Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are abruptly
+terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. 2, both the arch
+and trough are represented as diminishing, the former towards the north,
+the latter towards the south. The observer in passing northwards along
+the axis of that anticline finds himself getting into progressively
+higher strata as the fold sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing
+southwards along the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and
+gets into lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this
+way it is said to "nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
+inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward dip from
+the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. Hence the anticline
+noses out to the north and the syncline to the south.
+
+_Simple Folds._--In describing rock-folds special terms have been
+assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping sides of an
+anticline or syncline are known as the "limbs," "slopes," "flanks" or
+"members" of the fold; in an anticline, the part X, fig. 3, the angle of
+the bend, is the "crest" or "crown" (Ger. _Gewolbebiegung_, Fr.
+_charniere anticlinale_), the corresponding part of a syncline being the
+"trough-core" or "base," Y, fig. 3 (Ger. _Muldenbiegung_, Fr. _charniere
+synclinale_). The portion of an anticline which has been removed by
+denudation is the "aerial arch," dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata
+in a fold constitute the "core," arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core B,
+in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending of the strata
+has taken place about an "axial plane" (often called the "axis"), which
+in the examples illustrated in fig. 3 would pass through the points A and
+B, perpendicularly to the horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded
+regions the axial planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be
+moderately inclined, producing an "inversion," "inverted fold" or
+"overfold." When the inclination of the axial plane is great a "recumbent
+overfold" is produced (Fr. _pli couche_, Ger, _liegende Falte_). In a
+fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an "arch limb" (a), a middle limb (b)
+and a floor or "trough limb" (c). X and Y are the upper and lower bends
+respectively. One of the important functions of a fold is its direction;
+this of course depends upon the orientation of the axial plane. The
+crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of a syncline is rarely
+horizontal for any great distance; its departure from horizontality is
+designated the "pitch," and the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards
+the north, &c. Most simple folds--with the exception of very shallow
+curvatures of wide area,--when considered in their entirety, are seen to
+be somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations of the
+simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs, (1) the limbs may
+tend to diverge as they recede from the crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled
+an "open anticline"; (2) the limbs may be parallel in "closed" folds
+(commonly known as isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open
+angle or widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a
+fan-shaped fold (Fr. _pli en eventail_, Ger. _Facherfalte_); another
+variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. _pli en champignon_).
+The axial plane is not always extended: it may be so abbreviated that the
+folding appears to have taken place about a point; anticlines of this
+type are variously designated "short-anticlines," "_brachyanticlinaux_"
+or "domes"; similarly, there are "short-synclines," "_brachysynclinaux_"
+or "cuvettes." The dip in cases of this kind has been described as
+"qua-qua versal" or "periclinal."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+_Complex Folding._--Sometimes a simple fold has been itself subjected
+to further folding repeated more than once, it is then termed a
+"refolded fold" (Fr. _pli replie_); fine examples may be observed in the
+Alps and in other mountain chains. A great regional major fold
+containing within itself a number of minor "special" or subsidiary folds
+is described as a "geanticline" (Fr. _structure en eventail compose_),
+or as a "geosyncline" (Fr. _structure en eventail renverse_). Even folds
+of lesser magnitude may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal
+movement, and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or
+higher order (Fr. _couches gaufrees_ [fig. 5]). In its smaller
+manifestation, this class of folding passes into "crumpling" or
+"puckering," where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a
+single hand specimen. In "frilling" or "frilled structure" the folds
+have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated rocks minute
+folds are observable with the microscope that do not appear to the
+unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal overfolds has passed
+into a series of thrusts (see FAULT), the so-called "imbricated"
+structure (Fr. _structure imbriquee_, Ger. _Schuppenstruktur_) is
+generated. Occasionally crust-blocks resembling "graben" and "horsts"
+are circumscribed by folds instead of faults; when this is so they have
+been called respectively "infolded graben" or "overfolded horsts."
+
+The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has always had a
+marked influence on the nature of the folding; some beds have yielded
+much more readily than others, certain beds will be found to be faulted,
+while those above and below have folded without fracture. In many
+examples of apparent plasticity it can be shown that this effect has
+been produced by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock
+substance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of
+Kinsale. (Du Noyer.)]
+
+The larger rock folds have produced important economic results. For
+example, in many coal regions the deposits have been conserved in some
+districts in the synclines or "basins," while they have been removed by
+denudation from the uplifted anticlines in others. Near the crest of
+anticlines is commonly an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized
+districts; and, in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata
+determines the direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most
+convenient site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or "dome,"
+where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a subjacent
+saturated layer under pressure.
+
+  For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement
+  of the great folded regions of the earth's crust, see E. Suess, _Das
+  Antlitz der Erde_, English translation. _The Face of the Earth_, vols.
+  i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim, _Les
+  Dislocations de l'ecorce terrestre_ (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz,
+  _Geotektonische Probleme_ (Stuttgart, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+FOLENGO, TEOFILO (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino Coccajo or
+Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, was born of noble
+parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th of November 1491, From his
+infancy he showed great vivacity of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in
+making verses. At the age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte
+Casino near Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a
+professed member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a
+monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to have
+produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, not
+unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 he forsook
+the monastic life for the society of a well-born young woman named
+Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about the country for several
+years, often suffering great poverty, having no other means of support
+than his talent for versification. His first publication was the
+_Merlini Cocaii macaronicon_, which relates the adventures of a
+fictitious hero named Baldus. The coarse buffoonery of this work is
+often relieved by touches of genuine poetry, as well as by graphic
+descriptions and acute criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic
+style is rendered peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent
+introduction of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though
+frequently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression,
+it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very few years passed
+through several editions. Folengo's next production was the _Orlandino_,
+an Italian poem of eight cantos, written in rhymed octaves. It appeared
+in 1526, and bore on the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco
+(Merlin the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life of
+dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; and
+shortly afterwards wrote his _Chaos del tri per uno_, in which, partly
+in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes in Italian, and
+sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account of the vicissitudes of
+the life he had lived under his various names, We next find him about
+the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves a life of Christ entitled
+_L'Umanita del Figliuolo di Dio_; and he is known to have composed,
+still later, another religious poem upon the creation, fall and
+restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. These, however, have never
+been published. Some of his later years were spent in Sicily under the
+patronage of Don Fernando de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a
+short time to have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired
+to Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on the 9th
+of December 1544.
+
+  Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by
+  Rabelais. The earlier editions of his _Opus macaronicum_ are now
+  extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text
+  as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life.
+
+
+
+
+FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born at Dublin on the
+24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to study drawing and modelling at
+the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, where he took several
+first-class prizes. In 1835 he was admitted a student in the schools of
+the Royal Academy, London. He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839
+with his "Death of Abel and Innocence." "Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in
+1840, gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards
+commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. "Lear and
+Cordelia" and "Death of Lear" were exhibited in 1841. "Venus rescuing
+Aeneas" and "The Houseless Wanderer" in 1842, "Prospero and Miranda" in
+1843. In 1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
+"Youth at a Stream," and was, with Calder Marshall and John Bell, chosen
+by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for the decoration of the
+Houses of Parliament. Statues of John Hampden and Selden were executed
+for this purpose, and received liberal praise for the propriety, dignity
+and proportion of their treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to
+come rapidly. Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
+statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him with a
+steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was made an associate
+and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. Among his numerous works the
+following may be noticed, besides those mentioned above:--"The Mother";
+"Egeria," for the Mansion House; "The Elder Brother in Comus," his
+diploma work; "The Muse of Painting," the monument of James Ward, R.A.;
+"Caractacus," for the Mansion House; "Helen Faucit"; "Goldsmith" and
+"Burke," for Trinity College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry,"
+for Westminster Palace Yard; "John Stuart Mill," for the Thames
+embankment; "O'Connell" and "Cough," for Dublin; "Clyde," for Glasgow;
+"Clive," for Shrewsbury; "Hardinge," "Canning" and "Outram," for
+Calcutta; "Hon. James Stewart," for Ceylon; the symbolical group "Asia,"
+as well as the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in
+Hyde Park; and "Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va. The statue of Sir
+James Outram is probably his masterpiece. Foley's early fanciful works
+have some charming qualities; but he will probably always be best
+remembered for the workmanlike and manly style of his monumental
+portraits. He died at Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the
+4th of September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models
+to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part of his
+property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund.
+
+  See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, _The Works of J.H. Foley_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered the navy in
+1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active
+service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted
+lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel
+and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was
+present at the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at
+the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went out to
+the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in
+the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the Revolutionary War he was
+engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and
+afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon
+in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off
+Toulon on the 13th of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he
+was flag-captain to the second in command, and in the following year was
+sent out in command of the "Goliath" (74), to reinforce Nelson's fleet
+in the Mediterranean. The part played by the "Goliath" in the battle of
+the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and
+this manoeuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day.
+Whether this was done by Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson,
+has been a matter of controversy (see _Journal of the Royal United
+Service Institution_, 1885, p. 916). His next important service was with
+Nelson in the Baltic. The "Elephant" carried Nelson's flag at the battle
+of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health
+obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the point of
+starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the
+Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs and at the peace was
+made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be full admiral and G.C.B. He died
+while commanding in chief at Portsmouth in 1833.
+
+  See J.B. Herbert, _Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley_ (Cardiff,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+FOLI (FOLEY), ALLAN JAMES (1837-1899), Irish bass singer, was born at
+Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; originally a carpenter, he
+studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and made his first appearance at
+Catania in 1862. From the opera in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for
+the season of 1865, and appeared with much success in various parts. He
+sang in the first performance of _The Flying Dutchman_ (Daland) in
+England in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's _Redemption_
+in 1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
+vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request at
+ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899.
+
+
+
+
+FOLIGNO (anc. _Fulginiae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
+Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, from which
+it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), 26,278 (commune). It
+lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a tributary of the Tiber; it is
+almost square in shape and is surrounded by walls. It is a picturesque
+and interesting town; several of its churches contain paintings by
+Umbrian masters, notably works by Niccolo di Liberatore (or Niccolo
+Alunno, 1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
+(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolo. The cathedral
+has a romanesque S. facade of 1133, restored in 1903; the interior was
+modernized in the 18th century. To the left of the choir is an octagonal
+chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1527). In the same piazza as
+the S. facade is the Palazzo del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a
+chapel with frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra
+Portas is said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
+the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's "Madonna di Foligno," now
+in the Vatican, was originally painted for the church of S. Anna. The
+Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are two good Renaissance buildings.
+
+Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the 8th century
+A.D. It changed hands often during the wars of the 13th century, and was
+destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From 1305 to 1439 it was governed by the
+family of the Trinci as deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter
+year one of its members went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a
+force against Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and
+the last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth Foligno
+belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It suffered from a
+severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station on the main line from
+Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the junction for Perugia. Three miles
+to the E. is the abbey of Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like
+those of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns
+supporting arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic ("Cosmatesque"
+work). The church has been modernized.
+
+
+
+
+FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. _folium_, leaf, but also
+frequently an adaptation of the Ital. _foglio_), a term in bibliography
+and printing, with reference either to the size of paper employed, or of
+the book, or to the pagination. In the phrase "in folio" it means a
+sheet of paper folded once, and thus a book bound up in sheets thus
+folded is a book of the largest size and is known as a "folio" (see
+BIBLIOGRAPHY). Similarly, "folio" is one of the sizes of paper adapted
+to be thus folded (see PAPER). In book-keeping the word is used for a
+page in a ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
+law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, used for
+measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. In Great
+Britain, a "folio" is taken to contain 72 words, except in parliamentary
+and chancery documents, when the number is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words
+form a "folio."
+
+
+
+
+FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by Rene
+Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x^3 + y^3 = 3axy. The curve is
+symmetrical about the line x = y, and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and a loop in the first quadrant.
+It may be traced by giving m various values in the equations x = 3am/(1
++ m^3), y = 3am^2 (1 + m^3), since by eliminating m between these
+relations the equation to the curve is obtained. Hence it is _unicursal_
+(see CURVE). The area of the loop, which equals the area between the
+curve and its asymptote, is 3a/2.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+
+
+
+FOLKES, MARTIN (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born in London on the
+29th of October 1690. He was educated at Saumur University and Clare
+College, Cambridge, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics
+that when only twenty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the
+Royal Society. He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723
+Sir Isaac Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the
+vice-presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate for the
+presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, however, he
+succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member of the French Academy;
+in 1746 he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733
+he set out on a tour through Italy, in the course of which he composed
+his _Dissertations on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins_. Before
+the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to 1754,
+he read in 1736 his _Observations on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at
+Rome_ and his _Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th Year of King
+Edward III_. In 1745 he printed the latter with another on the history
+of silver coinage. He also contributed both to the Society of
+Antiquaries and to the Royal Society other papers, chiefly on Roman
+antiquities. He married in 1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had
+appeared at the Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. _Anecdot._
+ii. 578-598).
+
+  For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (_Review of the Works of the
+  Royal Soc._, 1751), see D'Israeli, _Calamities and Quarrels of
+  Authors_ (1860), pp. 364-366.
+
+
+
+
+FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place of Kent,
+England, within the parliamentary borough of Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of
+London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905;
+(1901) 30,650. This is one of the principal ports in cross-Channel
+communications, the steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older
+part of Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the
+shore between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the hills
+on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered by hills rising
+sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of which, such as
+Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. Above the cliff west
+of the old town is a broad promenade called the Lees, commanding a
+notable view of the channel and connected by lifts with the shore below.
+On this cliff also stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith,
+a cruciform building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly
+Early English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine
+priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established by
+Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The site of this
+foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments of the sea. The
+monastery was destroyed at the dissolution of religious houses by Henry
+VIII. Folkestone inner harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep
+water pier for use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not
+only the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
+on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be mentioned the
+grammar school, founded in 1674, the public library and museum, and a
+number of hospitals and sanatoria. The discontinued Harveian Institution
+for young men was named after William Harvey, discoverer of the
+circulation of the blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also
+commemorated by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a
+member of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
+aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
+Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb of
+Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
+
+Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl Godwine and was
+called upon to supply him with ships when he was exiled from England; at
+the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux.
+From early times it was a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to
+find one out of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the
+royal service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose
+liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone by
+Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was prescriptive, was
+entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Folkestone. The history of
+Folkestone is a record of its struggle against the sea, which was
+constantly encroaching upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants,
+impoverished by their losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the
+end of the 18th century the town had become prosperous by the increase
+of its fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th
+century one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
+
+
+
+
+FOLKLAND (_folcland_). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon
+documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is contrasted with
+bookland in a way which shows that these two kinds of tenure formed the
+two main subdivisions of landownership: no one is to deny right to
+another in respect of folkland or bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod.
+Dipl. 281), King Aethelberht exchanges five hides of folkland for five
+hides of bookland which had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the
+latter for the newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal
+exactions except the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd
+and joining in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland
+was not free from the payment of _gafal_ (land tax) and providing
+quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the testator
+disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his sons and his
+daughter, but to a son who is not considered as rightful offspring five
+hides of folkland are left, provided the king consents. It is probable
+that folkland is meant in two or three cases when Latin documents speak
+of _terra rei publicae jure possessa_.
+
+Two principal explanations have been given to this term. Allen thought
+that folkland was similar to the Roman _ager publicus_: it was the
+common property of the nation (_folc_), and the king had to dispose of
+it by carving out dependent tenures for his followers more or less after
+the fashion of continental _beneficia_. These estates remained subject
+to the superior ownership of the folk and of the king: they could
+eventually be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a
+holder of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
+letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted to
+apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and
+others followed Allen's lead.
+
+Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an article on
+folkland in the _English Hist. Review_ for 1893. It considers folkland
+as landownership by folkright--at common law, as might be said in modern
+legal speech. In opposition to it bookland appears as landownership
+derived from royal privilege. The incidents recorded in the charters
+characterize folkland as subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to
+limitations in respect of testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to
+be relieved from fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from
+folkland into bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being
+recognized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession
+or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and
+limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to the
+fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless "books."
+These are exemptions from fiscal dues and freedom of disposition of the
+owner. This view of the matter has been accepted by the chief modern
+authorities.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Allen, _Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal
+  Prerogative in England_ (London, 1849); K. Maurer, _Kritische
+  Uberschau_ (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and
+  Beyond_, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland," in the
+  _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, _Land Laws_
+  (London, 1896); H. Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, Band i. (2nd
+  ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892).     (P. Vi.)
+
+
+
+
+FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a designation for
+the traditional learning of the uncultured classes of civilized nations.
+The word has been adopted in this sense into many foreign languages; it
+is sometimes regarded as the equivalent of the Ger. _Volkskunde_. But
+folklore is, properly speaking, the "lore _of_ the folk," while
+_Volkskunde_ is lore or learning _about_ the folk, and includes not only
+the mental life of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term
+folklore is also used to designate the science which deals with
+folklore; the study of survivals involves the investigation of the
+similar customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture;
+consequently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
+societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as with the
+popular superstitions of the white races.
+
+_History._--The scientific study of folklore dates back to the first
+quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long before that
+date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of recent growth. The
+first Folklore Society was founded in London in 1878; similar bodies now
+exist in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and especially in
+Germany and Austria. The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at
+a very early period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
+28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many folk-tale
+incidents; for India we have the _Jatakas_ and _Panchatantra_; and for
+the Arabs the great collection of the _Thousand and One Nights_. Another
+type of folk-narrative is represented by Aesop's _Fables_. Not
+unnaturally beliefs and customs received less attention; our knowledge
+of them among the ancients is as a rule pieced together. Among the
+oldest professed collections are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), _Traite des
+superstitions_ (1679), Aubrey's _Miscellanies_ (1686) and H. Bourne's
+(1696-1733) _Antiquitates vulgares_ (1725); but they belong to the
+antiquarian, non-scientific period.
+
+The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore were the
+brothers Grimm, by the publication of their _Kinder-und Hausmarchen_
+(1812-1815) and _Deutsche Mythologie_ (1835). They were the first to
+present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated form. They differed
+from their predecessors in regarding the myth, not as the result of
+conscious speculation, but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however,
+disposed to press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the
+figures of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as
+the folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
+exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and others. At
+the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), the forerunner of
+the anthropological school of folklore, shared in this mistake. Breaking
+away eventually from the philological schools, which interpreted myths
+and their supposed descendants, the folk-tales, as relating to the
+storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. (see MYTHOLOGY), Mannhardt made
+folk-custom and belief his basis. To this end he set himself to collect
+and compare the superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was
+always feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt's
+researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor abroad. In 1878 the
+foundation of the Folklore Society marked a new era in England, where
+the philological school had had few adherents; and the anthropological
+school soon produced evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew
+Lang, Dr J.G. Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith.
+
+With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom and belief on
+the one hand, and of rites and religions of people in the lower stages
+of culture on the other hand, it has become abundantly clear that there
+is no line of demarcation between the two. Each throws light upon the
+other, and the superstitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of
+savage creeds which have their parallels all over the world in the
+culture of primitive peoples.
+
+_Subdivisions._--The folklore of civilized peoples may be conveniently
+classified under three main heads: (1) belief and custom; (2) narratives
+and sayings; (3) art. These again may be subdivided. The first division,
+_Belief and Custom_, includes (A) Superstitious beliefs and practices,
+including (a) those connected with natural phenomena or inanimate
+nature, (b) tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d)
+ghosts and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (f) leechcraft, (g) magic in general
+and divination, (h) eschatology, and (i) miscellaneous superstitions and
+practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including (a) festival customs
+for which are set aside certain days and seasons, (b) ceremonial customs
+on the occasion of events such as birth, death or marriage, (c) games,
+(d) miscellaneous local customs, such as agricultural rites connected
+with the corn-spirit (see DEMONOLOGY), and (e) dances. The second head
+of _Narratives and Sayings_ may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or
+tales told as true, (b) Marchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d)
+drolls, apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (see MYTHOLOGY), and
+(f) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as they do not
+come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, riddles, jingles,
+proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The third head, _Art_, subdivides
+into (a) folk music with ballads and songs, (b) folk drama. Any
+classification, however, labours under the disadvantage of separating
+items which properly belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form
+in which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be aetiological
+in their nature and form an elaborate record of a custom. Eschatological
+beliefs naturally take the form of myths. Traditional narratives can
+also be classified under art, and so on.
+
+_Literature._--The literature of the subject falls into two sharply
+defined classes--synthetic works and collections of folklore--of which
+the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former class the most
+important is Dr J.G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, which sets out from the
+study of a survival in Roman religion and covers a wide field of savage
+and civilized beliefs and customs. Especially important are the chapters
+on agricultural rites, in which are set forth the results of Mannhardt's
+researches. Other important lines of folklore research in the _Golden
+Bough_ are those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
+of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. Mr E.S.
+Hartland's _Legend of Perseus_ is primarily concerned with the origin of
+a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is dismissed as insoluble. A
+large part of the book is taken up with a discussion of sympathetic
+magic, and especially with the "life index," an object so bound up with
+the life of a human being that it acts as an indication of his
+well-being or otherwise. The importance of children's games in the study
+of folklore has been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection
+of the games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. With the
+more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem of the diffusion of
+games has also come to the fore. In particular it is found that the
+string-game called "cat's cradle" in various forms is of very wide
+diffusion, being found even in Australia. The question of folk-music has
+recently received much attention (see SONG).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Introductory works: M.R. Cox, _Introduction to
+  Folklore_; Kaindl, _Die Volkskunde_; Marillier in _Revue de l'histoire
+  des religions_, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
+
+  General works: J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; E.S. Hartland, _The
+  Legend of Perseus_; A. Lang, _Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and
+  Religion_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_.
+
+  British Isles. England: Burne, _Shropshire Folklore_; _Denham Tracts_
+  (F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folklore_; Henderson,
+  _Folklore of Northern Counties_; _County Folklore Series_ (Printed
+  Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, _Welsh Folklore_; Rhys,
+  _Celtic Folklore_. Scotland: Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions_; Gregor,
+  _Folklore of N.E. of Scotland_; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c.
+
+  Germany: Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, English translation by
+  Stallybrass; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_; Meyer, _Deutsche
+  Volkskunde_; Tetzner, _Die Slaven in Deutschland_; Mogk in Paul's
+  _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, and the works cited by Kaindl
+  (see above).
+
+  France: Sebillot's works; Rolland, _Faune populaire_; Laisnel de la
+  Salle, _Croyances et legendes_.
+
+  On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia,
+  Grohmann, _Aberglaube_; for Greece, Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_, and
+  Rennell Rodd, _Folklore of Greece_; for Italy, Pitre's bibliography;
+  for India, Crooke's works, and the _Indian Antiquary_. For
+  questionnaires see _Handbook of Folklore_ (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot,
+  _Essai de questionnaires_; _Journal of American Folklore_ (1890, &c.);
+  and Kaindl's _Volkskunde_. For a bibliography of folk-tales see
+  Hartland, _Mythology and Folk-tales_; to his list may be added
+  Petitot's _Legendes indiennes_; Rand, _Legends of the Micmacs_;
+  Lummis, _The Man who Married the Moon_; and the publications of the
+  American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies in
+  _Folklore_ and other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned
+  Miss Cox's _Cinderella_ (Folklore Society); Kohler's works, &c. (see
+  also bibliography to the article TALE). For games see Gomme, _English
+  Games_; Culin, _Korean Games_; Rochholz, _Alemannisches Kinderlied_;
+  Bohme, _Deutsches Kinderlied_; Handelmann, _Volks- und Kinderspiele_;
+  Jayne, _String Figures_, &c.; and the bibliography to DOLL. See also
+  Sonnenschein's _Best Books_.
+
+  The following is a list of the more important Societies and
+  publications:--
+
+  England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society.
+
+  U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
+
+  France: _Societe des traditions populaires_.
+
+  Germany: _Verein fur Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung fur
+  Volkskunde_; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
+  provinces.
+
+  Austria: _Verein fur osterreichische Volkskunde_.
+
+  Switzerland: _Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur Volkskunde_.
+
+  Italy: _Societa per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari_.
+
+  In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
+  less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies
+  mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
+  the following among others: Belgium, _Wallonia_; Poland, _Wisla_;
+  France, _Melusine_ (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, _Cesky Lid_; Denmark,
+  _Dania_, &c.; Germany, _Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie_
+  (1859-1890); _Am Urguell_ (1890-1898).     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+FOLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG
+(1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen on the 21st of January
+1794, the son of a district judge. He studied theology at Giessen and
+law at Heidelberg, and after leaving the university edited the Elberfeld
+_Allgemeine Zeitung_. Suspected of being connected with some radical
+plots, he was imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821
+he went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at Aarau,
+farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in Thurgau, and then
+retired to Bern, where he lived till his death on the 26th of December
+1855. Besides a number of minor poems he wrote _Harfengrusse aus
+Deutschland und der Schweiz_ (1823) and _Malegys und Vivian_ (1829), a
+knightly romance after the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many
+translations, mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
+with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1818) and
+_Siegfrieds Tod_ from the _Nibelungenlied_ (1842); he also collected and
+translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). In 1846 he published a
+brief collection of sonnets entitled _An die gottlosen Nichtswuteriche_.
+This was aimed at the liberal philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the
+occasion of a literary duel between the two authors. Follen's posthumous
+poem _Tristans Eltern_ (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known
+work is a collection of German poetry entitled _Bildersaal deutscher
+Dichtung_ (1827).
+
+
+
+
+FOLLEN, KARL (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother of A.L.
+Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 5th of September
+1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, but after the campaign of
+1814, in which, like his brother August, he took part as a Hessian
+volunteer, began the study of jurisprudence, and in 1818 established
+himself as _Privatdocent_ of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being
+suspected of political intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after
+the assassination of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political
+murder of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen
+being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in
+Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school at Coire
+and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian authorities
+imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in 1824 the hospitality
+of the United States of America. Here he became an instructor in German
+at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 obtained an appointment as professor of
+German language and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation
+having given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835,
+and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in
+Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat which was
+totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from New York to Boston, on
+the night of the 13th-14th of January 1840. Follen was the author of
+several celebrated patriotic songs written in the interests of liberty.
+The best is perhaps _Horch auf, ihr Fursten! Du Volk, horch auf!_ of
+which Johannes Wit, called von Dorring (1800-1863), was long, though
+erroneously, considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen's
+collection of patriotic songs, _Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend_.
+
+  His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some
+  reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a
+  biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
+
+
+
+
+FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1798-1845), English lawyer, was born at
+Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December 1798. He was the son of
+Captain Benjamin Follett, who had retired from the army in 1790, and
+engaged in business at Topsham. He received his education at Exeter
+grammar school and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He
+had entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a pleader
+below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, and joined the
+western circuit in 1825. At the very outset his great qualifications
+were universally recognized. He was thoroughly master of his profession,
+and his rapid rise in it was due not only to his quick perception and
+sound judgment, but to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of
+temper. In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding
+Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to parliament
+for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished himself, and under the
+first administration of Sir Robert Peel was appointed solicitor-general
+(November 1834); but resigned with the ministry in April 1835. In the
+course of this year he was knighted. On the return of Peel to power in
+1841 Sir William was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April
+1844 he succeeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
+health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been permanently
+injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, and he was
+compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the south of Europe. He
+returned to England in March 1845; but the disease, consumption,
+reasserted itself, and he died in London on the 28th of June following.
+A statue of Follett, executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+
+
+FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872), English journalist, descended
+from a noble French Huguenot family, the Greniers of Languedoc, was born
+in London in 1793. John Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England
+under the name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
+(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the author of a standard
+legal work, a _Treatise on Equity_, was the father of Albany Fonblanque;
+he represented the borough of Camelford in parliament; and was one of
+the Whig friends of George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young
+Fonblanque was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His
+health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
+suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a view to
+being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) he commenced
+writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted notice both by the
+boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by the superiority of his
+style to what Macaulay, when speaking of him, justly called the "rant
+and twaddle of the daily and weekly press" of the time. While he was
+eagerly taking his share in all the political struggles of this eventful
+period, he was also continuing his studies, devoting no less than six
+hours a day to the study of classics and political philosophy. Under
+this severe mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
+however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to the
+newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his habits
+were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary anxieties.
+
+From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively employed upon the
+staff of _The Times_ and the _Morning Chronicle_, whilst he contributed
+to the _Examiner_, to the _London Magazine_ and to the _Westminster
+Review_. In 1828 the _Examiner_ newspaper, which had been purchased by
+the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the _Religion of the Universe_, &c., was
+given over to Fonblanque's complete control; and for a period of
+seventeen years (1830 to 1847) he not only sustained the high character
+for political independence and literary ability which the _Examiner_ had
+gained under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, but
+even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a certain delight
+in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed against themselves.
+When it was proposed that the admirers and supporters of the paper
+should facilitate a reduction in its price by the payment of their
+subscription ten years in advance, not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord
+Lytton) volunteer his aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting
+with radicalism. During his connexion with the _Examiner_, Fonblanque
+had many advantageous offers of further literary employment; but he
+devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to the service of
+the paper he had resolved to make a standard of literary excellence in
+the world of journalism. Fonblanque was offered the governorship of Nova
+Scotia; but although he took great interest in colonial matters, and had
+used every effort to advocate the more generous political system which
+had colonial self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
+beloved _Examiner_ even for so sympathetic an employment. In 1847,
+however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post of statistical
+secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course compelled him to resign
+the editorship of the _Examiner_, but he still continued to contribute
+largely to the paper, which, under the control of John Forster,
+continued to sustain its influential position. During the later years of
+his life Fonblanque took no prominent part in public affairs; and when
+he died at the age of seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew,
+Edward Fonblanque, rightly observes, "a man who had lived and toiled in
+an age gone by and in a cause long since established."
+
+The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may be judged of
+by a study of his _England under Seven Administrations_ (1837), in
+comparison with the course of social and political events in England
+from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must be regarded in the light of
+a reformer. Journalism before his day was regarded as a somewhat
+discreditable profession; men of true culture were shy of entering the
+hot and dusty arena lest they should be confounded with the ruder
+combatants who fought there before the public for hire. But the fact
+that Fonblanque, a man not only of strong and earnest political
+convictions but also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate
+to choose this field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a
+man of letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
+gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
+prejudice.
+
+  See the _Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque_, edited by his nephew,
+  Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his
+  articles with a brief biographical notice.
+
+
+
+
+FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the S. end of Lake
+Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du Lac river, which is navigable
+for only a short distance. Pop. (1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom
+2952 were foreign-born; (1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of
+some importance, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
+Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western
+railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat lines
+connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great Lakes. At
+North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, are car-shops of the two
+last-mentioned railways, and in the city are manufactories of machinery,
+automobiles, wagons and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour,
+refrigerators, agricultural implements, toys and furniture. The total
+value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase
+of 95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal cathedral, the
+Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital and convent, and a
+public library with about 25,000 volumes in 1908. The first settlers on
+the site of Fond du Lac arrived about 1835. Subsequently a village was
+laid out which was incorporated in 1847; a city charter was secured in
+1852.
+
+
+
+
+FONDI (anc. _Fundi_), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of
+Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. of Terracina by road.
+Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above sea-level, at the N. end of a
+plain surrounded by mountains, which extend to the sea. It occupies the
+site of the ancient Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to _Latium
+adjectum_, on the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road
+which passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
+and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly in
+_opus incertum_, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no doubt, from
+the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still exists, and bears the
+inscription of three aediles who erected the gate, the towers and the
+wall. A similar inscription of three different aediles from the N.W.
+gate still exists, but not _in situ_. In the neighbourhood are the
+remains of several ancient villas, and along the Via Appia still stands
+an ancient wall of _opus reticulatum_, with an inscription, in large
+letters, of one Varronianus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft.
+The engineering of the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where
+it passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
+
+The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The castle on
+the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with beautiful tracery.
+Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro (formerly S. Maria), which
+was the cathedral until the see was suppressed in 1818 and united with
+that of Gaeta; it contains a fine pulpit with "cosmatesque" work and the
+fine tomb of Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century
+triptychs and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of
+the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery the cell
+which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.
+
+The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with Formiae)
+the _civitas sine suffragio_, because it had always secured the Romans
+safe passage through its territory; the people as a whole did not join
+Privernum in its war against Rome three years later, though Vitruvius
+Vacca, the leader, was a native of Fundi. It acquired the full
+citizenship in 188 B.C., and was partly under the control of a
+_praefectus_. The inscription upon some waterpipes which have been
+discovered shows that later it became a _municipium_. It was governed by
+three aediles: Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due
+to the exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xiii. p. 113). The
+family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. During the
+Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily abandoned, but it seems
+to have come under the rule of the papacy by A.D. 754 at any rate. Pope
+John VIII. ceded it with its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but
+its history is somewhat intricate after this period. Sometimes it
+appears as an independent countship, though held by members of the
+Caetani family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
+Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to carry off
+Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. After this Fondi
+was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the Di Sangro family, in
+which it still remains. Its position as a frontier town between the
+papal states and the kingdom of Naples, just in the territory of the
+latter--the Via Appia can easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual
+frontier called Portella[1] or S.E. of it--affected it a good deal
+during the French Revolution and the events which led up to the
+unification of Italy.
+
+The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and the
+partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the ancient Via
+Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a considerable detour. The
+lake was also known in classical times ass, _lacus Amyclanu_ from the
+town of Amyclae or Amunclae, which was founded, according to legend, by
+Spartan colonists, and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th
+century B.C. (E. Pais in _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, 1906, 611 seq.); the
+bay was also known as _mare Amunclanum_.
+
+The ancient Speluncae (mod. _Sperlonga_) on the coast also belonged to
+the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa in which Sejanus
+saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost crushed by a fall of rock.
+Considerable remains of it, and of the caves from which it took its
+name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the modern village. For modern
+discoveries see P. di Tucci in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1880), 480; G.
+Patroni, _ibid._ (1898), 493. The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient
+writers, though the _ager Caecubus_, the coast plain round the Lago di
+Fundi, was even more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine;
+and though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
+entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even more
+to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the lacus Avernus
+to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is spoken of in the
+inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of Hadrian, together with
+Falernian and Setian wines (_Corpus inscript. Lat._ vi. Berlin, 1882,
+9797). The plain of Fondi is the northernmost point in Italy where the
+cultivation of oranges and lemons is regularly carried on in modern
+times.
+
+  See G. Conte Colino, _Storia di Fondi_ (Naples, 1902); B. Amante and
+  R. Bianchi, _Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania_
+  (Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in _English Historical Review_, xix. (1904)
+  557 seq. (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the pass of Ad Lautulas see TERRACINA.
+
+
+
+
+FONNI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft. above
+sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S. of Nuoro by road.
+Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated
+among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. The church of the
+Franciscans, built in 1708, contains some curious paintings by local
+artists. The costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on
+the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is
+similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are
+long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over
+that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and
+black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a
+blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two
+identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried
+girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black. A little to the N.
+of Fonni, by the high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile,
+mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ as situated 87 m. from Carales on
+the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the
+discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of
+a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of baths and other
+buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in
+length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in _Notizie degli
+scavi_, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (_tabula
+honestae missionis_) of sailors who had served in the _classis Ravennas_
+was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (_id. ib._, 1882, 440; T.
+Mommsen, _Corp. inscr. Lat._ x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several
+"menhirs" (called _pietre celtiche_ in the district) and other
+prehistoric remains.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FONSAGRADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; 25
+m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302. Fonsagrada is situated
+3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed between the rivers Rodil and
+Suarna. It is an important market for all kinds of agricultural produce,
+and manufactures linen and frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing
+to the mountainous character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a
+railway or navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any
+considerable export trade.
+
+
+
+
+FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892), first president of the united
+states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas on the 5th of August 1827, being
+the third son of Lieut.-Colonel Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He
+was educated at the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained
+the rank of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864
+against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez, dictator of
+Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and before the close of
+the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel, and some years later
+that of general of division. After holding several military commands, he
+was appointed in 1886 governor of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In
+this position he threw himself heartily into politics, espoused the
+republican opinions then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their
+exponents with his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the
+government at the close of the year removed him from his post, and
+recalled him to the capital as director of the service of army material.
+Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage
+insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed him from
+office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the viscount de
+Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of the military officers'
+political rights. From that time his influence was supreme in the army.
+In December 1888, when the Conservative Correa d'Oliveira became prime
+minister, Fonseca was appointed to command an army corps on the frontier
+of Matto Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a
+dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to the chamber
+of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in September. Divisions of
+opinion soon arose within the Liberal party on the question of
+provincial autonomy. The more extreme desired the inauguration of a
+complete federal system. Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the
+journalist and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to
+head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection broke
+out on the 15th of November 1889. The government commander, Almeida
+Barreto, hastened to place himself under Fonseca's orders, and the
+soldiers and sailors made common cause with the insurgents. The affair
+was almost bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being
+the only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn the
+ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican, leaders
+and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was constituted by
+the army and navy in the name of the nation, with Fonseca at its head.
+The council was abolished, and both the senate and the chamber of
+deputies were dissolved. The emperor was requested to leave the
+territory of Brazil within twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of
+November was embarked on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a
+decree of banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So
+universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt at
+armed resistance. The provisional government exercised dictatorial
+powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891 Fonseca was elected
+president of the republic. He was, however, no politician, and possessed
+indeed little ability beyond the art of acquiring popularity. His tenure
+of office was short. In May he became involved in an altercation with
+congress, and in November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond
+his constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule
+insurrection broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of
+November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office. From
+that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de Janeiro on the 23rd
+of August 1892.
+
+
+
+
+FONSECA, AMAPALA or CONCHAGUA, BAY OF, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean in
+the volcanic region between the Central American republics of Honduras,
+Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is unsurpassed in extent and security by
+any other harbour on the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest
+length, by about 30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea
+about 18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.)
+and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita and
+Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called "Los Farellones," divide
+the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient depth for
+the largest vessels. A channel called "El Estero Real" extends from the
+extreme southern point of the bay into Nicaragua for about 50 m.,
+reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake Managua. The principal islands in
+the bay are Sacate Grande, Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to
+Honduras, and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri
+belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest, being
+about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its position is the
+most important in the bay, being about 20 m. in circumference, and
+rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft. On the southern and eastern
+shores of the island the lava forms black rocky barriers to the waves,
+varying in height from 10 to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward
+are a number of _playas_ or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the
+most considerable of these is the port of Amapala (q.v.). Fonseca Bay
+was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named by him after
+his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable enemy of Columbus.
+
+
+
+
+FONT (Lat. _fons_, "fountain" or "spring," Ital. _fonte_, Fr. _les
+fonts_), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for Christian
+baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered at rivers or
+natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no doubt the primitive form of
+the rite was by _immersion_ in the water. _Infusion_--pouring water on
+the head of the neophyte--was early introduced into the west and north
+of Europe on account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its
+occasional danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental
+churches. _Aspersion_, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid, but
+recorded early examples of its use are rare (see BAPTISM). These
+different modes of administering baptism have caused corresponding
+changes in the receptacles for the water. After the cessation of
+persecution, when ritual and ornament began to develop openly, special
+buildings were erected for administering the rite of baptism. This was
+obviously necessary, for a large _piscina_ (basin or tank) in which
+candidates could be immersed would occupy too much space of the church
+floor itself. These baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an
+ascent of three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but
+not the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber (see
+BAPTISTERY).
+
+By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries had
+generally given place to that of fonts. The material of which these were
+made was stone, often decorative marble; as early as 524, however, the
+council of Lerida enacted that if a stone font were not procurable the
+presbyter was to provide a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament
+exclusively, which might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the
+font never became an important decorative article of church furniture:
+"The font, [Greek: kolumbethra] (says Neale, _Eastern Church_, i. 214),
+in the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in the
+West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the font seldom or
+never possesses any beauty. The material is usually either metal or
+wood. In Russia the _columbethra_ is movable and only brought out when
+wanted."
+
+One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by Anastasius
+in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been presented thereto
+by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry, overlaid with silver
+inside and out. In the middle were two porphyry pillars carrying a
+golden dish, on which burnt the Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick
+and fed with balsam). On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with
+silver statues of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags
+poured out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional; the
+majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine early
+Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed, at Beer-Sheba.
+
+Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These are all of
+stone, except a few of lead; much less common are fonts of cast bronze
+(a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the Church of St Barthelemy,
+Liege). The most ancient are plain cylindrical bowls, with a
+circular--sometimes cruciform or quatrefoil--outline to the basin,
+either without support or with a single central pillar; occasionally
+there is more than one pillar. The basins are usually lined with lead to
+prevent absorption by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh,
+possesses an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the
+circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not
+infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone is found.
+Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon; hexagons are even less
+common, and pentagons very rare. There is a pentagonal font of this
+period at Cabourg, dept. Calvados, N. France.
+
+Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief. Arcading
+and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and pictorial
+representation. A very remarkable leaden font is preserved at
+Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in the life of Christ.
+At Pont-a-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs of St John the Baptist
+preaching, and baptizing Christ. Caryatides sometimes take the place of
+the pillars, and sculptured animals and grotesques of strange design not
+infrequently form the base. More remarkable is the occasional
+persistence of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very
+ancient font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian
+symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor (see
+G. Stephens' brochure, _Thunor the Thunderer_).
+
+In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A very remarkable
+example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim in Hanover, resting on
+four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase from which water is running
+(typical of the rivers of Paradise). Above is an inscription explaining
+the connexion of these rivers with the virtues of temperance, courage,
+justice and prudence. On the sides of the cup are representations of the
+passage of the Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the
+Virgin and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with
+bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures of Our
+Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles, exists at
+Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters inscribed
+upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries octagonal fonts became the
+rule. They are delicately ornamented with mouldings and similar
+decorations, in the contemporary style of Gothic architectural art.
+Though the basin is usually circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are
+not infrequently found in which the outline of the basin follows the
+octagonal shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this
+type are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel.
+
+In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the Norman
+conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude examples, such as
+those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton, Sussex, are actually of Saxon
+times; of course we cannot count as "Saxon fonts" those adapted from
+pre-Norman sculptured stones originally designed for other purposes,
+such as that at Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are
+very common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman
+parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain, but
+generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage, &c. Among
+good examples that might be instanced of this period are Alphington,
+Devon (inverted cone, without foot); Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on
+caryatides); Ilam, Staffs (cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale,
+Sculthorpe, Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the
+last, remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a
+projecting stoup in the side for the chrism--a unique detail); besides
+others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden, Kent; Coleshill,
+Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome, Herefordshire. Some of the best
+examples of "Norman" fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in
+Winchester cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the
+Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font at
+Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden fonts that
+remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in Gloucestershire, 4
+in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford and Sussex, 1 in Derby,
+Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and Wiltshire); perhaps the finest
+examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English
+fonts are comparatively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth
+ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of an Early
+English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be seen at St
+Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the Decorated period
+are commoner, but not so frequent as those of the preceding Norman or
+subsequent Perpendicular periods. Fonts of the Perpendicular period are
+very common, and are generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem,
+which, together with the body of the font, are frequently richly
+ornamented with panelling. It was also the custom during this period to
+ornament the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic
+insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however, are as a
+rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular work, are stiff
+and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable font, with sculptured
+figures, belonging to the late 14th century, at West Drayton in
+Middlesex.
+
+In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal children
+of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544 by Sir R. Lea, and
+given by him to the church at St Albans, but was afterwards destroyed by
+the Puritans. A silver font existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes
+brought to Westminster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,
+Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the 16th
+century. The only existing structure at all recalling the ancient
+baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in Bedfordshire. The
+font at Luton belongs to the Decorated style, and is enclosed in an
+octagonal structure of freestone, consisting of eight pillars about 25
+ft. in height, supporting a canopy. The space around the font is large
+enough to hold twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a
+vessel for containing the consecrated water, which when required was let
+down into the font by means of a pipe.
+
+In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, that
+baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a precaution
+against sorcery:--"Fontes baptismales sub sera clausi teneantur propter
+sortilegia." The lids appear at first to have been quite simple and
+flat. They gradually, however, partook of the ornamentation of the font
+itself, and are often of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated
+with finials, crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers
+are very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be raised
+at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme, Oxon; St Gregory,
+Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk; Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary
+position of the font in the church was and is near the entrance, usually
+to the left of the south door.
+
+  See Arcisse de Caumont, _Cours d'antiquites monumentales_ (Paris,
+  1830-1843); Francis Simpson, _A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts_
+  (London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dict.
+  raisonne de l'architecture_ (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker's
+  _Glossary of Architecture_; Francis Bond, _Fonts and Font-Covers_
+  (London, 1908). A large number of fine illustrations of fonts,
+  principally of the earlier periods, will be found in the volumes of
+  the _Reliquary_ and _Illustrated Archaeologist_.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD (1762-1853), French architect, was
+born at Pontoise on the 20th of September 1762. He came of a family
+several of whose members had distinguished themselves as architects.
+Leaving the college of Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to
+L'Isle-Adam to assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect
+Andre. To facilitate his improvement Andre allowed him to have access to
+his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was sent to Paris
+to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and there began his
+acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into a life-long friendship.
+After six years of study he competed for a prize at the Academy, and,
+winning the second for the plan of an underground chapel, he received a
+pension and was sent to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The
+Revolution breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge
+in England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was
+employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by the painter,
+David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth he was fully
+engaged in the principal architectural works executed in Paris as
+architect successively to Napoleon I., Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe.
+In conjunction with Percier (till his death) he was employed on the arch
+of the Carrousel, the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand
+staircase of the Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the
+Louvre and the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the
+Academy of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the
+emperor. With Percier he published the following works--_Palais_,
+_maisons_, _et autres edifices de Rome moderne_ (1802); _Descriptions de
+ceremonies et de fetes_ (1807 and 1810); _Recueil de decorations
+interieures_ (1812); _Choix des plus celebres maisons de plaisance de
+Rome et des environs_ (1809-1813); _Residences des souverains,
+Parallele_ (1833). _L'histoire du Palais-Royal_ was published by
+Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and associate, in 1838, and
+himself died in Paris on the 10th of October 1853.
+
+
+
+
+FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E. of Paris on the railway
+to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau, a town of clean, wide and
+well-built streets, stands in the midst of the forest of Fontainebleau,
+nearly 2 m. from the left bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the
+Tambour mansion, and a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of
+Ferrara, both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the
+palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of General
+Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a monument to
+President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau is the seat of a
+subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
+The school of practical artillery and engineering was transferred to
+Fontainebleau from Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part
+of the palace surrounding the cour des offices.
+
+Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills, and
+manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are grown in the
+vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort, and during the season
+the president of the Republic frequently resides in the palace. This
+famous building, one of the largest, and in the interior one of the most
+sumptuous, of the royal residences of France, lies immediately to the
+south-east of the town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by
+buildings, extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du Cheval
+Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting scene between
+Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour de la Fontaine, the Cour
+Ovale, built on the site of a more ancient chateau, and the Cour d'
+Henri IV.: the smaller Cour des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the
+Cour Ovale. The exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. _Fons
+Bleaudi_) are equally unknown, but the older chateau was used in the
+latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas Becket
+to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued a favourite
+residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The creator of the present
+edifice was Francis I., under whom the architect Gilles le Breton
+erected most of the buildings of the Cour Ovale, including the Porte
+Doree, its southern entrance, and the Salle des Fetes, which, in the
+reign of Henry II., was decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio
+and Nicolo dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber
+in France. The Galerie de Francois I. and the lower storey of the left
+wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same architect, who
+also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin. In the same reign
+the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the Chapelle de la Ste Trinite and
+the Galerie d'Ulysse, destroyed and rebuilt under Louis XV., was
+constructed by Pierre Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes
+most to Henry IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des
+Princes, with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs,
+used as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase in
+the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs on works
+of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and Napoleon III.
+devoted considerable sums to the same end. The palace is surrounded by
+gardens and ornamental waters--to the north the Jardin de l'Orangerie,
+to the south the Jardin Anglais and the Parterre, between which extends
+the lake known as the Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large
+numbers. A space of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered
+by the park, which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of
+Henry IV. On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine
+white grapes.
+
+_Forest of Fontainebleau._--The forest of Fontainebleau is one of the
+most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations it has been
+the chosen haunt of French landscape painters. Among the most celebrated
+spots are the Vallee de la Solle, the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de
+Franchard and d'Apremont, and the Fort l'Empereur. The whole area
+extends to 42,200 acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter
+of this area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone
+supplied a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech,
+hornbeam and birch are the chief varieties of trees.
+
+It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical events
+which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the Fair, Henry III. and
+Louis XIII. were all born in the palace, and the first of these kings
+died there. James V. of Scotland was there received by his intended
+bride; and Charles V. of Germany was entertained there in 1539.
+Christina of Sweden lived there for years, and the gallery is still to
+be seen where in 1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to
+death. In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of the
+edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the great Conde.
+In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests in Peter the Great of
+Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark; and in the early part of the 19th
+century it was twice the residence of Pius VII.,--in 1804 when he came
+to consecrate the emperor Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his
+prisoner.
+
+  See Pfnor, _Monographie de Fontainebleau_, with text by Champollion
+  Figeac (Paris, 1866); _Guide artistique et historique au palais de
+  Fontainebleau_ (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, _Recherches sur
+  Fontainebleau_ (Fontainebleau, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (1801-1839), French man of letters, was born at
+Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began his career as a clerk in a
+government office, but was dismissed for taking part in a political
+banquet. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris and began to contribute
+to the _Tablettes_ and the _Album_. He was brought to trial for
+political articles written for the latter paper, but defended himself so
+energetically that he secured the indefinite postponement of his case.
+The offending paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a
+collection of political poems, _Odes et epitres_, and a number of plays,
+of which _Perkins Warbec_ (1828), written in collaboration with MM.
+Halevy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828 the _Album_ was
+revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent but witty attack on
+Charles X., entitled _Le Mouton enrage_ (20th June 1829). To escape the
+inevitable prosecution Fontan fled over the frontier, but, finding no
+safe asylum, he returned to Paris to give himself up to the authorities,
+and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was
+liberated by the revolution of 1830, and his _Jeanne la folle_,
+performed in the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to
+sympathy with the author's political principles than to the merits of
+the piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton
+history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which he wrote
+in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, _Le Proces d'un marechal de
+France_ (printed 1831), was suppressed on the night of its production.
+Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of October 1839.
+
+  A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis of his
+  principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin's _Histoire de la
+  litterature dramatique_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect and mechanician, was
+born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in 1543. After a good
+training in mathematics, he went in 1563 to join his elder brother, then
+studying architecture at Rome. He made rapid progress, and was taken
+into the service of Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in
+the church of Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the
+cardinal's pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana
+volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense. The
+cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of Sixtus V., he
+immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect. Amongst the works
+executed by him were the Lateran palace, the palace of Monte Cavallo
+(the Quirinal), the Vatican library, &c. But the undertaking which
+brought Fontana the highest repute was the removal of the great Egyptian
+obelisk, which had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from
+the place where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in
+front of St Peter's he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus
+V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation of public
+moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his post (1592). This
+appears to have been just in time to save the Colosseum from being
+converted by Fontana into a huge cloth factory, according to a project
+of Sixtus V. Fontana was then called to Naples, and accepted the
+appointment of architect to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples
+he built the royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a
+new harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only
+literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the obelisk
+(Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was honoured with a public
+funeral in the church of Santa Anna. His plan for a new harbour at
+Naples was carried out only after his death. His son Giulio Cesare
+succeeded him as royal architect in Naples, the university of that town
+being his best-known building.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter, was the daughter
+of Prospero Fontana (q.v.). She was greatly employed by the ladies of
+Bologna, and, going thence to Rome, painted the likenesses of many
+illustrious personages, being under the particular patronage of the
+family (Buoncampagni) of Pope Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman
+ladies, from the days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in
+1605, showed no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had
+done; and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,
+often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works of a
+different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness. Among
+the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum; the "Virgin lifting
+a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the Escorial; and the "Queen
+of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her own portrait in youth--she was accounted
+very beautiful--was perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts
+Zappi of Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband,
+whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the draperies
+in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the whole a better
+painter than her father; from him naturally came her first instruction,
+but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque style, with strong
+quasi-Venetian colouring. She was elected into the Academy of Rome, and
+died in that city in 1614.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597), Italian painter, was born in Bologna, and
+became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola. He afterwards worked for Vasari
+and Perino del Vaga. It was probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a
+practice of offhand, self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of
+commissions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few
+weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Citta di Castello. Along
+with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works of parade he
+attained a certain measure of success, although his drawing was
+incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs to the degenerate
+period of the Bolognese school, under the influence chiefly of the
+imitators of Raphael--Sabbatini, Sammachini and Passerotti being three
+of his principal colleagues. His soundest successes were in portraiture,
+in which branch of art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo
+introduced him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was
+pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court with the
+three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand scale, and figured
+as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his professional brethren.
+Returning to Bologna, after doing some work in Fontainebleau and in
+Genoa, he opened a school of art, in which he became the preceptor of
+Lodovico and Agostino Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as
+reformers and innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue
+of Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane history
+and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in Bologna,--the
+picture of the "Adoration of the Magi," in the church of S. Maria delle
+Grazie, being considered his masterpiece--not unlike the style of Paul
+Veronese. He died in Rome in 1597.
+
+
+
+
+FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898), German poet and novelist, was born at
+Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At the age of sixteen he was
+apprenticed to a chemist, and after qualifying as an apothecary, he
+found employment in Leipzig and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in
+England, and settling in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature.
+He made repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English
+ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published _Ein Sommer in
+London_ (1854); _Aus England, Studien und Briefe_ (1860) and _Jenseit
+des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland_ (1860). Fontane was
+particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg, in which his home lay;
+he was proud of its past achievements, and delighted in the growth of
+the capital city, Berlin. The fascination which the country of his birth
+had for him may be seen in his delightfully picturesque _Wanderungen
+durch die Mark Brandenburg_ (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the
+wars of Prussia in _Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864_
+(1866) and _Der deutsche Krieg von 1866_ (1869). He proceeded to the
+theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs,
+remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates in
+_Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870_ (1871), and he published the result of
+his observations of the campaign in _Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71_
+(1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries, he at first sought
+inspiration for his poetry in the heroes of other countries. His
+_Gedichte_ (1851) and ballads _Manner und Helden_ (1860) tell of
+England's glories in bygone days. Then the achievements of his own
+countrymen entered into rivalry, and these, as an ardent patriot, he
+immortalized in poem and narrative. It is, however, as a novelist that
+Fontane is best known. His fine historical romance _Vor dem Sturm_
+(1878) was followed by a series of novels of modern life: _L'Adultera_
+(1882); _Schach von Wuthenow_ (1883); _Irrungen, Wirrungen_ (1888);
+_Stine_ (1890); _Unwiederbringlich_ (1891); _Effi Briest_ (1895); _Der
+Stechlin_ (1899), in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the
+realistic methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to
+the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September 1898
+at Berlin.
+
+  Fontane's _Gesammelte Romane und Erzahlungen_ were published in 12
+  vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the
+  autobiographical works _Meine Kinderjahre_ (1894) and _Von zwanzig bis
+  dreissig_ (1898), also _Briefe an seine Familie_ (1905); also F.
+  Servaes, _Theodor Fontane_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1821), French poet and politician, was
+born at Niort (Deux Sevres) on the 6th of March 1757. He belonged to a
+noble Protestant family of Languedoc which had been reduced to poverty
+by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father and grandfather
+remained Protestant, but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His
+parents died in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he
+found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published poems,
+some of which were inspired by English models, appeared in the _Almanack
+des Muses_; "Le Cri de mon coeur," describing his own sad childhood, in
+1778; and "La Foret de Navarre" in 1780. His translation from Alexander
+Pope, _L'Essai sur l'homme_, was published with an elaborate preface in
+1783, and _La Chartreuse_ and _Le Jour des morts_ in the same year, _Le
+Verger_ in 1788 and his _Epitre sur l'edit en faveur des
+non-catholiques_, and the _Essai sur l'astronomie_ in 1789. Fontanes was
+a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became joint-editor of the
+_Moderateur_. He married at Lyons in 1792, and his wife's first child
+was born during their flight from the siege of that town. Fontanes was
+in hiding in Paris when the four citizens of Lyons were sent to the
+Convention to protest against the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The
+petition was drawn up by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered,
+he fled from Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and
+afterwards at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor
+of literature in the Ecole Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he was one
+of the original members of the Institute. In the _Memorial_, a journal
+edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated reaction to the monarchical
+principle. He was exiled by the Directory and made his way to London,
+where he was closely associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to
+France, and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to write
+an _eloge_ on Washington, secured his return to the Institute and his
+political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative chamber,
+of which he was president from 1804 to 1810. Other honours and titles
+followed. He has been accused of servility to Napoleon, but he had the
+courage to remonstrate with him on the judicial murder of the due
+d'Enghien, and as grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he
+consistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He
+acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis in 1817.
+He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving eight cantos of an
+unfinished epic poem entitled _La Grece sauvee_.
+
+The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of the 18th
+century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve edited the
+_Oeuvres_ (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic critical study of
+the author and his career. But by that time the Romantic movement was in
+the ascendant and Fontanes met with small appreciation.
+
+
+
+
+FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, a town of western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Vendee 30 m. N.E. of La Rochelle on
+the State railway between that town and Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639;
+commune, 10,326. Fontenay, an ancient and straggling town, is situated a
+few miles south of the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the
+Vendee, at the point where it becomes navigable. The church of
+Notre-Dame (15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly
+sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th and 17th
+centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town has several
+houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most remarkable of these is
+the Hotel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600), which contains much rich
+decoration together with collections of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay
+was the birthplace of many prominent men during the 15th and 16th
+centuries, and the Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the
+Renaissance style, given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates
+the fact. The chief square is named after Francois Viete, the great
+mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public institutions
+of the town include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
+Among its industries are the manufacture of felt hats, oil and soap and
+timber-sawing, flour-milling and tanning. There is trade in horses,
+mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c.
+
+Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls. The affix
+of "comte" is said to have been applied to it when it was taken by King
+Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and given to his brother Alphonse,
+count of Poitou, under whom it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to
+the English by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by
+Duguesclin. It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of
+the 16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both by the
+republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From 1790 to 1806 it
+was capital of the department of Vendee.
+
+
+
+
+FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757), French author, was born at
+Rouen, on the 11th of February 1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of
+January 1757, having thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His
+father was an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two
+Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his native
+city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary precocity and
+versatility of his talents. His teachers, who readily appreciated these,
+were anxious for him to join their order, but his father had designed
+him for the bar, and an advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost
+the first cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and
+gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was first
+directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for prizes of the
+French Academy, but never with success. He visited Paris from time to
+time and established intimate relations with the abbe de Saint Pierre,
+the abbe Vertot and the mathematician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in
+1680, the total failure of his tragedy _Aspar_. Fontenelle afterwards
+acknowledged the justice of the public verdict by burning his
+unfortunate drama. His opera of _Thetis et Pelee_, 1689, though highly
+praised by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and
+it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic works not one
+has kept the stage. His _Poesies pastorales_ (1688) have no greater
+claim to permanent repute, being characterized by stiffness and
+affectation; and the utmost that can be said for his poetry in general
+is that it displays much of the _limae labor_, great purity of diction
+and occasional felicity of expression.
+
+His _Lettres galantes du chevalier d'Her_ ..., published anonymously in
+1685, was an amusing collection of stories that immediately made its
+mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised
+as the rival princesses Mreo and Eenegu, in the _Relation de l'ile de
+Borneo_, gave proof of his daring in religious matters. But it was by
+his _Nouveaux Dialogues des morts_ (1683) that Fontenelle established a
+genuine claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three
+years later by the appearance of the _Entretiens sur la pluralite des
+mondes_ (1686), a work which was among the very first to illustrate the
+possibility of being scientific without being either uninteresting or
+unintelligible to the ordinary reader. His object was to popularize
+among his countrymen the astronomical theories of Descartes; and it may
+well be doubted if that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or
+successful expositor among his disciples.
+
+Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687 he removed
+to Paris; and in the same year he published his _Histoire des oracles_,
+a book which made a considerable stir in theological and philosophical
+circles. It consisted of two essays, the first of which was designed to
+prove that oracles were not given by the supernatural agency of demons,
+and the second that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It
+excited the suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus,
+published a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition
+of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered. To the
+following year (1688) belongs his _Digression sur les anciens et les
+modernes_, in which he took the modern side in the controversy then
+raging; his _Doutes sur le systeme physique des causes occasionnelles_
+(against Malebranche) appeared shortly afterwards.
+
+In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of the
+determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this quarrel,
+especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous occasions had
+secured his rejection. He consequently was admitted a member both of the
+Academy of Inscriptions and of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he
+became perpetual secretary to the latter body. This office he actually
+held for the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official
+capacity that he wrote the _Histoire du renouvellement de l'Academie des
+Sciences_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts and
+analyses of the proceedings, and also the _eloges_ of the members,
+written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best known of
+his _eloges_, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that of his uncle
+Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the _Nouvelles de la
+republique des lettres_ (January 1685) and, as _Vie de Corneille_, was
+included in all the editions of Fontenelle's _Oeuvres_. The other
+important works of Fontenelle are his _Elements de la geometrie de
+l'infini_ (1727) and his _Apologie des tourbillons_ (1752). Fontenelle
+forms a link between two very widely different periods of French
+literature, that of Corneille, Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and
+that of Voltaire, D'Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in
+virtue of his great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually
+had much in common with the _beaux esprits_ of the 17th century, as well
+as with the _philosophes_ of the 18th. But it is to the latter rather
+than to the former period that he properly belongs.
+
+He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve has
+said, he well deserves a place "_dans la classe des esprits infiniment
+distingues_"--distinguished, however, it ought to be added by
+intelligence rather than by intellect, and less by the power of saying
+much than by the power of saying a little well. In personal character he
+has sometimes been described as having been revoltingly heartless; and
+it is abundantly plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling
+strongly the more generous emotions--a misfortune, or a fault, which
+revealed itself in many ways. "_Il faut avoir de l'ame pour avoir du
+gout._" But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken
+too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the esteem of
+many friends suffices to show that the theoretical selfishness which he
+sometimes professed cannot have been consistently and at all times
+carried into practice.
+
+  There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle's works, the
+  first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The best is
+  that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate works have
+  been very frequently reprinted and also translated. The _Pluralite des
+  mondes_ was translated into modern Greek in 1794. Sainte-Beuve has an
+  interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several useful references, in
+  the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii. See also Villemain, _Tableau de la
+  litterature francaise au XVIII^e siecle_; the abbe Trublet, _Memoires
+  pour servir a l'histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de
+  Fontenelle_ (1759); A. Laborde-Milaa, _Fontenelle_ (1905), in the
+  "Grands ecrivains francais" series; and L. Maigron, _Fontenelle,
+  l'homme, l'oeuvre, l'influence_ (Paris, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, about 4 m.
+S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of Fontenoy, in which
+on the 11th of May 1745 the French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the
+Anglo-Allied army under the duke of Cumberland. The object of the French
+(see also AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE) was to cover the siege of the
+then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies, who slowly
+advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed of the impending attack,
+Louis XV., with the dauphin, came with all speed to witness the
+operations, and by his presence to give Saxe, who was in bad health and
+beset with private enemies, the support necessary to enable him to
+command effectively. Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal
+Konigsegg, and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of
+Waldeck.
+
+The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river at
+Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between Antoing and
+Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed, and Fontenoy itself was
+put in a complete state of defence. On the left rear of this line, and
+separated from Fontenoy by some furlongs of open ground, another redoubt
+was made at the corner of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain.
+The infantry was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy
+redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood; behind them
+was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were guarded by a mounted
+volunteer corps called _Grassins_. At Calonne the marshal had
+constructed three military bridges against the contingency of a forced
+retreat. The force of the French was about 60,000 of all arms, not
+including 22,000 left in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself,
+who was suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to
+mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the troops.
+At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian army with the
+Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vezon, facing towards Fontenoy
+and the wood, while the Dutch on their left extended the general line to
+Peronne. The total force was 46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe
+could actually put into the line of battle.
+
+The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Konigsegg and Waldeck on the
+10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary skirmish had cleared the
+broken ground immediately about Vezon and revealed a part of the
+defender's dispositions. It was resolved that the Dutch should attack
+the front Antoing-Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank
+attack against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground
+between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round the wood was
+projected but had to be given up, as in the late evening of the 10th the
+Allies' light cavalry drew fire from its southern edge. Cumberland then
+ordered his cavalry commander to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to
+cover the formation of the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another
+and most important modification had to be made. The advance was
+beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became visible.
+Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby (major and
+brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and an artillery
+detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing its fire with that of
+Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the development of the flank
+attack. At 6 A.M. the brigade moved off, but it was irresolutely handled
+and halted time after time; and after waiting as long as possible, the
+British and Hanoverian cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and
+extended in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious
+cannonade which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir
+John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were to have
+covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns of the Dutch
+towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward through the lanes,
+each unit on reaching open ground covering the exit and deployment of
+the one in rear, all under the French cannonade. This went on for two
+hours, and save that it showed the magnificent discipline of the British
+and Hanoverian regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack.
+Cumberland's own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the
+Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed Antoine
+Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Francaises, and another
+Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe's artillery commander.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fontenoy.]
+
+It was now 9 A.M., and while the guns from the wood redoubt battered the
+upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby's brigade was huddled together,
+motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself galloped thither, and under
+his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the last remnants of self-possession. To
+Sir John Ligonier's aide-de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a
+bitterly formal order to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the
+duke's orders were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main body.
+By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had collapsed.
+
+But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together had roused a
+stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the men they led.
+Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the Hanoverian general
+Zastrow, gave up the right attack and brought his battalions into the
+main body. A second halfhearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by
+some Dutch troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of
+these battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland
+regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own accord.
+Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal had agreed to
+take all risks and to storm through between Fontenoy and the wood
+redoubt, and had launched the great attack, one of the most celebrated
+in the history of war. The English infantry was in two lines. The
+Hanoverians on their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to
+file into third line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were
+the battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn,
+accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry followed. The column
+may have numbered 14,000 infantry. All the infantry battalions closed on
+their centre, the normal three ranks becoming six. If the proper
+distances between lines were preserved, the mass must have formed an
+oblong about 500 yds X 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).
+
+The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the front line and
+gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade order, drums beating
+and colours flying, the mass advanced, straight up the gentle slope,
+which was swept everywhere by the flanking artillery of the defence.
+Then, when the first line reached the low crest on the ends of which
+stood the French artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full
+enfilade from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and
+foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the front
+gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to avoid the fire.
+Then the French advanced, and the Guards Brigade and the Gardes
+Francaises met face to face. Captain Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760),
+lieutenant of the First (Grenadier) Guards, suddenly ran in front of the
+line, took off his hat to the enemy and drank to them from a pocket
+flask, shouting a taunt, "We hope you will stand till we come up to you,
+and not swim the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his
+own men, he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers
+returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether or not the
+French, as legend states, were asked and refused to fire first, the
+whole British line fired one tremendous series of volleys by companies.
+50 officers and 760 men of the three foremost French regiments fell at
+once, and at so appalling a loss the remnant broke and fled. Three
+hundred paces farther on stood the second line of the French, and slowly
+the mass advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the
+French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept the
+crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up, the
+assailants were practically in square and repelled various partial
+attacks coming from all sides. The Regiment du Roi lost 33 officers and
+345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream) Guards. But these
+counter-attacks gained a few precious minutes for the French. It was the
+crisis of the battle. The king, though the court meditated flight, stood
+steady with the dauphin at his side,--Fontenoy was the one great day of
+Louis XV.'s life,--and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to collect
+his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians were now at a
+standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes were repulsed, but no
+progress was made; their cavalry was unable to get to the front, and
+Saxe was by now thinking of victory. Captain Isnard of the Touraine
+regiment suggested artillery to batter the face of the square,
+preparatory to a final charge. General Lowendahl galloped up to Saxe,
+crying, "This is a great day for the king; they will never escape!" The
+nearest guns were planted in front of the assailants, and used with
+effect. The infantry, led by Lowendahl, fastened itself on the sides of
+the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the Irish
+Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting for the cannon
+to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie and all the
+light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of Richelieu and count
+d'Estrees. The left wing of the Allies was still inactive, and troops
+were brought up from Antoing and Fontenoy to support the final blow.
+About 2 P.M. it was delivered, and in eight minutes the square was
+broken. As the infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn
+groups the French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts
+to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and they
+regained the broken ground about Vezon, whence they had come. Cumberland
+himself and all the senior generals remained with the rearguard.
+
+The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat less than
+normally heavy when distributed over the whole of both armies, but
+exceedingly severe in the units really engaged. Eight out of nineteen
+regiments of British infantry lost over 200 men, two of these more than
+300. A tribute to the loyalty and discipline of the British, as compared
+with the generality of armies in those days, may be found in the fact
+that the three Guards' regiments had no "missing" men whatever. The 23rd
+(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Boschlanger's Hanoverian
+regiment suffered even more heavily, and four others of that nation had
+200 or more casualties. The total loss was about 7500, that of the
+French 7200. The French "Royal" regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men;
+some other regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch
+lost a bare 7% of their strength.
+
+Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the Prussian Guards
+at St Privat is to-day, _a locus classicus_ for military theorists. But
+the technical features of the battle are completely overshadowed by its
+epic interest, and above all it illustrates the permanent and
+unchangeable military characteristics of the British and French nations.
+
+
+
+
+FONTEVRAULT, or FONTEVRAUD (Lat. _Fons Ebraldi_), a town of western
+France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 10 m. S.E. of Saumur by
+road and 2-1/2 m. from the confluence of the Loire and Vienne. Pop.
+(1906) 1279. It is situated in the midst of the forest of Fontevrault.
+The interest of the place centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has
+been utilized and abused as a central house of detention for convicts.
+The church (12th century), of which only the choir and apse are
+appropriated to divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by
+four cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the
+crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of Henry
+II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard I. of England
+and of Isabella of Angouleme, wife of John of England--Eleanor's being
+of oak and the rest of stone. The cloister, refectory and chapter-house
+date from the 16th century. The second court of the abbey contains a
+remarkable building, the Tour d'Evrault (12th century), which long went
+under the misnomer of _chapelle funeraire_, but was in reality the old
+kitchen. Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc's
+_Dictionnaire de l'architecture_. There are three stories, the whole
+being surmounted by a pyramidal structure.
+
+The _Order of Fontevrault_ was founded about 1100 by Robert of
+Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec, in the
+diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher and ascetic.
+The establishment was a double monastery, containing a nunnery of 300
+nuns and a monastery of 200 monks, separated completely so that no
+communication was allowed except in the church, where the services were
+carried on in common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers
+and other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by the
+nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the observance
+of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency. The special
+feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled the monks as well as
+the nuns. At the beginning the order had a great vogue, and at the time
+of Robert's death, 1117, there were several monasteries and 3000 nuns;
+afterwards the number of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the
+same plan. The institute never throve out of France; there were attempts
+to introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were three
+houses--at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton, and Westwood in
+Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in France were recruited from the
+highest families, and the abbess of Fontevrault, who was the
+superior-general of the whole order, was usually of the royal family of
+France.
+
+  See P. Helyot, _Hist, des ordres religieuses_ (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13;
+  Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1907), i. 46; the arts.
+  "Fontevrauld" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), supply full references to
+  the literature. The most recent monograph is Edouard, _Fontevrault et
+  ses monuments_ (1875); for the later history see art. by Edmund Bishop
+  in _Downside Review_ (1886).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOD (like the verb "to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng.
+_foda_; cf. "fodder"; connected with Gr. [Greek: pateiothai], to feed),
+the general term for what is eaten by man and other creatures for the
+sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of human food is dealt with
+under NUTRITION and DIETETICS.
+
+_Infancy._--The influence of a normal diet upon the health of man (we
+exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must depend on the
+abnormal conditions existing) begins at the earliest stage of his life.
+No food has as yet been found so suitable for the young of all animals
+as their mother's milk. This, however, has not been from want of
+seeking. Dr Brouzet (_Sur l'education medicinale des enfants_, i. p.
+165) had such a bad opinion of human mothers, that he expressed a wish
+for the state to interfere and prevent them from suckling their
+children, lest they should communicate immorality and disease! A still
+more determined pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who
+thought life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn
+propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer and honey
+for milk, which latter he calls "brute's food." Baron Justus von Liebig,
+as the result of his chemical researches, introduced a "food for
+infants," which in more modern days has been followed by a
+multiplication of patent foods. A close imitation of human milk may also
+be made by the addition to fresh cow's milk of half its bulk of soft
+water, in each pint of which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of
+powdered "sugar of milk" and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These
+artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value where
+for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food, however, for
+the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone. A vigorous baby
+can indeed bear with impunity much rough usage, and often appears none
+the worse for a certain quantity of farinaceous food; but the majority
+do not get habituated to it without an exhibition of dislike which
+indicates rebellion of the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on
+their way to the front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands
+secrete an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then
+anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered in the light
+of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.
+
+The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's age, partly
+by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth nine times out of
+ten consists of the lower central front teeth, which may appear any time
+during the sixth and seventh month. The mother may then begin to
+diminish the number of suckling times; and by a month she can have
+reduced them to twice a day, so as to be ready when the second group
+makes its way through the upper front gums to cut off the supply
+altogether. The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders,
+usually after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid
+food can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a
+considerable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which
+seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.
+
+_Childhood and Youth._--At this stage of life the diet must obviously be
+the best which is a transition from that of infancy to that of adult
+age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire surrender of every
+consideration to the claim of growth is not possible, nor indeed
+desirable. Moreover, that abundance of adipose tissue, or reserve new
+growth, which a baby can bear is an impediment to the due education of
+the muscles of the boy or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so
+continuous as before, but at the same time should be more frequent than
+for the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule
+should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in nutritive
+power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate, all sufficient. The
+maturity the body then reaches involves a hardening and enlargement of
+the bones and cartilages, and a strengthening of the digestive organs,
+which in healthy young persons enables us to dispense with some of the
+watchful care bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are
+generally sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be
+allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition which
+has hitherto been paramount.
+
+_Adults._--It is only necessary here to refer to the article on
+DIETETICS (see also VEGETARIANISM) for a discussion of the food of
+normal adults; and to such headings as DIETARY (for fixed allowances) or
+COOKERY. Different staple articles of food are dealt with under their
+own headings. For animals other than man see the respective articles on
+them.
+
+  Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those enumerated
+  under DIETETICS, see Sir Henry Thompson's _Foods and Feeding_ (1894);
+  Hart's _Diet in Sickness and Health_ (1896); Knight, _Food and its
+  Functions_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+FOOD PRESERVATION. The preservation of food material beyond the short
+term during which it naturally keeps sound and eatable has engaged human
+thought from the earliest dawn of civilization. Necessity compelled man
+to store the plenitude of one season or place against the need of
+another. The hunter dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man
+preserved milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented
+grape-juice into wine. With the separation of country from town, the
+development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural and
+food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man from torrid to
+arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and sea and of armies on
+the march, the problem of the prevention of the natural decomposition to
+which nearly all food substances are liable became increasingly urgent,
+and forms to-day, next to the production of food, the most important
+problem in connexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long
+as the reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at
+preservation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless processes
+which have during modern times been proposed and attempted comparatively
+few have stood the test of experience. In the light of modern knowledge,
+however, the guiding principles appear to be very simple.
+
+Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it were, of their
+own accord. They may lose water by evaporation, and fatty substances may
+alter by the absorption of oxygen from the air. They are otherwise quite
+stable and unchangeable while not attacked and eaten up by living
+organisms, or while the life with which they may be endowed is in a
+state of suspense. An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its
+ripening change; a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A
+substance, in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under
+the attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be
+available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the life
+be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower organism. All
+decomposition of food is due to the development within the food of
+living organisms. Under conditions under which living organisms cannot
+enter or cannot develop food keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length
+of time. The problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore,
+into that of keeping out or killing off all living things that might
+feed upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly belong
+to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food preservation
+is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.
+
+The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily intelligible when
+once their biological origin is recognized. Yeasts cause the
+decomposition of saccharine substances into alcohol and carbon dioxide,
+acetic and lactic ferments produce from sugar or from alcohol the
+organic acids causing the souring of food, moulds as a rule cause
+oxidation and complete destruction of organic matter, nitrogenous or
+saccharine, while most bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous
+constituents, producing albumoses and peptones and breaking up the
+complex albumen-molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to
+alkaloids, generally with the production of evil-smelling gases. These
+processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently take place
+successively in the decomposition of food, one set of organisms taking
+up the work of destruction as the conditions become favourable to its
+development and unfavourable to its predecessor. The organisms may come
+from the air, the soil or from animal sources. The air teems with
+organisms which settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable
+nidus; the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life;
+while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all animals
+harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in countless millions.
+Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed to the air, or touched by
+the soil or by animals or man, it becomes infected with living cells,
+which by their development lead to its decomposition and destruction.
+
+Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals; or their
+development may be arrested by cold, removal of water, or by the
+presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not destroying their
+life. All successful processes of food preservation depend upon one or
+other of these circumstances.
+
+_Preservation by Heat._--At the boiling-point of water all living cells
+perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about three hours.
+Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75 deg. C. (167 deg. F.) in the
+presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty at 140 deg.
+C. (284 deg. F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly in
+solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction; hence acid
+fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which, when quite fresh, is
+alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food becomes temporarily sterile, until
+a fresh crop of organisms finds access from the air. By repeated cooking
+all food can be indefinitely preserved. One of the most important
+functions of cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts
+against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of certain
+fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous ages; few
+materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in vegetables some sort of
+sterilizing process is attempted by washing (of salads) or removal of
+the outer skin (of fruits). All preparation of food for the table,
+cooking being the most important, tends towards preservation, but is
+effectual only for a few hours or days at most, unless special means are
+adopted to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with a
+thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin layer of
+lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria and other
+minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent manner and on a
+commercial scale it has to be cooked in a receptacle which must be
+sufficiently strong for transport, cheap, light and unattacked by the
+material in contact with it. None of the receptacles at present in use
+quite fulfils the whole of these conditions: glass and china are heavy
+and fragile, and their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called
+tin-plate, is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to
+its strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing
+scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought iron, now
+generally consists of steel containing but very little carbon; it is
+cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a very thin layer of pure
+tin, all excess of tin being removed by hot rollers and brushes. The
+layer of tin, which formerly constituted from 3 to 5% of the total
+weight of the plate, has, owing to the increased price of tin and the
+improvement in machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is
+only from 1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect,
+perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid
+juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception of milk,
+all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all food that has been
+preserved in tin canisters contains variable traces of dissolved tin.
+Happily, salts of tin have but little physiological action.
+Nevertheless, the employment cf tin-plate for very acid materials, like
+tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very objectionable.
+
+The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as
+follows:--The canister, which has been made either by the use of solder
+or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material to be
+preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the interstices
+the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally the former.
+Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in pressure chambers,
+which are heated by steam to 120 deg. C. or more. The tins are exposed
+to that temperature for such time as experience has shown to be
+necessary to heat the contents throughout to at least 100 deg. C. The
+temperature is then allowed to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of
+water, when the tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they
+are placed in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride
+and are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small
+aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the
+expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means of a drop of
+solder. This process, which was originally introduced by Francois Appert
+early in the 19th century, is employed on an enormous scale, especially
+in America. The use of lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the
+tin covered with a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending.
+Imperfect sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development
+within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and drummy. More
+frequently than not the contents of the larger tins, containing meat or
+other animal products, are not absolutely sterile, but the conditions
+are mostly such that the organisms which have survived the cooking
+process cannot develop. When they can develop without formation of gas
+dangerous products of decomposition may be produced without showing
+themselves to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine
+poisoning have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated with
+preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no class of
+preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine formation. The
+formation of poisonous substances has never been traced to preserved
+fruit or other material poor in nitrogen. The mode of preserving food in
+china or glass is quite similar, but the losses by breakage are not
+inconsiderable. Food which has been preserved in tins is sometimes
+transferred to glass and re-sterilized, the feeling against "tinned"
+food caused by the "Chicago scandals" not having entirely subsided. Were
+it not for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and
+that the food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to
+keep for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances,
+however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of canned
+food.
+
+_Preservation by Chemicals._--Salt is the oldest chemical preservative
+and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and with wood-smoke,
+has been used for many centuries, mainly as a meat preservative. It is
+used either dry in layers strewn on the surface of the meat or fish to
+be preserved, or in the form of brine in which the meat is submerged or
+which is injected into the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is
+but moderate. It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is
+non-injurious, that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and
+that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When aided by
+wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power upon traces of
+creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite efficient. The addition
+of saltpetre is principally for the purpose of giving to the meat a
+bright pink tint. The strongly saline taste of pickled meat or salted
+butter appears gradually to have become repugnant to a large part of
+mankind, and other preservatives have come into use, possessing greater
+bactericidal power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to
+them is discussed in the article ADULTERATION. At the present time the
+use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England. Meat which
+has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde, and has thus been
+superficially sterilized, is also coming into commerce in increasing
+quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is distinctly poisonous, and has the
+property of combining with albuminoids and rendering them completely
+insoluble in the digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are
+not infrequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages or
+deterioration of so-called "potted meats," which are supposed to last
+fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable length of
+time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used in the preservation
+of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium fluoride has been found in
+butter. The whole of these substances possess decided and injurious
+physiological properties. Alcohol now rarely forms a preservative of
+food material, its employment being confined to small fruit. The use of
+sugar as a preservative depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute
+solution it is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it
+possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated
+syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less does not undergo
+any biological change; in the presence of organic acids, like those
+contained in fruit, growth of organisms is inhibited when the percentage
+of water is somewhat greater. Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in
+the manufacture of jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the
+surface of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains
+unaffected and unaltered.
+
+_Preservation by Drying._--Food materials in which the percentage of
+moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little liable to
+bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent _Penicillium_.
+Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts, which are laden with
+otherwise decomposable food material, by the simple expedient of water
+removal. The life of cereal grains and many seeds appears to be
+unlimited. By the removal of water the most perishable materials, like
+meat or eggs, can be rendered unchangeable, except so far as the
+inevitable oxidation of the fatty substances contained in them is
+concerned and which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat,
+upon which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of
+attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively small
+articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish. It has been
+superseded even among less civilized communities by the spread of canned
+food. Fruit, however, is very largely preserved in the dried state.
+Grapes are sun-dried and thus form currants, raisins and sultanas, the
+last variety being often bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums,
+apples and pears are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on
+wire sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated with
+notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried vegetables,
+including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans and cabbages, are also
+manufactured.
+
+The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to some
+extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due to J. von
+Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the middle of the 19th
+century. The soluble material is extracted mainly from beef, in
+Australia to some extent from mutton, by means of warm water; the
+albumen is coagulated by heat and removed, and the broths thus obtained
+are evaporated _in vacuo_ until the extract contains no more than about
+20% of water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 lb. of lean
+beef.
+
+_Preservation by Refrigeration._--At or below the freezing-point of
+water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication.
+Although it has been asserted that many of them perish when kept for
+some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that the vast majority
+of bacteria and their germs remain merely dormant. Even so highly
+organized structures as cereal seeds do not suffer in vitality on being
+kept for a considerable length of time at the far lower temperature of
+liquid air. Biological change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point,
+and as long as that temperature is maintained food material remains
+unaltered, except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation of
+water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations due to
+oxidation.
+
+Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a reasonably
+long time, and without the addition of any preservative substance, food
+in a raw condition. It is the only process of preservation which from a
+sanitary point of view is entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and
+properly employed. Its introduction on a commercial scale has more
+powerfully affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less
+degree, of the United States than any other scientific advance since
+the establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities of
+frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced in
+the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until required.
+Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have become almost
+impossible, and the abundance of Australian and New Zealand ranches, and
+of West Indian orchards, has been made readily accessible to the British
+consumer. For household purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers
+suffices to preserve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used
+for the purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored
+from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far larger
+quantity is artificially produced by the methods described in the
+article on REFRIGERATING, which also contains an account of the means by
+which low temperatures are produced for industrial purposes of
+importation and storage. Fleets of steamships fitted with refrigerating
+machinery and insulated cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food
+materials, which are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses,
+markets and hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July
+1873 from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory state.
+In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America. The first cargo of
+frozen meat was successfully brought to the United Kingdom in 1880 from
+Australia in the "Strathleven," fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine.
+The temperature in the cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34 deg.
+F., whilst in the chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the
+freezing room or chambers a much lower temperature (between 0 deg. and
+10 deg. F.) is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled
+slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent damage
+by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice. The carcasses when
+freezing must be hung separated from each other, but for storage or
+transportation they are packed tightly together. Fish such as salmon is
+washed, thoroughly cleansed, and frozen on trays. Butter should be
+cooled as rapidly as possible to about 10 deg. F.; its composition as
+regards proportion of volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely
+unaltered for years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe
+and should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each one
+being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases holding about
+three hundred, which are taken first to a room in which they are slowly
+cooled to about 33 deg. F., and are then kept in store just below
+freezing-point. Particular attention must be paid to the relative
+humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit should be quite fresh; grapes
+may be chilled to 26 deg. F., while lemons cannot safely be kept at a
+lower temperature than 36 deg. The time during which soft fruit can be
+kept even in cold-store is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.
+
+In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable prejudice
+existed against stored meat. While in many cases the flavour of fresh
+meat is rather superior, the food value is in no way altered by
+cold-storage.[1]
+
+_Preservation by Pickling other than Salt._--For the preservation of
+vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to a
+limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute solution of
+sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage of eggs the more
+aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a portion of its water to the
+more concentrated yolk, which thereby expands and renders its thin
+containing-membrane liable to rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats
+and salmon, is preserved by packing in olive or other oil.
+
+The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely, milk,
+deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that alkaline
+liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat than acid
+materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour which milk
+undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact that milk forms
+perhaps the best medium for the growth and propagation of bacterial
+organisms, there is exceptional difficulty in its sterilization. As
+secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly sterile fluid, and, as shown
+by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under aseptic conditions and kept under
+such, it remains definitely fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other
+pollution at the time of milking arises from the animal, the stable, the
+milker and the vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other
+bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder. Milk as
+it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000 bacteria and
+often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh country cream 100
+millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual. These bacteria are of
+many kinds, some of them spore-bearing. The spores are more difficult to
+kill than the adult organism. The first step towards preservation is the
+removal of the dirt unavoidably present, to the particles of which a
+considerable proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through
+cloths or, better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects
+that removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a
+breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet of the
+milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate, a process
+known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the cream separates slowly,
+and does not form the coherent layer thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating
+is then effected either after bottling or by passing the milk
+continuously through pipes in which it is heated to from 160 deg. to 170
+deg. F. By a repetition of the heating process on two or more succeeding
+days, complete sterilization may be effected, although a single
+treatment is sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many
+forms of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general
+introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark for the
+feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals has
+practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use of
+sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found little
+favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board ship.
+
+Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a most extensive
+sale. The first efforts to condense and thus preserve milk date from
+1835, when an English patent was granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N.
+Horsford prepared condensed milk with the addition of lactose.
+Commercially successful milk condensation began in 1856. The milk is
+heated to about 180 deg. F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans,
+after having been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts
+of milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122 deg. F., and
+is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration that
+100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar, contain the solids
+of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed milk, although rarely quite
+sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is invariably brought into commerce in
+tin canisters. The preparation of sweetened condensed milk forms one of
+the most important branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is
+steadily increasing in England. Although milk can quite well be
+preserved in the form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically
+possesses immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the
+balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable, such
+unsweetened milk has found little or no favour. Milk powder is
+manufactured under various patents, the most successful of which depends
+upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate and the subsequent rapid
+evaporation of the milk on steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk
+powder made from skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but
+full-cream milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of
+the finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation
+of so-called milk chocolates.     (O. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Per contra_, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the
+    _Year-book for 1907_ (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp.
+    197-206, with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two
+    and three years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on
+    the efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an "indefinite" period
+    is concerned; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat
+    may really account for various modern diseases.
+
+
+
+
+FOOL (O. Fr. _fol_, modern _fou_, foolish, from a Late Latin use of
+_follis_, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a
+jester, a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester.
+
+The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its
+culminating point of influence and recognized place and function in the
+social organism during the middle ages, appears to have existed in all
+times and countries. Not only have there always been individuals
+naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others; there has been besides
+in most communities a definite class, the members of which have used
+their powers or weaknesses in this direction as a regular means of
+getting a livelihood. Savage jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests,
+have certainly much in common with the jester by profession. There
+existed in ancient Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose
+habits were not essentially different from those of the jesters of the
+middle ages. Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon
+has given a picturesque account in the _Banquet_. Philip of Macedon is
+said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as well as
+court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have sometimes been
+not unreasonably confounded) were common in a number of the petty courts
+at that era of civilization. _Scurrae_ and _moriones_ were the Roman
+parallels of the medieval witty fool; and during the empire the
+manufacture of human monstrosities was a regular practice, slaves of
+this kind being much in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester
+again has from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories
+are told of Bahalul (see D'HERBELOT, s.v.) the jester of Harun
+al-Reshid, which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the
+conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures of all kinds
+were found at the court of Montezuma. But that monarch no doubt hit upon
+one great cause of the favour of monarchs for this class when he said
+that "more instruction was to be gathered from them than from wiser men,
+for they dared to tell the truth." Douce, in his essay _On the Clowns
+and Fools of Shakespeare_, has made a ninefold division of English
+fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the domestic
+fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool of the
+mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the "vice," and
+is the original of the stage clowns so common among the dramatists of
+the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so much of the wit of Shakespeare.
+A very palpable classification is that which distinguishes between such
+creatures as were chosen to excite to laughter from some deformity of
+mind or body, and such as were so chosen for a certain (to all
+appearance generally very shallow) alertness of mind and power of
+repartee,--or briefly, butts and wits. The dress of the regular court
+fool of the middle ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge
+from the prints and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge
+on this matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time.
+The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight, with
+generally one leg different in colour from the other. The head was
+covered with a garment resembling a monk's cowl, which fell over the
+breast and shoulders, and often bore asses' ears, and was crested with a
+cockscomb, while bells hung from various parts of the attire. The fool's
+bauble was a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was
+sometimes attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham
+castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occasionally worn,
+but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots than to the wits.
+
+The fool's business was to amuse his master, to excite him to laughter
+by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression of state affairs, and,
+in harmony with a well-known physiological precept, by his liveliness at
+meals to assist his lord's digestion. The names and the witticisms of
+many of the official jesters at the courts of Europe have been preserved
+by popular or state records. In England the list is long between Hitard,
+the fool of Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I.,
+and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are
+remembered from some connexion with general or literary history. Scogan
+was attached to Edward IV., and later was published a collection of poor
+jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew Boorde's name was attached, but
+without authority.
+
+Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have been a
+kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally used his influence
+with the king for good and charitable purposes. Armin, who, in his _Nest
+of Ninnies_, gives a full description of Sommers, and introduces many
+popular fools, says of him--
+
+  "Only this much, he was a poor man's friend.
+   And helpt the widow often in her end.
+   The king would ever grant what he would crave.
+   For well he knew Will no exacting knave."
+
+The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is full of
+allusions to Will Sommers.
+
+Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted from any
+list of jesters. A book of Tarleton's Jests was published in 1611, and,
+together with his _News out of Purgatory_, was reprinted by Halliwell
+Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844. Archie Armstrong, for a
+too free use of wit and tongue against Laud, lost his office and was
+banished the court. The conduct of the archbishop against the poor fool
+is not the least item of the evidence which convicts him of a certain
+narrow-mindedness and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of
+the court-jester flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with
+fantastic effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of
+the times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais's romance, and is
+the hero of Victor Hugo's _Le Roi s'amuse_, and, with some changes, of
+Verdi's opera _Rigoletto_; while Chicot, the lithe and acute Gascon, who
+was so close a friend of Henry III., is portrayed with considerable
+justness by Dumas in his _Dame de Monsoreau_. In Germany Rudolph of
+Habsburg had his Pfaff Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen
+(whose features, as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved
+by the pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after
+jester.
+
+Late in the 16th century appeared _Le Sottilissime Astuzie di Bertoldo_,
+which is one of the most remarkable books ever written about a jester.
+It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of Bologna, and is a
+comic romance giving an account of the appearance at the court of Alboin
+king of the Lombards of a peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and
+wit. The book was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number
+of editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified. Though
+fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo are typical of
+the jester. That the private fool existed as late as the 18th century is
+proved by Swift's epitaph on Dicky Pearce, the earl of Suffolk's jester.
+
+  See Flogel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The
+  History of Court Fools (1858).     (W. He.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat. _festum stultorum_, _fatuorum_, _follorum_, Fr.
+_fete des fous_), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious
+festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical
+counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The
+celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of ancient
+Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire to Christianity,
+and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical councils,
+continued to be celebrated by the people on the Kalends of January with
+all their old licence. The custom, indeed, so far from dying out, was
+adopted by the barbarian conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths
+in Spain, Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in
+Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms thought it
+necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected with it
+(_Decretum_, xix. c. 5, Migne, _Patrologia lat_. 140, p. 965). Then,
+just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among the people,
+the clergy themselves gave it the character of a specific religious
+festival. Certain days seem early to have been set apart as special
+festivals for different orders of the clergy: the feast of St Stephen
+(December 26) for the deacons, St John's day (December 27) for the
+priests, Holy Innocents' Day for the boys, and for the sub-deacons
+Circumcision, the Epiphany, or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy
+Innocents became a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected
+by his fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or
+archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy, while the
+canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At first there is no
+evidence to prove that these celebrations were characterized by any
+specially indecorous behaviour; but in the 12th century such behaviour
+had become the rule. In 1180 Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens,
+calls the festival of the sub-deacons _festum stultorum_ (Migne,
+_Patrol_. _lat_. 202, p. 79). The burlesque ritual which characterized
+the Feast of Fools throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A
+young sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal _insignia_
+(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary. A mock
+mass was begun, during which the lections were read _cum farsia_,
+obscene songs were sung and dances performed, cakes and sausages eaten
+at the altar, and cards and dice played upon it.
+
+This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though condemned by
+serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the child-like popular mind of
+the middle ages no suggestion of contempt, though when belief in the
+doctrines and rites of the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready
+instrument in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this
+kind of retribution Scott in _The Abbot_ gives a vivid picture, the
+Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling remnant of
+the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting on substituting the
+traditional Feast of Fools.
+
+This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously
+displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under various forms was
+celebrated in a large number of churches throughout the West. The ass
+had been introduced into the ritual of the church in the 9th century,
+representing either Balaam's ass, that which stood with the ox beside
+the manger at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt,
+or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often the ass
+was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes he was the
+occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to modern notions, but
+by no means intended in an irreverent spirit. The three most notable
+celebrations of the Feast of the Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens.
+At Rouen the feast was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to
+represent the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with
+a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs and
+kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil, the chief
+figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow wooden effigy,
+within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies. The procession was
+followed, inside the church, by a curious combination of ritual office
+and mystery play, the text of which, according to the _Ordo processionis
+asinorum secundum Rothomagensem usum_, is given in Du Cange.
+
+Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was held on the
+14th of January, and represented the flight into Egypt. A richly
+caparisoned ass, on which was seated the prettiest girl in the town
+holding in her arms a baby or a large doll, was escorted with much pomp
+from the cathedral to the church of St Etienne. There the procession was
+received by the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the
+sanctuary. Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to
+the _Introit_, _Kyrie_, _Gloria_, &c., the congregation chanted "Hinham"
+(Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this feast actually
+runs: _In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum vice, Ite missa est,
+Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias, ter respondebit Hinham,
+Hinham, Hinham_ (At the close of the mass the priest turning to the
+people instead of saying, _Ite missa est_, shall bray thrice: the
+people, instead of _Deo gratias_, shall thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw,
+Hee-haw).
+
+At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast of Fools,
+celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision. The clergy went in
+procession to the west door of the church, where two canons received the
+ass, amid joyous chants, and led it to the precentor's table. Bizarre
+vespers followed, sung falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts
+from all the vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was
+solemnly fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the
+precentor out into the square before the church (_conductus ad ludos_);
+water was poured on the precentor's head, and the ass became the centre
+of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery being carried on far
+into the night, while the clergy and the serious-minded retired to
+matins and bed.
+
+Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish the Feast of
+Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed its more obvious
+indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III. forbade the feasts of priests,
+deacons and sub-deacons altogether; and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened
+those who disobeyed this prohibition with excommunication. How little
+effect this had, however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo,
+archbishop of Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses
+of the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the
+university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed a
+letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King Charles
+VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology to forbid it in
+collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact, too popular to succumb
+to these efforts, and it survived throughout Europe till the
+Reformation, and even later in France; for in 1645 Mathurin de Neure
+complains in a letter to Pierre Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries
+which yearly on Innocents' Day took place in the monastery of the
+Cordeliers at Antibes. "Never did pagans," he writes, "solemnize with
+such extravagance their superstitious festivals as do they.... The
+lay-brothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen ...
+occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the sacerdotal
+garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands books turned upside
+down, and pretend to read through spectacles in which for glass have
+been substituted bits of orange-peel."
+
+  See B. Picart, _Ceremonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les
+  peuples_ (1723); du Tilliot, _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la
+  fete des Fous_ (Lausanne, 1741); Aime Cherest, _Nouvelles recherches
+  sur la fete des Innocents et la fete des Fous dans plusieurs eglises
+  et notamment dans celle de Sens_ (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Muller's
+  _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Kulturgeschichte_ (1858); H. Bohmer, art.
+  "Narrenfest" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop_. (ed. 1903); Du Cange,
+  _Glossarium_ (ed. 1884), s.v. "Festum Asinorum."
+
+
+
+
+FOOLSCAP, the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb running up
+the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn by jesters and
+fools (see FOOL); also a conical cap worn by dunces. The name is given
+to a size of writing or printing paper, varying in size from 12 X 15 in.
+to 17 X 13-1/2 in. (see PAPER). The name is derived from the use of a
+"fool's cap" as a watermark. A German example of the watermark dating
+from 1479 was exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The _New
+English Dictionary_ finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction
+of the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-mill at
+Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the familiar
+story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool's cap for the royal
+arms as a watermark on the paper used for the journals of parliament.
+
+
+
+
+FOOL'S PARSLEY, in botany, the popular name for _Aethusa Cynapium_, a
+member of the family _Umbelliferae_, and a common weed in cultivated
+ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform root and a smooth hollow
+branched stem 1 to 2 ft. high, with much divided (ternately pinnate)
+smooth leaves and small compound umbels of small irregular white
+flowers. The plant has a nauseous smell, and, like other members of the
+order (e.g. hemlock, water-drop wort), is poisonous.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT, the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting of
+tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests when in an
+upright position, standing or moving (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and
+Artistic_; and SKELETON: _Appendicular_). The word is also applied to
+such parts of invertebrate animals as serve as a foot, either for
+movement or attachment to a surface. "Foot" is a word common in various
+forms to Indo-European languages, Dutch, _voet_, Ger. _Fuss_, Dan.
+_fod_, &c. The Aryan root is _pod_-, which appears in Sans. _pud_, Gr.
+[Greek: pous, podos] and Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. From the resemblance to
+the foot, in regard to its position, as the base of anything, or as the
+lowest member of the body, or in regard to its function of movement, the
+word is applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a
+sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part of an
+organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the bottom of a
+type is divided by a groove into two portions known as "feet." Probably
+referring to the beating of the rhythm with the foot in dancing, the Gr.
+[Greek: pous] and Lat. _pes_ were applied in prosody to a grouping of
+syllables, one of which is stressed, forming the division of a verse.
+"Foot," i.e. foot-soldier, was formerly, with an ordinal number
+prefixed, the name of the infantry regiments of the British army. It is
+now superseded by territorial designations, but it still is used in the
+four regiments of the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a
+lineal measure of length the "foot" is of great antiquity, estimated
+originally by the length of a man's foot (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). For
+the ceremonial washing of feet, see MAUNDY THURSDAY.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic Aphtha, Eczema
+Epizootica), a virulent contagious and inoculable malady of animals,
+characterized by initial fever, followed by the formation of vesicles or
+blisters on the tongue, palate and lips, sometimes in the nostrils,
+fourth stomach and intestine of cattle, and on parts of the body where
+the skin is thin, as on the udder and teats, between the claws, on the
+heels, coronet and pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very
+rapidly. A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is
+accompanied by salivation and a peculiar "smacking" of the lips. The
+vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break, exposing a red raw
+patch, which is very sensitive. The animal cannot feed so well as usual,
+suffers much pain and inconvenience, loses condition, and, if a
+milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or, if pregnant, may abort.
+More or less lameness is a constant symptom, and sometimes the feet
+become very much diseased and the animal is so crippled that it has to
+be destroyed. It is often fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by
+the saliva and the discharges from the vesicles, though all the
+secretions and excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all
+articles and places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by
+injecting the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or
+the peritoneal cavity.
+
+If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of different
+disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has been a European
+malady for more than 2000 years. But no reliance can be placed on this
+evidence, and it is not until we reach the 17th and 18th centuries that
+we find trustworthy proof of its presence, when it was reported as
+frequently prevailing extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During
+the 19th century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations
+between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become widely
+diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced from the
+Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
+Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834. Cattle in the Vosges and in
+Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and the disease extending to France,
+Belgium and Holland, reached England in 1839, and quickly spread over
+the three kingdoms (see also under AGRICULTURE). At this time the
+importation of foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was
+supposed that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships'
+stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the voyage.
+This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct outbreaks,
+and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-mouth disease.
+From the observations of the best authorities it would appear to be an
+altogether exotic malady in the west of Europe, always invading it from
+the east; at least, this has been the course noted in all the principal
+invasions. It was introduced into Denmark in 1841; and into the United
+States of America in 1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by
+diseased cattle from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic
+from the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually
+extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North America. It
+was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was stamped out on each
+occasion. It appears to be well known in India, Ceylon, Burma and the
+Straits Settlements. In 1870 it was introduced into the Andaman Islands
+by cattle imported from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in
+the same year it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is
+frequently epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks
+used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle also
+spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also prevails in
+central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle of the Dinkas
+suffering from a disease of the kind.
+
+Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young animals, or when
+malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge. In one year (1892) in
+Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with an estimated loss to the owners
+of L7,500,000 sterling. It is transmissible to nearly all the domestic
+animals, but its ravages are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and
+swine. Human beings are also liable to infection.
+
+The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet, with
+salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to the
+sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation of the
+diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough disinfection
+of all places and substances which are capable of conveying the
+infection.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTBALL, a game between two opposing sides played with a large inflated
+ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or by both feet and
+hands.
+
+Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity, and their
+existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris, Faroe Islanders,
+Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos, points to their primitive
+nature. In Greece the [Greek: episkyros] seems to have borne a
+resemblance to the modern game. Of this we read in Smith's _Dictionary
+of Antiquities_--"It was the game at football, played in much the same
+way as with us, by a great number of persons divided into two parties
+opposed to one another." Amongst the Romans the _harpastum_, derived
+from the Greek verb [Greek: harpazo], I seize, thus showing that
+carrying the ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil
+Kennett, in his _Romae antiquae notitia_, terms this missile a "larger
+kind of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and
+striving to throw it into one another's goals, which was the conquering
+cast." The _harpastum_ was a gymnastic game and probably played for the
+most part indoors. The real Roman football was played with the inflated
+_follis_, which was kicked from side to side over boundaries, and thus
+must have closely resembled the modern Association game. Tradition
+ascribes its introduction in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It
+has been played in Tuscany under the name of _Calcio_ from the middle
+ages down to modern times.
+
+Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman tradition
+has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians assert that a
+variety of football has been played in Ireland for over 2000 years. In
+early times the great football festival of the year was Shrove Tuesday,
+though the connexion of the game with this particular date is lost in
+obscurity. William Fitzstephen, in his _History of London_ (about 1175),
+speaks of the young men of the city annually going into the fields after
+dinner to play at the well-known game of ball on the day _quae dicitur
+Carnilevaria_. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention of
+football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314) in
+consequence of "the great noise in the city caused by hustling over
+large balls (_rageries de grosses pelotes_)." A clear reference is made
+"ad pilam ... pedinam" in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39 Edward III. (1365),
+memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be prohibited on account of the
+decadence of archery, and the same thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6
+(1388). Both Henry VIII. and Elizabeth enacted laws against football,
+which, both then and under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have
+been violent to the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by
+prominent writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his _Boke named the
+Governour_ (1531), speaks of football as being "nothyng but beastely
+fury and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and consequently
+rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be wounded, wherefore it is
+to be put in perpetual silence." In Stubbes' _Anatomie of Abuses_ (1583)
+it is referred to as "a develishe pastime ... and hereof groweth envy,
+rancour and malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great
+effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth." Fifty years later
+(1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone's _Table-Book_) as remarking, "I
+would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am stopped by one of your
+heroic games called football; which I conceive (under your favour) not
+very conveniently civil in the streets, especially in such irregular and
+narrow roads as Crooked Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like
+your military pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed
+these two valiant exercises in the streets."
+
+An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes of
+Galway in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery, excepting "onely
+the great foot balle." In the time of Charles II. football was popular
+at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene College, as is evidenced by the
+following extract from the register book of that institution under the
+date 1679:--
+
+  "That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation
+  upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day, further
+  than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their thirsts.
+  And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking and spending
+  money--Sophisters and Freshmen together--upon ye account of making or
+  not making a speech at that football time be utterly left off and
+  extinguished."
+
+It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the masses, and
+never took root, except in educational institutions, among the upper
+classes until the 19th century. No clubs or code of rules had been
+formed, and the sole aim seems to have been to drive the ball through
+the opposing side's goal by fair means or foul. So rough did the game
+become that James I. forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes
+the exercise in his _Basilikon Doron_ as "meeter for laming than making
+able the users thereof." Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part
+in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses closed in
+order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered that the game fell
+into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal, occurred; and Shrove
+Tuesday "football-day" gradually died out about 1830, though a relic of
+the custom still remained in a few places. For some thirty years
+football was only practised at the great English public schools, many of
+which possessed special games, which in practically all cases arose from
+the nature of the individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its
+charging, tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it
+was taken up by the great public schools, would have been extremely
+dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts of some schools,
+as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence at such institutions the
+dribbling style of play, in which Mr Montague Shearman (_Football_, in
+the "Badminton Library") sees the origin of the Association game, came
+into existence. Only at Rugby (later at some other schools), which from
+the first possessed an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved
+and developed, including even its roughness, for actual "hacking" (i.e.
+intentional kicking of an opponent's legs) was not expressly abolished
+at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school game at Rugby
+contained in _Tom Brown's School Days_ has become classic.
+
+1. _Rugby Union._--We have seen that from early times a rudimentary game
+of football had been a popular form of sport in many parts of Great
+Britain, and that in the old-established schools football had been a
+regular game among the boys. In different schools there arose various
+developments of the original game; or rather, what, at first, must have
+been a somewhat rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape
+as a definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby
+school had developed such a game, and from football played according to
+Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about the middle of the
+19th century that football--up till that time a regular game only among
+schoolboys--took its place as a regular sport among men. To begin with,
+men who had played the game as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to
+continue playing their favourite school game, and others were induced to
+join them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had not
+had the experience of playing the game at school, but who had the energy
+and the will to follow the example of those who had had this experience.
+In this way football was established as a regular game, no longer
+confined to schoolboys. When football was thus first started, the game
+was little developed or organized. Rules were very few, and often there
+was great doubt as to what the rules were. But, almost from the first,
+clubs were formed to play football according to Rugby rules--that is,
+according to the rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even
+the Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost
+unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still, the
+fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a certain
+uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the English Union,
+and the commencement of international matches, that a really definite
+code of rules was drawn up.
+
+It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of Rugby
+school became so popular in preference to the games of other schools,
+such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was probably very largely due to
+the reputation and success of Rugby school under Dr Arnold, and this
+also led most probably to its adoption by other schools; for in 1860
+many schools besides Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The
+rapidity with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th century
+was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the London
+district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great rival,
+shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been started in
+Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield football club dates back
+to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby
+football clubs had been formed before 1870, and by that date the game
+had been implanted both in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland,
+before 1860, football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been
+established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many districts had
+been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid as, in some ways, had
+been the spread of the game between the years 1850 and 1870, it was as
+nothing to what happened in the following twenty years; for by 1890
+Rugby football, together with Association football, had become the great
+winter amusement of the people, and roused universal interest; while
+to-day on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of
+thousands of people playing football, while those who watch the game can
+be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to this great
+increase in the game and interest taken in it were, undoubtedly, the
+establishment of the various national Unions and the international
+matches; and, of course, the local rivalry of various clubs, together
+with cup or other competitions prevalent in certain districts, was a
+leading factor. The establishment of the English Union led to a
+codification of the rules without which development was impossible.
+
+In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in London. This
+Union was an association of some clubs and schools which joined together
+and appointed a committee and officials to draw up a code of rules of
+the game. From this beginning the English Rugby Union has become the
+governing body of Rugby football in England, and has been joined by
+practically all the Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters
+connected with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international
+teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded in Edinburgh on
+the same lines, and with the same objects, while in 1880 the Welsh
+Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby Football Union, were
+established as the national Unions of Wales and Ireland, though in both
+countries there had been previously Unions not thoroughly representative
+of the country. All these Unions became the chief governing body within
+their own country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and
+laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by the English
+Union, the others adopted the English rules, with amendments to them
+from time to time. This state of affairs had one element of
+weakness--viz. that since all the Unions made their own rules, if ever a
+dispute should arise between any of them, a dead-lock was almost certain
+to ensue. Such a dispute did occur in 1884 between the English and
+Scottish Unions. This dispute eventually turned on the question of the
+right of the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game,
+and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior to the other
+Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this claim, and finally, in
+1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin were appointed as a commission
+to settle the dispute. The result was the establishment of the
+International Board, which consists of representatives from each
+Union--six from England, two from each of the others--whose duties were
+to settle any question that might arise between the different Unions,
+and to settle the rules under which international matches were to be
+played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various Unions as
+the rules of the game.
+
+With the establishment of the International Board the organization of
+the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail, and in 1895
+occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading clubs in Yorkshire
+and Lancashire broke off from the English Union and formed the Northern
+Union, which since that date has had many accessions, and has become the
+leading body in the north of England. The question in dispute was the
+payment of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer
+love of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do, and who
+could give the time to play it; but with the increasing popularity of
+the game it became the pastime of all classes of the people, and clubs
+began to grow rich by "drawing big gates,"--that is, large numbers of
+spectators, frequently many thousands in number, paid for the privilege
+of witnessing the match. In these circumstances the temptation arose to
+reimburse the player for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to
+for playing the game, and thus it became universally recognized as
+legitimate to pay a player's expenses to and from a match. But in the
+case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their weekly
+wage when they had to go a distance to play a match, or to go on tour
+with their club--that is, go off for a few days and play one or two
+matches in different parts of the country--and consequently the claim
+was made on their behalf to recoup them for their loss of wage; while at
+the same time rich clubs began to be willing to offer inducements to
+good players to join their club, and these inducements were generally
+most acceptable in the form of money. In Association football (see
+below) professionalism--i.e. the hiring and paying of a player for his
+services--had been openly recognized. A large section of the English
+Union--the amateur party--would not tolerate anything that savoured of
+professionalism, and regarded payments made to a player for broken time
+as illegitimate. The result was the formation of the Northern Union,
+which allowed such payments, and has practically recognized
+professionalism. This body has also somewhat altered the laws of the
+game, and reduced the number of players constituting a team from fifteen
+to thirteen. In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly
+amateur; but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan
+the professional element is strong.
+
+Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to select
+international teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first international
+match was played between England and Scotland in Edinburgh. This was a
+match between teams picked from English and Scottish players. These
+matches from the first roused widespread interest, and were a great
+stimulus to the development of the game. With the exception of a few
+years, when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all the
+countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one
+another--England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland since 1875
+and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing Ireland in 1877 and
+Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales met first in 1882 and then in
+1884, and since 1887 have played annually. The qualifications of a
+player for any country were at first vaguely considered to be birth; but
+they were never definitely settled, and there has been a case of a
+player playing for two countries. In 1894, however, the International
+Board decided that no player was to play for more than one country, and
+this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and though birth
+is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is not essential.
+Though international matches excite interest throughout the United
+Kingdom, the matches between two rival clubs arouse just as much
+excitement in their district, particularly when the clubs may be taken
+as representatives of two neighbouring rival towns. But when to this
+rivalry there is added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the
+excitement is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions
+have never been so popular as among Association, but the competition for
+the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before the establishment of
+the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly was the main cause of the
+popularity of the game in that county. Similarly the competition for the
+South Wales Cup from 1878 to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game
+in that country. The method of carrying on these competitions is, that
+all the clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in
+the first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn in
+pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is only one
+pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elaboration of this
+competition is the "League system" of the Association game. This,
+likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players. Still it exists in
+some districts, especially where clubs are anxious to draw big gates. In
+the League system a certain number of clubs form a league to play one
+another twice each season; two points are counted for a win and one for
+a draw. The club which at the end of the season comes out with most
+points wins the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup
+competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season, and
+one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming out first.
+
+It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with them, and
+this has certainly been the case with Rugby football, especially in New
+Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An interchange of football visits
+between these colonies and the motherland is now an important feature in
+the game. These tours date from 1888, when an English team visited
+Australia and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of New
+Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over to England, and
+by their play even then indicated how well the grammar of the game had
+been studied in that colony. Subsequently several British teams visited
+at intervals New Zealand and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent
+home a team which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played
+altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England,
+Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz. by a
+try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for itself. In 1908
+a combined team of English and Welsh players toured in New Zealand and
+Australia, and also visited Canada on their way home. The team was not
+so strong as could have been wished, and though they did fairly well in
+Australia, they lost all three "test matches" against New Zealand. In
+South Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play is
+hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The first
+British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the generosity of
+Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking against loss. Teams were
+also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the result of matches played in each
+visit showing the steady improvement of the colonists. In 1906 the South
+Africans paid their first visit to England, and the result of their tour
+proved them to be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England
+managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one of the home
+Unions to gain a victory. The success of these colonial visits, more
+especially financially, created a development very foreign to the
+intentions of their organizers. The Northern Union as a professional
+body had drifted into a somewhat parlous state, through suffering on the
+one hand from a lack of international matches, and on the other from the
+competition of Association professional teams. The great financial
+success resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention
+of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered into
+negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team who would come
+over and play the Northern Union clubs, the visiting players themselves
+taking a share of the gate-money. For this purpose a team of New
+Zealanders toured the north of England in 1907, and their action caused
+the introduction of professional or Northern Union football in both New
+Zealand and Australia.
+
+The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to
+English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil, and
+numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 international matches
+have been played between France and England, and the energy of French
+players, coupled with their national _elan_, makes them formidable
+opponents. The Rugby code has also obtained a firm footing in Canada,
+India, Ceylon and the Argentine.
+
+The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite
+conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft though
+firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than 110 yds. long
+nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approximates to these
+dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines, called touch-lines, down
+the sides, and goal-lines along the ends. The touch-lines are continued
+beyond the goal-lines for a distance of not more than 25 yds.; and
+parallel to the goal-line and behind it, at a distance of not more than
+25 yds., is drawn a line called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of
+the touch-lines produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from
+the touch-lines, are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding 11
+ft. in height, and generally much more--averaging perhaps from 20 to 30
+ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a height of 10
+ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar; and the object of
+the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar between the upright
+posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate
+spheroid), and the official dimensions are--length, 11 to 11-1/4 in.;
+length circumference, 30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 25-1/2 to 26
+in.; weight, 13 to 14-1/2 oz. It is made of india-rubber inflated, and
+covered with a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is
+generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked by flags
+on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there is similarly
+marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the side that had gained
+the majority of goals won the match, and if no goal had been scored, or
+an equal number, the game was said to be left drawn; but a modification
+was adopted before long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the
+ordinary course of play; but from the very first a try goal could be
+obtained by that side one of whose players either carried the ball
+across his opponents' goal-line and then touched it down (i.e. on the
+ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the
+goal-line, before any of his opponents. The "try" is then proceeded with
+as follows: the ball is taken out by a member of the side obtaining the
+try in a straight line from the spot where it was "touched down," and is
+deposited in a selected position on the ground in the field of play, the
+defending side being all confined behind their own goal-line until the
+moment the ball is so placed on the ground, when another member of the
+attacking side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a "place kick")
+over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal is kicked;
+very often not. The modification first allowed was to count that side
+the winner which had gained the majority of tries, provided no goal or
+an equal number of goals had been scored; but a majority of one goal
+took precedence of any number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards
+abolished, and a system of points instituted by which the side with the
+majority of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and
+tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being as
+follows:--A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which case the
+try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except from a mark or a
+penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a goal obtained by a player
+who drops the ball from his hands and kicks it the moment it rises off
+the ground, as in the "half-volley" at cricket or tennis. A goal from a
+mark or penalty kick 3 points. Under the Northern Union code any sort of
+goal counts 2 points, a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a
+goal, both try and goal count, i.e. 5 points are scored.
+
+In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the direction of
+the opponents' goal, but it may also be carried; but it must not be
+thrown forward or knocked on--that is, in the direction of the
+opponents' goal--though it may be thrown back. Thus the game is really a
+combination of football and handball. The main principle is that any one
+who is not "offside" is in play. A player is offside if he gets in front
+of the ball--that is, on the opponents' side of the ball, nearer than a
+colleague in possession of the ball to the opponents' goal-line; when in
+this position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the ball
+under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the "scrummage." In
+old days at Rugby school there was practically no limit to the numbers
+of players on each side, and not infrequently there would be a hundred
+or more players on one side. This was never prevalent in club football;
+twenty a-side was the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to
+fifteen a-side, the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides
+the ball got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted
+to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise forcing
+their way through with the ball in front of them. This was the origin of
+the scrummage.
+
+The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten minutes,
+sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends each goal in turn
+for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players who compose a side,
+the usual arrangement is that eight are called "forwards," and form the
+scrummage; two "half-backs" are posted outside the scrummage; and four
+"three-quarter-backs," a little behind the halves, stretch in a line
+across the field, their duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the
+ball to other members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents
+from doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of
+"passing," the field position of the half-backs has undergone a change.
+One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is known as the
+"scrum-half," the other takes a position between the latter and the
+three-quarters, and is termed the "stand-off-half." Behind the
+three-quarters comes the "full-back" or "back," a single individual to
+maintain the last line of defence; his duties are entirely defensive,
+either to "tackle" an opponent who has managed to get through, or, more
+usually, to catch and return long kicks. Play is started by one side
+kicking the ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of
+the opponents' goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other side,
+who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on until he is
+"tackled," or caught, by one of his opponents, unless he should choose
+to "pass" or throw it to another of his own side, who, provided he be
+not offside, may either kick, or run, or pass as he chooses. The ball in
+this way is kept moving until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line,
+or is tackled. If the ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at
+right angles to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is
+thrown in straight either by one of the same side whose player carried
+the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown
+out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-line
+either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending side
+touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds. from the
+goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field. If the ball is
+tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from the ground as soon as
+possible, and the forwards at once form the scrummage by putting down
+their heads and getting ready to shove against one another. They shove
+as soon as the ball is put down between the two front rows. In the
+scrummage the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise
+breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in the direction
+of the opponents' goal-line by a series of short kicks in which the
+players run after the ball as fast as possible, while their opponents
+lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick or other device stop
+the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards breaking away with the ball,
+sometimes they let the ball come out of the scrummage to their
+half-backs, who either kick or run with it, or pass it to the
+three-quarter-backs, and so the game proceeds until the ball is once
+more "dead"--that is, brought to a standstill. The scrummage appears to
+be an uninteresting manoeuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but
+it is not merely a manoeuvre in which weight and strength alone tell--it
+also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet, applying
+the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking the opposing side,
+as it were--usually termed wheeling--directing all the force to one side
+of the scrummage and thus breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively
+one, for the players are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it
+is called a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an
+open game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open
+game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting struggle,
+frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very rapidly from one
+side to the other, so that it is a matter of no surprise to find the
+British public so ardently attached to it. (C. J. N. F.; C. J. B. M.)
+
+2. _Association._--It is generally supposed that the English game of
+Association football is the outcome of the game of football as played at
+Cambridge University about the middle of the 19th century. In October
+1863 a committee, consisting of representatives of the schools of Eton,
+Harrow, Rugby, Marlborough, Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code
+of laws which settled the fundamental principle of the "Association"
+game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which permitted of
+handling and carrying the ball. In Association football the use of the
+hands or arms, either for the purpose of playing the ball or impeding or
+holding an opponent, is absolutely prohibited; "dribbling" or kicking
+the ball with the feet, and propelling it by the head or body, are the
+methods to be adopted. The Cambridge laws specially provided for
+"kicking" the ball. Laws 13 and 14 provided that "the ball, when in
+play, may be stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit
+by the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding,
+pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden."
+
+The laws of Association football first took practical shape as the
+outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863 at the Freemasons'
+Tavern, London. The clubs which sent delegates were representative of
+all classes of football then played. The meeting was a momentous one,
+for not only was the foundation laid of the Football Association, the
+national association which has since then controlled the game in
+England, but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed
+as to "hacking" being permissible under the laws, the representatives
+who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is now so roundly
+condemned in both the Association and Rugby games, withdrew and formed
+the Rugby Union.
+
+The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the Football
+Association at their meeting on the 24th of November 1863. They took the
+view that those laws "embraced the true principles of the game with the
+greatest simplicity"; the laws were "officially" passed on the 1st of
+December 1863, and the first publication was made in _Bell's Life_ four
+days later. These laws have from time to time been modified, but the
+principles as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the
+Association game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual
+dimensions for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and the goals
+are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post 8 ft. from the
+ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and must be a perfect sphere
+from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as distinguished from the elliptical
+or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in
+front of the goals, and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the
+"penalty area"; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the
+centre of the goal, is the "penalty kick mark." The boundary lines at
+the sides of the field are called the "touch-lines"; those at the ends
+(in the centre of which are the goals) being the "goal-lines." The game
+is started by a place kick from the centre of the field of play, and
+none of the opposite side is allowed to approach within 10 yds. of the
+ball when it is kicked off. When the ball passes over the touch line it
+has to be thrown in by one of the opposite side, and can be returned
+into the field of play in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line
+at any time without touching one of the defending side, it has to be
+kicked out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in
+front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest the
+point where the ball left the field of play. But should it touch one of
+the defending side in its transit over the goal-line the attacking side
+has the privilege of a free kick from the corner flag (a "corner kick").
+This is often a great advantage, but such free kick does not produce a
+goal unless the ball touches one of the other players on its way to the
+post. Ordinarily a goal is scored when the ball goes between the
+goal-posts and under the cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or
+carried. The regulation duration of a game is an hour and a half, and
+ends are changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has
+the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority of
+goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except when the
+free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty for certain
+infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and if such
+infringement take place within the penalty area on the part of a player
+on the side then defending the goal, and in the judgment of the referee
+be intentional, a "penalty kick" is awarded to the attacking side. The
+penalty kick is a free kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players
+of the defending side being excluded from the penalty area, except the
+goalkeeper, who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore,
+being an almost certain goal.
+
+A player is always in play as long as there are three of the opposite
+side between him and the opposite goal _at the time the ball is kicked_.
+This "offside" rule gives much trouble to the young player, though why
+it should do so it is not easy to say. The rule is simple if the words
+in italics are remembered. The ball must not be carried, knocked or
+wilfully handled under any pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper,
+who is allowed to use his hands in defence of his goal, either by
+knocking on or throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus
+far he is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the
+ball the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the
+rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them the
+serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player. Players
+are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such as have their
+heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal plates or
+gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this rule is liable
+to be prohibited from taking further part in a match.
+
+In the early 'sixties of the 19th century there were probably not more
+than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association football in the
+United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined in the south of England
+to the universities and public schools. But whilst the game was being
+established in the south it was making steady progress in the north,
+particularly in Yorkshire, where the Sheffield Club had been formed as
+early as 1854. In 1867 the game had become so well established that it
+was decided to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played
+"in the wilds of Battersea Park," terminated in a draw, neither side
+having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the growing
+popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871, only three years
+later, two matches of an international character were played between
+Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership with the Football Association;
+they were not, however, recognized as "international" matches. The first
+real international match, England v. Scotland, was played on the 30th of
+November 1872 at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between
+England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879; and that
+between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In 1896 amateur
+international matches were inaugurated with Germany, Austria and
+Bohemia; and games are now annually played with Scotland, Wales,
+Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany, Holland, Austria and other
+continental countries. As the outcome of the international relations
+with Scotland, Wales and Ireland, an International Football Association
+Board was formed in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon.
+Two representatives from each of the four national associations
+constitute the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not only by
+the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in all countries where
+the Association game is played. At a meeting held at Paris on the 21st
+of May 1904 the "International Federation of Association Football" was
+instituted. It consists of the recognized national associations in the
+respective countries: and its objects are to develop and control
+Association international football. The countries in federation are:
+Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary,
+Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
+
+The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early days
+becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of the game in the
+20th century. Association football has become one of the most popular of
+all national sports in the United Kingdom. It is slowly but surely
+taking a similar position on the continent of Europe and is making
+progress even in the Far East, Japan being one of its latest adherents.
+In the season of 1871-1872 the Football Association inaugurated its
+popular challenge cup competition which is now competed for by both
+amateur and professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered,
+all of which were from the south of England. The first winners of the
+cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the final
+tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the competition was
+mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the season of 1881-1882 the
+Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in the final tie by the Old Etonians
+by one goal to nothing. Professionalism was then unknown in the game,
+and comparatively little interest was taken in it except by the players
+themselves. In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the
+first time taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in
+the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900-1901
+it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur Club, who defeated
+the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three goals to one. In the
+following season the cup was again taken north by the Bury Club. In the
+early days of the competition a few hundred people only attended the
+final tie, which for many years was played at Kennington Oval in London.
+In the course of time, however, the interest of the public so largely
+increased that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity;
+accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Manchester,
+where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894 it was played at
+Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace. The attendance during the
+following ten years averaged 80,000 people. The record attendance was in
+the season of 1900-1901, when the south were contesting with the north,
+the spectators then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909
+356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had increased
+to 404.
+
+The great development of the game necessitated many changes in the
+system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary to the rules)
+a practice of making payment to players crept into the game in the north
+of England and slowly developed. After some years of debate as to the
+best method of dealing with this development the Football Association
+decided in 1885 to legalize and control the payment of players. The
+rules define a professional player as one who receives remuneration of
+any sort above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually
+paid, or is registered as a professional. They further provide that
+training expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered
+as remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses. Players
+competing for any money prizes in football contests are also considered
+professionals.
+
+In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional clubs of the
+north and midlands of England, was formed; and a new scheme was
+inaugurated for the playing of matches on what is known as the "League"
+principle, the essential advantage of which is that the clubs in
+membership of a league agree to play with each other "home and home"
+matches each season, and also bind themselves under certain penalties to
+play their best team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern
+League came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the
+interest in the game in the south and west of England. The Football
+League and the Southern League very soon had their imitators, and in
+1909 there were upwards of six hundred league competitions playing under
+the sanction and control of the Football Association. The league system
+also found favour in Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and has extended to
+most of the colonies where Association football is played. In the season
+of 1893-1894 the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in
+membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated. In the first
+season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity of the competition
+is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-1909 there were 229
+entries.
+
+The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs, had in
+1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur clubs and a
+quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400 professional clubs with
+7000 professional players. It has also directly affiliated 52 county,
+district and colonial associations, and indirectly in membership a large
+number of minor associations which are affiliated through the county and
+district associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs in
+Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the various
+battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other army stations;
+and the Royal Navy Football Association comprises all ships afloat
+having Association football clubs.
+
+The regulations of the Football Association, which is the recognized
+administrative and legislative body for the game in England, make
+provision for the sanction and control of leagues and competitions; and
+its rules, regulations, principles and practices very largely prevail in
+all national associations. The king is the patron, and the council
+consists of 56 members, a president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10
+representatives elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the
+country is subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the
+navy and of county associations in England which have upwards of 50
+clubs in membership, each representative being directly appointed by his
+association. In 1905 the Football Association became incorporated under
+the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and as a consequence the word "Limited"
+appears in its title. It is not, however, a trading body; the
+shareholders are not entitled to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may
+the members of the council, who are the directors, receive any payment
+for their services. The Scottish Football Association is also an
+incorporated body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the
+United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the regulations
+of the Football Association they may not pay a larger dividend to their
+shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the directors receive payment for
+their services.
+
+The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late years
+has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing every one into
+full play. The great aim accordingly has been to encourage combination
+and to discourage purely individual efforts. In the early days, though
+there was a certain amount of cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on
+himself. Even up to the middle of the 'seventies dribbling was looked
+upon as the great desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just
+as long kicks were the main object of a back. The development of the
+game was of course bound to change all that. The introduction of
+passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler pure
+and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with which he was
+mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually came to be regarded as the
+keynote to success. Instead of one full back, as was originally the
+case, and one half-back, the defence gradually developed by the addition
+first of a second half, then of a second full back, and still later of a
+third half-back, until it came to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of
+course, two full backs and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used
+to constitute the attack in the earliest days of the Association have
+been reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood,
+until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has been
+to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and as a natural
+consequence to make the game more open and thereby generally more
+interesting and attractive. Association football is indeed, from the
+standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in its
+infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of the eleven
+players into full relief throughout the game. The players who, as a
+rule, make or mar the success of a side in modern football are the
+centre forward and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the
+attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close dribbling and
+following up, the new formation makes for accuracy of passing among the
+forwards, with intelligent support from the half-backs. The net result
+is practically the effective combination of the whole side. To do his
+part as it ought to be done every member of an eleven must work in
+harmony with the rest, and on a definite system, in all cases
+subordinating his own methods and personal interests to promote the
+general well-being of the side.     (C. W. A.; F. J. W.)
+
+  The literature of British football is very extensive, but the
+  following works are among the best: _Football_ in the "Badminton
+  Library" (London, 1904), where the different games played at Eton,
+  Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly
+  described; Rev. F. Marshall, _Football; the Rugby Game_ (London,
+  Cassells); J.E. Vincent, _Football; its History for Five Centuries_
+  (London, 1885); C.J.B. Marriott and C.W. Alcock, _Football_ ("Oval
+  Series"); "Football," in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _The Rugby
+  Football Union Handbook_, Richardson, Greenwich, Official Annual; and
+  _The Football Annual_, Merritt and Hatcher (Association Game), London.
+
+_United States._--In America the game of football has been elaborated
+far more than elsewhere, and involves more complications than in
+England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of football generally
+resembling the English Association game was played on the village greens
+and by the students of colleges and academies. There was no running with
+the ball, but dribbling, called "babying," was common. In 1871 a code of
+rules was drawn up, but they were unsatisfactory and not invariably
+observed. "Batting the ball," i.e. striking the ball forward with the
+fists, was allowed. There were two backs, sixteen rushers or forwards,
+and two rovers or "peanutters," who lurked near the opponents' goal.
+During this period the first international football game was played at
+Yale between the college team and one made up of old Etonians, the rules
+being a compromise between the American and the English.
+
+English Rugby, introduced from Canada, was first played at Harvard
+University, and in 1875 a match under a compromise set of rules, taken
+partly from the Rugby Union and partly from the existing American game,
+was played with Yale. The following year Yale adopted the regular Rugby
+Union rules, and played Harvard under these. Later, several other
+colleges adopted these English rules. Absence of tradition necessitated
+expansion of these laws, and a convention of colleges was assembled.
+Thenceforward annual conventions were held, which from time to time
+altered and amplified the rules. A college association was formed, and
+the game grew in popularity. Public criticism of the roughness shown in
+the play early threatened its existence; indeed at one time the
+university authorities compelled Harvard to abstain from the annual game
+with Yale. Changes in the rules were introduced, and the game has been
+characterized by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become
+the most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal
+university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even 40,000
+spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but a Rules
+Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of New York, made the
+necessary changes in the rules from time to time, and these have been
+accepted by the country at large. In the West associations were formed;
+but the game in the East is played principally under separate agreements
+between the contesting universities, all using, however, one code of
+rules. Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new committee of
+wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as well as public and
+private schools have also taken up the game. The American football
+season lasts from the middle of September to the first of December only,
+owing to the severity of the American winter. Professional football is
+not played in America.
+
+The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men on a field of
+330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines into squares with
+sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on each side of the field.
+Until 1903 the field was divided by latitudinal lines only and was
+therefore popularly called the "gridiron"; subsequently it was called
+the "checkerboard." The end lines are called "goal-lines," the side
+"touch-lines." The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle
+line, or 55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of
+each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft. in
+length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the ground.
+The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby type.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FIELD.
+
+  The football rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a
+  scrimmage, the first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the
+  quarter-back, may carry it forward beyond the line of scrimmage,
+  provided in so doing he crosses such line at least 5 yds. from the
+  point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore,
+  that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line
+  of scrimmage at least 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put
+  in play. The field is marked off at intervals of 5 yds. with white
+  lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in penalizing fouls
+  and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained in three downs, and also at
+  intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the side lines, in
+  order to assist the referee in determining whether the quarter-back
+  runs according to rule, or whether, in case of a forward pass, such
+  pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed from the
+  gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the
+  above diagram shows exactly how the field should be marked. As the
+  width of the field does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is
+  wise to run the first line through the middle point of the field and
+  then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle line. In
+  order to save labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion
+  of the longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is
+  accomplished if their points of intersection with the transverse lines
+  are distinctly marked, for instance, by a line a foot long.]
+
+A match game consists of two periods (_halves_) of thirty-five minutes
+with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games usually have shorter
+halves. There are four officials: the _umpire_, whose duty it is to
+watch the conduct of the players and decide regarding fouls; the
+_referee_, who decides questions regarding the progress of the ball and
+of play; the _field judge_ who assists the referee and keeps the time;
+and the _linesman_, who (with two assistants, one representing each
+eleven) marks the distance gained or lost in each play.
+
+In scoring, a "touchdown" (the English Rugby "try") counts 5 points, a
+goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the touchdown), a
+"goal from the field," whether from placement or drop-kick, 4, and a
+"safety" (the English Rugby "touchdown") 2. _Mutatis mutandis_, these
+are made as in English Rugby. American Rugby differs from the English
+game, because in the scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other,
+and, although separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a
+constant man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of "interference"
+is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put "on side"
+when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward passing, i.e.
+throwing the ball toward the opponents' goal, is permissible under
+certain restrictions. The costume usually consists of a close-fitting
+jersey with shoulders and elbows padded and reinforced with leather;
+short trousers with padded thighs and knees, heavy stockings and shoes
+with leather cleats. In the early period of the game caps were worn,
+but, as they were impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour
+of the wearing of long hair, and the "chrysanthemum head" became the
+distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however, proved an
+inadequate protection, and some players now wear a "head harness" of
+soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed in the places of injured
+players.
+
+The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby, and the
+rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking, place-kicking,
+goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are practically the same,
+except that, on a free kick after a fair catch, the opposing players in
+the American game may not come up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in
+front of it. In the American game there is no scrummage in the English
+sense, nor is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch.
+The element of chance in both these methods of play was done away with
+by the enunciation of the principle of the "possession of the ball." In
+America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a runner has been
+tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is also put into play by
+an evolution called a scrimmage, usually called "line-up," which beyond
+the name bears no resemblance to the English scrummage. The ball, at
+every moment of the game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to
+the other. It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not
+being able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive
+attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven linemen (i.e.
+forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-lines on the
+spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The ball is placed on the
+ground by the centre-rush, also called the snapper-back, who, upon the
+signal being given by his quarter-back, "snaps back" the ball to this
+player, or to the full-back, by a quick movement of the hand or foot.
+The moment the ball is snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it
+is a foul for the side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an
+opponent except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms); or
+for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The defenders
+may use their hands and arms only to get their opponents out of the way
+in order to get at the man with the ball. Each member of the attacking
+side endeavours, of course, to prevent his opponents from breaking
+through and interfering with the quarter-back, who requires this
+protection from his line in order to have time to pass the ball to one
+of the backs, whom he has notified by a signal to be ready. In the
+United States a player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long
+as hands and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called
+"blocking-off" and "interference" when done to protect a friend running
+with the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of
+American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the
+half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his
+interference must form immediately. This means that one or more of his
+fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any
+opponent who tries to tackle him. The first duty of the defence against
+a hostile run is therefore to break up the interference, i.e. put these
+defenders out of the play, so that the runner may be reached and
+tackled.
+
+The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off or goal.
+If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account of the direction
+of wind, the loser must kick off and send the ball at least 10 yds. into
+the opponents' territory from a place-kick from the 55 yds. line. The
+two ends of the kicking side, who are usually fast runners, get down the
+field after the ball as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man
+who catches the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the
+kick-off is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it
+back as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his
+opponents the ball is down, and a line-up takes place, the ball being in
+the possession of the catcher's side, which now attacks. In order to
+prevent the so-called "block game," once prevalent, in which neither
+side made any appreciable progress, the rules provide that the side in
+possession of the ball must make _at least 10 yds. in three successive
+attempts_, or, failing to do so, must surrender the ball to the enemy,
+or, as it is called, "lose the ball on downs". This is infrequent in
+actual play, because if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly
+successful, it becomes evident that the chances of completing the
+obligatory 10-yd. gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a
+forward pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball
+on the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball,
+nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When the wind
+is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often, as the other
+side, not being able to kick back on equal terms, is forced to play a
+rushing game, which is always exhausting. Again, the kicking game is
+often resorted to by the side that has the lead in the score, in order
+to save its men and yet retain the advantage. The only remaining way to
+advance the ball is on a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English
+game. The free kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from
+placement. Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is
+brought back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who
+carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the side
+which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of two ways.
+Either it may be touched to the ground and then kicked at least 10 yds.
+towards the opponents' goal, or it may be taken into the field at right
+angles to the line a distance not less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and
+there put down for a line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring
+how far he will go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.
+
+Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his weight and
+ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back. He must also, in
+case the full-back is to make the next play, be able to throw the ball
+from between his legs accurately into the full-back's hands, thus saving
+the time that would be wasted if the quarter-back were used as an
+intermediary. The two "guards," who must also be heavy men, form with
+the centre the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in
+defence blocking the enemy. The two "tackles" must be heavy yet active
+and aggressive men, as they must not only help the centre and guards in
+repelling assaults on the middle of the line, but also assist the ends
+in stopping runs round the line as well as those between tackle and end,
+a favourite point of attack. The "ends" are chosen for their activity,
+sure tackling, fast running and ability to follow up the ball after a
+kick. Of the four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure
+catcher and tackler and a fast runner. The two half-backs must also be
+fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is often chosen for his
+ability to gain ground by "bucking the line," i.e. plunging through the
+opposing team's line. He must therefore be over the average weight,
+while the other half-back is called upon to gain by running round the
+opposing ends. The quarter-back is the commanding general and therefore
+the most important member of his side, as with him lies the choice of
+plays to be made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in
+decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities
+absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains the
+ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a series of
+numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain play that is to be
+carried through the moment the ball is snapped back. A good quarter-back
+thinks rapidly and shouts his signal for the next play as soon as a down
+has been called and while the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays
+are run off rapidly and the enemy is given as little time as possible to
+concentrate. The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard
+them from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating every
+position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and other open
+plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called sequence-signals,
+and indicate a prearranged series of plays for use in certain
+emergencies. Every manoeuvre of the attacking side is carried out by
+every member of the team, the ideal being "every man in every play every
+time." As soon as a signal is given each man should know what part of
+the ensuing move will fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for
+the runner, or getting down the field under a punt. Every team has its
+own code.
+
+About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and mass plays
+(wedge-formations, tandems, &c.), i.e. to the grouping of bodies of men
+behind the line, and starting them before the ball was snapped back, so
+that they struck the line with an acquired momentum that was extremely
+severe, particularly when met by men equally determined. These plays
+caused frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most
+important law providing for a limitation to the number of men who could
+be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping seven men drawn up
+in the line.
+
+_Penalties_ are of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for refusing
+to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for repeated fouls
+made with the intention of delaying the game; (2) disqualification of
+players for unnecessary roughness or ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for
+infringement of rules, for which certain distances are taken away from
+the previous gains of the side making the fouls.
+
+The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages interspersed with
+runs and kicks. The systematized development of plays places at the
+disposal of the quarter an infinite variety of attack, which he seeks to
+direct at the opposing line with bewildering rapidity and dash. During
+the preliminary games of the season "straight football" is generally
+played; that is, intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple
+plunges into the line are mainly relied upon. "Trick plays," which
+comprise all manoeuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved for later
+and more important matches. Among these is the "fake (false) kick," in
+which the full-back takes position as if to receive the ball for a kick,
+but the ball is passed to a different player for a run. Another play of
+this kind is the "wing-shift," in which some or all of the players on
+one side of centre suddenly change to the other side, thus forming a
+mass and throwing the opponents' line out of balance. To this category
+belong also "double passes," "false passes," "delayed passes," "delayed
+runs" and "criss-crosses."
+
+Training for football in America resembles that for other sports in
+regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems at the universities
+differ, but there is generally a head coach, who is assisted by
+graduates, each of whom pays especial attention to one set of men, one
+to the men in the centre of the line, one to the backs, another to the
+ends, &c. Candidates for the teams are put through a severe course of
+practice in catching punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts,
+falling on the ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking
+through the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the
+kicking is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves
+particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the ball
+whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of cardinal
+importance in American football, and dribbling for this reason is
+unknown. When running with the ball the player is taught to take short
+steps, to follow his interference, that is, not isolate himself from his
+defenders, and neither to slow up nor shut his eyes when striking the
+opposing line. Tackling well below the waist is taught, but it is a foul
+to tackle below the knee. The general rule for defensive work of all
+kinds is "play low."
+
+  See Walter Camp, _How to play Football_, and the _Official Football
+  Guide_ (annual), both in Spalding's Athletic Library; his _Book of
+  College Sports_ (New York, 1893), his _American Football_ (New York,
+  1894), and his _Football_ (Boston, 1896)--the last in co-operation
+  with L.F. Deland; R.H. Barbour, _The Book of School and College
+  Sports_ (New York, 1904); W.H. Lewis, _Primer of College Football_
+  (Boston, 1896).     (E. B.; W. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-1863), American admiral, was born at New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806, his father, Samuel Augustus
+Foote (1780-1846), being a prominent lawyer and Whig politician, who as
+U.S. senator moved in 1829 "Foote's resolutions" on public lands, in the
+discussion of which Daniel Webster made his "reply to Hayne." He entered
+the U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830. After
+cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the "John Adams," he was
+assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later (1846-1848) to the
+Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made commander of the "Perry," and
+engaged for two years in suppressing the slave trade on the African
+coast. In 1856, as commander of the "Portsmouth," he served on the East
+India station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the Barrier
+Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak of the Civil War,
+he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, becoming a full captain in
+1861. In August 1861 he was assigned to the command "of the naval
+operations upon the Western waters." His exploit in capturing Fort Henry
+(on the right bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the
+6th of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant's land
+forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success; but their
+combined attack on Fort Donelson (12 m. off, on the left bank of the
+Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry garrison had escaped,
+resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16), in heavy losses to Foote's
+gunboats, Foote himself being severely wounded. In March-April he
+co-operated in the capture of New Madrid (q.v.) and Island No. 10. In
+June he retired from his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral,
+and became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On the 26th
+of June 1863 he died at New York.
+
+  See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906).
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK (1847-   ), American author and illustrator, was
+born in Milton, New York, on the 19th of November 1847, of English
+Quaker ancestry. She was educated at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female
+Collegiate Seminary and at the Cooper Institute School of Design for
+women, in New York. In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining
+engineer, and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California,
+Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories, in which,
+as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough picturesque life,
+especially the mining life, of the West. Some of her best drawings
+appear in her own books. Among her publications are _The Led-Horse
+Claim_ (1883), _John Bodewin's Testimony_ (1886), _The Chosen Valley_
+(1892), _Coeur d'Alene_ (1894); _The Prodigal_ (1900), a novelette; _The
+Desert and the Sown_ (1902); and several collections of short stories,
+including _A Touch of Sun and other Stories_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor, was baptized at
+Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his attachment to his native
+Cornwall he gives no better proofs as an author than by making the
+country booby Timothy (in _The Knights_) sound the praises of that
+county and of its manly pastimes; but towards his family he showed a
+loyal and enduring affection. His father was a man of good family and
+position. His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as well
+as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally supported in
+the days of his prosperity, and after her death indignantly vindicated
+her character from the imputations recklessly cast upon it by the
+revengeful spite of the duchess of Kingston. About the time when Foote
+came of age, he inherited his first fortune through the murder of his
+uncle, Sir John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel
+Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at Worcester, and
+at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing himself in both places by
+mimicry and audacious pleasantries of all kinds, and, although he left
+Oxford without taking his degree, acquiring a classical training which
+afterwards enabled him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion,
+and helped to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.
+
+Foote was "designed" for the law, but certainly not by nature. In his
+chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian Coffee-house hard by, he
+learned to know something of lawyers if not of law, and was afterwards
+able to jest at the jargon and to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and
+to satirize the Latitats of the other branch of the profession with
+particular success. The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in _The
+Lame Lovers_, is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v.
+Pickwick. But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house
+in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was the social
+centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the second of which he
+appears to have inherited at his father's death), and had then passed
+through severe straits, he made his first appearance on the actual stage
+in 1744. It is said that he had married a young lady in Worcestershire;
+but the traces of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to
+his washer-woman) are mysterious, and probably apocryphal.
+
+Foote's first appearance as an actor was made little more than two
+years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics, including
+Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own first venture, as
+Othello, was a failure; and though he was fairly successful in genteel
+comedy parts, and was, after a favourable reception at Dublin, enrolled
+as one of the regular company at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746,
+he had not as yet made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay
+neither in tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder "where
+the devil it _did_ lie," when his successful performance of the part of
+Bayes in _The Rehearsal_ at last suggested to him the true outlet for
+his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the example of Garrick, he
+had introduced into this famous part imitations of actors, and had added
+a variety of other satirical comment in the way of "gag." Engaging a
+small company of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April
+1747, at the theatre in the Haymarket "_gratis_," "a new entertainment
+called the _Diversions of the Morning_," to which were to be added a
+farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue "spoken by the B-d-d
+Coffee-house." Foote's success in these _Diversions_ obtained for him
+the name of "the English Aristophanes," an absurd compliment, declined
+by Foote himself (see his letter in _The Minor_). The _Diversions_
+consisted of a series of imitations of actors and other well-known
+persons, whose various peculiarities of voice, gesture, manner or dress
+were brought directly before the spectators, while the epilogue
+introduced the wits of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and
+specially "took off" an eminent physician (probably the munificent Sir
+William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in _The Devil on Two
+Sticks_), and a notorious quack oculist of the day. The actors ridiculed
+in this entertainment having at once procured the aid of the constables
+for preventing its repetition, Foote immediately advertised an
+invitation to his friends to drink a dish of tea with him at the
+Haymarket on the following day at noon--"and 'tis hoped there will be a
+great deal of comedy and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make
+the morning as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to
+be had at St George's coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no person
+will be admitted. N.B.--_Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there, and Lady
+Betty Frisk has absolutely promised._" The device succeeded to
+perfection; further resistance was abandoned as futile by the actors,
+whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the "instructions to his pupils"
+which the entertainer pretended to impart (typifying them under
+characters embodying their several chief peculiarities or defects--the
+massive and sonorous James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy
+Ryan as a razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had an
+occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her wares and the
+bill of the play); and Mr Foote's _Chocolate_, which was afterwards
+converted into an evening _Tea_, became an established favourite with
+the town.
+
+In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend a third
+fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his means by a
+speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing anecdote told of
+him by Johnson. But he could now command a considerable income; and when
+money came he seems to have freely expended it in both hospitality and
+charity. During his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of
+which he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and
+more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of other
+authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop in his
+_Knights_ (1749, printed 1754). _Taste_ (1752), in which parts of the
+_Diversions_ were incorporated, was followed by some eighteen pieces,
+the majority of which were produced at the Haymarket, the favourite home
+of Foote's entertainments. In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this
+theatre a licence from the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766)
+converted into a licence for summer performances for life. The
+entertainments were a succession of variations on the original idea of
+the _Diversions_ and the _Tea_. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures
+(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second act of
+the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on _Orators_ (1754), suggested by some
+bombastic discourses given by Macklin in his old age at the Piazza
+coffee-house in Covent Garden, where Foote had amused the audience and
+confounded the speaker by interposing his humorous comments. _The
+Orators_ is preserved in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with
+a mock lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England,
+and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate, to which
+Holberg's _Politician-Tinman_ can hardly have been a stranger. At a
+later date (1773) a new device was introduced in a _Puppet-show_. The
+piece (unprinted) played in this by the puppets was called _Piety in
+Pattens_, and professed to show "by the moral how maidens of low degree
+might become rich from the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by
+the literature how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed
+under cover of words the most high flown." In other words, it was an
+attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not altogether
+extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion with the notorious
+Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from the _Puppet-show_, and
+thus was avoided a recurrence of the quarrel which many years before had
+led to an interchange of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by
+Woodward of the imitative Foote.
+
+On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites became
+very friendly, and on Foote's part unmistakably affectionate, and they
+have not been always generously represented by Garrick's biographers. A
+comparison between the two as actors is of course out of the question;
+but, though Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue,
+there is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character was
+one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson's opinions of him many
+records remain in Boswell; when Johnson had at last found his way into
+Foote's company (he afterwards found it to Foote's own table) he was
+unable to "resist" him, and, on hearing of Foote's death, he thought the
+career just closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.
+
+Meanwhile most of poor Foote's friendships in high life were probably
+those that are sworn across the table, and require "t'other bottle" to
+keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture--of Lord Mexborough and his
+royal guest the duke of York, and their companions, bantering Foote on
+his ignorance of horsemanship, and after he had weakly protested his
+skill, taking him out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and
+broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the "patientee" (in which
+character he said he was now making his first appearance) consoling
+himself with the reflection that he would now be able to take off "old
+Faulkner" (a pompous Dublin alderman with a wooden leg, whom he had
+brought on the stage as Peter Paragraph in _The Orators_) "to the life."
+The duke of York made him the best reparation in his power by promising
+him a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and Foote not
+only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp, he considered
+the leg he had lost "a redundancy, a mere nothing at all," but
+ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two of his later pieces,
+_The Lame Lover_ and _The Devil on Two Sticks_, while, with the true
+instinct of a public favourite, making constant reference to it in plays
+and prologues. Though the characters played by him in several of his
+later plays are comparatively short and light, he continued to retain
+his hold over the public, and about the year 1774 was beginning to think
+of withdrawing, at least for a time, to the continent, when he became
+involved in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his
+entertainments nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick's
+case, and it is said in Johnson's) put any visible restraint upon
+personal satire. _The Author_, in which, under the infinitely humorous
+character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh gentleman of the name
+of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed, been ultimately suppressed. But in
+general he had pursued his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to
+public ridicule and contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or
+supposed quacks in medicine (as in _The Devil on Two Sticks_),
+enthusiasts in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in _The Cozeners_) and George
+Whitefield and his connexion (in _The Minor_). He had not only dared the
+wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in _The Nabob_), and been
+rewarded by the withdrawal, from among the pundits who rationalized away
+Whittington's Cat, of Horace Walpole and other eminent members of the
+body, but had in the same play attacked a well-known representative of a
+very influential though detested element in English society,--the
+"Nabobs" themselves. But there was one species of cracked porcelain
+which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with impunity. The rumour
+of his intention to bring upon the stage, in the character of Lady Kitty
+Crocodile in _The Trip to Calais_, the notorious duchess of Kingston,
+whose trial for bigamy was then (1775) impending, roused his intended
+victim to the utmost fury; and the means and influence she had at her
+disposal enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to
+prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint as to
+the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify Foote's
+character in every way that hatred and malice could suggest. After he
+had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been exchanged between the
+duchess and him equally characteristic of their respective writers,
+Foote took his revenge upon the chief of the duchess's instruments, a
+"Reverend Doctor" Jackson, who belonged to the "reptile" society of the
+journalists of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of
+_The Bankrupt_. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper in _The
+Capuchin_, under which name the altered _Trip to Calais_ was performed
+in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were not yet at an end; and a
+discharged servant of Foote's was suborned by Jackson to bring a charge
+of assault and apply for a warrant against him. Though the attempt
+utterly broke down, and Foote's character was thus completely cleared,
+his health and spirits had given way in the struggle--as to which,
+though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part of the
+public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the very audiences of
+his own theatre had been, or had seemed to be, divided in opinion. He
+thus resolved to withdraw, at least for a time, from the effects of the
+storm, let his theatre to Colman, and after making his last appearance
+there in May 1777, set forth in October on a journey to France. But at
+Dover he fell sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few
+hours died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary's church at Dover
+(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that he had a
+hand "open as day for melting charity." His resting-place in Westminster
+Abbey is without any memorial.
+
+  Foote's chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of
+  mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the mere
+  outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose likeness he
+  assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility of voice,
+  though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice was not
+  disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assuming
+  characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies, where he
+  occasionally "doubled" parts. The excellent "patter" of some of his
+  plays, such as _The Liar_ and _The Cozeners_, must have greatly
+  depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person he was
+  rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his overflowing
+  humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible
+  sparkle of his eyes.
+
+  As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank. He
+  regarded comedy as "an exact representation of the peculiar manners of
+  that people among whom it happens to be performed; a faithful
+  imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which are
+  openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the
+  correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community."
+  This he regarded as the _utile_, or useful purpose, of comedy; the
+  _dulce_ he conceived to be "the fable, the construction, machinery,
+  conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece." For part at least of this
+  view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly "Letter" in which
+  he replied, "to the Reverend Author of the 'Remarks, Critical and
+  Christian,' on _The Minor_"), he rather loftily appealed to classical
+  authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of the _dulce_ to
+  the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species of art. His
+  comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and reproducing
+  characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that he not only took
+  them from real life, but closely modelled them on well-known living
+  men and women, was not in himself an artistic sin. Nor indeed was the
+  novelty of this process absolute, though probably no other comic
+  dramatist has ever gone so far in this course, or has pursued it so
+  persistently. The public delighted in his "d----d fine originals,"
+  because it recognized them as copies; and he was himself proud that he
+  had taken them from real persons, instead of their being "vamped from
+  antiquated plays, pilfered from the French farces, or the baseless
+  beings of the poet's brain." But the real excellence of many of
+  Foote's comic characters lies in the fact that, besides being
+  incomparably ludicrous types of manners, they remain admirable comic
+  types of general human nature. Sir Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile
+  appetite for news; Lady Pentweazel, and her preposterous vanity in her
+  superannuated charms; Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages
+  of public schools (where children may "make acquaintances that may
+  hereafter be useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they
+  learn there, does not signify twopence"); Major Sturgeon and Jerry
+  Sneak; Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or
+  two of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves,
+  whatever their origin; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed by
+  Foote's vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic
+  treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies
+  in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute
+  contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention or
+  conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the
+  interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His
+  characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them.
+  With the exception of _The Liar_ (which Foote pretended to have taken
+  from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele's adaptation
+  of Corneille's _Le Menteur_), and perhaps of _The Bankrupt_, there is
+  hardly one of Foote's "comedies" in which the conception and conduct
+  of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest farce. Not that
+  sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters are wanting, but
+  these familiar ingredients are as incapable of exciting real interest
+  as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable to produce more
+  than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays Foote constantly
+  resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce--a disguise. Of course
+  Foote must have been well aware of the shortcomings of his rapidly
+  manufactured productions; he knew that if he might sneer at "genteel
+  comedy" as suited to the dramatists of the servants' hall, and
+  pronounce the arts of the drama at the great houses to be "directed by
+  the genius of insipidity," he, like the little theatre where he held
+  sway, was looked upon as "an eccentric, a mere summer fly."
+
+  At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic scenes
+  of genuine farce. An oration of "old masters," an election of a
+  suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians, a
+  newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputations
+  massacred--all these and other equally happy situations are brought
+  before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And everywhere the
+  comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour, and the comic
+  characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy which at once raises
+  them above the level of mere theatrical conventionalism. Foote
+  professed to despise the mere caricaturing of national peculiarities
+  as such, and generally used dialect as a mere additional colouring; he
+  was, however, too wide awake to the demands of his public not to treat
+  France and Frenchmen as fair game, and coarsely to appeal to national
+  prejudice. His satire against those everlasting victims of English
+  comedy and farce, the Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned
+  from Paris, was doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he
+  made fun of the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the
+  society of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of
+  Foote's social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it
+  is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone of
+  his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at
+  refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made
+  occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare
+  against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the
+  two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.
+
+  The following is a list of Foote's farces or "comedies" as he calls
+  them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print. The
+  date of production, and the character originally performed by Foote,
+  are added to the title of each:
+
+  _The Knights_ (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir
+  Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the _Diversions_ is
+  incorporated; _The Englishman in Paris_ (1753: Young Buck); _The
+  Englishman returned from Paris_ (1756: Sir Charles Buck); _The Author_
+  (1757: Cadwallader); _The Minor_ (1760: Smirk and Mrs Cole); _The
+  Liar_ (1762); _The Orators_ (1762: Lecturer); _The Mayor of Garratt_
+  (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); _The Patron_ (1764: Sir Thomas
+  Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); _The Commissary_ (1765: Mr Zac.
+  Fungus); _The Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768: Devil,--alias Dr Hercules
+  Hellebore); _The Lame Lover_ (1770: Sir Luke Limp); _The Maid of Bath_
+  (1771: Mr Flint); _The Nabob_ (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); _The Bankrupt_
+  (1773: Sir Robert Riscounter); _The Cozeners_ (1774: Mr Aircastle);
+  _The Capuchin_, a second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by
+  the censor (1776: O'Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in
+  1763-1768.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Foote's biography may be read in W. ("Conversation")
+  Cooke's _Memoirs of Samuel Foote_ (3 vols., 1805), which contain,
+  amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things and of
+  anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously unpublished
+  occasional pieces (with the _Tragedy a la mode_, part of the
+  _Diversions_, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this source
+  seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information in the
+  rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by "Jon Bee" (John
+  Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as "John Hunds") to his useful
+  edition of Foote's Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars will be
+  found in Tate Wilkinson's _Wandering Patentee_ (York, 1795) and in
+  other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, reprinted with
+  additions, from the _Quarterly Review_, in John Forster's
+  _Biographical Essays_ (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy
+  Fitzgerald (1910).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+FOOTMAN, a name given among articles of furniture to a metal stand,
+usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong or oval in shape,
+for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-room fire. In the days
+before the general use of hot-water dishes the footman possessed
+definite utility, but although it is still in occasional use, it is now
+chiefly regarded as an ornament. It was especially common in the
+hardware counties of England, where it is still frequently seen; the
+simple conventionality of its form is not inelegant.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTSCRAY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, on the
+Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
+18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from which most of the
+building stones in Melbourne and the neighbourhood is obtained; it is
+also an important manufacturing centre, with numerous sugar-mills, jute
+factories, soap works, woollen-mills, foundries, chemical works and many
+other minor industries.
+
+
+
+
+FOOT-STALL, a word supposed to be a literal translation of _piedestal_,
+or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture (see BASE).
+
+
+
+
+FOPPA, VINCENZO, Italian painter, was born near Brescia. The dates of
+his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and 1492; but there is now
+good reason for substituting 1427 and 1515. He settled in Pavia towards
+1456, and was the head of a Lombard school of painting which subsisted
+up to the advent of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia.
+His contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in
+perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially. Among his
+noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan, the "Martyrdom of
+St Sebastian"; and a "Crucifixion" in the Carrara gallery, Bergamo,
+executed in 1455. He worked much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his
+paintings are now lost.
+
+  See C.J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, _Vincenzo Foppa_ (1910).
+
+
+
+
+FORAGE, food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender collected for
+the food of the horses of an army. In early usage the word was confined
+to the dried forage as opposed to grass. From this word comes "foray,"
+an expedition in search of "forage," and hence a pillaging expedition, a
+raid. The word "forage," directly derived from the Fr. _fourrage_, comes
+from a common Teutonic origin, and appears in "fodder," food for cattle.
+The ultimate Indo-European root, _pat_, cf. Gr. [Greek: pateisthai],
+Lat. _pascere_, to feed, gives "food," "feed," "foster"; and appears
+also in such Latin derivatives as "pastor," "pasture."
+
+
+
+
+FORAIN, J. L. (1852-   ), French painter and illustrator, was born in
+1852. He became one of the leading modern Parisian caricaturists, who in
+his merciless exposure of the weaknesses of the _bourgeoisie_ continued
+the work which was begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The
+scathing bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as
+his pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in his
+painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives him to
+caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called "a Degas pushed on to
+caricature." In his pen-and-ink work he combines extraordinary economy
+of means with the utmost power of expression and suggestion. Forain's
+popularity dates from the publication of his _Comedie parisienne_, a
+series of two hundred and fifty sketches republished in book form. He
+has contributed many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the
+_Figaro_, _Le Rire_, _L'Assiette au beurre_, _Le Courrier francais_, and
+_L'Indiscret_. His political drawings for the _Figaro_ were republished
+in book form under the title of _Doux Pays_.
+
+
+
+
+FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON (1846-   ), American political leader, was born
+near Rainsboro, Highland county, Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He
+passed his early life on a farm, enlisted as a private in the 89th Ohio
+Volunteer Infantry in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for
+part of the time as an aide on the staff of General H.W. Slocum, and in
+1865 received a captain's brevet for "efficient services during the
+campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia." After the war he spent two
+years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two years at Cornell. In 1869
+he was admitted to the Ohio bar and began practice in Cincinnati. He was
+a judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he
+was the Republican candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in
+1885 and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in 1889.
+He then for eight years practised law with great success in Cincinnati.
+In 1896 he was elected United States senator to succeed Calvin S. Brice
+(1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected and served until 1909. In the Senate
+he was one of the aggressive Republican leaders, strongly supporting the
+administration of President M'Kinley (whose name he presented to the
+Republican National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in the debates
+preceding, during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War,
+and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt, was
+conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence. He vigorously
+opposed various measures advocated by the president, and led the
+opposition to the president's summary discharge of certain negro troops
+after the Brownsville raid of the 13th of August 1906 (see BROWNSVILLE,
+Texas).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various
+
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